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CHEMOPHOBIA IN THE COLLEGE CLASSROOM: EXTENT, SOURCES, AND STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS by Roberta Myers Eddy B.S., Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 1965 M .S., Indiana U niversity of Pennsylvania, 1991 Submitted The School of the of to the Graduate Education requirements Doctor U niversity of in for Faculty partial the of fulfillm ent degree of Philosophy of P ittsburgh 1996 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 9718635 Copyright 1996 by Eddy, Roberta Myers All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9718635 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. COMMITTEE SIGNATURE PAGE Committee Member Affiliation J O P /d h u u d Ty 1 ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Copyright by Roberta Myers Eddy 1996 iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHEMOPHOBIA IN THE COLLEGE CLASSROOM: EXTENT, SOURCES, AND STUDENT CHARACTERISTICS Roberta Myers Eddy, PhD University o f Pittsburgh, Adviser: 1996 Dr. David W. Champagne The purpose of this project was to provide a better understanding of chem ophobia (chem istry anxiety) at the college level by determ ining: extent o f to college chem ophobia in the college classroom; (b) the factors that contribute students' anxieties about learning chem istry chemicals; and (c) the characteristics o f college about learning chem istry and handling chemicals. (a) the and handling students who have anxieties A three factor, 36-item Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (DCARS), with Cronbach's alpha .94, was used to m easure the anxiety stimulated by evaluated in chem istry, learning chem istry, being and by handling chemicals. A questionnaire containing DCARS was administered to 48 non-science majors and 16 science majors who were taking an introductory, general chem istry course in the summer. Eight interviews were conducted. Chemophobia was found to exist in the college classroom at a level of anxiety between a little bit and moderately anxious. H ighest anxiety was associated with chem istry-evaluation; lowest iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. anxiety was associated with learning chem istry. Factors that strongly contributed to students' anxieties about learning chem istry were: chem ical form ulas; (b) interpreting chem ical equations; (c) (a) reading reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the results o f a chem istry experiment; and (d) math. Taking the final chemistry exam, being given a "pop" chemistry quiz, and taking a chemistry quiz were major factors that contributed to students' anxieties about chem istry-evaluation. Factors that strongly contributed to students’ anxieties about handling chem icals were: (a) getting chem icals on hands during an experiment; (b) spilling a chemical; and (c) working with unknown chemicals. No significant differences were found between the anxiety levels o f males and females for Leam ingChemistry A nxiety and Handling-Chemicais Anxiety. significantly higher Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety Females had than males. differences in anxiety levels were found between the following: science majors and science majors; and students with (a) non­ (b) students with low math experience and students with high math experience; or (c) experience No significant students with low chemistry high chem istry experience. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This goal was attained with the help of many people. appreciation to all these people, I extend my deepest especially to: Dr. John Wood for his continuous belief in me which began when he was Coordinator of Chemistry Graduate Students at IUP. At this time, Dr. Wood made it possible for me to be a chemistry graduate student when the only background experience I had was undergraduate general chem istry. This initiated my first step on the path toward achieving this goal. Robert Eddy, my husband, and our children (my greatest gifts) Sean, Katherine, Thom asina, M ichael, Heather and Nicholas for all their support and especially for accepting and enduring my love of chem istry, learning, and te a c h in g . Dr. David Champagne for accepting the role of research advisor and for his patience, encouragem ent, professionalism , excellence, guidance. support, and interest in the pursuit of Dr. W illard Korth, my program advisor and member of my dissertation committee, for his guidance and support throughout the years of my study at the U niversity o f Pittsburgh. Dr. Albert Nous, also a member of my dissertation committee, for his guidance and support during the writing o f this dissertation. Dr. Krys Kaniasty and Dr. George Walz who helped design the questionnaire and the anxiety scale. Dr. Kaniasty also assisted with the statistical analyses. vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT I. II. ...................................................................................................................................... iii INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .........................................I A. I n tr o d u c t io n 1 B. Statem ent o f the P r o b le m ................................................................................. 2 C Purpose o f the Study D. Significance o f the S t u d y .................................................................................4 E. T h eo retical Fram ew ork F. P u rp o se ........................................................................................................... 10 G. R esearch Q uestions H. R esearch H ypotheses ................................................................................. 3 ................................................................................. 6 10 ............................................................................... 11 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Part 1: 1. Science Anxiety ...................................................................12 ...............................................................................12 D istinguishing Science Anxiety from A ttitudes Toward Science and Other Related Constructs ....................... 12 2. Causes 3. Science Anxiety Compared to Math Anxiety 4. Science Anxiety in Chemistry S tu d e n ts ........................................18 B. Part 2: C S u m m a ry of Science Anxiety 15 ..........................16 Chemistry Anxiety 19 ...........................................................................................................23 v ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D). II I . METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................... 25 A. G uiding B. The Setting o f the Study C S u b je c ts D. Q uestions ..............................................................................................25 ................................................................................26 ............................................................................................................26 1. S election T echnique 2. Description o f the Subjects Data Collection ..................................................................28 ....................................................29 ..............................................................................................30 1. C onstruction o f the Q uestionnaire 2. Pretest o f the Questionnaire ....................................................35 a. Pilot study sample b. P ro c e d u re c. Analysis of the pilot study data d. Summary o f the results of the data e. ......................................31 .................................................................. 35 ................................................................................37 .................................. 37 pretest analysis 64 Answers to the major research questions according to the pretest data.............................................. 70 3. V alidation o f the Pretested Q uestionnaire 4. A dm inistration 5. I n te r v ie w s ........................ 72 of the V alidated Q uestionnaire . . . . 72 ............................................................................................. 73 a. Construction of the interview guide b. Practicing p ro c e d u re and pretesting ......................... 73 the interview .............................................................................. 74 v iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D). Page E. Data Analysis 1. .............................................................................................75 Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale Data data .........................................75 a. D escriptive ................................................................. 75 b. Comparison of the means of DCARS and RMARS .............................................................................. 75 2. F. IV. Item d. Factor e. Subscales computed as an average of items f. R eliability g. Intercorrelations h. Compare the means of the three factors i. Comparison of means using two-way Anova's . . . . 78 Interview S u m m a ry RESULTS A. c. analysis 76 ................................................................. 76 analysis analysis Data among . . . . 77 77 the three factors . . . . 77 . . . . 77 ............................................................................... 78 .......................................................................................................... 79 ....................................................................................................................... 80 Q uestionnaire D a t a ............................................................................................. 80 1. Comparison Between Chemistry Anxiety and Math Anxiety With Respect to Learning and Evaluation .............................................................................. 80 2. Item A nalysis ............................................................................... 82 3. Factor 4. R eliab ility A nalysis ............................................................................... 92 A nalysis ...................................................................... 98 ix Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTEN r (CONT’D). P ag e 5. Comparison of Factors 1, 2, and 3 of the Derived C hem istry Anxiety Rating S c a l e .................................................. 100 6. B. Two-W ay ANOVA's Between Independent Variables Interview 1. D ata . . . 103 ...........................................................................................112 Factors That Contribute to Students’ Anxieties A ssociated With Learning Chemistry in the C lassro o m 2. Factors That Contribute to Students' Anxieties A ssociated 3. ..........................................................................................112 W ith C hem istry-Evaluation ....................................... 119 Factors That Contribute to Students' Anxieties A ssociated With 4. Handling Chemicals .................................... 120 Strategies Suggested by Interviewees to Reduce Chemophobia in the College Classroom and L a b o r a to r y V. ..........................................................................................123 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................ 129 A. Extent o f Chem ophobia .......................................................................129 B. C o n trib u tin g .......................................................................130 F actors 1. The Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale 2. Factors That Contribute To Leam ing-C hem istry A n x ie ty 3. .......................130 ..........................................................................................132 Factors That Contribute To Chem istry-Evaluation A n x ie ty .......................................................................................... 137 x Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT’D). Page 4. Factors That C ontribute To Handling-Chemicals A n x ie ty C S tudent .......................................................................................... 139 C haracteristics ........................................................................... 142 1. G ender ...........................................................................................142 2. Non-Science M ajor Versus Science M ajor 3. C hem istry 4. Math E xperience Experience ...........................143 .............................................................144 ............................................................................. 144 D. Answers to the Research Questions E. Summary F. Student Suggested Strategies to Reduce Chemophobia .......................................................................................................149 in the College Classroom G. F urther ................................................146 Research ............................................................................ 150 Q uestions ............................................................. 152 APPENDIX A The Revised M athematics Anxiety Rating Scale .................... 155 APPENDIX B THE ORIGINAL QUESTIONNAIRE BEFORE BEING PRETESTED APPENDIX C FACTOR 1 LEARNING-CHEMISTRY ANXIETY ITEMS . . . 157 RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Pilot Study) APPENDIX D 167 FACTOR 2 CHEMISTRY-EVALUATION ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Pilot Study) APPENDIX E 169 FACTOR 2 CHEMISTRY-EVALUATION ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Pilot Study) 171 xi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D). Page; APPENDIX F THE REVISED, VALIDATED QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................173 APPENDIX G INTERVIEW GUIDE .......................................................................................... 183 APPENDIX H INFORMED CONSENT F O R M ............................................................................ 188 APPENDIX I FACTOR 1 LEARNING-CHEMISTRY ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Test Study) ........................................................................................................190 APPENDIX J FACTOR 2 HANDLING-CHEMICALS ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Test Study) ........................................................................................................192 APPENDIX K FACTOR 3 CHEMISTRY-EVALUATION ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Test Study) ........................................................................................................194 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................... 197 xii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Efl.g.e Items for Factors 1, 2, and 3 of the Original Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating S c a l e .................................................................. 32 Table 2 Results o f the One-Sample t-Test Between the Mean of the Combined Items in Factors 1 and 2 of the DCARS and the Mean of RMARS (Pilot Study) ................................................. 39 Table 3 Numbers of Articles, Comm unications, or D issertations on M athematics and Chemistry Anxiety that Resulted .................................................. 41 from an Electronic Keyword Search) Table 4 Items Eliminated from the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and Frequency D istribution Percent Values (Pilot Study)) .............................................................................................42 Table 5 The Percent Variance for Factors 1, 2, and 3 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot Study) . . . . 43 Table 6 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 1 LeamingChemistry Anxiety of the Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot S tu d y ) ...............................................................................44 Table 7 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 2 ChemistryEvaluation Anxiety of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot S tu d y ) ...............................................................................46 Table 8 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 3 HandlingChemicals Anxiety of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot S tu d y ) ...............................................................................48 Table 9 Cronbach's Alpha Reliability Values Obtained on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) ................................................................ 50 xiii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES (CONT'D). Page Table 10 Anxiety Level Means and Standard Deviations for the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for Each o f the Three Factors (Pilot Study) ....................................................51 Table 11 Results o f Paired Samples t-Tests to Compare the Level Means o f the Three Factors (Pilot Study) Anxiety ...................... 52 Table 12 Two-Way ANOVA Results for the Total Chemistry Anxiety Scale by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Pilot Study) ........................54 Table 13 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistry Anxiety by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Pilot Study) ..........55 Table 14 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 2 Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Pilot Study) ..........55 Table 15 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Pilot Study) Table Table Table Table 16 17 18 19 ..........56 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety by Chemistry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Pilot Study) 58 Two-W ay ANOVA Results for Leam ing-Chem istry Anxiety by Chemistry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Pilot Study) 59 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety by Chemistry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Pilot Study) 59 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety by Chemistry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Pilot Study) 60 xi v Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES (CONT'D). Page Table Table Table Table Table 20 21 22 23 24 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety by Math Experience, Sex, and Math Experience/Sex (Pilot Study) 62 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Leam ing-Chem istry Anxiety by Math Experience, Sex, and Math Experience/Sex (Pilot Study) 63 Two-Way ANOVA Results by Math Experience, Sex, (Pilot Study) for Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety and Math Experience/Sex 63 Two-Way ANOVA Results by Math Experience, Sex, (Pilot Study) for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety and Math Experience/Sex The Average Anxiety Levels o f Females and Males Obtained on the Total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) 64 66 Table 25 The Average Anxiety Levels of Science Majors and Non-Science Majors Obtained on the Total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor ..............................................................................67 Subscales(P ilot Study) Table 26 The Average Anxiety Levels of Low Math Experienced Students and High Math Experienced Students Obtained on the Total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) ....................................... 68 Table 27 The Average Anxiety Experienced Students Students Obtained on Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot Study) Table 28 Levels of Low Chemistry and High Chemistry Experienced the Total Derived Chemistry and on the Factor Subscales 69 Results of the One-Sample t-Test Between the Mean of the Combined Items in Factors 1 and 2 of the DCARS and the Mean of RMARS (Test Study) .................................................. 81 xv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES (CONT’D). Page Table 29 The A nxiety Level Frequency D istribution Percent Values, Mean Anxiety Levels, and Standard Deviations o f the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale Items (Test Study) ..........................................................................................................83 Table 30 Percent Variance for Factors 1, 2, and 3 Obtained from Factor Analysis o f the Test Study Data ................................................... 92 Table 31 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 1 LeamingChemistry Anxiety Obtained from Factor Analysis of the Test Study D a t a ............................................................................................93 Table 32 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 2 HandlingChemicals Anxiety Obtained from Factor Analysis of the Test Study D a t a ............................................................................................95 Table 33 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 3 ChemistryEvaluation Anxiety Obtained from Factor Analysis o f the Test Study D a t a ............................................................................................97 Table 34 Anxiety Level Means and Standard Deviations for the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for Each of the Three Factors (Test Study) .................................................. 99 Table 35 Cronbach's Alpha Reliability Values Obtained on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Test Study)............... ........................................................ 100 Table 36 Results of Paired Samples t-Tests to Compare Factors I, 2, and 3 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (Test Study) ............................................................................ 101 Table 37 Two-Way ANOVA Results for the Total Chemistry Anxiety Scale by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Test Study) Table 38 . . . 104 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 1 LeamingChemistry Anxiety by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Test Study) ........................................................................................................104 xvi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES (CONT'D). Page Table 39 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 2 ChemistryEvaluation Anxiety by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Test Study) ........................................................................................................105 Table 40 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 3 HandlingChemicals Anxiety by Major, Sex, and Major/Sex (Test Study) ........................................................................................................105 Table 41 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety by Chemistry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Test S tu d y ) .................................................. 107 Table 42 Two-W ay ANOVA Results for Leam ing-Chem istry Anxiety by Chem istry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Test S tu d y ) .................................................. 108 Table 43 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety by Chem istry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Test S tu d y ) .................................................. 108 Table 44 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety by Chem istry Experience, Sex, and C hem istry Experience/Sex (Test S tu d y ) .................................................. 109 Table 45 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety by Math Experience, Sex, and Math Experience/Sex (Test Study) ........................................................................................................110 Table 46 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Learning Chemistry Anxiety by Math Experience, Sex, and Math Experience/Sex (Test Study) ......................................................................................................110 Table 47 Two-W ay ANOVA Results for Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety by Math Experience, Sex, and Math Experience/Sex (Test Study) ........................................................................................................I l l Table 48 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety by Math Experience, Sex, and Math Experience/Sex (Test Study) ........................................................................................................I l l xvi i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES £age Figure 1. The four fronts manifested by the attitudes that affect science education .................................................................................. 12 Figure 2. Comparison of the means and standard deviations of Factors 1 and 2 of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale and the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale ............................................................................................ 40 (Pilot Study) Figure 3. The average anxiety levels for the three factors of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. (Pilot Study) Figure 4. Figure 5. Figure . . . . 53 S ignificant gender differences in the anxiety levels of the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and the three subscales. (Pilot Study) ..................................................... 57 The significant interaction betw een chem istry experience and sex for handling-chem icals anxiety. (Pilot Study) ............................................................................................ 61 6. Comparison of the means and standard deviations for the combined Factors 1 and 2 of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale and the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale. (Test Study) ..........................................................................................................82 xvi i i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Chemophobia is assumed to exist in the classroom and thought to be partially responsible for low student enrollm ent in chem istry. The education section leaders o f the American Chemical Society recently deemed the phenomenon sufficiently critical to ask, "Should we com bat chem ophobia in the classroom?" (American Chemical Society, Fall 1995, p. 49). This question was asked in a call for papers to be presented at the 1996 ACS National Meeting in New Orleans. Educators dutifully responded (Eddy & Wood, 1996; Worman, 1996) with various methods to overcome this adversity. But what exactly is "chemophobia"? definition for chemophobia. The literature reveals no clear The term appears to be used in two contexts: fear of chemicals (Breslow, 1993; Baggett, 1993) and fear of chemistry as a course (American Chemical Society, Fall 1995, p. 49). There is a consensus that fears that are associated with chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and with chemistry courses impede the learning of chemistry. Yet chemistry is a central science. It is essential to the other natural sciences, most of technology, and much of medicine. contributions to human welfare are based on chemistry. chemistry also contributes to some woes of society. Many significant On the other hand, A major concern is environm ental pollution due to the mishandling o f hazardous chem icals. Other safety concerns involve food additives and household products that are used in everyday living. As a result, students need to know chemistry so that they can make intelligent decisions and informed choices. They need to know 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chem istry for their own personal welfare and the welfare o f future generations. Students need to be involved in the field o f chemistry so that beneficial contributions to human welfare can continue to be made. Furthermore, critical thinking and problem solving skills are necessary in today's world. As technology improves, jobs require more advanced skills. Workers need to be able to analyze data, think creatively, make decisions, and solve problems. These skills can be learned in chemistry laboratory courses. Inquiry-based experim ents provide students with hands-on experience. As students work with chem icals, glassware, and equipm ent, they learn chemical properties and how to apply chemical principles. They learn how to design methods to solve problems, how to collect and analyze data, as well as how to make conclusions based on experimental findings. By learning chem istry and working with chem icals, students are better prepared to solve real-world problems. be Therefore, anything that impedes the learning of chem istry should investigated. Statement The problem is chem ophobia in the phenomenon. First, in the classroom. of the Problem that chemophobia is not well understood. To combat classroom , educators must clearly understand the educators need to know if the phenomenon actually exists Educators need to find out if students really do have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom and laboratory and about chem istry as a subject. Second, if anxieties do exist, educators need to be aware of the factors that contribute to those anxieties so that these sources o f worries can either be eliminated or addressed in some manner that will reduce anxiety. Third, educators need to know the characteristics of the students that have anxieties Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3 about chemicals and chemistry. This knowledge can be used to predict "chemophobic" students so that early attention can be given to these students before serious negative effects are evidenced and attitudes becom e ingrained. The purpose of this investigation is to address these three necessities so that a better understanding of chemophobia can be attained. W ith this better understanding, strategies can be developed to effectively com bat chem ophobia in the classroom. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this investigation is threefold. The first purpose is to determ ine the extent to which chem ophobia exists in the college classroom and laboratory. The second is to determine characteristics of college students who have anxieties about chemicals in the chem istry as a subject. classroom or laboratory and about For example, some student characteristics that might be related to chemophobia could be gender, number of previous chemistry and math courses, major, and year in college. The third purpose of the study is to determ ine factors that contribute to college students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject. Factors that contribute to chemophobia are defined as the stimuli that elicit feelings of anxiety about chemistry. associated with These stimuli may be particularities that are learning chem istry, chemicals, or other factors. being evaluated in chem istry, handling The stimuli that elicit feelings of anxieties in college students may also be media stories or home and school experiences. For this study, the definition of chemophobia is assumed to be analogous to the definition o f "mathophobia", a term used by Lazarus (1974) to describe the phenomenon of math anxiety. Richardson and Suinn (1972) defined math Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 4 anxiety as "feelings o f tension and anxiety that interfere with the m anipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety o f ordinary life and academic situations" (p. 551). Lazarus (1974) described a mathophobic person as one who "strongly dislikes math in school, goes out o f his way to avoid it, regards math as a sort o f cabalistic mystery beyond his access or comprehension, or speaks openly o f his aversion to it" (p.52). Altering the definitions of math anxiety and mathophobic people gives the follow ing definitions of chemistry anxiety and chem ophobia for this study that will be focused in an academic setting. For this investigation, the term "chemistry anxiety" is assumed to be the feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the m anipulation of chem icals and the solving o f chem ical problems in a wide variety of academic situations. Chemophobia is assumed to be the strong dislike o f chemistry as a subject in school, the avoidance of handling chem icals and taking chem istry as a subject, the thinking that chem istry is a sort o f cabalistic mystery beyond access or comprehension, and the open aversion to chemistry as a subject to be taken in school. Significance of the Study This project is an investigation of student anxieties about chemistry as a subject and anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory. investigation is im portant because anxiety (W esterback and Prim avera, affects learning The and behavior 1996). Anxiety is a state of hyperarousal. In this state, people have narrowed perceptual processing and are unable to process all the inform ation available Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5 in their environment. Thus, a person in a highly anxious state is not able to process all the information that m ight be necessary to fully learn a task or area o f content. In addition, anxiety has a distracting nature. focus on the anxiety. Therefore, the proper encoding o f information for memory and retention is not attained. stored in memory. The person has a tendency to This also affects recall of information The distracting nature of anxiety may be displayed physically as well as cognitively. The person in a high anxiety state may twitch, get stomach pains or experience severe headaches. These physical manifestations o f anxiety prevent the learner from paying full attention to the task. As a result, learning and performance are reduced. Anxiety also has a negative impact in testing situations. People in an anxious state engage in behaviors that reduce their levels of anxiety. These non-related com peting behaviors take time away from the task at hand. The negative effects of anxiety can be permanent if something is not done to change the situation. Teachers can reduce the negative effects o f anxiety in students by awareness and teaching strategies. be long lasting according to W esterback and The positive changes appear to Primavera (1996). The findings of this investigation will promote awareness of the anxieties that students have about learning chem istry and handling chemicals. The results of the study will also provide information for the development of teaching strategies to help chem ophobic students learn chem istry better. Ultimately, the results will contribute to a better understanding of the nature of chemophobia and the extent to which it exists in the college chemistry classroom and laboratory. The findings of this study are particularly important since science education is presently undergoing m ajor reform. New curricula and programs Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6 are being developed so that the national goal o f scientific literacy for all students can be achieved by the year 2000. Since chemistry is a central science, chem ophobia may retard achievem ent of this goal. T h eoretica l Fram ew ork The theoretical framework of the study involves the psychology of fears and anxieties. Anxiety is defined as the "apprehension, tension, or uneasiness that stems from the anticipation of danger, which may be internal or external" (American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 392). Some psychiatrists and psychologists distinguish anxiety from fear by defining anxiety as a general feeling o f apprehension that has no known stimulus that elicits that feeling, whereas fear is the response to a known stimulus. have the same m anifestations apprehensive expectation, and Anxiety and fear — motor tension, autonom ic vigilance and hyperactivity, scanning. Anxiety may be focused on an object, situation, or activity, which is avoided. In this case, the anxiety is classified as a phobia. Anxiety may also be unfocused in which case it is termed free floating anxiety. Anxiety can be experienced in discrete periods of sudden onset and be accompanied by physical symptoms. In this event, the anxiety is called a panic attack. Some of the symptoms that are associated with a panic attack and that may be felt by students faced with learning chem istry or working with chemicals are: shortness o f breath (dyspnea); dizziness, unsteady feelings, or faintness; palpitations or accelerated heart rate; trem bling or shaking; sweating; nausea or abdom inal distress; numbness or tingling sensations (paresthesias); (hot flashes) or chills. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. flushes 7 Phobia is defined by The American Psychiatric Association (1987) as a persistent, irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that results in a compelling desire to avoid the dreaded object, activity, or situation (the phobic stim ulus). Usually, the person recognizes that the fear is unreasonable and unwarranted by the actual dangerousness o f the object, activity, or situation. activity. Nonetheless, the person avoids the feared situation, object, or Some people with a phobia claim their avoidance is rational because they anticipate overwhelm ing anxiety or some other strong emotion that is out of their control. However, they do not claim that their anxiety is rationally justified (p. 403). Although there are a variety of anxiety disorders, the anxiety disorders that are the most directly related to this study are "Simple Phobia” and "Generalized Anxiety Disorder". Simple Phobia is characterized by a "persistent fear of a circumscribed stim ulus (object or situation) other than fear o f having a panic attack (as in Panic Disorder) or of humiliation or em barrassm ent in certain social situations (as in Social 1987, p. 243). response. phobias. Phobia)” (The American Psychiatric Association, This type of phobia is specific to the stimulus that elicits the Therefore, simple phobias are sometimes referred to as "specific” Exposure to the stimulus (or stimuli) usually elicits an immediate anxiety response, such as feeling panicky, sweating, and having tachycardia and difficulty breathing. Intense anticipatory anxiety results if the person has to enter into the simple phobic situation. avoids the situation. Therefore, the person usually Less commonly, the person forces him self or herself to endure the sim ple phobic situation even though it is experienced with intense anxiety. The person always recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. s Simple phobias are common in the general population. However, they are diagnosed only if the avoidance behavior interferes with the person’s normal routine, social activities, relationships with others, or if there is severe distress about having the fear. Simple phobias are more often diagnosed in females (American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 244). Chemistry as a subject or handling chemicals may elicit a simple phobic response in some students. Walking into the chemistry laboratory may immediately cause these students to classroom or feel panicky. They may break out in a sweat and their hearts may start to beat very rapidly. They may feel a tightness in their chest that prevents them from breathing normally. They may be so uncom fortable in this situation that they avoid coming to chemistry class or lab. On the other hand, they may force themselves to endure the situation even though it causes them intense anxiety. students, who were frequently absent, adm itted to chemistry class caused them so much anxiety that it Two female this researcher that took all they could do to just come to class. Generalized Anxiety Disorder is characterized by "unrealistic or excessive anxiety and worry (apprehensive expectation) about two or more circumstances" (American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 251). life In adolescents, this form o f anxiety may be due to worry about academic, athletic, and social perform ance. with this disorder. usually mild. M ild depressive symptoms are commonly associated Im pairm ent in social or occupational functioning is The age of onset is usually in the 20's and 30's. In clinical samples, the disorder is usually found to have been present for many years, sometimes seems to follow a Major Depressive Episode, is not commonly Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 9 diagnosed when other disorders that could account for the anxiety symptoms are ruled out, and is apparently equally common in females and in males (The American Psychiatric Association, 1987, p. 252). Generalized Anxiety Disorder is diagnosed when at least 6 of the following 18 symptoms are present when the person is feeling anxious: twitching, or feeling shaky; (2) (3) restlessness; (4) sensations; (6) trembling, muscle tension, aches, or soreness; easy fatigability; (5) shortness o f breath or smothering palpitations or accelerated heart rate; (7) clammy hands; (8) (I) dry mouth; (9) sweating, or cold dizziness or lightheadedness; (10) diarrhea, or other abdominal distress; (11) nausea, flushes (hot flashes) or chills; (12) frequent urination; (13) (14) feeling keyed up or on edge; (15) (16) difficulty concentrating or "mind going blank" because of anxiety; (17) trouble falling or staying asleep; or (18) Psychiatric A ssociation, trouble swallowing or "lump in throat”; exaggerated startle response; irritability (American 1987, pp. 252-253) College students who worry about their chemistry grade, their performance in chemistry class and their performance in the suffering from G eneralized Anxiety Disorder. chem istry students generally display are: laboratory are most likely The symptoms that these trembling; muscle tension; restlessness; sw eating or cold, clammy hands; nausea, diarrhea, or other abdominal distress; difficulty concentrating or "mind going blank" because of anxiety (especially true during chem istry tests); and trouble falling or staying asleep. Some students also state that chemistry depresses them. Chemophobia may be a composite of Simple Phobia and Generalized Anxiety Disorder. The results of this study will make this possibility more clear. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. P u rp o se The purposes o f the investigation are as follow: 1. To determine the extent to which chemophobia exists in the college classroom. 2. To determine some of the characteristics o f college students who have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject. For example: gender, previous chemistry courses, previous math courses, and major. 3. To determine the factors that may contribute to college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject. and For example: media sources, personal school experiences. R esearch Q uestions The study involves the following main research questions: 1. Do college students have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject? 2. What is the extent of college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? 10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 11 3. What are the characteristics o f college students who have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? 4. W hat factors may contribute to the anxieties that college students have about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? 5. Is there a correlation between college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject? R esearch H yp o th eses (in the null form) The first 4 research questions involve the descriptive method o f research. Therefore, no hypotheses can be written for them. These questions attempt to determine student anxiety levels, student characteristics, and the factors that contribute to anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chem istry as a subject. The fifth research question involves the correlational method of research. Therefore, a research hypothesis can be written. In its null form, this hypothesis is stated: There is no correlation between college students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER H: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Part D istinguishing Other R elated Science 1: Science Anxiety A nxiety from A ttitudes Toward Science and C onstructs Shrigley (1991) stated that the attitudes that affect science education are manifested on four fronts: science-related objects; (b) "(a) those likes and dislikes of students toward science anxiety; (c) the historical trust-fear cycle o f science rendered by scientific invention; and (d) scientific attitudes and related beliefs about the nature of science modeled by scientists" (p. 144). Shrigley envisioned the relationship o f these fronts as shown in Figure 1. Trust-Fear Cycle of Science Science Anxiety Likes and Dislikes of Science Scientific Attitudes F igure 1. The four fronts manifested by the attitudes that affect science e d u c a tio n . 12 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13 To distinguish science anxiety from the trust-fear cycle of science, the likes and dislikes o f science, and from scientific attitudes, the four fronts manifested by the attitudes that affect science education are described as follow . The likes and dislikes of science are the positive and negative feelings that students have tow ard science-related objects. Positive feelings may result when students are involved in activities that they enjoy, find useful, have personal interest and do not fear. Negative feelings may result from activities that involve m em orization, require m athem atical solutions to word problems, involve abstract ideas that do not pertain to the students' lives, or that elicit feelings of anxiety. Science anxiety is the general fear or aversion toward science concepts, scientists, and science related activities (Mallow, 1981). that causes some people to become science course. It is a state o f mind very distressed at the thought o f taking In addition, math anxiety may contribute a to the science anxiety of those people who become frustrated when they have to use mathematics to solve word problems. m athem atically based science As a result, these people avoid taking courses. Science anxiety can be exhibited both physically and psychologically (Mallow, 1981). Some ways in which students display physical symptoms of science anxiety are by sweaty palms, upset stomachs, headaches, and rashes. Psychologically, students may bite their nails, play with their hair, or become distracted easily. Science anxiety was found by Talton and Simpson (1986) to be usually a significant predictor of attitudes toward science across grades 6, 7, 8, and 9. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 14 Items on the science anxiety subscale to which the students responded were: (1) Science makes me feel as though I'm lost in a jungle. (2) My mind goes blank when I am doing science. (3) Science tests make me nervous. (4) I would probably not do well in science if I took it in college. (p.369) The results showed that science anxiety was present in each grade level. For most grade levels, science anxiety was not significant at the beginning of the school year, but became significant in the middle and end of the school y e a r. The finding that science anxiety significantly influences student attitude toward science is extremely important. Koballa (1988) emphasized that attitudes are relatively enduring and stable. hard to change. dislike Thus, negative attitudes may be In addition, attitudes are learned. science in school. Students learn to like or However, the most important reason for attending to student attitudes is that attitudes are related to behavior in a probabilistic way (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Furthermore, attitudes are linked to achievement (Schibeci & Riley, 1986). The trust-fear cycle of science has considerable influence on science anxiety and on attitudes toward science. Examples o f scientific discoveries that have contributed to this cycle are: atomic energy; plastics; pesticides; genetically m ind-altering engineered genes; and drugs. Scientific attitudes are related to but peripheral to the idea of attitudes toward science. Scientific attitudes are more cognitive than science attitudes. They pertain to the nature o f science and philosophical beliefs thought to be held by scientists. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 15 Causes of Science Anxiety Anderson and Clawson (1992) determined that science anxiety in college students is caused by: (I) a lack o f a framework o f prior knowledge to help order new knowledge; (2) societal, educational and family attitudes that com municate habits of anxiety; (3) eroding student self-esteem ; (4) teachers who ridicule students thereby teachers who pretend to easily understand even the most difficult concepts; and (5) models o f nature that the students can not understand and therefore can not use to solve problems. W ynstra and Cummings (1993) reported that the results of a questionnaire survey of high school students indicated that there were six m ajor categories o f items that made the students feel anxious about science. The first category was Danger Anxiety which was anxiety about doing things in science class that might be dangerous. chem icals; explodes. Examples were: lighting a Bunsen burner; using poisonous or flammable or watching a dem onstration that The second category was called Test Anxiety which referred to the anxiety associated with taking science tests. The students responded that they were anxious about taking tests, final exam inations, lab tests, and answering different kinds of test questions. The third category was Math and Problem- Solving Anxiety which was anxiety about math and problem -solving in science. Students felt anxious when reading formulas in the textbook, working out story problems, and interpreting graphs and data tables. The fourth category was called Squeamish Anxiety which was the anxiety associated with doing activities that could make one feel squeamish. activities included: These dissecting a frog; looking at a preserved specimen in a bottle; or pricking one's finger to do blood typing. The fifth category was Perform ance Anxiety which was the anxiety associated with perform ing in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 16 science class. following: Students reported that they felt anxious when doing the explaining the results of a science project to the class; being asked a question in class; or having the teacher watch their lab procedure. category was Classroom A nxiety which referred to student anxiety in the classroom. Examples of classroom activities that elicited anxiety included: taking notes; hom ew ork The sixth listening to the lecture; and answering questions fo r a assig n m en t. Science Anxiety Compared to Math Anxiety It is felt that science anxiety and math anxiety may be intertwined and therefore have sim ilar characteristics. Math anxiety has been defined by Richardson and Suinn (1972) as the "feelings of tension and anxiety that interfere with the m anipulation o f numbers and the solving o f m athem atical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations" (p. 551). Math anxiety has been studied in terms of its relationship to gender, achievement, avoidance behavior, and test anxiety. In a review o f the literature, W ynstra and Cummings (1990, pp. 1-2) related that females have higher math anxiety than males. In general, there is not a direct relationship between math anxiety and achievem ent and that simply low ering anxiety possibly does not raise achievement levels. avoidance behavior and possibly to interest. High levels of anxiety correlate to There is a relationship between math anxiety and test anxiety. To compare science anxiety with math anxiety, the relationships between science anxiety and the variables of gender, achievem ent, and test anxiety follow . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 17 As with math anxiety, females also appear to have higher science anxiety than males. Chiarelott & Czem iak (1987) reported that, in grades 4 through 9, females are more science anxious than males. For females, the highest of science anxiety occur in the fourth grade; levels the lowest levels occur in sixth g ra d e . Seymour (1995) felt that the nature o f science courses may contribute to females' anxieties about science. Seymour (1995) explained that the course pace and challenging nature lead to having to prove yourself which is an appropriate form of gender-defining activity for men, but is risky and inappropriate for women. Having to prove yourself makes women anxious, insecure, and confused about the basis of one's own sense o f self as a woman. In addition, competition for grades is about winning which is the most traditional way o f placing individual men w ithin male prestige and ranking systems. Women who compete are not given (by men or other women) the same respect that a similarly competitive man would receive. women usually avoid a competitive approach to learning. problem for men because if they don't com pete As a result, Competition is a successfully, they risk being defined (or defining themselves) as failures. Seymour(1995) stated that what motivates women is the desire to receive praise rather than the desire to win. Teacher-dependent students (male or female) work hard to please the teacher and use the teacher’s praise and encouragement as the basis of their self-esteem. through science. rath er If the teneher does not come (im personal pedagogy), the student loses certainty about self-in- This causes student anxiety and results in females feeling discouraged than encouraged. High science anxiety appears to be linked to low achievement (Czemiak & Chiarelott, 1984; Chiarelott & Czemiak, 1987; W esterback & Primavera, 1996). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18 Chiarelott and Czem iak (1987) reported that high enough levels o f science anxiety existed in high achievers to suggest that some o f the better students do not particularly enjoy science. The finding that high science anxiety is linked to low achievement is in contrast to no direct relationship being determ ined between math anxiety and achievem ent. Strategies to help reduce student anxiety so that achievement can increase are recommended by W esterback and Primavera (1996). use clearly defined goals; The strategies are: to to construct exam inations to test manageable amounts of content material; to remove the time pressure in examinations; to help students in their study habits by providing an environm ent that focuses on what and how to study; and to use a wide variety of instructional methods to satisfy the many different learning styles of the students (p. 4). Whereas a relationship between math anxiety and test anxiety has been established, the same has not been determined for science anxiety. Wynstra and Cummings (1990), following a study involving tenth through twelfth grade chem istry students, reported that there was no significant correlation between science anxiety and test anxiety as a whole. However, there was a significant correlation between science anxiety and the test anxietyemotionality subscale. This means that the two constructs are different but that they overlap concerning the em otions that are involved. Science Anxietv in Chemistry Students W ynstra and Cummings (1990) reported that female high-school chemistry students have more science anxiety than males. Science anxiety does not significantly improve the prediction of grades in chem istry class. Students in first year chem istry class had higher levels of science anxiety than those in Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 19 second year class. The researchers stated that the latter result may indicate that students who have high levels of anxiety avoid taking more science classes or it could mean that taking classes in science and succeeding lowers a n x ie ty . Part 2: Chemistry Anxiety Very little research has been done on chemistry anxiety. The few studies that have been conducted involve measuring and identifying anxieties associated w ith learning chem istry and determ ining the relationships between chem istry anxiety and gender, instructional method, test anxiety, and success in chem istry. The chemistry anxiety level of community college students enrolled in a pre-college chem istry course was measured by A bendroth and Friedm an (1983) in a study designed to reduce chemistry anxiety. A 12-item chemistry anxiety scale was used to measure the students' anxiety levels. validity values for the scale are not reported. Reliability and The scale consists o f two parts. The first part is a list of six activities that are involved with learning chemistry. The students are asked to think about doing these activities and then rate their feelings on a scale from 1 to 5 where 1 means enjoyable and 5 means worried and tense. The activities listed are: 1. W orking with graphs 2. Solving m athematical problems 3. Solving equations and studying formulas 4. Studying a new field 5. Learning chem istry terms 6. Working in a chemistry lab (p. 26) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 20 Part 2 o f Abendroth and Friedman’s chemistry anxiety scale consists o f six statements to which the students are to respond that they strongly agree, agree, are undecided, disagree, o r strongly disagree. The six statements are: 1. H earing the word "chemistry" scares me. 2. It worries me that people I know have failed chemistry. 3. The things studied in chemistry class have no personal meaning for me. 4. I worry that I will not get a good grade in chemistry. 5. I worry that I could cause an explosion 6. It w orries me that a chemistry teacher will not be understanding. in chemistry lab. (p. 26) On the scale of 1 to 5, the overall pretest anxiety levels were 2.67 for the control group and 2.60 for the treatment group. These values represent a level of anxiety in between enjoyable and worried and tense. The results showed that the students were especially worried about their course grade, solving mathematical problem s, coping with a teacher who might not be understanding, w orking in a chem istry laboratory, and ju st hearing the word "chem istry” (p. 26). The relationship between chemistry anxiety and gender is not clear. Some research studies have indicated that there is no significant difference in chemistry anxiety between males and females taking chem istry at the college level (Davis, 1987). Primavera, 1992) However, in a later study, Davis (cited in Westerback & found a significant difference in chem istry anxiety between males and fem ales at the beginning of an introductory college chem istry course. The difference in anxiety for chemistry between the male and female students disappeared as the course progressed though. At the end of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 21 course, there were no gender differences. These findings are unlike those for science and math anxiety where females have more anxiety than males. The relationship between chemistry anxiety and instructional method was investigated by Kozma (1982). taking laboratory chem istry, This study, which involved college students revealed that different types methods are preferred by students who have high anxiety abilities. o f instructional but different A highly structured method o f instruction (explicitly stated objectives, reviews, exam ples, questions, and feedback) was preferred by high-ability, high-anxiety students and by low -ability, Iow -anxiety students. On the other hand, a low structured method was preferred by high-ability, low-anxiety students and by low-ability, high-anxiety students. These results suggest that non-anxious learners who lack ability and able learners who are highly anxious p refer structure. The relationship between chemistry anxiety and test anxiety was studied by W ynstra and Cummings (1990). The researchers reported that students in their second year o f high school chem istry have more test anxiety than first year students. However, no significant correlation was found between the scores used to measure science anxiety and test anxiety except on the test anxiety-em otionality subscale. These results suggest an em otional link between chemistry anxiety and test anxiety. This finding is unlike that for math anxiety where a relationship between math anxiety and test anxiety has been established. Research involving the relationship between chem istry anxiety and success in chem istry indicates that students who are successful at learning chemistry appear to have less anxiety than students who are unsuccessful at learning chemistry. Davis (as cited in W esterback & Prim avera, 1992) reported that the anxiety for chem istry between those college students who are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. successful in an introductory chem istry lecture course and those students who are less successful become significantly different as a function o f time spent in the course. The differences were attributed to reduction in anxiety for chemistry by the more successful students. Steiner and Sullivan (1984) developed profiles of successful and unsuccessful students in organic chem istry. Successful students were defined as having a grade of C+ or better for the first 2 quarters o f the three quarter organic course. Unsuccessful students had a grade of C or less. The successful students did not have as much background in chemistry and mathematics as the unsuccessful students reported. However, the successful students perceived chem istry as elegant and useful. They had an avowed field and preferred to study chemistry more than other subjects. demonstrated a confident approach to the study of chem istry. students found chemistry strange and depressing. interest in the They Unsuccessful They were worried or anxious and used a haphazard approach to learning chem istry. In addition, the unsuccessful students were less prone to learn by applying principles. Both groups o f students felt that chemistry was important to their career and described chem istry as helpful and difficult. Steiner and Sullivan concluded that the best predictors for success in organic chemistry are a positive attitude toward the study of chemistry and a positive perception o f the field. anxiety influences Since student attitude, this conclusion fu rth er em phasizes the importance o f attending to student anxiety o f chem istry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sum m ary Student anxieties are important to study because anxiety affects behavior and learning. Moreover, high anxiety is linked to low achievement. By being aware of student anxieties, educators can develop and use strategies to reduce anxiety and enhance achievem ent. Science anxiety may be caused by: (a) knowledge to help order new knowledge; a lack of a framework o f prior (b) societal, educational and family attitudes that communicate habits o f anxiety; (c) students thereby teachers eroding student self-esteem ; (d) teachers who ridicule who pretend to easily understand even the most difficult concepts; and (e)models of nature that the students can not understand and therefore can not use to solve p ro b le m s . Some important characteristics o f science anxiety need to be addressed. example, females appear to be more science anxious than males. due to the nature o f science courses which are paced, and competitive. This may be typically challenging, fast- Across grades 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, science anxiety increases as the school year progresses. As science anxiety increases, achievem ent decreases and student attitudes toward science become more negative. from As a result, the students avoid taking working in science courses and refrain science related careers. Chemistry anxiety appears to be similar to science anxiety. research involving chemistry anxiety is scant. However, Emerging from the few studies that have been done is a critical factor that has major im plications. Chem istry anxiety For increases as success in studying chem istry decreases. 23 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 24 Students who have chem istry anxiety worry about their course grade, mathem atical problem s, teachers who m ight not be understanding, and lab work. For many o f these students, ju st hearing the word "chemistry" invokes feelings o f anxiety and fear. Feelings of anxiety and fear o f chemistry (chemophobia) may impede the learning of chemistry and cause students to avoid taking chemistry courses and working in careers that involve chemistry. To overcome these feelings of anxiety and fear, a better understanding needs to be attained. Thus, it is essential to determine the extent to which chemophobia exists, the characteristics o f the students who have chemophobia, and the factors that contribute to chem ophobia in the classroom and laboratory. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER m : METHODOLOGY The investigation of chemophobia in the college classroom and laboratory involved both descriptive and correlational methods o f research. Prim arily, the study sought to assess the status of college students regarding their anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and their anxieties about chem istry as a subject. The investigation involved determ ining student characteristics as well as the factors that may contribute to their anxieties. In addition, the research attempted to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists between students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chem istry as a subject. G uiding Q uestions The guiding questions for the research were the following: 1. Do college students have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject? 2. W hat is the extent of college students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? 3. W hat are the characteristics of college students who have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? 25 with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 26 4. W hat factors may contribute to the anxieties that college students have about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? 5. Is there a correlation between college students’ anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject? The Setting for the Study The study was conducted at a small, state-owned university located in a rural setting in N ortheastern United States. S u b je c ts Two types of subjects were necessary for the purposes of this research — a "chemophobic" type to serve as the study group and a "non-chem ophobic” type to serve as a control group or comparison group. Non-science majors were assumed to be chemophobic; science majors were assumed to be nonchem ophobic. Forty-eight chem ophobic and 16 non-chem ophobic subjects were available to give a total n = 64 for the project. The chemophobic type of subjects for this study was obtained from a pool of students who were taking an introductory, inorganic chem istry Summer Session I, 1996. course during This 4-credit course is designed for non-science majors and is required for students who are seeking careers in dietetics; physical education and sport; health and physical education; hotel, restaurant, and in stitu tio n al m anagem ent; consum er affairs; fashion m erchandising; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 27 interior design and housing; home econom ics education; child developm ent and family relations; nursing; respiratory care; m edical technology; o r safety s c ie n c e . The topics for the introductory, inorganic course taken by the non-science majors include: measurement; m atter and energy; quantitative relationships in chemical reactions; atomic theory and the periodic system of the elements; chemical compounds and chemical bonds; states o f m atter and kinetic theory; solutions and colloids; acids, bases, and ionic compounds; reaction kinetics; acid-base nuclear eq u ilib ria; oxidation-reduction equilibria; and radioactivity and c h e m istry . During the summer, there are two five-week sessions. The non-science majors take the inorganic course during Summer Session I and an introductory organic course during Summer Session II. The students attend a two-hour lecture every day of the week (Monday through Friday) and a twohour laboratory session three days a week (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday). The Summer schedule is more intense than the Fall and Spring term schedules in which the students attend either a one-hour lecture three days a week or hour and a half lecture two days a week along with a two-hour lab once a an w eek. The non-chemophobic subjects for the comparison group of this study were obtained from a pool of undergraduate students who were taking a required introductory, general chemistry course during Summer Session I, 1996. 4-credit course is designed for science majors. This Chemistry majors were desired for the study, but there was no sample available during the Summer sessions. Thus, science majors were chosen. biology, biochem istry, These students are seeking careers in environm ental health, geoscience, medical technology, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 28 natural science, or geology. m edicine, p re-p h y sical In addition, some o f the students are in pre­ therapy, pre-dental, p re-v eterin ary , or pre-optom etry p ro g ra m s. The topics covered in the introductory, general chem istry course taken by the science majors are sim ilar to those covered in the course for non-science majors. However, they are more in-depth. m easurem ent; dim ensional analysis; Some of the topics include: atomic theory and structure; matter; molecules and ions; the mole; the periodic table; oxidation numbers; nomenclature of inorganic com pounds; chem ical equations and qu an titativ e relationships; therm ochem istry; bonding; gases; and liquids, solids, and changes o f state. During the Summer session, the science majors attend a two-hour lecture five days a w eek (Monday through Friday) and a three-hour laboratory session three days a week on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. This schedule is more intense than the Fall or Spring sem ester schedules in which the students attend either a one-hour lecture three days a week or an hour and a half lecture two days a week along with a three-hour lab once a week. S e le c tio n T ech n iq u e Convenience sampling and "judgment sampling" (Gay, 1992, p. 139) were used to select the subjects for this study. conveniently accessible were used. Existing classes that were Furthermore, expert judgm ent was used to select samples that were believed to be representative of chemophobic and non-chem ophobic populations. A chemophobic sam ple was necessary so that the characteristics o f students who show fearful attitudes towards chemicals Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 29 and chem istry could be determined. Additionally, chem ophobia had to be present so that some o f the factors that contribute to anxiety about chemistry could be identified. The non-chemophobic sample was desired for a c o m p a ris o n . Because convenience and judgm ent sampling techniques were used, each member o f the target population — college students — did not have a known, non zero probability o f being selected for the study. Only college students who happened to be conveniently available could take part in the study. Therefore, the sample was not representative o f the entire population o f college students. This means that the results of the study can not be generalized to all college students or even to other samples of college students. The results of the study and any inferences that can be made are specific to the students who were involved in the study. D escription of the Subjects The following demographic data were collected during the study: gender; age; year in college (freshman, sophomore, ju nior, senior, or graduate student); major area o f study; number o f previous mathem atics and science courses taken in high school and college; level o f achievem ent in chemistry; societal, educational and family attitudes that com m unicate habits of anxiety; student self-esteem with respect to learning chem istry; models o f nature that the students can not understand; whether the subject was also enrolled in another institution; and whether the subject had ever repeated a chem istry course. These dem ographics were used to determ ine characteristics of college students who have anxieties about chem istry and chem icals. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 30 A large number of students repeating chemistry courses in the summer was expected. These students were considered to be low-achievers. They were also predicted to have low self-esteem and high anxiety about learning chem istry in the classroom and laboratory since they had previously received a D or F in the required course. The data involving the number o f previous mathematics and science courses provided information about the students' experience and background foundation that they used to help order new knowledge. Data C ollection Descriptive data regarding the students' anxieties, characteristics, and the factors that may contribute to their anxieties about chem icals and chem istry were collected through a questionnaire survey and through interviews. Most of the data were collected through the questionnaire because it was more efficient, required less time, and allowed collection o f data from a much larger sample. Thus, all the subjects who participated in this study responded to the items on the questionnaire. Interviews were conducted with subjects who had high anxiety about learning chem istry in the classroom and laboratory. The purpose of the interviews was to obtain anecdotal data to support and enhance the quantitative data. In addition, some information could be more easily obtained by the interview than by the questionnaire. Examples are: level of achievem ent, family attitudes, and other sources of anxiety about chem istry, Level of achievement could have been attained through the questionnaire by having the students voluntarily give their social security numbers so that the researcher could have accessed their academic records. However, anonymity would have been lost which may have caused some of the students Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 31 to be reluctant about revealing their true feelings on the questionnaire. Thus, level of achievem ent was deduced by the number of students repeating the course and by inform ation acquired through the interview s. When the questionnaire was administered, the students were asked to volunteer for an interview and told how they would be contacted by the researcher to privately arrange an appointment. ensure full anonym ity and confidentiality. This process helped to The subjects to be interviewed were then obtained from the pool of volunteers. The "Interviews" section of this chapter contains a com plete description o f the interview procedure. C onstruction of the Q uestionnaire The initial questionnaire was constructed in three parts: (1) an introduction; (2) a chemistry anxiety rating scale; and (3) a demographic section. The introduction contained the essentials of informed consent to voluntarily participate in the study as well as directions for completing the questionnaire. Demographic items included: number of math courses taken in high school and in college; number of chemistry courses taken in high school and in college; are you now or have you ever repeated a chemistry course; year in college; gender; and age. The Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale (Plake & Parker, 1982) was used to construct the chem istry anxiety rating scale for this study. (See Appendix A.) The 24-item Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale has a coefficient alpha reliability estim ated at .98 and correlates .97 with the full scale, 98-item Math Anxiety Rating Scale (Richardson & Suinn, 1972). The Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale (RMARS) was chosen because the definitions of "chemistry anxiety" and chem ophobia for this study are derived from the definitions of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 32 "math anxiety" and "mathophobia". because Additionally, this scale was selected the investigation seeks to determ ine the extent to which chem istry anxiety exists and the factors for this scale fit the intentions o f this study. The Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale has two factors. Factor 1 consists of 16 items that involve anxiety associated with learning mathematics. Factor 2 consists o f 8 items that involve anxiety associated with mathematics evaluation. Using these two factors (Factor 1 was used twice), a three factor, 40-item Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale (DCARS) was constructed. This was accomplished by replacing the words and ideas for math with words and ideas for chemistry and for handling chemicals. For example, the item "buying a math textbook" was modified to "buying a chemistry textbook". Care was taken to maintain the same level o f anxiety as that for the item in the Revised Math Anxiety Scale when writing the items for Factor 3 Handling-Chem icals. Table 1 shows the items for Factors 1, 2 and 3 of the original Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale before it was pretested. Table 1 Items for Factors 1. 2. and 3 of the Original Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating S cale Factor 1. L earning-chem istrv anxiety 1. W atching a teacher work a chemistry problem on the blackboard. 2. Buying a chem istry textbook. 3. Reading and interpreting graphs or charts showing the results of a chemistry experiment. 4. Signing up for a chemistry course. 5. Listening to another student explain a chemical reaction. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 33 Table I (cont'd). 6. W alking into a chemistry class. 7. Looking through the pages in a chemistry text. 8. Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book. 9. 10. W alking on campus and thinking about a chemistry course. Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin working on a homework assignment. 11. Reading the word "chemistry". 12. Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as "If x = grams of hydrogen and y = total grams of water produced, calculate the number of grams of oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen. 13. Reading a formula in chemistry. 14. Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class. 15. Having to use the tables in a chemistry book. 16. Being told how to interpret chemical equations. Factor 1. 2. C hem istrv-Evaluation Anxiety Being given a homework assignment o f many difficult problems which is due the next chemistry class meeting. 2. Thinking about an upcoming chem istry test one day before. 3. Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. 4. Taking an examination (quiz) in a chemistry course. 5. Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. 6. Being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class. 7. W aiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you expected to do well. 8. Taking an examination (final) in a chemistry course. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 34 Table 1 (cont'd). Factor 3. H andline-C hem icals anxietv 1. W atching a teacher handle the chemicals during a dem onstration. 2. Mixing chem ical reagents in the laboratory. 3. Dissolving a chemical in water. 4. W eighing a chem ical on the balance. 5. Listening to another student describe an accident in the chemistry lab. 6. Getting chem icals on your hands during the experiment. 7. Spilling a chemical. 8. Breathing the air in the chemistry laboratory. 9. Walking on campus and thinking about chemistry lab. 10. Working with acids in the lab. 11. Reading the word "chemical”. 12. Working with a chemical whose identity you don't know. 13. Heating a chem ical in the Bunsen burner flame. 14. Listening to a lecture on chemicals. 15. W alking into a chem istry laboratory. 16. Being told how to handle the chemicals for the laboratory experiment. The items for the three factors of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale were numbered consecutively from 0 to 39 and then randomized using a table of random numbers. The purpose for randomization was to reduce the possibility of biasing the subjects' responses. questionnaire format. The randomized items were then put into a Each item was followed by a 5-level anxiety rating scale consisting of words and numbers where: 1 means "not at all anxious"; 2 means Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 35 "a little bit anxious"; 3 means "moderately anxious"; 4 means "quite a bit anxious"; and 5 means "extremely anxious". The words were included with the numbers so that the students would always know the level o f anxiety that is associated with the number that they are circling as their response. error may be reduced. In addition, to remind students that the scale is measuring anxiety, every fifth item included the statement: anxious . . . ” was Thus, "This makes me See Appendix B for the complete, original questionnaire before it pretested. Pretest of the Q uestionnaire A pretest of the questionnaire was conducted to determine its internal reliability, how much time is required to com plete the questionnaire, and to ascertain any problems that may be associated with the directions or the questions. The questionnaire was pretested on the same types of subjects as proposed for the research study. The time required for the subjects to complete the questionnaire was 10 minutes. 1996 Spring semester. The pretest occurred during the Therefore, the subjects were taking the second semester of their required, introductory chem istry course rather than semester as proposed for the research study. the first A detailed description of this pilot study follows. Pilot study sam ple. A total o f 114 students participated in the pilot study. Sixty-six students were in the class fo r non-science majors (the chemophobic group) and 48 students were in the class for science majors (the non-chemophobic group). The non- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. science m ajor group consisted of 49 females and 17 males. group consisted o f 28 females and 20 males. The science major Thus, 77 females and 37 males participated in the pilot study. The chemophobic type o f subjects for the pilot study was selected from a pool of students who were taking the second semester o f a required, introductory chemistry course. involves This 4-credit course designed for non-science majors organic chem istry the research study. fashion hotel, child as proposed for dietetics; physical education and sport; health and physical restaurant, m erchandising; education; inorganic chem istry The organic course is required for students who are seeking careers in education; rather than and institutional interior design developm ent and medical technology; or safety m anagem ent; and housing; home family relations; nursing; consum er affairs; econom ics respiratory care; science. The topics for the required, organic course taken by the non-science majors include: saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons; alcohols, phenols, ether, and thioalcohols; aldehydes and ketones; carboxylic acids and esters; amines and amides; optical isomerism; carbohydrates; lipids; and proteins. The students were attending a one-hour lecture three days a week along with a tw o-hour lab once a week. The non-chemophobic subjects for the comparison group of the pilot study were selected from required a pool of undergraduate science majors who were taking a introductory, 4-credit, Spring sem ester. general chemistry course during the 1996 As for the proposed research study, chem istry majors were desired as the comparison group, but the available sample was too small for meaningful results. Thus, science majors were chosen. seeking biology, careers in medical technology, biochem istry, These students are environm ental natural science, or geology. health, geoscience, In addition, some of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the 37 students are in veterinary, or pre-m edicine, pre-o p to m etry pre-physical therapy, pre-dental, pre- program s. The topics covered in the second semester, introductory, general chemistry course taken by the science majors include: solutions; thermodynamics; kinetics; chem ical equilibrium ; acid-base equilibrium ; equilibria; reactions; o x id atio n -red u ctio n ions and ionic electro ch em istry ; co o rdination chem istry; nuclear chem istry; chem istry of the main group elem ents; and chem istry of the transition metals. The science majors were attending a one-hour lecture three days a week along with a three-hour lab once a week. Procedure. The questionnaire was administered to both groups of students at the beginning of their last class o f the Spring 1996 semester. Both students were scheduled to take the final exam read the standardized introduction two days later. containing the essentials groups of The researcher for inform ed human consent and the directions for completing the questionnaire. To assure total anonymity, the researcher and the instructor of the class left the room while an undergraduate helper passed out the questionnaires and collected them after com pletion. Analysis of the pilot study data. The data obtained from the pilot study of the questionnaire was subjected to the same data analysis as that planned for the test data. incomplete, so n is less than 114 for some analyses. One questionnaire was Analysis was done by SPSS. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 38 An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests except in the cases where the alpha level had to be adjusted for multiple tests on the same data. by-step A step- account follow s. Step 1 involved calculating the mean and standard deviation for the 24 combined items of Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistry Anxiety and Factor 2 Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety o f the Derived C hem istry Anxiety Rating Scale. This was done so that the level of chemistry anxiety could be compared to the level of math anxiety. attained. Thus, an idea o f the extent of chemophobia could be The mean for the combined 24 items of Factors 1 and 2 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale was 60.61; the standard deviation was 17.86. Step 2 involved comparing the mean of the combined 24 items of Factors 1 and 2 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (DCARS) with the mean of the 24-item Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale (RMARS). This was done to determine if the 24 items for Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistry Anxiety and Factor 2 Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety have the same mean as that reported for the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale. If the means are the same, then the level of chem istry anxiety associated with learning and evaluation is the same as the level o f math anxiety. A one-sample t-test was conducted using a 95% Confidence Interval and twotail significance. A summary of the values is shown in Table 2 on the next page. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 39 Table 2 Results of the One-Sample t-Test Between the Mean of the Combined Items in Factors 1 and 2 o f the DCARS and the Mean o f RMARS (Pilot Study) Variable___________________ Mean________ Std. Dev. DCARS 60.61 17.86 Test Value (RMARS mean) = 59.84 Mean Difference___________ df t-value_______ 2-tail sig .77 .46 113 .64 The one sample t-test showed no significant difference in the means. Therefore, the level of chemistry anxiety associated with learning and evaluation is the same as the level of math anxiety. Thus, for the students who participated in the pilot study, chemophobia does exist in the college classroom! This finding agrees with Abendroth and Friedm an’s (1983) finding that college students have worries about chem istry. A graph portraying the comparison of the means and standard deviations for Factors 1 and 2 of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale and the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale is shown in Figure 2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 40 RMARS mean DCARS mean RMARS s.d. DCARS s.d. Anxiety Scale Figure 2. Comparison of the means and standard deviations of Factors 1 and 2 of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale and the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. (Pilot Study) The level of anxiety for mathematics and chemistry can be determined by first recalling the anxiety rating scale where 1 means "not at all", 2 means "a little bit", 3 means "moderately", 4 means "quite a bit”, and 5 means "extremely" anxious. The level of math anxiety as measured by RMARS is 59.84/24 = 2.493. This value lies in between "a little bit" and "moderately". The level of chemistry anxiety as measured by Factor 1 and 2 o f DCARS is 60.61/24 = 2.525. The anxiety levels are statistically the same! A tremendous amount o f research has been done on math anxiety. little research has been done on chemistry anxiety. For example, Very an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 41 electronic keyw ord search yielded the follow ing num ber o f articles, com m unications, or dissertations on mathem atics and chem istry anxiety as shown in Table 3 below. Table 3 Number o f A r tic le Communications, or D issertations on M athematics and Chemistry Anxiety that Resulted from an Electronic Keyword Search Source (Y ears) ERIC M ath Chem istry Chem Anxiety Anxiety Anxiety 411 126 3 0 115 96 0 0 135 75 0 0 661 297 3 0 M athem a­ tic s A n x ie ty (1982-N ow ) Psych. Lit. (1974-1995) D is s e rta tio n Ab s t r a c t s (1861-1992) Total The results of the keyword search clearly demonstrate the need for more research on chem istry anxiety. In Step 3, item analysis was conducted to determine those items of the chemistry anxiety rating scale that did not distinguish between the subjects. The frequency distribution percent values for each item were exam ined to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 42 identify the items for which a large number o f people had responded 1 or 5. The item was eliminated if the frequency distribution percent fo r level I or 5 was greater than 70%. Items that were elim inated because more than 70% of the subjects responded 1 or 5 are shown in Table 4. Table 4 Items Eliminated from the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and Frequency D istribution Percent Values CPilot Study) F re q u e n c y Item Distribution Percent Q.7 Q.24 Dissolving a chemical in water. Weighing a chemical on a balance. Q.26 Q.36 Reading the word "chemical”. Watching a teacher handle the chem icals during a dem onstration. level I 72.8 level 2 17.5 level 3 9.6 level 1 74.6 level 2 19.3 level 3 5.3 level 4 0.9 level 1 78.9 level 2 14.0 level 3 3.5 level 4 2.6 level 5 0.9 level 1 76.3 level 2 20.2 level 3 2.6 level 4 0.9 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 43 In Step 4, factor analysis was conducted on the remaining 36 items of the chem istry anxiety rating scale to see if three factors w ould emerge. In factor analysis, the items fo r each factor are listed in descending order o f loading. This means that the items are listed in descending order o f the strength of their relationship to the factor. The means of the item s, obtained from item analysis, can be used to develop a hierarchy of the elem ents that contribute to college students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and about chem istry as a subject. A maximum likelihood factor analysis with a Varimax rotation was performed. Five factors emerged, but 2 of the 5 factors because same items loaded on other factors. constrained to come up with three factors. extracted after 6 iterations. were not useful Therefore, the computer was The resulting three factors were The three factors accounted for approximately 53% of the total variance in the scores o f the 36 items. for each o f the three factors is shown in Table The percent of variance 5. Table 5 The Percent Variance for Factors 1. 2. and 3 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot Study) Factor 1 2 P e rc e n t of L ea m in g -C h e m istry 32.3 C hem istry-E valuation 12.4 3 Handling Chem icals V a ria n c e 8.1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 44 Factor 1 was identified by 17 of the items on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. The items with factor loadings for Factor 1 are shown in Table 6. These items all have to do with learning chem istry. called L eam ing-C hem istry Therefore, Factor 1 is Anxiety. Table 6 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 1 Leam ing-Chem istry Anxiety of the Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot Study) D e riv e d C h e m is try A nxiety R a tin g S cale Item Factor Loading 0.40 Q.9 Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class. W atching a teacher work a chemistry problem on the .82 .73 blackboard. Q.23 Looking through the pages in a chemistry book. .73 Q.31 W alking on campus and thinking about a chemistry .72 013 Walking into a chemistry class. .71 0.20 Listening to a lecture on chemicals. .70 0.28 Reading the word "chemistry". .65 Q.17 Signing up for a chemistry course. .61 0.15 Being told how to interpret chemical equations. .61 0.39 Listening to another student explain a chem ical reaction. .61 0.22 Having to use the tables in the back of a chemistry book. .59 0.5 Reading a formula in chemistry. .58 course. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 45 Table 6 (cont'd). Q.8 Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin working on a hom ew ork .51 assig n m en t. 0.3 Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book. .51 Q.34 W alking on campus and thinking about chemistry lab. .48 0.37 Buying a chemistry textbook. .42 Q-2 Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the .38 results o f a chem istry experiment. Factor analysis indicates that the five elements that relate most to learning chemistry as a subject are: listening to lectures in chemistry class; watching the teacher work chem istry problems on the blackboard; looking through the chem istry book; thinking about the chemistry course; and w alking into the chem istry class. The five elements (and means) that contribute most to the students' anxieties about learning chemistry as a subject are: being told how to interpret chem ical equations (2.32); signing up for a chem istry course (2.28); reading a form ula in chemistry (2.24); reading and interpreting graphs or charts showing the results of a chemistry experiment (2.13); and starting a new chapter in a chemistry book (2.12). See Appendix C for the Factor 1 items ranked in descending order according to mean anxiety levels. Factor 2 was identified by nine of the items on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. The items with factor loadings for Factor 2 are shown in Table 7 on the next page. chemistry. These items all have to do with evaluation of Therefore, Factor 2 is called Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 46 Table 7 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 2 Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety o f the Derived Chemistry A nxiety Rating Scale (Pilot Study) Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale Item Factor L oading 0-33 Taking an exam ination (final) in a chemistry course. .88 Q.38 Thinking about an upcoming chemistry test one day .87 0 .1 4 Taking an exam ination (quiz) in a chemistry course. .86 0-12 Being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class. .80 0 .1 6 Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. .76 Q.18 Being given a homework assignment of many difficult .73 before. problems which is due the next chemistry class meeting. 0 .2 5 Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. .64 Q.4 Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as "If x = .49 grams of hydrogen and y = grams of water produced, calculate the number of grams of oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." Q.6 Waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you .31 expected to do well. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 47 Factor analysis indicates that the five elements that relate most to chemistry evaluation are: taking the final exam in the chemistry course; thinking about an upcom ing chemistry test one day before the test; taking a chemistry quiz; being given a "pop" quiz in chemistry class; and getting ready to study for a chem istry test. The five items (and mean anxiety levels) that contribute most to students' anxieties about chem istry evaluation are: taking the final in a chemistry course (4.22); waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which the student expected to do well (3.97); being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class (3.77); taking a quiz in a chem istry course (3.72); and thinking about an upcoming chemistry test one day before the test (3.65). anxiety. These items appear to reflect test See Appendix D for a complete list of the Factor 2 items ranked in descending order o f mean anxiety levels. Factor 3 was identified by 10 of the items on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. The items with factor loadings for Factor 3 are shown in Table 8 on the next page. Since these items all have to do with handling chemicals. Factor 3 is called Handling-Chem icals Anxiety. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 48 Table 8 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety of the Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating Scale (Pilot Study) Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale Item Factor L oading Q.30 Mixing chemical reagents in the laboratory. .86 Q.29 W orking with a chemical whose identity you don’t know. .80 Q.19 Working with acids in the lab. .77 0.32 Heating a chemical in the Bunsen burner flame. .73 0.21 Getting chemicals on your hands during the experiment. .72 Q.10 Listening to another student describe an accident in the .70 chem istry lab. Q.l Spilling a chemical. .70 Q. l l Being told how to handle the chemicals for the laboratory .65 experiment. Q. 27 Breathing the air in the chemistry laboratory. .52 Q.35 W alking into a chemistry laboratory. .42 Factor analysis indicates that the five elements that relate most to handling chemicals in the classroom and laboratory are: mixing chem ical reagents in the lab; working with unknown chemicals; working with acids in the lab; heating chem icals in the Bunsen burner flame; and getting chem icals on their hands during an experim ent. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The five items (and mean anxiety levels) that contribute most to students' anxieties about handling chemicals are: getting chem icals on your hands during an experiment (2.85); spilling a chemical (2.40); working w ith acids in the lab (2.31); listening to another student describe an accident in the chemistry lab (2.20); and working with a chemical whose identity you don't know (2.18). See Appendix E for a complete list of the Factor 3 items ranked in descending order o f mean anxiety level. In Step 5, reliability analysis was conducted to determine the reliability of the global Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating Scale (the 36-item scale) and the reliability o f each o f the 3 factors. A Cronbach's alpha was calculated for the total scale and for each subscale using the following equation: r scale = (K)(SD2) - X(K - X) ------------------------------(SD2)(K -1) where K = the number of items on the scale SD = the standard deviation o f the scores X = the mean of the scores The closer Cronbach's alpha is to 1, the better the reliability of the scale. Table 9 on the next page shows the Cronbach's alpha values for the global Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three factors. high C ronbach’s alpha values indicate that the 36-item Derived Chem istry Anxiety Scale and each of the three factor subscales are highly reliable. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The 50 Table 9 Cronbach's A lpha Reliability Values O btained on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) R eliability Scale (Cr onb ac h' s Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating alpha) .94 Scale (36 items) Factor 1 Leam ing-C hem istry Anxiety .93 (17 items) Factor 2 C hem istry-Evaluation .92 A nxiety (9 items) Factor 3 Handling-C hem icals Anxiety .91 (10 items) In Step 6 of the data analysis, the means and standard deviations of the anxiety levels for the total scale and for each of the three factors were computed. This was done so that the means could be compared. Table 10 shows the means and standard deviations of the anxiety levels associated with the total scale and with each of the three factors. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 51 Table 10 Anxiety Level Means and Standard Deviations for the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for Each o f the Three Factors (Pilot Study) Factor Factor M ean 1 Leam ing- C hem istry Dev. 1.87 0.71 2.11 0.73 3.57 1.0 2.36 0.62 A nxiety Factor 3 HandlingChem icals Std. Anxiety Factor 2 ChemistryE valuation Anxiety Total Anxiety In Step 7 of the data analysis, the means of the three factors were compared to determ ine if any significant differences exist among the anxiety levels. Three t-tests for paired samples were performed with two-tail significance at p < .016 after p < .05 was adjusted for multiple tests. The results shown in Table 11 reveal that the average anxiety levels for each of the three factors are all significantly different from each other. Thus, the paired samples t-tests show that Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety is unique to chemistry. It is separate from Factor 1 Leam ing-C hem istry anxiety which may be a general science anxiety. Factor 3 is also separate from Factor 2 Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety which may be test anxiety. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 52 Table 11 Results o f Paired Samples t-tests to Compare the Anxiety Level Means o f the Three Factors (Pilot Study! Corr Factors M eans Learning vs Standard Degrees D eviation Freedom 1.87 .71 .64* Evaluation 3.57 1.0 Learning 1.87 .71 .35* vs Handling 2.11 .73 Evaluation 3.56 1.0 .24* vs 2.11 Handling t-V alue 113 -23.45* 112a -3.16* 112a 14.21* .73 * significant at p < .016 a Degrees o f freedom are less than 113 because an item was not answered by a student. The average anxiety levels for each of the three factors are portrayed in Figure 3. w orried This figure clearly shows that the students are significantly more about evaluation chem istry. handling than about handling chemicals or learning Furtherm ore, the students are significantly more worried about chem icals than about learning chem istry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 53 0) â–º u -J Evaluation >> 4> Learning Handling '5 c < Factor Figure 3. The average anxiety levels for the three factors of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. (Pilot Study) Step 8 of the data analysis involved a comparison of the demographic variables to determ ine if any interactions exist. significant differences or significant Two-Way ANOVA's with significance at p < .05 were performed for the total Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three factors by the following: • Major, Gender, and M ajor/Gender • Chem istry Experience, Gender, and C hem istry Experience/G ender • Math Experience, Gender, and Math Experience/G ender Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 54 The results of the two-way ANOVA's performed for the total Derived Chemistry A nxiety Rating Scale and for each o f the three factors by major, gender, and m ajor/gender showed no significant difference in the chem istry anxiety levels o f science majors and non-science m ajors. Furtherm ore, there was no significant interaction between the variables o f m ajor and gender. However, there was a significant difference between females and males. Females had more chemistry anxiety than males in every case. This finding agrees with those for math and science anxiety where females have more anxiety than males (Wynstra & Cummings, 1990), but disagrees with Davis' 1987 study in which there was no significant difference in chem istry anxiety between males and females at the end of the semester. Tables 12, 13, 14 and 15 show the results of the two-way ANOVA's for the total Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three factors by major, gender, and major/gender. Table 12 Two-Way ANOVA Results for the Total Chemistry Anxiety Scale by Major. Gender, and M ajor/Gender (Pilot Study) Factor Sum of df Squares M ean F v alu e Square M ajor .17 1 .17 .48 Gender 4.12 1 4.12 11.53* M ajor/ .00 1 .00 .00 Gender * Significant at p .001 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 55 Table 13 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistrv Anxiety by Major. Gender, and Major/Gender (Pilot Study) Factor Sum of df Squares M ean F value Square Major .03 1 .03 .06 Gender 2.31 1 2.31 4.70* Maj o r/ .03 1 .03 .06 Gender * Significant at p < .05 Table 14 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Factor 2 Chemistrv-Evaluation Anxiety by Major. Gender, and M ajor/G ender (Pilot Study) Factor Sum of df Squares M ean F value Square Major 3.57 1 3.57 3.98 Gender 9.72 1 9.72 10.84* M ajor/ 1.91 1 1.91 2.13 Gender * Significant at p < .05 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 56 Table 15 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety bv Major. Gender, and Major/Gender (Pilot Study) Factor Sum of df Squares Mean F v alu e Square M ajor .24 1 .24 .48 Gender 3.68 1 3.68 7.41* Maj o r/ 1.08 1 1.08 2.17 Gender * Significant at p < .05 Figure 4 on the next page depicts the significant gender differences for the total chemistry anxiety rating scale and for each of the three factors when two-way ANOVA’s were performed by major, gender, and major/gender. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 57 â– Eval/Fem. â– Eval/ Male â– Total/Female â–¡ Total/Male >) u â–¡ Handle/Female '3 â– Handle/Male u Leam/Female â– Leam/Male > e < Variable Figure 4. Significant gender differences in the anxiety levels of the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and the three subscales. (Pilot Study) The next set of two-way Anova's involved chemistry experience. The range was from 1 to 8 for the combined number of previous high school and college chemistry courses taken. high chemistry experience. Chemistry experience was dichotom ized into low and Low chem istry experience was defined as fewer than or equal to three courses taken previously in high school and college. High chem istry experience was defined as greater than three courses taken previously in high school and college. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 58 The results showed no significant differences in the levels o f anxiety overall or for learning, evaluation, o r handling chemicals betw een students having low chem istry experience experience. and students having high chem istry This finding disagrees with Anderson and Clawson's (1992) finding that lack o f background know ledge increases science anxiety. Females had significantly higher levels of anxiety than males in every case. There was no significant interaction between chemistry experience gender for total chem istry anxiety, learning, or evaluation anxiety. and However, there was a significant interaction fo r handling-chemicals anxiety. For males, the anxiety associated with handling chemicals decreased as chemistry experience increased. For females, the anxiety associated with handling chemicals increased as chem istry experience increased. The results of the two-way ANOVA's for the total Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three subscales by chem istry experience, gender, and chem istry experience/gender are shown below in Tables 16, 17, 18 and 19. Table 16 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety by Chemistry Experience. Gender, and Chem istry Experience/G ender (Pilot Studvt Factor Sum of df Mean F value Square Squares .44 1 .44 1.29 Gender 4.52 1 4.52 13.13* Chem .86 1 .86 2.51 Chem istry Experience exp/Gender * Significant at p < .001 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 59 Table 17 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Leaming-Chemistrv Anxiety by Chemistry Experience. Gender, and Chemistry Experience/Gender (Pilot Study) Sum Factor of df M ean F value Square Squares .54 1 .54 1.13 Gender 2.65 1 2.65 5.52* Chem .15 1 .15 .30 Chem istry Experience exp/Gender * Significant at p < .05 Table 18 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety by Chemistry Experience. Gender, Factor and C hem istry Experience/G ender (Pilot Sum of df Mean Study) F value Square Squares 1.08 1 1.08 1.19 Gender 9.03 1 9.03 9.95* Chem 1.64 1 1.64 1.81 Chem istry Experience exp/Gender * Significant at p < .05 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 60 Table 19 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety by Chemistry Experience. Gender, and Chemistry Experience/Gender (Pilot Study) Factor Sum of df Mean F v alu e Square Squares .05 1 .05 .10 Gender 4.77 1 4.77 9.98* Chem 2.38 1 2.38 4.98* Chem istry Experience exp/Gender * Significant at p .05 Figure 5 on the next page shows the interaction between chemistry experience and gender fo r handling-chem icals anxiety. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 61 2> > -J Females ♦ >> "3 s Males 1 .8 - < 1.6- 1> high low Chemistry Experience Figure 5. gender The significant interaction between chemistry experience and for handling-chem icals anxiety. (Pilot Study) The next set of two-way ANOVA's involved previous math experience. range was The from 2 to 11 math courses taken in high school and college. experience was dichotomized into low and high experience. Math Low math experience was defined as fewer than or equal to five math courses taken in high school and college. five High math experience was defined as greater than math courses taken in high school and college. The two-way ANOVA results for the total Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each o f the three factor scales by math experience, gender, and math experience/gender showed no significant differences in the anxiety levels Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 62 betw een students having low math experience and students having high math experience. There was a significant difference in the anxiety levels between males and females in every case. betw een math experience learning chem istry, There were no significant interactions and gender concerning chem istry evaluation, or overall chem istry handling-chem icals anxiety, anxiety. The results of the two-way ANOVA's for the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three subscales by math experience, gender, and math experience/gender are shown below in Tables 20, 21, 22 and 23. Table 20 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety bv Math Experience. Gender, and M ath Experience/Gender /P ilot Studvf Factor Sum of df Sq uares M ean F value Square .36 1 .36 1.04 Gender 3.98 1 3.98 11.42* M ath .52 1 .52 1.48 M ath Experience exp/G ender * Significant at p < .001 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 63 Table 21 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Learning-Chemistrv Anxiety by Math Experience. Gender, and Math Experience/Gender (Pilot Study) Factor Sum of df M ean F v alu e Square Squares .81 1 .81 1.72 Gender 2.06 1 2.06 4.3 6 * M ath .60 1 .60 1.26 M ath Experience exp/G ender * Significant at p < .05 Table 22 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety bv Math Experience. Gender, Factor and Math Experience/G ender (Pilot Study) Sum of df M ean F value Square Squares .78 1 .78 .85 Gender 7.98 1 7.98 8.67* M ath .54 1 .54 .58 M ath Experience exp/Gender * Significant at p < .01 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 23 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety bv Math Experience Gender, and Math Experience/G ender (Pilot Study) Sum of Factor df M ean Squares F value Square .02 1 .02 .05 Gender 4.83 1 4.83 9.73* M ath .38 I .38 .77 M ath E xperience exp/G end er * Significant at p < .01 Summary of the results of the pretest data analysis. Chemistry anxiety (chemophobia) does exist in the college classroom and laboratory! The phenomenon is real for the students who participated in the pilot study. The level of chemistry anxiety is statistically the same as the level of math anxiety. This level lies between "a little bit” and "moderately" a n x io u s. Fifty-three percent of the variance in the scores o f the 36-item Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale can be explained by the three factors. order is: (12.4% ); leam ing-chem istry and anxiety handling-chem icals (32.3% ); chem istry-evaluation The anxiety anxiety (8.1%). Reliability is very high for the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three subscales. Cronbach's alpha values are: .94 for the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale; .93 for Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistry Anxiety; .92 for Factor 2 Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety; and .91 for Factor 3 H andling-C hem icals A nxiety. The anxiety levels for each of the three factors are all significantly different from each other. about handling chem icals than about learning Students are more worried about evaluation than and are more worried about handling chemicals chem istry. students worry mostly about: C oncerning chem istry evaluation, the (a) taking the final exam, (b) waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which they expected to "pop" chemistry quiz, (d) taking a chemistry quiz, and (e) thinking about upcoming chem istry test. When handling chemicals, the students worry a lot about: do well, (c) being given a an (a) getting chemicals on their hands, (b) spilling a chemical, (c) working with acids, (d) listening toanother student describe an accident the lab, and (e) working with unknowns. students worry mostly about: (a) When learning chem istry, the being told how to interpret chemical equations, (b) signing up for a chemistry course, (c) reading a formula in chem istry, (d) reading and interpreting graphs or charts showing the results of a chemistry experiment, and (e) starting a new chapter in the chemistry book. The anxiety associated with handling chemicals is unique. It is separate from the anxiety associated with evaluation and from the anxiety associated with learning chem istry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. in Females are more anxious than males overall and in learning, evaluation, and handling chem icals. The average anxiety levels for fem ales and males are shown in Table 24. Table 24 The Average Anxiety Levels o f Females and Males Obtained on the Total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Studvl Factor Total Chemistry Fem ales M ales 2.49 2.08 1.97 1.66 3.76 3.16 2.25 1.83 A n xiety L eam in g-C h em istry an xiety C hem istryE valua ti on anxiety H and ling-C hem icals an xiety Science majors and non-science majors have the same statistical average levels o f chem istry anxiety overall and in learning, evaluation, and handling chemicals. majors. So the science majors are as chemophobic as the non-science This result may be explained by the large number o f pre-professional students in the science major class. To be competitive, these students must dem onstrate, through their grade, that they have a high understanding of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chemistry. Hence, their chem istry grade can affect their career choice. The average anxiety levels for science majors and non-science majors are shown in Table 25. Table 25 The Average Anxiety Levels o f Science Majors and Non-Science Majors Obtained on the Total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) F a c to r T o ta l S c ie n c e C h e m is tr y M a jo r N o n -S c ie n c e 2.38 2.35 1.86 1.88 3.73 3.45 2.03 2.18 M a jo r A nxiety Learning-C hem istry anxiety C hem istryE v a lu a tio n a n x ie ty H andling-C hem icals anxiety The average anxiety levels of students having low math experience are statistically the same as the average anxiety levels o f students having high math experience in every case. In addition, no significant interactions exist between math experience and gender. These results suggest that a good background in math does not help to reduce chem istry anxiety. A strategy Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. other than providing the students with a strong math background is necessary to reduce chem istry anxiety. The average anxiety levels of students having low and high math experience are shown in Table 26. Table 26 The Average A nxiety Levels of Low Math Experienced Students and High Math Experienced Students Obtained on the Total Derived Chemistry A nxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) Low Factor Math Experience High Math E xperience Total Chemistry 2.46 2.23 1.98 1.73 3.71 3.38 2.15 2.06 A nxiety L earning-C hem istry anxiety C hem istryEv aluation anxiety H andling-C hem icals anxiety The average anxiety levels of students having low chemistry experience are statistically the sam e as the average anxiety levels of students having high chemistry experience in every case. These results suggest that a good background in chem istry does not help to reduce the anxiety associated with learning chem istry, evaluation, or handling chemicals. It appears that something else besides a strong background in chemistry is needed to reduce Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chem istry anxiety. The average anxiety levels of students having low and high chemistry experience are as follow in Table 27: Table 27 The Average A nxiety Levels of Low Chemistry Experienced Students and High Chem istry Experienced Students Obtained on the Total Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Pilot Study) Factor T o ta l L ow C h e m is try H ig h C h e m is tr y Experience Experience 2.43 2.23 1.94 1.74 3.67 3.37 2.15 2.04 C h e m is tr y A nxiety Learning-C hem istry anxiety Chem istryE v a lu a tio n a n x i e ty H andling-Chem icals anxiety However, a significant interaction exists between chemistry experience and gender for Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety. associated with increases. handling chem icals For males, the anxiety decreases as chem istry experience For fem ales, the anxiety associated with handling chem icals increases as chem istry experience increases. Perhaps females becom e more anxious as they become more knowledgeable about the hazards associated with handling the chem icals. They may be concerned about the effects the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chemicals have on their health. If this is true, then using household chemicals that would ordinarily be used everyday might help to reduce the anxiety that females have about handling chemicals. The interaction between chem istry experience and gender needs to be investigated more thoroughly. Answers pilot study to the major research questions according to the data. Do college students have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject? Yes, college students have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject. Chemistry anxiety (chemophobia) exists in the college classroom and laboratory. The phenomenon of chem ophobia is real in the college classroom and laboratory. What is the extent o f college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? The level of anxiety that college students have about learning chemistry and chemistry evaluation is the same as the level of anxiety that college students have about learning mathematics and m athem atics evaluation. Concerning the three factors of chem istry anxiety, college students most about chem istry evaluation, next about handling chemicals, and about learning worry least chem istry. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. What are the characteristics o f college students who have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? Females have more anxieties than males about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject. may be non-science majors or science majors. experience in mathematics. chemistry. They may have high or low may have high or low experience in Females with high experience in chemistry have high anxiety about handling chem icals. anxiety They Chemophobic college students about handling Males with high experience in chem istry have low chem icals. What factors may contribute to the anxieties that college students have about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? The five factors that contribute most to college students' anxieties about chemistry evaluation are: taking the final exam; waiting to get a chemistry test returned; being given a "pop" quiz; taking a chemistry quiz; and thinking about an upcoming chemistry test. The five factors that contribute most to college students' anxieties about handling chemicals are: their hands during the experiment; spilling a chemical; getting chem icals on working with acids; listening to descriptions of accidents in the chemistry lab; and working with unknowns. The five factors that about learning chem istry for the chem istry course; are; contribute most to college students' anxieties interpreting chemical equations; signing up reading chem ical formulas; reading and interpreting graphs or charts showing the results o f a chem istry experim ent; and starting a new chapter in the chemistry book. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Is there a correlation between college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject? Yes, there is a significant correlation between college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject. The correlation is .35 with 2-tail significance at p < .05 Validation of the Pretested Questionnaire The questionnaire was analyzed for face validity by a panel o f judges following the analysis o f the data obtained in the pilot study. experts The judges were who have extensive experience developing and analyzing questionnaires for research studies. Face validity refers to the degree to which a test appears to measure what it purports to measure. The questionnaire was deemed to be valid following the revisions indicated by the analysis of the pilot study data and by the panel of judges. See Appendix F for the revised, validated questionnaire. Administration of the Validated Questionnaire The pretested, revised, validated questionnaire was administered by the researcher to the 48 subjects in the specified study group and to the 16 subjects in the specified comparison group during the first day o f class in Summer Session I, 1996. adm inistration. Permission was obtained from the lecture instructors before A standardized set o f directions and the essentials for Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. informed consent were read to the students before they w ere given the questionnaire. The students were instructed that if they w ere w illing to be interviewed, they should write their phone num ber and the best tim e for the researcher to contact them on the lines provided for this inform ation on the last page of the questionnaire. names on the questionnaire. The subjects were advised n o t to write their This process helped to ensure anonymity and full confidentiality. In terview s Eight interviews were conducted to obtain data to support and enhance the questionnaire data. The students who were interviewed w ere obtained from a pool of 18 students (15 non-science majors and 3 science majors) who admitted fearing chem icals and chemistry and who volunteered to be interviewed. non-science majors consisted of 10 females and 5 males. consisted of 2 females and 1 male. volunteers. The The science majors Attempts were made to interview all 18 However, only 8 volunteers (5 female non-science majors, 2 male non-science m ajors, and 1 female science major) kept th eir interview appointments. Construction of the interview guide. Before the interviews, an interview guide was constructed so that all interviews could be conducted in the same manner. A standardized procedure for the interview allows the collected data from each subject to be compared. The guide contained the questions to be asked, the order o f the questions, and additional probing questions. A semi-structured format was used for the guide. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Structured questions were follow ed by clarifying unstructured, open-ended questions. The purpose o f the unstructured questions was to facilitate explanation and understanding o f the responses to the structured questions. Responses to the questions were tape recorded (with permission o f the subject) to maintain objectivity. The guide was constructed so that it was as brief as possible. were worded as clearly as possible. references were given. The questions Terms were defined and points of Leading questions and questions based on assumptions of facts not in evidence were avoided. (See Appendix G for the Interview G uide.) At the beginning of the interview, some time was spent establishing rapport with the person to be interviewed. The purpose of the study was explained and the interviewee was assured that his or her responses would be kept in strict confidentiality. obtained. Permission to tape record the interview was (See Appendix H for the Interview Consent Form). During the interview, unclear questions were explained more fully, but care was taken not to lead the interviewee to an answer. Practicing and pretesting the interview procedure. Before any subjects were interviewed, the interview procedure was practiced and pretested with a colleague who played the role of the interviewee. This step allowed the researcher to develop skill in conducting the interview and to learn how to handle worse case scenarios in a safe environment. Additionally, this step allowed honest comments concerning the interview procedure and questions. to be obtained The comments indicated no problems with the interview guide. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Derived Chemistry Anxiety Data Analysis Scale Data Haladyna and Shaughnessy (1982) recommended the following for a descriptive study. and reported. Sim ple product moment correlations should be computed O ther procedures such as canonical correlation, multiple regression, path analysis, or other m ultivariate procedures should be attempted to associate classes or groups o f variables with the criterion or criteria. W ith this advice in mind, the following analyses were conducted on the data obtained from the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale. data were analyzed using SPSS. The numerical Significance was determined at p < .05 for all tests unless probability had to be adjusted for multiple tests. Descriptive data. Descriptive data were obtained for the 24 combined items of Factor 1 Leam ing-Chem istry A nxiety and Factor 2 Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety. The mean and standard deviation were calculated. mean of Factor This allowed the 1 and 2 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale to be compared with the mean of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale. Comparison of the means of DCARS and RMARS. The mean of Factor 1 and 2 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale was compared with the mean of Factor 1 and 2 of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale in a one-sample t-test with a 95% confidence interval and two-tail 75 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. significance. This was done to determine if the means were the same. The comparison provided an idea o f the existence and extent o f chemistry anxiety (chem ophobia) Item in the college classroom. analysis. The 36 items to determine items onthe Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale that did not distinguish between the subjects. were analyzed The frequency distribution percent values for each item were examined using the rule that a value greater than 70% for anxiety level 1 or 5 means that the item should probably be elim inated from the questionnaire next time it is given. This procedure helped to further fine tune the chem istry anxiety rating scale. Item analysis also revealed the elements that contribute to the students' anxiety about chemistry as a subject and about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory. The means and standard deviations o f the items were examined to find items with high means. Factor High means correspond to high anxiety. analysis. A maximum likelihood factor analysis with a Varimax rotation was performed to see if the three factors (Leam ing-C hem istry Anxiety, Chem istry- Evaluation A nxiety, and Handling-Chemicals Anxiety) would emerge as before with the pretest data. that was explained Factor analysis also showed the percent o f the variance by the three factors. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Subscales computed as an average of items. Based on the results of factor analysis, the subscales were computed as an average o f items. Standard deviations were also computed. This step allowed reliability as well as com parisons to be determined. R e li a b il it y analysis. Cronbach's alpha values were computed for the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three factors. This procedure was done to determine the reliability of the total scale and o f each subscale. Intercorrelations among the three factors. Intercorrelations among the three factors were determ ined by computing simple product moment correlations — Pearson r values. determined at the p = .05 level. relationship Significance was This step was conducted to determine the between college students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject. Compare the means of the three factors. The mean anxiety levels of the three factors were compared by performing three t-tests for paired samples with two-tail significance at p < .016. This procedure was done to determ ine if any significant differences exist among the means of the anxiety levels of the three factors. The significant Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. differences allowed a hierarchy of the factors to be determined. This provided insight into what factor contributes most to the students' anxieties about chem istry and chem icals. Comparison of means using two-wav ANOVA's. A series of two-way ANOVA’s were conducted in which independent variables were com pared to see if there was a significant difference or interaction between two variables. The two-way ANOVA's were performed at p <. .05 for the total chemistry anxiety rating scale and for each o f the three factors by the following: • major, gender, • chem istry • math and m ajor/gender experience, experience, gender, gender, and and math chem istry experience/gender experience/gender Comparison of the means using two-way ANOVA's showed characteristics of students who have anxieties about chemistry as a subject and about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory. Interview Data The data obtained from the interviews were analyzed for content first. This procedure was done to see if the data made sense and pertained to the questions. subjects. The data were also analyzed to discover commonalties across the An attempt was made to categorize repeated ideas. These data are reported as anecdotal evidence in support of the quantitative results. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Summary The research method was designed to assess the status of college students concerning their anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject. The research was also designed to determine student characteristics as well as the factors that may contribute to anxieties about chemicals and about chem istry. In addition, the method was designed to determ ine if, and to what degree, a relationship exists between students' anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject. To achieve these objectives, a questionnaire survey and interviews were conducted. The quantitative data obtained from the questionnaire survey were analyzed using the statistical program SPSS on the computer. The qualitative data obtained from the interviews were categorized according to common themes and used anecdotally to support and embellish the quantitative findings. The research questions were answered by the results of the data analysis. recom m endations were Based upon these results, conclusions and made. 79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CH APTER IV: RESULTS Sixty-four subjects participated in the test study. The chemophobic group consisted of 48 non-science majors (30 females; 18 males) and the comparison group consisted of 16 science majors (8 females; 8 males). Q u e s tio n n a ir e D a ta Although all subjects responded to the items on the questionnaire, not all items were answered in some cases. Thus, n was less than 64 in some of the SPSS analyses. Comparison Between Respect Learning to Chemistry and Anxiety and Math Anxiety With Evaluation To attain an idea of the extent of chemophobia, the mean and standard deviation for the 24 combined items of Factor 1 Leam ing-Chem istry Anxiety and Factor 2 Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety were calculated so that the mean of chem istry anxiety associated with learning and evaluation could be compared to the reported mean of mathematics anxiety as measured by RMARS. The mean for the 24 combined items of Factors 1 and 2 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale was 56.68; the standard deviation was 15.90. The reported mean for the 24 combined items of Factors 1 and 2 o f the Revised Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale is 59.84; the standard deviation was 20.55 (Plake and Parker, 1982, p. 555). The mean of the 24 combined items in Factors 1 and 2 DCARS was compared with the mean of RMARS in a one sample t-test with a 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of 95% confidence interval and tw o-tail significance. The one sample t-test indicated no significant difference between the mean of the com bined Factors I and 2 o f DCARS and the mean of RMARS. The results are summarized below in Table 28. Table 28 Results o f the One-Sample t-Test Between the Mean of the Combined Items in Factors 1 and 2 of the DCARS and the Mean of RMARS (Test Studvi Variable____________________ Mean_______ Std. Dev. DCARS 56.68 15.90 Test Value (RMARS mean) = 59.84 M ean D ifference 95% Cl df t-value 2-tail sig ____________________ lower________ upper_____________________________________ -3.16 -7.16 .85 62 -1.58 .12 Figure 6, on the next page, shows a graph depicting the comparison of the means and standard deviations for the combined Factors 1 and 2 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 82 â– H â– ^ u 3 3 > RMARS mean DCARS mean RMARS s.d. DCARS s.d. Anxiety Scale Figure 6. Comparison of the means and standard deviations for the combined Factors 1 and 2 of the Revised Math Anxiety Rating Scale and the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. Item (Test Study) Analysis Item analysis was conducted on the 36 items of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale to determine the mean anxiety level and standard deviation of each item as well as to determine those items that did not distinguish between the subjects. Table 29 shows the frequency distribution percent values of the anxiety levels, the mean anxiety level, and the standard deviation for each item of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 83 Table 29 The Anxiety Level Frequency D istribution Percent V alues. Mean Anxiety Levels, and Standard Deviations o f the Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating Scale Items (Test Studvl Item A n x ie ty L evel Mean Standard Frequency Anxiety Deviation D istribution Level Percent Q .l Spilling a chemical. level 1 10.9 level 2 43.8 level 3 21.9 level 4 18.8 level 5 3.1 level 1 34.4 graphs or charts that show the level 2 25.0 results of a chem istry level 3 28.1 experiment. level 4 12.5 Starting a new chapter in a level 1 46.9 Q.2 Q.3 Reading and interpreting chem istry book. level 2 39.1 level 3 7.8 level 4 6.3 2.59 1.03 2.19 1.05 1.73 .86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont'd). Item Anxiety Level M ean Standard Frequency A nxiety D eviation D istribution Level Percent Q.4 Working on an abstract level 1 17.9 chemistry problem, such as "If level 2 21.9 x = grams of hydrogen and y = level 3 28.1 total grams o f w ater produced, level 4 21.9 calculate the num ber o f grams level 5 10.9 level 1 17.2 level 2 45.3 level 3 23.4 level 4 12.5 level 5 1.6 level 1 6.3 test returned in which you level 2 17.2 expected to do well. level 3 28.1 level 4 28.1 level 5 20.3 level 1 31.3 textbook to begin working on a level 2 40.6 hom ew ork level 3 25.0 level 4 3.1 2.88 1.25 2.36 .97 3.39 1.18 2.00 .84 of oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." Q.5 Reading a formula in chemistry. Q.6 Q.7 Waiting to get a chemistry Picking up a chemistry assig n m en t. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont’d). Item Anxiety Level M ean Standard Frequency A nxiety D eviation D istribution Level Percent Q.8 W atching a teacher work a level 1 43.8 level 2 29.7 level 3 20.3 level 4 6.3 Listening to another level 1 46.9 student describe an accident in level 2 29.7 the chem istry level 3 20.3 level 4 3.1 level 1 40.6 the chem icals for the level 2 25.0 laboratory level 3 26.6 level 4 7.8 level 1 9.4 level 2 9.4 level 3 28.1 level 4 31.3 level 5 21.9 level 1 32.8 level 2 39.1 level 3 18.8 level 4 9.4 chem istry problem on the blackboard. Q.9 Q.IO Q.ll lab. Being told how to handle ex p erim en t. Being given a "pop" quiz in a chem istry class. Q.12 c lass. W alking into a chemistry 1.89 .94 1.80 .88 2.02 1.00 3.47 1.21 2.05 .95 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont’d). Anxiety Item Level M ean Standard Frequency A n xiety D eviation D istribution Level Percent Q.13 Taking an examination (quiz) in a chem istry course. Q.14 Being told how to in terp ret Q.15 ch em ical equations. Getting ready to study for a chem istry test. Q.16 Signing up for a chem istry co u rse. level 1 4.7 level 2 25.0 level 3 29.7 level 4 23.4 level 5 17.2 level 1 32.8 level 2 21.9 level 3 35.9 level 4 6.3 level 5 3.1 level 1 23.4 level 2 29.7 level 3 25.0 level 4 14.1 level 5 7.8 level 1 40.6 level 2 25.0 level 3 15.6 level 4 14.1 level 5 4.7 3.23 1.15 2.25 1.08 2.53 1.22 2.17 1.24 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont'd). Anxiety Item Level M ean Standard Frequency A nxiety D eviation D istribution Level Percent level 1 9.4 level 2 20.3 problems which is due the next level 3 26.6 level 4 31.3 level 5 12.5 level 1 25.0 level 2 26.6 level 3 31.3 level 4 7.8 level 5 9.4 level 1 57.8 level 2 20.3 level 3 15.6 level 4 6.3 Q.20 Getting chemicals on your level I 10.9 hands during level 2 35.9 level 3 32.8 level 4 10.9 level 5 9.4 Q.17 Being given a homework assignm ent o f many difficult chem istry Q.18 class m eeting. Working with acids in the lab. Q.19 Listening to a lecture on chemicals. the experim ent. 3.17 1.18 2.50 1.22 1.70 .95 2.72 1.10 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont'd). Item Anxiety Level Frequency D istribution . M ean Standard A n xiety D eviation Level Percent Having to use the tables in level 1 40.6 level 2 32.8 level 3 20.3 level 4 6.3 Looking through the level 1 57.8 pages in a chem istry text. level 2 23.4 level 3 15.6 level 4 3.1 level 1 10.9 level 2 21.9 level 3 20.3 level 4 37.5 level 5 7.8 level 1 62.5 level 2 25.0 level 3 9.4 level 4 3.1 Q.21 a chemistry book. Q.22 Q.23 Solving a difficult problem on a chem istry test. Q.24 Breathing the air in the ch em istry la b o ra to ry . 1.92 .93 1.64 .86 3.10 1.17 1.53 .80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont'd). M ean Standard Frequency A nxiety D eviation D istribution Level Anxiety Item Level Percent Q.25 Reading the word " c h e mi s t r y " . Q.26 Working with a chemical whose identity you don't know. Q.27 Mixing chem ical reagents in the Q.28 laboratory. Walking on campus and thinking course. about a chem istry level 1 71.9 level 2 17.2 level 3 6.3 level 4 3.1 level 5 1.6 level I 17.2 level 2 42.2 level 3 28.1 level 4 10.9 level 5 1.6 level 1 21.9 level 2 39.1 level 3 28.1 level 4 9.4 level 5 1.6 level 1 60.9 level 2 17.2 level 3 10.9 level 4 10.9 1.45 .87 2.38 .95 2.30 .97 1.72 1.05 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (confd). M ean Standard Frequency A nxiety D eviation D istribution Level Anxiety Item Level Percent Q.29 Heating a chemical in the Bunsen Q.30 burner flam e. Taking an examination (final) in a chem istry course. Q.31 Walking on campus and thinking Q.32 about chem istry lab. Walking into a chemistry laboratory. level 1 37.5 level 2 35.9 level 3 18.8 level 4 7.8 level 1 6.3 level 2 15.6 level 3 20.3 level 4 25.0 level 5 31.3 level 1 53.1 level 2 20.3 level 3 12.5 level 4 12.5 level 5 1.6 level 1 43.8 level 2 29.7 level 3 18.8 level 4 7.8 1.97 .94 3.60 1.26 1.89 1.14 1.91 .97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 29 (cont'd). M ean Standard Frequency A nxiety D eviation D istribution Level Anxiety Item Level Percent level 1 78.1 level 2 14.1 level 3 6.3 level 4 1.6 level 1 10.9 level 2 26.6 level 3 28.1 level 4 21.9 level 5 12.5 level 1 46.9 student explain a chem ical level 2 31.3 reaction. level 3 17.2 level 4 4.7 level 1 57.8 level 2 23.4 level 3 18.8 Q.33 Buying a chemistry tex tb o o k . Q.34 Thinking about an upcom ing day Q.35 Q.36 chem istry test one before. Listening to another Listening to a lecture in a chem istry class. 1.31 .66 2.98 1.20 1.80 .89 1.61 .79 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Factor Analysis A maximum likelihood factor analysis with a Varimax rotation was conducted on the 36 items o f the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale to see if the same three factors would em erge as they did for the pilot study. Although three factors emerged in 8 iterations, they differed som ew hat from those of the pilot study because 2 items switched from one factor to another. "W aiting to get a chemistry test returned . . Item 6 which had previously loaded onto Factor 2 Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety in the pilot study, loaded onto Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistry Anxiety in the test study as well as Item 32 "Walking into a chemistry lab" that had loaded onto Factor 3 HandlingChemicals Anxiety in the pilot study. The item switching resulted in Factors 2 and 3 for the factor analysis of the test study data to correspond to HandlingChem icals A nxiety and C hem istry-Evaluation Anxiety respectively. The three factors of the test study data accounted for 51.4% of the total variance in the scores of the 36 items. The percent o f variance for each of the three factors obtained from factor analysis of the test study data are shown in Table 30. Table 30 Percent Variance for Factors 1. 2. and 3 Obtained from Factor Analysis of the Test Study Data F a c to r fo r T est S tu d y D ata P e rc e n t of 1 L earning-C hem istry Anxiety 33.5 2 Anxiety 10.6 3 H andling-C hem icals C hem istry-E valuation A nxiety V a ria n c e 7.3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. For the test study data, Factor 1 Learning-Chemistry Anxiety was identified by 19 items on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. The items with factor loadings for Factor 1 are shown in Table 31. Table 31 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 1 Leaming-Chemistrv Anxiety Obtained from Factor Analysis of the Test Study Data Item F actor Loading 0.36 Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class. .81 Q.28 Walking on campus and thinking about a chemistry .74 0-19 Listening to a lecture on chemicals. .71 0.21 Having to use the tables in a chemistry book. .70 0-14 Being told how to interpret chemical equations. .70 0.31 Walking on campus and thinking about chemistry lab. .70 0.35 Listening to another student explain a chemical reaction. .68 Q.8 Watching a teacher work a chemistry problem on the .65 cour s e blackboard. Q.3 Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book. .62 Q.22 Looking through the pages in a chemistry text. .60 Q.5 Reading a formula in chemistry. .60 Q.2 Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the .57 results of a chem istry experiment. 0.25 Reading the word "chemistry" .54 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 31 (cont’d). Factor Item Loading 0-12 W alking into a chemistry class. .53 0.16 Signing up for a chemistry course. .53 0 .3 2 W alking into a chemistry laboratory.* .52 Q.7 Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin working on a .47 hom ew ork a ssig n m e n t. 0.33 Buying a chemistry textbook. .38 Q.6 W aiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you .38 expected to do well.* * * ** In Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety of the pilot study DCARS. In Factor 2 Chemistry-Evaluation Anxiety of the pilot study DCARS. Factor analysis o f the test study data indicated that the five elements that related most to learning chemistry as a subject were: listening to a lecture in chem istry class; w alking on cam pus and thinking about the chem istry course; listening to a lecture on chemicals; using the tables in a chem istry book; and being told how to interpret chem ical equations. Item analysis of the 19 items comprising Factor 1 o f the test study data revealed that the five elements (and means) that contributed m ost to the students’ anxieties about learning chemistry as a subject were: waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you expected to do well (3.39); reading a formula in chem istry (2.36); being told how to interpret chem ical equations (2.25); reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the results of a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chemistry experiment (2.19); and signing up fo r a chem istry course (2.17). See Appendix I for the test study Factor 1 items ranked in descending order according to mean anxiety levels. For the test study data, Factor 2 was identified by 9 items on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. These items all corresponded to handling- chemicals anxiety unlike the items for Factor 2 o f the pilot study data that corresponded to chemistry-evaluation anxiety. The items of the test study data with factor loadings for Factor 2 are shown in Table 32. Table 32 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 2Handling-Chemicals Anxiety Obtained from Factor Analysis of the Test Study Data Item Factor Loading 0.26 W orking with a chemical whose identity you don’t know. .87 0.18 Working with acids in the lab. .84 0 .2 7 M ixing chemical reagents in the laboratory. .82 0 .2 0 Getting chemicals on your hands during the experiment. .75 0.29 Heating a chemical in the Bunsen burner flame. .70 Q .l Spilling a chemical. .56 Q.10 Being told how to handle the chemicals for the laboratry .53 experiment. Q.9 Listening to another student describe an accident in the chem istry 0 .2 4 .52 lab. Breathing the air in the chemistry laboratory. .40 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Item 32 "Walking into a chemistry laboratory" of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale established in the pilot study did not load for the factor corresponding to H andling-C hem icals A nxiety. Factor analysis of the test study data indicated that the five items that related most to handling chemicals were: working with a chem ical whose identity you don't know; working with acids in the lab; mixing chemical reagents in the laboratory; getting chemicals on your hands during the experiment; and heating a chemical in the Bunsen burner flam e. Item analysis of the 9 items comprising Factor 2 of the test study data revealed that the Five elements (and means) that contributed most to the students' anxieties about handling chemicals were: getting chem icals on their hands during the experiment (2.72); spilling a chem ical (2.59); working with acids (2.50); working with unknown chemicals (2.38); and m ixing chemical reagents in the laboratory (2.30). See Appendix J for the test study Factor 2 items ranked in descending order according to mean anxiety levels. Factor 3 o f the test study data was identified by 8 of the items on the Derived Chemistry A nxiety Rating Scale. anxiety. These items involved chem istry-evaluation The items and factor loadings are presented in Table 33 on the next p age. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 33 Items and Factor Loadings for Factor 3 Chem istrv-Evaluation Anxiety O btained from Factor Analysis o f the Test Study Data Item Factor L oading Q.17 Being given a homework assignment o f many difficult .84 problems which is due the next chemistry class meeting. Q.30 Taking an exam ination (final) in a chem istry course. .83 0.11 Being given a "pop” quiz in a chemistry class. .78 0-15 Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. .70 Q.13 Taking an exam ination (quiz) in a chemistry course. .69 Q.34 Thinking about an upcoming chemistry test one day .68 0.23 Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. .50 Q.4 Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as "If x = .44 bef or e. grams of hydrogen and y = total grams of water produced, calculate the number o f grams of oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." Item 6 "Waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you expected to do very well" o f the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale did not load as it did in the pilot study for the factor corresponding to Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiet y. Factor analysis of the test study data indicated that the five items that related most to chem istry evaluation were: being given a homework Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. assignment o f many difficult problems which is due the next chem istry class meeting; taking the final in a chemistry course; being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class; getting ready to study for a chem istry test; and taking a chem istry quiz. Item analysis of the 8 items comprising Factor 3 of the test study data revealed that the five elem ents (and means) that contributed most to the students' anxieties about chem istry-evaluation w ere: taking the final exam in the chemistry course (3.60); being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class (3.47); taking a chem istry quiz (3.23); being given a homework assignm ent of many difficult problems which is due the next chem istry class meeting (3.17); and solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test (3.10). See Appendix K the test study Factor 3 items listed in order o f decreasing strength of mean anxiety for levels. R el iab ili ty A nal ys is The means and standard deviations of the anxiety levels for the total Derived Chemistry A nxiety Rating Scale and for each o f its three factors as established in the pilot study (Factor 1 Learning-Chemistry Anxiety, Factor 2 Chemistry Evaluation A nxiety, and F actor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety) were com puted so that reliability analysis and comparisons could be conducted. The resulting means and standard deviations are displayed in Table 34 on the next page. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 34 Anxiety Level Means and Standard Deviations for the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for Each o f the Three Factors (Test Study) Factor F actor 1 Learning- C hem istry D ev. 1.86 0.66 2.16 0.70 3.15 0.89 2.26 0.59 Anxiety F actor 2 ChemistryE valuation S td. A nxiety Factor 3 HandlingC hem icals M ean A nxiety Total Chemistry Anxiety Reliability analysis was conducted to determine the reliability of the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (36 items) and the reliability o f each subscale. Reliability was determ ined by com puting Cronbach's A lpha values. These values are displayed in Table 35 on the next page. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 35 Cronbach's Alpha Reliability Values Obtained on the D erived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and on the Factor Subscales (Test Study) Reliability Scale (Cronbach's Derived Chem istry Anxiety Rating .94 Anxiety .93 alpha) Scale (36 items) Factor 1 Learning-C hem istry (17 items) Factor 2 C hem istry-Evaluation .89 A nxiety (9 items) Factor 3 H andling-Chem icals Anxiety .90 (10 items) Comparison of Factors Rating 1. 2. and 3 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Scale The mean anxiety levels of the three factors of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale were compared to determine if any significant relationships and differences existed among the anxiety levels. Three t-tests for paired samples were performed with two-tail significance at p < .016 after alpha .05 was adjusted for multiple tests. Significant relationships were found Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between evaluation and learning and between handling and learning. relationship (p = .02). betw een evaluation and handling approached The significance The mean anxiety levels o f the three factors were all significantly different from each other. The results are presented in Table 36. Table 36 Results o f Paired Samples t-Tests to Compare Factors 1. 2. and 3 of the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale (Test Study) Factors Corr Evaluation vs Means 3.15 Standard Degrees Deviation Freedom .89 .63* Learning 1.88 .66 Handling 2.16 .70 vs .46* Learning 1.85 .66 Ev a l u a t i o n 3.13 .88 vs .30 Handling 2.16 t-Value 62 14.55* 62 3.49* 61 8.05* .71 * significant at p < .016 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. To demonstrate the significant differences, the average anxiety levels for each o f the three subscales are shown in Figure 7. co I Evaluation H I Handling Learning Factor Figure 7. The average anxiety levels o f the three factors o f the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. (Test Study) Figure 7 shows that chem istry-evaluation anxiety was greater than the anxiety associated with handling chem icals. The lowest level of anxiety was associated with learning chem istry in the classroom. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Two-Wav ANOVA's Between Independent Variables To determine if any significant differences or interactions existed between two independent variables, two-way ANOVA's were performed at p < .05 for the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three subscales by the following: • m ajor, gender, » chem istry • math and ex p erien ce, experience, m ajor/gender gender, gender, and and chem istry math ex p erien ce/g en d er experience/gender The first set of two-way ANOVA's involved major, gender and major/gender. Major was defined as non-science or science. significant difference in the chemistry and science majors. The results showed no anxiety levels o f non-science majors There was no significant interaction between the variables major and gender. In addition, there was no significant gender difference except for chem istry-evaluation anxiety. Fem ales had a higher chem istry-evaluation mean anxiety level (3.34) than males (2.81). Tables 37, 38, 39, and 40 show the results of the two-way ANOVA's for the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three factors by major, gender, and m ajor/gender. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 37 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for the Total Chemistry Anxiety Scale bv Major. Gender, and Major/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Mean F value Square Squares M ajor .18 1 .18 .51 Gender .97 1 .97 2.83 M aj o r/ .35 1 .35 1.01 Gender Table 38 Two-Way ANOVA Results for Factor 1 Learning-Chemistry Anxiety bv Major. Gender, and M ajor/Gender (Test Studvf Factor Sum of df Squares Mean F value Square M aj o r .34 1 .34 .80 Gender .99 1 .99 2.32 M aj o r/ .06 1 .06 .15 Gender Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 39 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Factor 2 Chemistrv-Evaluation Anxiety bv Major. Gender, and Major/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df M ean F value Square Squares M ajor .11 1 .11 .15 Gender 4.06 1 4.06 5.72* M ajor/ 1.57 1 1.57 2.21 Gender Significant at p < .05 Table 40 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Factor 3 Handling-Chemicals Anxiety bv Major. Gender, and M ajor/G ender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Squares M ean F value Square M ajor .66 1 .66 .1.28 Gender .00 1 .00 .00 M ajor/ .31 1 .31 .61 Gender Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 8 shows the significant gender difference for chem istry-evaluation anxiety revealed by the two-way ANOVA performed by major, gender, and major/gender. I eval/female â– eval/male 7 G ender Figure 8. Significant gender difference in the mean anxiety levels o f females and males with respect to chem istry-evaluation anxiety. (Test Study) The next set of two-way ANOVA's involved chemistry experience. The range was from 0 to 5 for the combined number of previous high school and college chemistry courses taken. high chem istry experience. Chemistry experience was dichotomized into low and Low chem istry experience was defined as fewer than or equal to two chem istry courses previously taken in high school and college. High chemistry experience was defined as greater than two courses taken previously in high school and college. Except for the significant gender Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 107 difference w ith respect to chem istry-evaluation differences or interactions were found. anxiety, no significant The results of the two-way ANOVA's for the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three subscales by chem istry experience, gender, and chem istry experience/gender are shown in Tables 41, 42, 43, and 44. Table 41 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety bv Chemistry Experience. Gender, and C hem istry Experience/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Mean F value Square Squares .52 I .52 1.51 Gender 1.04 I 1.04 3.02 C hem .00 1 .00 .00 C hem istry Experience exp/Gender Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 108 Table 42 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Leaming-Chemistrv Anxiety by Chemistry Experience. Gender, and Chemistry Experience/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Mean F v alu e Square Squares .08 1 .08 .19 Gender .96 1 .96 2.21 Chem .05 1 .05 .11 Chem istry Experience exp/Gender Table 43 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Chemistrv-Evaluation Anxiety bv Chemistry Experience. G ender, and C hem istry Experience/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Squares Chem istry Mean F value Square 1.32 1 1.32 1.84 Gender 4.57 1 4.57 6.39* Chem .00 1 .00 .00 Experience exp/Gender * Significant at p < .05 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 109 Table 44 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety bv Chemistry Experience. Gender, and Chemistry Experience/Gender (Test Studvl Factor Sum df of F value Square Squares Chem istry Mean 1.15 1 1.15 2.26 Gender .01 1 .01 .01 Chem .02 1 .02 .05 Experience exp/Gender The next set o f two-way ANOVA’s involved previous math experience. The range was from 2 to 11 math courses previously taken in high school and college. Math experience was dichotomized into low and high experience. Low math experience was defined as fewer than or equal to five math courses taken in high school and college. High math experience was defined as greater than five math courses taken in high school and college. No significant differences or interactions were found except for the significant gender difference regarding chem istry-evaluation anxiety. The results o f the tw o-w ay ANOVA's for the total Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale and for each of the three subscales by math experience, gender, and math experience/gender are shown in Tables 45, 46, 47, and 48. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 45 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Total Chemistry Anxiety by Math Experience. Gender, and Math Experience/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df M ean F value Square Squares .01 1 .01 .02 Gender .92 1 .92 2.62 M ath .04 1 .04 .12 M ath E xperience exp/G ender Table 46 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Leaming-Chemistrv A nxiety bv Math Experience Gender, and Math Experience/G ender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Squares M ath M ean F value Square .01 1 .01 .02 Gender .92 1 .92 2.12 Math .02 1 .02 .05 Experience exp/G end er Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table 47 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Chemistrv-Evaluation Anxiety bv Math Experience. Gender, and Math Experience/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sam of df M ean F value Square Squares .01 1 .01 .02 Gender 4.19 1 4.19 5.68* M ath .02 1 .02 .03 M ath E xperience exp/G end er Significant at p < .05 Table 48 Two-Wav ANOVA Results for Handling-Chemicals Anxiety by Math Experience Gender, and Math Experience/Gender (Test Study) Factor Sum of df Squares M ean F value Square .00 1 .00 .00 Gender .00 1 .00 .00 M ath .38 1 .38 .72 M ath E xperience exp/G end er Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Interview Data Eight interviews were conducted with 7 non-science majors (5 females; 2 males) and 1 science major (female). anxiety. These students had high chem istry Four students were sophomores, three were juniors, and one was a second degree candidate. Four students had high math experience (greater than five math courses in high school and college); four students had low math experience (few er than or equal to five math courses taken in high school and college). One student had high chem istry experience (greater than two chemistry courses taken in high school and college). student was repeating the college chemistry course. However, this Seven students had low chem istry experience (two or fewer chemistry courses in high school and college. Three students were repeating the introductory, college chem istry course. Factors That Learning Contribute Chemistry in to the Students' Anxieties Associated With Classroom The eight interviews revealed the following factors, listed in descending order with interview ee frequencies in parentheses, that contributed to the students’ anxieties about learning chemistry in the classroom: chem istry exams questions in life (2); too (5); chemistry problems involving math (4); math (6); answ ering class (3); chemistry in general (2); the fast pace (2); no much to memorize (1); bonding (1); balancing equations (1); 11 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. relation to writing electron configurations (1); writing chem ical formulas (1); charges (1); oxidation and reduction (1); molarity and normality (1); term inology (1); and comprehension o f chem istry (1). These factors are presented in more detail below. M ath was the greatest contributor to the students' anxieties about learning chemistry. When the 8 interviewees were asked to identify what made them anxious about learning chem istry, 6 students (2 males and 4 females) immediately said, "math!" Three of the 6 students had taken more than five math courses in high school and college and were therefore considered to have high math experience. Two of the 6 students had taken five math courses in high school and college; one student had taken three math courses. These last three students were considered to have low math experience. According to the interview data, one o f the biggest problems with the was that the students could not relate the math to the chemistry. "I can't put the chem ical properties and the math together,” admitted a female who was repeating the chemistry course and who had low math and chemistry background experience. Another female, who felt that she had a good math background, stated, ’’The fractions I see in chemistry class, like in the factor label conversion problems, — I never had this before in other math classes." The students also had trouble with the math formulas. "There are too many of them and they are hard to memorize so I don't memorize them enough," stated a male, non-traditional student who had heard peers say that the math associated with chem istry was beyond them and made chemistry a very hard subject. A female said that she understood the formulas in class, but on the exams, the wording seemed unfamiliar. She felt that she needed someone to help her set up the problems because she didn't know what to put where. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. math The students who had weak backgrounds in math, especially in algebra, had high math anxiety in chem istry. A female non-traditional student, who had failed an algebra course when she was in the military, had been told by other students that the math in chem istry was hard and that a good algebra background was essential to pass chemistry. algebra course, she was intensely worried. Because she had failed the She expressed this worry to her classmates as they were w aiting for the professor to start the first chemistry class. A non-traditional male student, who had gone to class being excited about learning chem istry, heard her talking and his excitment was replaced by anxiety. His anxiety increased when a couple of the classmates assured everybody that "you’ll be all right as long as the math doesn't mess you up.” The non-traditional male student reported in the interview that he has math anxiety. When he sees anything mathematical, he blanks out and gets what he calls "wood-headedness”. chest get tight. attack. He can feel his heart beat faster and his If he isn’t able to calm himself down, he goes into an asthmatic These descriptions appear to match symptoms in the Generalized Anxiety Disorder category (American Psychiatric Association, 253). severe 1987, pp. 252- He summed up his feelings by stating, "W ithout math, chemistry is interesting, but the math part makes it scary!” The anxiety associated with chemistry problems involving math was largely due to the students' math anxiety and to not being able to relate the chemistry and the math. However, in the case of the female science major, the math was not a problem. She could do the math, but she explained, "It's all the numbers on the board without words. I need words to clarify and make the problem easier to follow." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Three o f the students stated that answering questions in class or putting work on the board made them very anxious unless they were absolutely certain that their answers were correct. They stated that they felt insecure about having the right answer, they worried about having to explain their answer, they were basically shy, and they didn’t like to get up in front o f a large group o f people. Two of the students (a male and a female) said that everything about chem istry made them anxious. feelings by saying, The female science major summarized "It’s the whole non-English her thing about chemistry!" She further explained that she was anxious about chem istry because it was foreign to her, she couldn’t really see a lot of it in the real world, and it confused her. She didn't know what she was supposed to know already and what she was not supposed to know. From high school chemistry, she had some idea of what was coming, but she did not know when it would come or even if it would come. She revealed that a personal bad experience, her friends’ talking about their bad experiences, contributed and her m other's experience with chem istry to her When the science teacher have anxieties about chem istry. female science major was in eighth grade, she had a "wacky" who called all the students her little "super stars". At the end of the year, the teacher commented, "Some of us have learned a lot and some of us didn't learn anything, right, ____?” The teacher singled her out by only her name in front of the whole class. This made her feel angry she knew that she had learned something in the class. saying because Nonetheless, she had not learned enough to allow her to take biology in ninth grade like the other little super stars. Instead, she had to take physical science. This made her feel st upi d. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 116 When her friends, who were former super stars, were taking high school chemistry a year ahead of her, they talked about its difficulties. scared her. The stories Furtherm ore, when a best friend, who had gotten A's in high school chemistry, went to Penn State, she got B's and C’s in chem istry. friend told her that college chemistry was very hard. The This conversation and the fact that the friend had never gotten bad grades before caused the female science major to worry about taking college chemistry. The female science student told the following story about her mother's experience with chem istry. This story relates how the mother's experience affected the fem ale science student's feelings about chem istry: When I was still in high school, my mom was taking the same chemistry course that I am now. Day after day, I saw (and heard!) my mom sitting at the kitchen table frustrated over chemistry. the terms. Mom was confused about all She would ask my friends, who were taking high school chemistry at the time, for help. who was good at chemistry. Worse yet, she would ask my boyfriend, He was taking AP chem. When we would be leaving the house on a date, she would ask him questions and wouldn't let us leave. This made me scared to take chemistry. Then, after I made my career choice and discovered that I had to take general chemistry, my mother told me how hard it was going to be, that it wouldn't be easy, and how hard I would have to work. This made me worry if I would be successful in chemistry, but Dad told me that if Mom could do it, I could do it, too. The male student, who stated that chemistry in general made him anxious, attributed most of his anxiety to a weak background in chemistry. He had not taken high school chem istry and was repeating the college chem istry course because he had done poorly the first time he had taken the course. In addition, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 117 he had heard his peers say that chemistry was a very hard subject and this also contributed to his anxiety. and hard chem istry teachers. He had also heard his peers talk about the easy However, this talk had no effect on his anxiety because, due to his work schedule, he was forced to schedule chemistry according to a convenient time slot. He stated that if time were not a factor, he would still not be affected because he believed that it was up to the student to learn regardless o f how the teacher taught. "Besides, a lot of teachers get reputations they don't deserve," he added. Two female students, who were taking college chemistry for the first time, expressed concern about the fast pace. One female explained, "In high school, we slowly led up to a concept like the mole. on you." In college, you just get it slammed The other female was anxious about taking chemistry in the summer. She said, "It goes faster. I’m worried about keeping up.” Not being able to relate chemistry to real life contributed to the anxieties of two female subjects who were interviewed. degree, stated, "Chemistry is very impersonal. life. I don't see its importance." One female, seeking a second I can't see how it relates to my The other female said that she sometimes wants to yell, "Who cares?" Having to memorize also worried the second degree candidate. exclaimed, "There’s so much to memorize!" She A male subject revealed that one of the reasons he had put off taking chemistry was because o f memorization. said, "I thought chemistry was a bunch of facts that were hard to memorize. He If I couldn't recall them, then I couldn't make it through.” Bonding was the biggest contributor to the chemistry anxiety of a female non-science m ajor with high math experience and low chem istry experience. She explained, 'T don't understand what happened or how it happened. do well on high school tests with bonding, so I worry now." Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. I didn't 118 O ther chemistry topics that contribute to anxiety were made known by a female non-science m ajor who is repeating the inorganic chemistry course. She came to the interview armed with her notebook and a lengthy list of specific topics that contributed to her anxieties about learning chem istry. These topics were: balancing equations; writing electron configurations; writing chem ical form ulas; charges; oxidation and reduction; and m olarity and normality. Her anxieties associated with balancing equations, writing chemical formulas, charges, and oxidation-reduction were all due to confusion about the charges. She knew her that somethings have charges, but she did not understand why they did or how she could determ ine those charges. W riting electron configurations made her anxious because it hard to visualize the electrons populating the orbitals. understand the model o f the atom. memorize She could not thought that she had to the electron configurations of every atom. made her anxious confused As a result, she she found M olarity and normality because distinguishing between the solute and the solution her. Thus, terminology contributed to student anxiety about learning as a subject. chemistry "There are lots of new terms and if you don't know them, then you don't know what to put where when you are trying to solve problems. If you put something in the wrong place, then the whole problem is messed up," explained a female non-science major who had no high school chem istry and who was repeating the college chemistry course. was comprehension. This student's major worry She was concerned that she would not be able to understand the professor as well as the course material. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 119 Factors That Contribute to Students' Anxieties Associated With Chem is t r v - E v a l u a t i o n Chemistry tests make the students anxious. their test anxiety was due to math anxiety. Two male students explained that A female, who was repeating chemistry, related her reason as being: "I know it when I'm studying it, but then I'm afraid I'm going to forget it once I get to the test.” Another female, who was also repeating the course, said that the exams made her anxious because she didn't get immediate feedback on whether her answer was correct. Both short answer essay and multiple choice tests made the students anxious. A male subject explained that short answer essay tests made him anxious because, "If I don't know the answer, I can close my eyes and point on a multiple choice test. blank. I can't do that for the essay test. I have to leave it If I leave too many blank, then it's self-defeating.” The female science major stated that multiple choice tests made her anxious. "If your answer doesn't fit in anywhere, that's horrible!" she exclaim ed. She preferred short- answer essay tests in which she could show her work and get partial or full credit for what she knew. Not knowing what type of test to expect also contributed to student anxiety about learning chemistry. about this. The female science m ajor was especially concerned Furthermore, she felt anxious because the homework was due on the day o f the test and she didn't know if she had done it correctly. She was afraid that she had made some mistakes on the homework and would repeat her mistakes on the test. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 120 Factors That H an d lin g C ontribute to Students' Anxieties A ssociated With C h em ica ls Five of th e 8 students who were interviewed stated that they found handling the chemicals in the laboratory to be exciting. females liked the risk involved. boredom out o f lab.” like this. These two males and three A female explained, "The hazards take the One o f the males said, "Handling chemicals is exciting. I I think the element of danger is neat and I like the risk involved. I like seeing the reactions and being involved." As a teenager, the male subject, mentioned above, had used mouth suction to siphon gas and had swallowed some gas during the process. Although this did not cause him to worry about handling chemicals, it did make him realize why mouth pipeting should not be done. Furthermore, his uncle had gotten serious phosphorus burns in an accident at work. not make him anxious either. However, his uncle’s experience did The student stated matter of factly, "This was an accident after 38 years o f working with chemicals and having no accidents." Three of the students who liked handling the chemicals felt that the chem icals were relatively safe. traditional student explained, put anybody in peril." She lab and causing an explosion, handling chem icals. They trusted the professors. A female non- "The professors are not going to do anything to had heard peers worrying about "screwing up" in but this talk did not make her anxious about She had confidence in the professors to look out for student safety and she also had confidence in her ability to follow directions c a r e f u lly . A male also said that he relied upon the teacher not to get him in the situation where he would get hurt. talk about getting chemical Although he had heard colleagues at work burns from using cleaning solvents, this talk did Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 121 not make him anxious about handling chemicals. had a "mad scientist" outlook about chem istry. He said that his colleagues They thought that chem istry involved making drugs or bombs, but this also did not influence him. A female, despite having had a bad experience with chemicals and having heard rumors about chemicals, said, "I know the chem icals aren't going to kill me and I'm safe with the fire so it doesn't bother me." When this young lady was in a high school photography class, a large bottle of photography solution had spilled over her. She had to go to the hospital because some of the solution had gotten in her eyes, but no permanent physical effects had resulted. For a while after the accident, she had avoided making huge bottles of solutions and would let other people make them. Now, however, she could work with big bottles and large am ounts of solution. This female subject had also heard peers talk about chemistry lab students being taken to the hospital. She said, "Three or four were taken last semester, but I don't worry about handling chem icals because I think those students were working with worse chemicals than what I have to work with.” Her statement about 3 or 4 chemistry students being taken to the hospital demonstrates the scary rumors that are perpetuated about chemistry because, in fact, no students who were working with chemicals were taken to the hospital last semester. Of the 8 students who were interviewed, 3 females had high anxieties about handling chem icals and being in the laboratory. The factors that contributed to their anxieties are listed in descending order with interviewee frequencies in parentheses. These factors are: lighting the Bunsen burner (3); fire (2); unstructured labs (2); acid bums (1); explosion (1); and getting chem icals on skin (1). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 122 All three females were afraid to light the Bunsen burner. One female was afraid to light the match because her fingers would be too close to the flame and she had an extreme fear o f fire. This fear appeared to be characteristic of a simple phobia because she avoided lighting matches and fire situations. She stated that she had never lit a match in her life and that she was worried that everything would catch on fire. R o se as a child She thought that seeing the movie A u d r e y may have caused her to fear fire. named Audrey Rose got trapped in a wrecked car. In the movie, a little girl The car caught on fire and the little girl burned to death while clawing at the window trying to escape. The other two females were anxious about lighting the Bunsen burner because the first time they tried, they did not use the right technique and a tall flame shot up in front o f their faces. This scared avoided lighting the Bunsen burner in lab and them so much that they made their lab partners light it in s te a d . The worry about fire in the lab was very closely related to the worries associated with the Bunsen burner. anxious about fire in the lab. fire. Two o f the females were extremely One was the student with the extreme fear of The other female said that she was worried about fire in the lab because, in high school chemistry, her best friend's hair caught on Bunsen fire with the burner. "The whole hall smelled like burned hair," she emphasized. "I'm afraid the same thing will happen to me!" Unstructured labs caused two females to be very anxious. One student explained, "Figuring out what's happening causes me to be very anxious. have no experience, so I can't judge. supposed to look like? either way. I How am I supposed to know what it's The rules are ambiguous. There are no clear cut rules to go by. It seems my decision can go I don't know what to look f o r.” Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fear of getting burned by acid also contributed to the anxieties o f the female with the extreme fear of fire. She related that her sister, who works for a pharm aceutical company, had talked about getting acid burns and had shown her shoes that have acid bum s. However, she insisted that her sister's experience did not make her any more anxious than she already was. One female was worried about mixing chemicals because she was afraid there would be an explosion. She said that she had watched TV shows in which kids had mixed chemicals and the chemicals had exploded. This same female was also worried about getting chemicals on her skin during the lab. She said, "I'm afraid the chemicals will bum me. what they’d do and I would be afraid of what they would do. I don't know But I'm trusting that they aren’t too harmful." Strategies the Suggested College bv Classroom Interviewees and to Reduce Chemophobia in Laboratory During the first interview, a question that was not on the interview guide became apparent and was subsequently asked to all the interviewees. question was: The What would help to reduce your anxieties about learning chem istry and handling chemicals? In response to this question, the interviewees suggested several strategies. These strategies are listed below along with the characteristics of the student(s) who suggested each strategy. In some cases, student feelings are also reported. 1. Have algebra be a prerequisite of the college chemistry course. (Female non-science major, sophomore, age 45, high math, low chem istry.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 124 2. Have high school chemistry be a prerequisite. depends on what you had in high school. Success in college chem istry It is so important. chemistry in high school, you'll never catch up in college. If you don't learn (Female non­ science major, junior, age 24, low math, repeating college chem istry; Male non-science major, junior, age 46, low math, repeating chem istry.) 3. Administer a test to the students before they register for the college chem istry course. This would determ ine if the students had the necessary background knowledge and skills to be successful in chemistry. If they failed the test, then the students could be told what preparatory course to take. (Male non-science major, sophomore, age 37, high math, low chem istry.) 4. Provide a list of skills and concepts that need to be known before taking the chemistry course. low 5. (Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, chem istry.) Show steps for solving chem istry problems that involve math. Provide many examples in class and make sure the students understand before moving on to a new concept. (Female non-science major, sophomore, age 19, high math, low chemistry; Female non-science major, junior, age 19, high math, repeating college chem istry; Fem ale non-science major, sophomore, age 45, high math, low chemistry; Female non-science major, junior, age 24, low math, repeating college chem istry; Male non-science major, sophomore, age 37, high math, low chem istry; Male non-science major, junior, age 46, low math, repeating chem istry.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 6. Provide practice sheets o f problems. (Female science major,sophomore, age 19, low math, low chem istry.) 7. Relate the math to the chemistry. (Female non-science major, junior, age 24, low math, repeating college chemistry.) 8. Accompany numbers with many words. age 19, low math, low chem istry.) 9. Give equations on the exams. repeating co lleg e (Female science major, sophomore, (Female non-science major, junior, age high math, 10. During lectures, show words on the board, overhead, or on handouts. 19, chem istry.) (Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, low chemistry.) 11. Show how chemistry applies to life. This shows the importance of chemistry to something the students are using and helps the students to learn and realize that they n eed to know chemistry. (Female non-science major, second degree candidate, age 24, high math, low chem istry; Female non­ science major, junior, age 19, high math, repeating college chemistry; Female non-science major, sophomore, age 45, high math, low chemistry; Female non­ science major, junior, age 24, low math, repeating college chemistry.) 12. Show how chemistry relates to other disciplines. This helps students connect their pieces of know ledge and demonstrates the importance of chemistry. (Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, low c h e m is tr y .) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 13. Emphasize and tell what help is available. (Female non-science major, junior, age This addresses security needs. 19, high math, repeating college c h e m is tr y .) 14. Have help sessions. (Female non-science major, sophomore, age 19, high math, low chemistry; Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, low chem istry.) 15. Have two help sessions before a test — one early and one right before the test. The early session gets the students on track; the session right before the test takes care o f the last minute questions. junior, age 16. (Female non-science major, 19, high math, repeating college chem istry.) Have tutoring and help sessions conducted by someone knowledgeable. This avoids the anxiety associated with confusion. (Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, low chem istry.) 17. Grade homework problems. something else besides exams. repeating college Give credit for the homework or for (Female non-science major, junior, age 19, high m ath, 18. Build a strong student-teacher relationship. students and their needs. them as persons. chem istry.) Show an understanding of Be willing to take time with students and get to know (Female non-science major, junior, age 19, high math, repeating college chemistry; Male non-science major, sophom ore, age 37, high math, low chemistry) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 127 19. Less dem anding professors. high math, 20. low (Male non-science major, sophomore, age 37, chem istry) Provide situations in class where the students and teacher work together to solve problems. (Female non-science major, second degree candidate, age 24, high math, chem istry.) 21. low During discussions, have the students and professor sit in a full circle facing each other. This makes it easier to respect someone and facilitates the discussion. (Fem ale non-science major, second degree candidate, age 24, high math, low 22. chem istry.) Work in groups so a couple of people who understand can teach others. (Male non-science major, junior, age 46, low m ath, repeating chem istry.) 23. Use cooperative learning, but have groups o f about 15 people rather than 4 because som etim es when there are only 4 people, nobody knows anything. With 15 people, there is a better chance that somebody knows something. This strategy reduces the anxiety associated with the blind leading the blind. (Female non-science major, second degree candidate, age 24, high math, low c h e m is tr y .) 24. Have small class sizes. This reduces the anxiety associated with answering questions in front o f a large number of people. (Female non-science major, second degree candidate, age 24, high math, low chemistry.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 25. Provide a review anxiety by giving the sheet or study guide o f important concepts. This reduces students clear direction. (Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, low chemistry.) 26. Provide quick comments on homework and worksheets so that the students know what they did correctly and what they did wrong. major, sophomore, age 27. 19, low math, low Do many demonstrations in class. (Female science chemistry.) This makes the teacher seem more human and helps the students visualize the concepts better. major, sophom ore, age 28. math, 29. No fire! low 19, low math, low (Female science chemistry.) (Female non-science major, second degree candidate, age 24, high chem istry.) Use structured labs. Provide step by step procedures. (Female non-science major, sophom ore, age 19, high math, low chemistry; Female science major, sophomore, age 19, low math, low chemistry.) 30. Tell how to handle chem icals safely. (Female non-science major, sophomore, age 45, high m ath, low chem istry.) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The research was conducted with the following objectives: (1) if chemophobia exists in the college classroom and laboratory; (2) to determine to determine the factors that contribute to college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject and about chemicals in the classroom and laboratory; and (3) to determine characteristics of college students who have anxieties about chem icals in the classroom or laboratory and about chem istry as a subject. Achievement o f these objectives will provide inform ation that can be used to develop strategies to reduce the anxiety associated with learning chemistry and handling chem icals. However, care must be taken not to apply the results of this study to other samples or to the general population of college students since random sampling was not used to select a representative sample. Therefore, the conclusions and inferences that are discussed in this chapter can pertain only to this particular sample o f students who were conveniently available to participate in the study. E xtent of Chemophobia The results o f the study indicate that chemophobia does exist in this college classroom and laboratory. This finding agrees with Abendroth and Friedman's (1983) finding that college students have anxieties about chem istry. Furthermore, the results of this study show that the average level of chem istry anxiety associated with learning and evaluation (2.36) is statistically the same as the reported average level of math anxiety for learning and evaluation (2.49) as measured by the RMARS. This level of anxiety is between a little bit 129 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 130 and moderately anxious. Although the level o f anxiety is not high, a tremendous amount o f attention has been given to math anxiety because o f the importance o f math in our lives. Yet very little attention has been given to chemistry anxiety despite chemistry's role as a central science. Knowledge of chemistry is becoming essential as citizens are required to make decisions concerning the considerations. environm ent, foods, pharm aceuticals, and energy All o f these areas of our daily lives are affected by chemistry. The results o f this study imply that more consideration needs to be given to the anxiety associated with the learning and evaluation of chem istry. C on trib u tin g The Derived Chemistry Anxiety Factors Rating Scale To determine the factors that contribute to college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject and about chemicals in the classroom and laboratory, a three factor, 36-item Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale was constructed. Although the results of this study show that the total scale and each of its three factors have high reliability, the results also show that the scale could possibly be improved. For example, item analysis of the test study data indicates that two items are questionable regarding their ability to distinguish between subjects and should possibly be eliminated from Factor 1 o f the scale. Both items have frequency distribution percent values greater than 70% for anxiety level 1 in the test study, but less than 70% in the pilot study. are: The items Q.25 Reading the word "chemistry" (71.9% in the test study; 68.4% in the pilot) and Q.33 Buying a chemistry textbook (78.1% in the test study; 57.0% in the pilot). The interview data suggest items that may better distinguish Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between the participants. Possible items are "M emorizing chem istry term s”, "W riting electron configurations", and "Using math to solve chem istry problems." These could be included in a revised questionnaire. The research findings show that chemistry anxiety is composed o f three major com ponents that explain approximately 51% o f the total variance in the scores of the 36 items on the Derived Chemistry Anxiety Rating Scale. com ponents are: The Leam ing-Chem istry Anxiety, which accounts fo r the largest amount o f variance (33.5%); Handling Chemicals Anxiety (10.6%); and Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety (7.3%). The highest level of anxiety is associated with chemistry evaluation; lowest level of anxiety is associated with le arn in g ch em istry . Other variables must exist that contribute to chemophobia in the college classroom because only slightly more than half the total variance in the scores can be explained. future are: com petitive Possible examples that may be investigated in the (a) the challenging nature of learning chem istry; (b) the approach to learning chem istry; (c) inquiry-based chem istry; (d) self-m otivation; (e) teacher personality; learning of (f) success in chemistry; (g) how to study chemistry; (h) how chem istry is taught; (i) different types of test questions to answer, (j) attitude, (k) the abstract nature of some o f the chemical concepts; (1) the discipline specific vocabulary; and (m) relevance, or lack of relevance, to the students' life experiences. Some of these examples are discussed in more detail later. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 132 Factors That Contribute To Learning-Chemistrv Anxiety The results o f the DCARS data indicate several m ajor factors that contribute to the students' anxiety as factors to they learn chem istry in the classroom. are: (a) waiting to do well; (b) reading a The major get a chemistry test returned in which you expected formula in chemistry; (c) being told how to interpret chem ical equations; (d) reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the results of a chemistry experiment; and (e) signing up for a chemistry c o u rs e . W aiting to get a chemistry test returned elicits between moderate and quite a bit of anxiety in the students. The students may be worried that they did not do as well on the test as they thought they had done. they failed the test. They may be afraid that Failure, or not performing as expected, may lower their self-esteem and possibly increase anxiety. achievem ent in chemistry is The possibility that low linked to high anxiety is supported by the finding that high science anxiety is linked to low achievem ent (Czem iak & Chiarelott, 1984; Chiarelott & Czemiak, 1987; W esterback & Primavera, 1996). Reading chemical formulas, interpreting chemical equations, and reading and interpreting graphs and charts arouse anxiety in the students. The abstract and complex nature of these three factors may be contributing to the anxiety. understandings are necessary successfully. between a little bit and moderate Furthermore, many skills and to be able to perform these activities For example, to read chemical formulas and interpret chemical equations, the students need to memorize the chemical symbols of the elements, know the meaning of the symbols used to describe the states matter, understand the moleconcept, and be of able to apply the rules of nomenclature for the various types o f chemical substances. These skills and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 133 understandings are strongly According to the interview contributors to involved with m em orization and term inology. data, memorization and terminology are major chem istry anxiety. To be able to read and interpret graphs and charts involving chemistry, higher-order thinking skills are required. Anxiety may be increased in students who have not yet reached a state of maturation that with the ability to perform abstract reasoning. confused as they attempt to interpret graphs and charts. provides them Concrete thinkers may be very This state of confusion may stim ulate feelings o f frustration and anxiety. The notion that confusion about chemistry may be linked to anxiety is supported by Talton and Simpson's (1986) finding that anxiety is linked to students who claim that science makes them feel as if they are lost in a jungle. appeared to voice this "lost in a jungle" feeling when she stated, "Figuring out what's happening causes me to be very anxious. can't judge. A female interviewee I have no experience, so I How am I supposed to know what it's supposed to look like? rules are ambiguous. It seems my decision clear cut rules to go by. The can go either way. There are no I don't know what to look for." Math skills and understandings are frequently necessary to read and interpret graphs and charts as well as to solve many chemistry problems. According to the interview data, having to use math to solve chemistry problems trem endously increases anxiety in some students. in chem istry increased Interviewees, who stated that the math their anxiety, claimed to trouble relating the math to the chemistry, memorizing the math formulas, have and figuring out what goes where in the math formulas when they are solving word problems. mem orization, These assertions support that abstract reasoning, and confusion contribute to anxiety. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 134 The DCARS data also show that math is a major factor that contributes to chemophobia. Item 4: Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as "If x = grams of hydrogen and y = total grams o f water produced, calculate the number o f grams o f oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen" measures the contribution o f math to chemistry anxiety. This item has a mean anxiety level of 2.88 which represents close to a moderate level of anxiety. Although the DCARS data show that math contributes to chemistry anxiety, the statistical data show that math experience is not related to chemistry anxiety. Therefore, another factor may be operating here. The students may be comfortable solving math problems in the context o f the math questions. However, in the context o f having to solve problems involving abstract chemical terms, statem ents, and principles; this becomes a formidable task. The factor "Signing up for a chemistry course" also arouses between a little bit and moderate anxiety in the students. This finding may lead to speculation that the anxiety is "fear of the unknown" and that the students may be worrying about their ability to be successful learning something for which they have little or no previous knowledge. supported by the DCARS data. However, this postulate is not Previous experience in chemistry is not related to anxiety according to the DCARS data. Therefore, something other than lack of background experience may be contributing to the anxiety. The interview data suggest that the anxiety associated with this factor may be stimulated from rumors the students have heard, from personal bad experiences, or from multi-media sources. In today's m edia world, chemistry and chemicals are usually associated with words that have negative connotations, i.e., the chemical people are people organized to combat drug addiction, hazardous chemical is taken as one word in news stories, etc. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The results o f the interview data reveal some factors, not included in the chem istry anxiety These factors are: scale, that contribute to L eam ing-C hem istry A nxiety. (a) answering questions in chem istry class; (b) the fast pace of learning chem istry; and (c) no relationship between chem istry and life . Three interviewees (2 females; 1 male; all having low chemistry experience) stated that answering questions in chem istry class made them anxious unless they were absolutely certain that their answer was correct. This anxiety appears to fit in the category of Social Phobia -- avoidance of doing something that would cause hum iliation or em barrassm ent in certain social situations (The American Psychiatric Association, 1987). It also fits into W ynstra and Cummings' (1993) Performance Anxiety category of item s that make high school students anxious about science. The finding dem onstrates how important having the right answer is to the students. The anxiety associated with the fast pace of learning chemistry appears to be related to the large amount o f terminology involved with learning chemistry as well as to the large amount of material. Interviewees (2 females) indicated that there were so many terms to learn and that they felt overwhelmed with all the information. Since time is required to assim ilate facts, a large number of facts leaves very little time for assimilation. Thus, achievement may be reduced not only by the high anxiety associated with the fast pace of learning chemistry, but also by the lack of time to incorporate knowledge. Less material would give the students more time to learn and may result in lower anxiety levels. enhanced. Thus, achievem ent in chemistry may be This speculation is supported by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) theme, "less is more". Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. That two female interviewees were anxious about the fast pace o f chemistry is consistent with Seym our's (1995) explanation that the pace and challenging nature o f science courses contribute to females' anxieties about science. Perhaps, according to Seym our’s supposition, the fast pace of chem istry leads these two women to having to prove themselves which makes them feel anxious, insecure, and confused about their sense of se lf as women. Not being able to relate chemistry to life is another factor revealed by the interview data that contributes to chemistry anxiety at the college level. Interviewees, who could not relate chemistry to life, could not understand the importance o f chemistry. They had a "Who cares” feeling about chemistry. Because they could not see how chemistry applies to the natural world, they were not interested in learning chemistry, did not like chemistry, and found chemistry to be confusing. chemistry. As a result, they wanted to avoid learning These results imply that not showing the relation of chem istry to life may promote low student enrollment in chem istry and a chem ically illiterate citizen ry . A factor that was not explored in this study, and that may be a major contributor to chem ophobia in college students, is the process of studying chemistry. The students may never have been taught how to study chemistry. When they try using strategies that were successful in courses not related to science and m athematics, and those strategies don't work, the students may become anxious. Another factor that was not investigated in this study and that may stim ulate high anxiety is inquiry-based learning o f chem istry. Inquiry-based learning o f the sciences is presently being em phasized as science education is being reform ed to yield a scientifically literate citizenry by the year 2000. The interview data suggest that this method of learning chem istry may have the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 137 potential of stim ulating high anxiety in some students. interview ees, w ith low chem istry laboratory investigations experience, made them feel stated Two fem ale that unstructured extrem ely anxious. These students felt that clear directions and more background inform ation w ould reduce their anxiety. This finding is consistent with Kosma's (1982) report that students with low ability prefer highly structured methods of in stru ctio n . Inquiry- based learning o f chem istry may not involve enough clear directions or background inform ation to allow high some students to learn chem istry without anxiety . Factors That Contribute To Chem istrv-Evaluation A nxiety The DCARS data of the test study reveal several factors that make the students feel between quite a bit anxious and extremely anxious about chemistry evaluation. These factors are (a) taking the final (b) being given a "pop" chem istry quiz, (c) taking a regular chem istry exam, chemistry quiz, (d) working on homework that consists of many difficult chem istry problems, and (e) solving difficult problems on a chemistry test. The anxiety associated with these items and the other items for Chem istry-Evaluation Anxiety may be test anxiety. The items agree with those in W ynstra and Cumm ings' (1993) Test Anxiety category of items that make high school students anxious about taking science tests. Taking the final chemistry exam stimulated the highest mean level of anxiety (3.60) o f all the items on the Derived Chemistry A nxiety Rating Scale. Perhaps the students are anxious because they feel that the final exam is their last chance to pass the course. Since final exams are usually worth more points, anxiety may also be aroused because not doing well may lower their Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. chemistry grade as well as their overall grade point there is no chance for redemption. average. Furthermore, A low chemistry grade and a low overall grade point average may affect some students' career goals. On the other hand, perhaps the final looms as a large, dark cloud full o f all the new vocabulary words, abstract concepts, laws and principles that deal with something that they can not relate to their lives. This cloud may have been forming all semester and now it is about to descend. The anxiety associated with being given a "pop" quiz may be due to the students feeling unprepared to take the quiz. Being unprepared may result in poor perform ance and therefore affect the student's grade. However, the students still have a chance to make up lost points so anxiety is not as high as the anxiety associated with taking the final exam. The mean anxiety level associated with taking a chemistry quiz is less than that associated with taking a "pop" quiz. anxiety associated with being The difference may reflect the unprepared. A time factor may be involved with the anxiety associated with being given a homework assignment o f many difficult problems that is due the next chemistry class meeting. Time may also be a factor involved with the anxiety associated with solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. problems require a great deal of thought and time to solve. be worried that they don't have enough time to think about Difficult The students may the problem. Anxiety levels may be heightened if the students feel that they could solve the difficult problem if they had more time. The interview data support the DCARS data that chemistry evaluation arouses high levels of anxiety in college students. Four of the 8 students interviewed stated that chem istry exams made them extrem ely anxious. reasons for the worry are math and the type of test. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Major The math worries students because they feel that they need to have the equations given to them. But even if the equations are given, some students are confused about what to put where in the equation. Concerning the type o f test, both multiple choice and short answer essay tests appear to make the students anxious. These findings are supported by the move in science education toward alternative assessm ent methods that evaluate the students using ways other than tests and quizzes. If the students are evaluated using a method that does not have high anxiety associated with it, then their skills and knowledge may be more accurately determined. Factors That Contribute To Handling-Chemicals Anxiety The anxiety associated with handling chemicals is unique to chemistry. The DCARS test study data show that students are close to moderately worried about getting chemicals on their hands during the experiment. They are between a little bit and moderately anxious about (a) spilling a chemical; (b) working with acids; (c) working with unknown chemicals; and (d) mixing chem ical reagents in the laboratory. The interview data support the statistical findings of the DCARS data in most cases. The interview data suggest that the anxiety associated with getting chemicals on their hands during the experiment may be related to the fear of the unknown. A female interviewee was anxious because she did not know what the chemicals would do to her if the chemicals got on her skin. She could imagine horrible things happening to her, such as being severely burned by the chem icals. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 140 The anxiety associated with spilling a chemical may be due to not knowing how to clean up the spill without making matters worse. The students may be afraid o f causing an explosion or fire as well as worrying about getting the spilled chemical on their hands. Working with acids in the lab may stimulate anxiety because the students know that acids cause skin bum s. pain that the students want to avoid. This knowledge may conjure up thoughts of The students may also be worried about getting acids on their clothing and ruining their clothing. They may have had a personal bad experience with acids or know someone who has had a bad experience. A fem ale interviewee, who was worried about getting acid bums, remarked that her sister talks to her about the acid bums she has acquired at w o rk . The anxiety associated with working with a chemical whose identity you don't know is probably due to the unknown hazardous potential of the chemical. The students may have a tendency to think the worst case scenario in every instance that a chemical contacts their skin. educated Students must be as to the nature o f chemicals in their life experiences. For example, the toothpaste that they put in their mouths consists of a mixture of the cola chemicals, that they ingest is a formulated mixture o f chemicals. The DCARS data and the interview data agree that mixing chemical reagents contributes to college students' anxiety about handling chem icals. According to the interview data, mixing chem ical reagents in the laboratory makes the students worry about causing an explosion. A female interviewee had seen an explosion happen when students were mixing chemicals in a TV show. was worried that the same thing would happen to her when she mixed c h e m ic a ls . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. She The interview data reveal additional factors that contribute to HandlingChemicals Anxiety. M ajor factors that contribute to anxiety are: (a) lighting the Bunsen burner; (b) fire; and (c) unstructured labs. Some interviewees who are worried about handling chemicals stated that they are afraid to light the Bunsen burner. explosions occurring. The interview data indicate that these fears are learned from personal bad experiences or someone close to them. the learning Some are also afraid o f fires or from bad experiences that have happened TV shows, movies, and rumors have also contributed to of these fears. According to the interview data, unstructured labs increase students. to anxiety in some This finding implies that inquiry-based learning o f chemistry may result in high anxiety for students who feel more comfortable with step by step procedures and knowledge o f what to observe, what is happening, and why it is happening. The interview data show that the students trust the lab professors and strongly believe that the professors will not put them in a hazardous situation. The students' blind trust that they are not in a hazardous situation emphasizes the need for all people to know chem istry. Perhaps the students' trust should be communicated to the professors. The professors may believe that the students have common knowledge or common sense that is in fact lacking. the As a result, the professors may not point out to students the danger o f common reagents, such as sodium hydroxide, because they assume students have knowledge o f lye from life experiences or from other classes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. S tu d en t C h a ra cteristics Due to the small sample size, this research could only report results on gender, m ajor (as non-science or science), and background experience in math and chemistry. The results for other student characteristics, such as year in college and repeating chemistry, were not meaningful. A study sim ilar to this investigation needs to be conducted with a much larger number of participants. A larger sample size would provide a more reliable data base for a better determination of the characteristics of students who have anxieties about learning chem istry and handling chem icals classroom and in the college laboratory. G ender Due to the low num ber of research studies involving chemistry anxiety, gender differences are not clearly established in the literature. The results of this study show no significant gender differences in total chemistry anxiety, leam ing-chem istry anxiety, and handling-chem icals anxiety. These results support D avis’ (1987) report o f no significant difference in chemistry anxiety between males and females taking chemistry at the college level. However, these results are unlike the findings reported for math anxiety (W ynstra & Cummings, 1990) and science anxiety (Chiarelott & C zem iak, 1987) where females have higher anxiety than males. On the evaluation subscale, the DCARS data show that females have higher chem istry-evaluation anxiety than males (3.34 versus 2.81 result is compatible with the respectively). findings for math and science anxiety. 142 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. This 143 The inconsistencies indicate the need for more research on the possible gender differences in chem istry anxiety. of gender differences so Non-Science Major that appropriate V ersus Science Chemistry teachers need to be aware strategies can be used. Major The test study data show that non-science majors and science majors have the same statistical level o f anxiety overall and on each of the subscales. A possible explanation for this result is that the group o f science majors included pre-professional therapy, pre-dental, students pre-veterinary, fields are highly com petitive. regarding who continuance in these are in pre-m edicine, or pre-optom etry Since success in pre-professional pre-physical program s. chemistry is program s, M edical very influential student anxiety about chem istry may be high. Another possible explanation for no significant difference in the chemistry anxiety levels o f non-science and science majors is that 5 (31%) of the 16 science majors were repeating the introductory chemistry course. Since these students had not been successful in chemistry before, anxiety levels may have been high. This conjecture is research that shows lack o f success in chemistry isrelated their supported by other to high anxiety (Davis as cited in W esterback & Primavera, 1992). The interview data offers yet another explanation. The female science major attributed her anxieties about chem istry to personal experience as well as to the experiences of her friends and mother. Therefore, for the same reasons, some science m ajors may have had higher anxieties than expected in this study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Chemistry Experience The DCARS data of the test study show no significant difference in chem istry anxiety between students who have low chem istry experience and students who have high chem istry experience as chem istry defined in this study. experience is This finding is unlike Anderson and Clawson’s (1992) finding for science anxiety in which high anxiety is associated with a lack of background k n ow ledge. On the other hand, the interview data appear to support Anderson and Clawson's finding that lack o f background knowledge is related to high anxiety. Seven of the 8 students who were interviewed had low chemistry experience and high chem istry anxiety. The disagreement between the DCARS and interview data indicates that more research is needed. If indeed more chem istry experience does not help to reduce anxiety, then teachers need to be aware that something else besides a strong background in chemistry may be needed to reduce chem istry anxiety. The test study data also show no significant interactions between gender and chemistry experience for handling chem icals. Since the test study involved a small sample size, perhaps there was not enough power to pick up an in teractio n . Math E xp erien ce The test study results for the DCARS data show no significant difference in chem istry anxiety between students with low math experience and students with high math experience as math experience is defined in this study. interview data appear to agree with the statistical data. The Four of the 8 students Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. who were interviewed had high math experience; 4 had low math experience. All the interviewees professed to being highly anxious about chem istry. The interview data suggest a possible reason for increased math experience not being related to lower chemistry anxiety. Perhaps the students can not relate the math to the chem istry regardless o f how much math experience they have. Support for this suggestion is evident in the following statements made by two female non-science students — one w ith low math experience, the other with high mathexperience. math The female with a said, "I can't put the chemical properties and the weak background in math together." The female with a strong background in math said, "The fractions I see in chem istry class, like in the factor label conversion problems — I never had this before in other math classes." The results of this study also show that no significant interactions exist between gender and math experience regarding chem istry anxiety. This finding means that there is no relationship between females with high (or low) math experience and chemistry anxiety and that there is no relationship between males with high (or low) math experience and chem istry anxiety. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Answers to the Research Q uestions According to the results o f the data analysis, the answers to research questions o f 1. the major this study can be reported as follow: Do college students have anxieties about chemicals in theclassroom or laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject? Yes, college students do have anxieties about chemicals in the laboratory and anxieties about chemistry as a subject. the college classroom and laboratory. classroom or Chemophobia exists The phenom enon is real according to the students who participated in this study. 2. What is the extent o f college students' anxieties about chemicalsin the classroom or laboratory in and about chemistry as a subject? The average level of chemistry anxiety that is associated with learning and evaluation is statistically the same as the average level of math anxiety as measured by RMARS. m oderately This level of anxiety is between a little bit anxious and anxious. Considering the three major components o f chem istry anxiety, college students worry m ost handling chem icals, about chem istry-evaluation, som ew hat less and worry least about learning about chem istry. 146 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3. What are the characteristics o f college students who have anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a subject? Statistically, both males and females have the same levels of anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chem istry as a subject. Females are more anxious than males about chem istry evaluation. Chemophobic college students are non-science majors as well as science majors. They may have either high or low chemistry experience. they may have either high or low math experience. Similarly, No significant interactions exist according to the test study data. 4. What factors may contribute to the anxieties that college students have about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and about chemistry as a su b je c t? Highest anxiety is associated with chemistry evaluation. exam contributes to the most anxiety. Taking the final Other factors that contribute to feelings between moderately and quite a bit anxious are (a) being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class, (b) taking a chemistry quiz, (c) being given a homework assignm ent of many difficult problems which is due at the next chemistry class, and (d) solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. Both short- answer essay tests and multiple choice tests make the students anxious. The major factors that contribute to students' anxiety about handling chemicals are the following: (a) getting chemicals on their hands during the experiment; (b) spilling a chemical; (c) working with acids; (d) working with unknown chem icals; and (e) mixing chemicals. Lighting the Bunsen burner, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fearing fire, and perform ing unstructured laboratory experim ents are other m ajor factors that contribute to students’ anxieties about working with chem icals in the lab. Although lowest anxiety is associated with learning chemistry, there are many factors that contribute to this anxiety. The major factors are: (a) waiting to get a chemistry test returned; (b) reading a chem ical formula; (c) interpreting chem ical equations; (d) reading charts; and (e) signing up for a chemistry course. and interpreting graphs and In addition, math is an exceptionally strong contributor to some college students' anxieties about learning chem istry! O ther factors that strongly contribute to Ieam ing- chem istry anxiety are having to answer questions in class, trying to keep up with the fast pace of chemistry, and not being able to see how chemistry relates to life. 5. Is there a correlation between college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and college students’ anxieties about chemistry as a subject? Yes, there is a significant correlation between college students' anxieties about chemicals in the classroom or laboratory and college students' anxieties about chemistry as a subject. The correlation is .46. This relationship is significant at p < .016. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Summary According to this study, college students may be a little bit to moderately anxious about learning chem istry, being evaluated handling chemicals. The chemophobic students may be males or females. However, females may be more situations. majors. in chem istry, and anxious than males during evaluation Chemophobic students may be non-science majors or science Furtherm ore, they may have low or high background experience in m athem atics and chem istry. When learning chemistry, chemophobic college students may be mostly worried about waiting to get a chemistry test returned in which they expected to do well, reading chem ical formulas, interpreting chem ical equations, reading and interpreting graphs or charts, and signing up for a chem istry course. When handling chemicals, chemophobic students may be mostly worried about getting chemicals on their hands, spilling a chemical, with acids and unknowns, and mixing chem icals. evaluation, the students may be working Concerning chemistry quite worried about taking the final chem istry exam, being given a "pop" chemistry quiz, taking a chem istry quiz, being given homework assignm ent o f many difficult problems which is due the next chemistry class meeting, and solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. The results of this study show that chemophobia appears to be a composite of Simple Phobia (avoiding lighting matches and the Bunsen burner); Social Phobia (being afraid to answer questions in class unless certain the answ er is right); and G eneralized Anxiety Disorder (blanking out, heart beating faster, chest getting tight). In addition, chemophobia may be due in part to math anxiety and test anxiety. 149 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Student Suggested Strategies to in the College Reduce Chem ophobia Classroom The study was conducted to provide information that could be used to develop strategies to reduce the anxiety associated with learning chem istry and handling chem icals in the college classroom and laboratory. D uring the interviews, the students, who all professed to being highly anxious about chemistry, suggested several strategies that they felt would lower th eir chemistry anxiety. These strategies may need to be tested to determ ine if they do reduce chemistry anxiety. Examples o f suggested strategies are listed below in summary form. 1. Show steps for solving chemistry problems that involve math. Provide many examples in class and make sure the students understand before moving on to a new concept. 2. Relate the math to the chemistry. 3. Accompany numbers with many words. 4. During lectures, show words on the board, overhead, or on handouts. 5. Show how chemistry applies to life. 6. Show how chem istry relates to other disciplines. 7. Emphasize and tell what help is available. 150 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 151 8. Have two help sessions before a test — one early and one right before the test. 9. Have tutoring and help sessions conducted by someone knowledgeable. 10. Build a strong student-teacher relationship. students and their needs. Show an understanding of Be willing to take time with students and get to know them as individuals. 11. Provide situations in class where the students and teacher solve work together to problem s. 12. Use cooperative learning. 13. Have small class sizes. 14. Provide a review sheet or study guide of important concepts. 15. 16. Have groups of about 15 people. Provide quick comments on homework and worksheets. Do many demonstrations in class. (Note: In the pilot study, the item "W atching a teacher handle the chemicals during a dem onstration” was eliminated from the scale because it had a frequency distribution percent value o f 76.3% for the low est anxiety level.) 17. Grade and give credit for homework problems, reflective writings, projects, and various kinds o f activities other than tests and quizzes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 18. Include formulas and equations on tests and quizzes. 19. Provide explicit directions both in lab and in the classroom. Further R esearch Q uestions The study evoked questions for further research. Some examples are listed below along with a brief discussion of each. 1. How much o f chemophobia is actually due to chemistry? The results of the study suggest that chemophobia may be due in part to math anxiety and test anxiety as well as Social Phobia, Simple Phobia, and Generalized Anxiety. The students may also be anxious about chemistry just because it is a science and any science makes them nervous. Furthermore, some students might be inherently anxious (trait anxiety). 2. What other factors contribute to chemophobia in the college classroom? Only 51% of the total variance in the scores o f the DCARS data could be explained by the factors. chemophobia. Therefore, additional factors contribute to Such factors may be the following: (a) the challenging nature o f learning chem istry; (b) the com petitive approach to (c) inquiry-based learning o f chem istry; (d) learning chemistry; self-m otivation; (e) teacher personality; (f) success in chemistry; (g) how to study chem istry; (h) how chemistry is taught; (i) different types of test questions to answer; (j) attitude; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 153 (k) the abstract nature o f some of the concepts; (1) the discipline specific vocabulary; and (m) relevance, or lack of relevance, to the students' life e x p e r ie n c e s . 3. Does background experience in chemistry help to reduce chem istry anxiety? If not, why? The results of the DCARS data suggest that background experience in chemistry does not help to reduce chemistry anxiety, yet the interview data suggest the opposite. The conflict in results and the lack of support in the literature for the statistical data indicate a need for more research. 4. Does a significant interaction exist between chemistry experience and gender for H andling-C hem icals Anxiety? The test study data do not show such an interaction. However, the pilot study data show that for males, anxiety associated with handling chem icals decreases as chemistry experience increases. associated increases. w ith handling chem icals increases For females, the anxiety as chem istry experience Although the pilot study was conducted solely to construct a reliable chem istry anxiety scale, the results of the data analysis for that study are intriguing. The results imply that background experience in chem istry will not help to reduce the anxiety that females have about handling chemicals. This means that teachers may have to use strategies other than chem istry experience to reduce the anxiety that females have tow ard handling c h e m ic a ls . Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDICES Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A THE REVISED MATHEMATICS ANXIETY RATING SCALE (Plake Factor 1. 1. & Learning-m athem atics Buying a math textbook. 3. Reading and interpreting graphs or 4. Signing up for a course in Statistics. 5. Listening to another student explain 6. Walking into a math class. 7. Looking through the pages on 9. 10. 1982) anxiety Watching a teacher work an algebraic equation on the blackboard. 2. 8. Parker, charts. a math formula. a math text. Starting a new chapter in a math book. W alking Picking on campus and thinking about a math course. up a math textbook to begin working on 11. Reading the word "Statistics". 12. Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such bills, and y = total income, calculate how much a homework assignment. as "If x = outstanding you haveleft for recreational expenditures. 13. Reading a formula in chemistry. 14. Listening to a lecture in a math class. 155 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX A (CONT'D). 15. Having to use the tables in the back of a math book. 16. Being told how to interpret probability statements. Factor 1. 2. M athematics Evaluation Anxiety Being given a homework assignment of many difficult problems which due the next math class meeting. 2. Thinking about an upcoming math test one day before. 3. Solving a square root problem. 4. Taking an examination (quiz) in a math course. 5. Getting ready to study for a math test. 6. Being given a "pop" quiz in a math class. 7. Waiting to get a math test returned in which you expected to do well. 8. Taking an examination (final) in a math course. 156 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B THE ORIGINAL QUESTIONNAIRE BEFORE BEING PRETESTED Introduction We are interested in studying w hether students taking chemistry courses experience concerns and worries about the various activities occurring in the classroom and chemistry lab. We will ask you to tell how anxious you might become when facing certain situations and activities that you could experience in any of your chemistry classes. Although there is no immediate personal gain for you, the results of this study will be valuable for future college students like you are today. cooperation are greatly Your time and needed and appreciated. Your participation in the study is totally voluntary, and you may withdraw from it at any time. If you choose to withdraw from the study, you may do so by returning the incomplete forms to the investigator. There are no known risks to anyone’s well-being associated with participating in this study. Should you like to discuss your feelings and opinions any further the investigator will arrange such an opportunity. 157 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT’D). The inform ation gathered in the questionnaire will not be reported to anyone in any manner that personally identifies a participant. totally anonym ous. Thus, this survey is Thank you for your cooperation! Beginning on the next page you will find a series of situations and activities that you could experience in any of your chemistry classes. Please tell how anxious you m ight become when facing such an occurrence. Circle the num ber on the rating scale where: 1 means "not at all anxious" 2 means "a little bit anxious" 3 means "m oderately anxious" 4 means "quite a bit anxious" 5 means "extrem ely anxious" 1. Spilling a chemical. 1 2 Not at all 2. This makes me anxious . . . A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the results of a ch em istry 1 Not at all ex p erim en t. 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 158 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT'D). 3. Starting a new chapter in a chem istry book. 1 2 Not at all 4. A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as "If x = grams of hydrogen and y = total grams of w ater produced, calculate the number of grams o f oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." 1 2 Not at all 5. A little bit 2 Not at all A little bit Quite a bit 5 Extremely This makes me anxious . . . 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely W aiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you expected to do well. 1 2 Not at all 7. 4 Moderately Reading a formula in chemistry. 1 6. 3 3 A little bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Dissolving a chemical in water. 1 Not at all 2 3 A little bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 159 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT'D). *. Picking up a chem istry textbook to begin working on a homework a s s ig n m e n t. 1 Not at all 9. A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely W atching a teacher work a chemistry problem on the blackboard. 1 Not at all 10. 2 Listening 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely to another student describe an accident in the chemistry lab. This makes me anxious . . . 1 Not at all 11. Not at all Moderately 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely for thelaboratory experiment. 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely Being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class. 1 Not at all 13. A little bit 3 Being told how to handle the chemicals 1 12. 2 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely W alking into a chem istry class. 1 Not at all 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT'D). 14. Taking an exam ination (quiz) in a chemistry course. 1 Not at 15. 2 all Not at 2 all Not at A little bit 2 all Quite a bit 3 This makes me anxious. 4 Moderately Extremely Quite a bit 5 Extremely A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Signing up for a chemistry course. 1 Not at 18. Moderately 5 Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. 1 17. 4 Being told how to interpret chemical equations. 1 16. A little bit 3 2 all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Being given a homework assignment of many difficult problems which due the next chem istry class meeting. 1 Not at 19. 2 all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Working with acids in the lab. 1 Not at 2 all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely 161 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT’D). 20. Listening to a lecture on chemicals. 1 Not at all 21. Not at all Not at all Not at all Quite a bit Extremely 2 A little bit 3 4 Moderately 5 Quite a bit Extremely 2 A little bit 3 4 Moderately 5 Quite a bit Extremely 2 A little bit 3 4 Moderately 5 Quite a bit Extremely W eighing a chemical on the balance. 1 Not at all 25. Moderately 5 Looking through the pages in a chemistry text. 1 24. 4 Having to use the tables in a chemistry book. 1 23. A little bit 3 G etting chem icals on your hands during the experiment. 1 22. 2 This makes me anxious . . . 2 A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. 1 Not at all 2 A little bit 3 5 This makes me anxious 4 Moderately Extremely Quite a bit 5 Extremely 162 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT'D). 26. Reading the word "chemical". 1 Not at all 27. Not at all Not at all Not at all Quite a bit 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Extremely 5 Quite a bit 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Extremely 5 Quite a bit 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Extremely Not at all 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 5 Quite a bit M ixing chemical reagents in the laboratory. 1 31. 5 W orking with a chem ical whose identity you don't know. 1 30. Moderately 4 Reading the word "chemistry”. 1 29. A little bit 3 Breathing the air in the chem istry laboratory. 1 28. 2 Extremely This makes me anxious 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely W alking on campus and thinking about a chemistry course. 1 Not at all 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 163 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT’D). 32. Heating a chemical in the Bunsen burner flame. 1 Not at 33. 2 all Not at 2 all Not at all Moderately A little bit 3 Moderately Walking into a chemistry laboratory. Not at all Quite a bit Extremely 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely This makes me anxious . . . 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely W atching a teacher handle the chemicals during a dem onstration. 1 Not at all 37. A little bit 3 2 1 36. 5 W alking on campus and thinking about chem istry lab. 1 35. Moderately 4 Taking an examination (final) in a chemistry course. 1 34. A little bit 3 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Buying a chemistry textbook. 1 Not at all 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT'D). 38. Thinking about an upcoming chem istry test one day before. 1 2 Not at all 39. A little bit 4 Moderately 5 Quite a bit Extremely Listening to another student explain a chemical reaction. 1 2 Not at all 40. 3 3 A little bit 4 Moderately Quite a bit Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class. 1 2 Not at all 3 A little bit 5 This makes me anxious . . . 4 Moderately 5 Quite a bit We are now interested in obtaining some demographics. question and circle the appropriate Extremely Extremely Please read each number. 41. How many courses in math did you take in high school? 0 42. 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more How many courses in math have you taken in college including this s e m e s te r? 0 43. 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more How many courses in chemistry did you take in high school? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more 165 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX B (CONT'D). 44. How many courses in chemistry have you taken in college including this semester? 0 45. 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more Are you now or have you ever repeated a chemistry course? 1 Yes 2. No 46. What is your major?__________________________________________________ 47. What year in college are you? 48. 1. Freshman 2. Sophomore 3. Junior 4. Senior 5. Graduate What is your gender? 1. Male 2. 49. Female What is your age?_____________ Thank you again for your cooperation and time! 166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX C FACTOR 1 LEARNING-CHEMISTRY ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Pilot Study) Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.15 Being told how to interpret chemical 2.32 1.15 2.28 1.30 e q u a tio n s . 0-17 Signing up for a chemistry course. 0 .5 Reading a formula in chemistry. 2.24 1.12 Q.2 Reading and interpreting graphs or charts 2.13 .94 showing the results of a chemistry experiment. 0-3 Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book. 2.12 1.06 Q.8 Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin 2.09 1.14 1.88 1.24 1.78 .96 1.77 1.02 working on a hom ew ork assignment. 0-37 Q.9 on 0-13 Buying a chem istry textbook. Watching a teacher work a chemistry problem the blackboard. Walking into a chemistry class. 167 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX C (CONT'D). Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.31 Walking on campus and thinking about a chem istry Q.34 1.07 1.75 1.05 co u rse. W alking on campus and thinking about chem istry 1.75 lab. 0.40 Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class. 1.74 1.01 Q.39 Listening to another student explain a 1.68 .92 chem ical reactio n . 0-22 Having to use the tables in a chemistry book. 1.68 .85 0.20 Listening to a lecture on chemicals. 1.58 .93 Q.23 Looking through the pages in a chemistry 1.57 .93 Reading the word "chemistry". 1.48 .85 text. 0 28 168 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX D FACTOR 2 CHEMISTRY-EVALUATION ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Pilot Study) Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.33 Taking an exam ination (final) in a chemistry 4.22 1.17 3.97 1.19 c o u rs e . Q.6 W aiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you expected to do well. 0.12 Being given a "pop” quiz in a chemistry class. 3.77 1.26 Q.14 Taking an examination (quiz) in a chemistry 3.72 1.32 3.65 1.33 Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry 3.48 1.29 Being given a homework assignment o f many 3.31 1.28 c o u rs e . Q.38 Thinking about an upcoming chemistry test one day before. Q.25 test. Q.18 difficult problem s which is due the next chemistry class m eeting. 169 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX D (CONT'D). Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level 0.16 Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. 3.30 1.39 Q.4 Working on an abstract chemistry problem, 2.68 1.21 such as "If x = grams o f hydrogen and y = total grams of w ater produced, calculate the number of grams o f oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." 170 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX E FACTOR 3 HANDLING-CHEMICALS ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Pilot Study) Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.21 Getting chemicals on your hands during the 2.85 1.12 e x p e rim e n t. Q.l Spilling a chemical. 2.40 .96 0.19 Working with acids in the lab. 2.31 1.07 Q.10 Listening to another student describe an 2.20 1.12 2.18 1.02 Heating a chem ical in the Bunsen burner 2.05 .94 Mixing chemical reagents in the laboratory. 1.99 .97 accident in the chem istry lab. Q.29 Working with a chemical whose identity you don’t know. Q.32 flam e. 0.30 171 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX E (CONT'D). Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q .ll the Being told how to handle the chemicals for laboratory 1.91 .91 experim ent. 0 .3 5 Walking into a chemistry laboratory. 1.77 .96 Q.27 Breathing the air in the chem istry 1.51 .85 la b o ra to r y . 172 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F THE REVISED, VALIDATED QUESTIONNAIRE Introduction We are interested in studying whether students taking chem istry courses experience concerns and worries about the various activities occurring in the classroom and chemistry lab. become when facing certain We willask you to tell how anxious you might situations and activities that you could experience in any o f your chem istry classes. Although there is no immediate personal gain for you, the results o f this study will be valuable for future college students like you are today. cooperation are greatly Your time and needed and appreciated. Your participation in the study is totally voluntary, and you may withdraw from it at any time. If you by returning the incomplete choose to withdraw from the study, you may do so forms to the investigator. There are no known risks to anyone's w ell-being associated with participating in this study. Should you like to discuss your feelings and opinions any further the investigator will arrange such an opportunity. 173 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT’D). The inform ation gathered in the questionnaire will not be reported to anyone in any m anner that personally identifies a participant. totally anonymous. Thus, this survey is Thank you for your cooperation! Beginning on the next page you will find a series o f situations and activities that you could experience in any of your chemistry classes. Please tell how anxious you might becom e when facing such an occurrence. Circle the number on the rating scale where: 1 means "not at all anxious" 2 means ”a little bit anxious" 3 means "moderately anxious" 4 means "quite a bit anxious" 5 means "extremely anxious" 1. Spilling a chemical. 1 Not at all 2. This makes me anxious . . . 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the results of a ch em istry 1 Not at all ex p erim en t. 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 174 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 3. Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book. 1 Not at 4. 2 all A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely Working on an abstract chemistry problem, such as "If x = grams of hydrogen and y = total grams of water produced, calculate the number of grams of oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." 1 Not at 5. 2 all Not at 2 all A little bit 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely This makes me anxious . . . 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely W aiting to get a chemistry test returned in which you expected to do well. 1 Not at 7. Moderately Reading a formula in chemistry. 1 6. A little bit 3 2 all A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin working on a homework assignment. 1 Not at 2 all A little bit 3 Moderately 4 5 Quite a bit Extremely 175 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 8. Watching a teacher work a chem istry problem on the blackboard. 1 Not at 9. 2 all 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Listening to another student describe an accident in the chemistry lab. 1 Not at 10. A litde bit 3 2 all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Being told how to handle the chem icals for the laboratory experiment. This makes me anxious . . . 1 Not at 11. 2 all Not at 2 all Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Walking into a chemistry class. 1 Not at 13. 4 Being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class. 1 12. A little bit 3 2 all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Taking an examination (quiz) in a chemistry course. 1 Not at 2 all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely 176 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 14. Being told how to interpret chemical equations. 1 2 Not at all 15. A little bit 2 Not at all A little bit 3 Moderately 5 Quite a bit Extremely This makes me anxious. . . 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Signing up for a chem istry course. 1 2 Not at all 17. Moderately 4 Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. 1 16. 3 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Being given a homework assignment o f many difficult problems which due the next chem istry class meeting. 1 2 Not at all 18. Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Working with acids in the lab. 1 Not at all 19. A little bit 3 2 3 A little bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Listening to a lecture on chemicals. 1 Not at all 2 A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 177 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 20. Getting chemicals on your hands during the experiment. This makes me anxious . . . 1 2 Not at all 21. A little bit A little bit 3 4 Moderately 2 Not at all A little bit Extremely Quite a bit 5 Extremely 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry test. 1 2 Not at all A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely Breathing the air in the chemistry laboratory. 1 2 Not at all 25. Quite a bit 5 Looking through the pages in a chemistry text. 1 24. Moderately 2 Not at all 23. 4 Having to use the tables in a chemistry book. 1 22. 3 3 A little bit Moderately Reading the word "chemistry". 1 Not at all 2 4 Extremely This makes me anxious . . . 3 A little bit Quite a bit 5 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 178 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 26. W orking with a chemical whose identity you don't know. 1 2 Not at all 27. A little bit 2 Not at all A little bit 3 Moderately 2 Not at all Extremely 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely A little bit 3 Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Heating a chem ical in the Bunsen burner flame. 1 Not at all 30. Quite a bit 5 Walking on campus and thinking about a chemistry course. 1 29. Moderately 4 Mixing chem ical reagents in the laboratory. 1 28. 3 2 3 A little bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Taking an exam ination (final) in a chemistry course. This makes me anxious . . . 1 Not at all 31. 2 A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely W alking on campus and thinking about chemistry lab. 1 Not at all 2 A little bit 3 4 Moderately Quite a bit 5 Extremely 179 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 32. W alking into a chemistry laboratory. 1 Not at all 33. Not at all bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 2 A little 3 bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Thinking about an upcoming chemistry test one day before. 1 Not at all 35. A little 3 Buying a chemistry textbook. 1 34. 2 2 A little 3 bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Listening to another student explain a chemical reaction. This makes me anxious . . . 1 Not at all 36. 2 A little 3 bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely Listening to a lecture in a chemistry class. 1 Not at all 2 A little 3 bit Moderately 4 Quite a bit 5 Extremely 180 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). We are now interested in obtaining some demographics. question and circle the appropriate Please read each number. 37. How many courses in math did you take in high school? 0 38. 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more How many courses in math have you taken in college including this s e m e s te r? 0 39. 2 3 4 5 6 or more How many courses in chemistry did you take in high school? 0 40. 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 or more How many courses in chemistry have you taken in college including this semester? 0 41. I 2 3 4 5 6 or more Have you ever repeated a chemistry course in high school? 1 Yes 2. No 42. Are you now repeating a first year introductory chemistry course? 1 Yes 2. No 181 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX F (CONT'D). 43. Are you currently enrolled in a college or university other than IUP? 1 Yes 2. No 44. What is your major?.__________________________________________________ 45. What year in college are you? 46. 1. Freshman 2. Sophomore 3. Junior 4. Senior 5. Graduate What is your gender? 1. Male 2. 47. Female What is your age?_____________ Thank you again for your cooperation and time! 182 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX G INTERVIEW GUIDE Introduction: We are interested in studying whether students taking chemistry courses experience concerns and worries about the various activities occurring in the classroom and chemistry lab. You will be asked to talk about the concerns and worries that you have while taking a chemistry course. Although there is no personal gain for you, the results of this study will be valuable for future college students like you are today. cooperation are greatly Your time and needed and appreciated. Your participation in this study is totally voluntary, and you may withdraw from it at any time. me know. If you choose to stop the interview at any time, please let Any data that had been acquired will be destroyed. There are no known risks to anyone’s well-being associated with participating in this study. 183 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX G (CONT'D). For the sake o f objectivity and accuracy, I would like to tape record the interview. However, the inform ation gathered during this interview will not be reported to anyone in any manner that personally identifies you. this interview If you agree is fully confidential. to continue with the I deeply appreciate your time I n te r v i e w Thus, and interview, please sign the consent form. cooperation! q u e s tio n s : 1. Is there anything that you are afraid of, or worry about, while you are learning chemistry in the classroom? Prompt Q uestions: a. Is there a particular topic, area of study, or activity associated with learning chemistry that causes you to be exceptionally worried? b. What is this topic, area of study, or activity? c. Why does it cause you to be exceptionally worried? 184 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX G (CONT'D). 2. Do you worry about anything when you are handling the chemicals in the laboratory? Prom pt Q uestion: a. What do you s p e c ific a lly worry about when you are handling the chemicals in the laboratory? b. Is there anything associated with the chemicals in the classroom or laboratory that causes you to be exceptionally worried? c. d. 3. What is it? Why does it cause you to be exceptionally worried? Have you ever had a bad experience that has made you worry about learning chemistry or using chemicals in the lab? Prom pt Question: a. If so, please tell me about this experience and how it affected you. 185 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX G (CONT'D). 4. Do you know of someone who has had a bad experience learning chemistry? Prom pt Q uestions: 5. a. What is the relationship of that person to you? b. What was the bad experience? c. How did it make you feel about learning chemistry? Do you know someone who has had a bad experience handling chemicals in the laboratory? Prom pt Q uestions: a. What is the relationship of that person to you? b. W hat was the bad experience? c. How did this bad experience make you feel about handling chemicals? 186 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX G (CONT'D) 6. Has anyone ever said anything to you that has caused you to worry about learning chemistry? Prom pt Questions: a. If so, who was this person? A friend, just another student (a peer), a member of your family (mother, father, sibling, other), or somebody you heard on TV or the radio? b. 7. W hat was said that caused you to worry about learning chemistry? Has anyone ever said anything to you that has caused you to worry about handling chemicals in the laboratory? Prom pt Questions: a. If so, who was this person? A friend, just another student (a peer), a member of your family (mother, father, sibling, other), or somebody you heard on TV or the radio? b. 8. What was said that caused you to worry about handling chemicals? W ould you describe yourself as being generally anxious? 187 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX H INFORMED CONSENT FORM (For The Interview ) I, (please print name)_____________________________________________________, give permission to Roberta M. Eddy, doctoral candidate at the University of Pittsburgh, to tape record an interview to determ ine and worries about talcing a chemistry course. the level of my concerns I also give permission to her to use the content of the audio tapes for dissertation research and possible publication purposes. I understand that there are no risks to my well-being. I also understand that my participation in the study is totally voluntary and that I may withdraw without penalty at any time. Furtherm ore, I understand that the inform ation gathered during this interview will not be stored or reported to anyone in any manner that personally identifies me as a participant. my responses are fully confidential. S ig n a tu re ___________________________________________________________ Date_______________________ 188 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Thus, APPENDIX H (CONT’D). I certify that I have explained to the above individual the nature and purpose, the potential benefits, and possible risks associated w ith participating in this research study, have answ ered any questions that have been raised, and have witnessed the above Investigato r's signature. S ig n atu re _____________________________________________ Date________________________ This project has been approved by the Indiana U niversity of Pennsylvania Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects (Phone: 412/357-2223) and by The School of Education Human Subjects Review Committee at the U niversity of Pittsburgh. 189 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX I FACTOR 1 LEARNING-CHEMISTRY ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Test Study) Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.6 Waiting to get a chemistry test returned in 3.39 1.18 which you expected to do well. 0-5 Reading a formula in chemistry. 2.36 .97 Q.14 Being told how to interpret chemical 2.25 1.08 2.19 1.05 e q u a tio n s . Q.2 Reading and interpreting graphs or charts that show the results o f a chem istry experiment. 0 .16 Signing up for a chemistry course. 2.17 1.24 0.12 Walking into a chemistry class. 2.05 .95 Q.7 Picking up a chemistry textbook to begin 2.00 .84 working on a homework assignm ent. 0.21 Having to use the tables in a chemistry book. 1.92 .93 0 .3 2 Walking into a chemistry laboratory. 1.91 .97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX I (CONT’D). Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.8 Watching a teacher work a chemistry problem 1.89 .94 1.89 1.14 1.80 .89 on the blackboard. Q.31 W alking on campus and thinking about chem istry Q.35 lab. Listening to another student explain a chem ical reaction. 0 .3 Starting a new chapter in a chemistry book. 1.73 .860 Q.28 Walking on campus and thinking about a 1.72 1.05 chem istry course. 0.19 Listening to a lecture on chemicals. 1.70 .95 Q.22 Looking through the pages in a chemistry 1.64 .86 0-36 Listening to a lecture in chemistry class. 1.61 .79 0-25 Reading the word "chemistry". 1.45 .87 0-33 Buying a chemistry textbook. 1.31 .66 text. 191 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX J FACTOR 2 HANDLING-CHEMICALS ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Test Study) Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.20 Getting chemicals on your hands during the 2.72 1.10 e x p e rim e n t. 0.1 Spilling a chemical. 2.59 1.03 0.18 Working with acids in the lab. 2.50 1.22 Q.26 Working with a chemical whose identity you 2.38 .95 don’t know. 0-27 Mixing chem ical reagents in the laboratory. 2.30 .97 Q.10 Being told how to handle the chemicals for 2.02 1.00 the laboratory experim ent. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX J (CONT'D). Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.29 H eating a chemical in the Bunsen burner 1.97 .94 Listening to another student describe an 1.80 .88 1.53 .80 fla m e . Q.9 accident in the chem istry lab. Q.24 Breathing the air in the chemistry la b o ra to ry . 193 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX K FACTOR 3 CHEMISTRY-EVALUATION ANXIETY ITEMS RANKED IN DESCENDING ORDER OF MEAN ANXIETY LEVEL (Test Study) Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.30 Taking an examination (final) in a chemistry 3.60 1.26 0.11 Being given a "pop" quiz in a chemistry class. 3.47 1.21 Q.13 Taking an examination (quiz) in a chemistry 3.23 1.15 Being given a homework assignment o f many 3.17 1.18 course. course. Q.17 difficult problems which is due the next chem istry class meeting. Q.23 Solving a difficult problem on a chemistry 3.10 1.17 Thinking about an upcom ing chemistry test 2.98 1.20 te st. Q.34 one day before. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. APPENDIX K (CONT’D). Item Mean Standard Anxiety Deviation Level Q.4 Working on an abstract chemistry problem, 2.88 1.25 2.53 1.22 such as "If x = grams of hydrogen and y = total grams o f water produced, calculate the number of grams o f oxygen that reacted with the hydrogen." 0-15 Getting ready to study for a chemistry test. 195 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY Abendroth, W. & Friedman, F. (1983). Anxiety reduction for beginning chemistry students. Journal of Chemical Education. 6 0 (11. 25-26. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). b e h a v io r. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: U nderstanding attitudes and predicting social Prentice-Hall. American Chemical Society. (Fall, 1995). CHED N ew sletter. Chem ical Education, Inc., American Chem ical Society. Division of American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical M anual of M ental D isorders (3rd ed. revised). Washington, DC: Author. Anderson, G. A., & Clawson, K. (1992, November). Science anxiety in our colleges: O rigins, implications, and cures. Paper presented at the Annual M eeting of the Mid-South Educational Research Association, Knoxville, TN. Baggett, G. (1993, July 26). Causes of 'chemophobia'. Breslow, R. (1993, March 22). The Scientist. 7(151. 12. Let's put an end to 'chemophobia'. The Scientist 1 (6 ), 11. Chiarelott, L. & Czemiak, C. (1987). Science anxiety, implications for science curriculum and teaching. Clearing House. 60(51. 202-205. Czemiak, C. & Chiarelott, L. (1984, April). Science Anxiety: An investigation of science achievement, sex and grade level factors. Paper presented at the Annual M eeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA. Davis, G. (1987). Measuring the science anxiety of college students in an introductory chem istry course. Paper presented at the National meeting of the American Educational Research A ssociation, W ashington, D.C. 197 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONT'D). Eddy, R. M. & Wood, J. T. (1996, March). Preparing chem istry teachers and rem ediating chem ophobia th ro ugh dem onstrations and experim ents. Paper presented at the National M eeting o f the American Chemical Society, New Orleans, LA. Gay, L. R. (1992). Educational Research Competencies fo r Analysis and Ap p lic a tio n (4th ed.). Merrill, New York. Haladyna, T. and Shaughnessy, J. (1982). Attitudes toward science: quantitative synthesis. Science Education. 66(4). 547-563). A Koballa, T., Jr. (1988). Attitude and related concepts in science education. Science Education. 72(21. 115-126. Kozma, R. B. (1982). Instructional design in a chemistry laboratory course: The impact of structure and aptitudes on performance and attitudes. 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Science Education. 79(41. 437-473. 198 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BIBLIOGRAPHY (CONT'D). Shrigley, R. L. (1991). The role of attitudes in school science instruction. In S. K. Majumdar, L. M. Rosenfeld, P. A. Rubba, E. W. Miller, and R. F. Schmalz (Eds.), Science education in the United States: Issues, crises and priorities. Easton, PA: The Pennsylvania Academy of Science. Steiner, R. and Sullivan, J. (1984). Variables correlating with student success in organic chemistry. Journal of Chemical Education. 6 1 (121. 1072-1074. Talton, E. L., & Simpson, R. D. (1986). Relationships of attitudes toward self, family, and school with attitude toward science among adolescents. Science Education. 70(4). 365-374. Westerback, M. & Primavera, L. (1992, March). A science educator's and a psychologists' perspective on research about science anxiety. Paper presented at the Annual M eeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. Boston, MA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 357 977) Westerback, M. & Primavera, L. (1996, April 23). Im plications for learning earth science and geology from research on anxiety and anger. Paper presented at the Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America, National A ssociation o f Geology Teachers — "Educating for Tomorrow’s World”. Portland, O regon. Worman, J. J. (1996, March). Dispelling chemophobia inside and outside of the c l a s s r oom. Paper presented at the National Meeting of the American Chemical Society, New Orleans, LA. Wynstra, S. & Cummings, C. (1990, October). Science anxiety: Relation with gender, vear in chem istry class, achievement, and test anxiety. Paper presented at the Annual M eeting of the M idwestern Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 331 837) Wynstra, S. & Cummings, C. (1993, October). High school science anxiety: Easing common classroom fears. The Science Teacher. 60(71. 18-21. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.