I SI 八1 ・ 八N I )1・ I ・ I ・ , R I: N' I ' / じりu n t c r p a r ls 4 I SJAPANDIFFERENT? D a n i e lBen-Ami S o u 1 c e:P h i ll l a 1 1 1 1 1 1 o n d( e d . ) .C u i l u r a /D i f f e r e nc e :M e d i aM仰 附i e sL o n d o n :C as s e l l .1 9リ7 ‘ p p .5 -2 4 Thea i mo ft h i sc h a p t e ri st or e f u t巴 t h ei d e ao f‘ c u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e’a saway o fu n d e r s t a n d i n gmodernJ a p a n .Wew i l la r g u et h a tt h en o t i o no fc u l t u 1℃ . a su s e db ymanyw r i t e r s,c o n c e a l swhati sa tr o o tar a c i a lc o n c e p t i o no l J a p a n .F i r s t,wee x a m i n et h e‘ r e v i s i o n i s t’ s c h o o lo fcommentatorsw h i c hh a s e m e r g e d( p a r t i c u l a r l yi nw r i t i n gont h eJ a p a n e s eeconomy)i nr e c e n ty e a r s. Thea s s u m p t i o nt h a tJ a p a ni sc u l t u r a l l yd i f f e r e n tf r o mo t h e ri n d u s t r i a l i s c d s o c i e t i e si snoww i d e s p r e a d.Commentatorsdon o ta l la g r e eont h巴 p r eじi s L ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c st h a td i s t i n g u i s hJ a p a nf r o mW e s t e r ns o c i巴t i e s ,b u tt h ep r e m i s e o fJ a p a n e s ec u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c er u n st h r o u g h much o ft h ec o n t e m p o r a r y l i t e r a t u r e .I n d e e d, somew r i t e r sh a v er e c e n t l ye x t e n d e dt h en o t i o no fc u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c et oo t h e rE a s tA s i a ns o c i e t i e s . S e c o n d ,t h ec h a p t e rt r a c e st h e s ei d e a so fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c eb aじkt o t h ei n f l u e n c eo fC u l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ,p a r t i c u l a r l yRuth B e n e d i c t‘Oil t o d a y’ sd i s c u s s i o no fJ a p a n .Wew i l la r g u et h a tt h en o t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f c re n c ei sab a r r i e rt od e v e l o p i n gar a t i o n a lu n d e r s t a n d i n go fJ a p a n .I n d e e d‘t i i sp r e c i s e l yb e c a u s et h en o t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c ei ss op e r v a s i v et h a t i tn e e d st ob emadee x p l i c i tandc h a l l e n g e d .A methodw h i c hc e n t r 巴so nt hじ q u e s t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c ei sf u n d a m e n t a l l ya h i s t o r i c a l,i r r a t i o n a l ,a n d m y s t i f i e swhati tp u r p o r t st oe x p l a i n .I nc o n c l u s i o n,a f t e rl o o k i n gb r i e f l ya l hown o t i o n so fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c eh a v ei n f l u e n c e dd i s c u s s i o nw i t h i nJ a p a n i t s e l f ,weo u t l i n ea na l t e r n a t i v ea p p r o a c ht ou n d e r s t a n d i n gJ a p a n e s es o c i e t y Ther e v i s i o n i s ts c h o o l Thea s s u m p t i o no fJ a p a n e s ec u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c ecamet op r o m i n e n c ei nt h e l a t e1 9 8 0 swhent h巴 e m e r g e n c eo fad i s t i n c t' r e v i s i o n i s t’s c h o o lonJ a p a n p r e c i p i t a t e dab r o a d e rd i s c u s s i o ni nt h e American r ne d i a1 .R e v i s i o n i白t w r i t e rsa r g u e dt h a tt h eJ a p a n e s es t a t eb e h a v e dd i f f e r e n t lyr r o mt isWcs t c 1 1 1 I O ( l p a r t i c u l a r l yi ni t sr e l a t i o n s h i pt ot h em a r k e t .U n d e r l y i n gt h e d is じu s s i o nwasac o r ea s s u m p t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e. Thel e a d i n gf i g u r e s 川 t h i sd i s c u s s i o nw e r eK a r e lv a nW o l f e r e n( a Dutchj o u r n a l i s tb a s e di n J a p a n) 、J amesF a l l o w s( W a s h i n g t o ne d i t o ro fTheA t l a n t i cMonth か ),a nd Cl y d eP r e s t o w i t z( af o r m e rUSt r a d er e p r e s e n t a t i v e ). Key f e a t u r e so f t e ns e e na sc h a r a c t e r i s t i co f‘ J a p a nI n c .’i n c l u d e dt h e n ot i o no ft h ed e v e l o p m e n t a ls t a t e ,t h er o l eo fMITI( t h eM i n i s t r yo fI n t e r n a t i o n a lTradeand I n d u s t r y ),t h es y s t e mo fk e i r e t s u( i n t e r l o c i くi n gs h a r e ow n e r s h i p ) and t h es y s t e mo fl i f e t i m eemployment f o ras e c t i o no ft h e l a p a n e s ework f o r c e .W r i t e r son managementt e n d e dt oe m p h a s i s es u c h ! ' ac t o r sa s :l e a np r o d u c t i o nmethodss u c ha st h ekanban( j u s ti nt i m e )s y s t e m r orc o n t r o l l i n gs t o c ki n v e n t o r i e s ,w o r k e ri n v o l v e m e n t,g o a ls e t t i n ganda c ommitmentt oq u a l i t y .U n d e r l y i n gt h e s en o t i o n si st h ei d e ao fJ a p a na s af o1 ・ 1 1 1o fc o m m u n i t a r i a ns o c i e t yw h e r el o y a l t yt ot h eg r o u pi sp a r a m o u n t .2 Thei n t e l l e c t u a lg o d f a t h e ro ft h er e v i s i o n i s tmovement,a l t h o u g hn o ta s p rom i n e n ti nt h em e d i ad e b a t e ,wasC h a l m e r sJ o h n s o n.H i sMIT/andt h e J a pane s eM i r a c l e ,w h i c he m p h a s i s e dt h ei m p o r t a n c eo ft h ed e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a t ei nJ a p a n,i n f o r m e dt h eworko fmorep r o m i n e n tc o m m e n t a t o r s .As Ke n tC a l d e ra r g u e di n1 9 9 3 ‘ :t h ed e v e l o p m e n t a ls t a t ec o n t e n t i o n s. .. h a v e dom i n a t e da n a l y s i so ft h巴 J a p a n e s ep o l i t i c a leconomyf o rad e c a d巴.リ Nor si n f l u e n c er e s t r i c t e dt ot h eUSA.S a k aI くi b a r aE i s u k e’ sBeyond wasJ o h n s o n’ (' o p i t a ! i s m( w h i c hi n c l u d e sa ni n t r o d u c t i o nb yC l y d eP r e s t o w i t z )p u tf o r w a r d . ts i m i l a ra r g u m e n tf r o mt h ep o i n to fv i e wo fas e n i o rJ a p a n e s eM i n i s t r yo f F i n a n c eo f f i c i a l . 4 F o rJ o h n s o n,t h ek e yp o i n twasn o tt h a tt h eJ a p a n e s es t a t ei n t e r v e n e di n sh en o t e s,a l ls t a t e sp r a c t i c ee c o n o m i ci n t e r v e n t i o nt osome t h巴 巴conomy:a じx t e n t .5However, 日1t h eUSA,f o re x a m p l e,t h es t a t ei sp r i m a r i l yc o n c e r n e d wi t hr e g u l a t i o nr a t h e rt h a neconomicp l a n n i n g .I nc o n t r a s t ,t h ed e v e l o p me n t a ls t a t ei s‘ p l a nr a t i o n a l’ ーi no t h e rwords,e l i t eb u r e a u c r a t so r g a n i s e I h ee conomyt om e e t‘ s u b s t a n t i v es o c i a lande c o n o m i cg o a l s' . 6J o h n s o na l s o p l a ni d e o l o g i c a l, ’w h e r e r nm p a r e sJ a p a nt ot h eUSSR、w h i c hh el a b e l sa s‘ t hep r i n c i p l eo fp l a n n i n gwasaf u n d a m e n t a lv a l u ei ni t s e l f .I ni d e o l o g i c a l t e rmsh es e e sJ a p a n e s ep o l i t i e a leconomya s‘ l o c a t e dp r e c i s e l yi nt h el i n eo f de s c en tf r o mt h eGermanH i s t o r i c a lS c h o o l-s o m e t i m e sl a b e l l e d“ economic n a t ion a l i s m’ , 'H a n d e l s p o l i t i k,o rn e o m e r c a n t a l i s m’7 Morer e c e n t l y ,a na t t e m p tt ol i n kt h eJ a p a n巴s ee x p e r i e n c emoreb r o a d l y l ot h en o t i o no fA s i a nv a l u e sh a scomei n t ov o g u e.Thea r g u m e n th e r ei s I h 川 ‘ C o n f u c i a n’v a l u e s-p a r t i c u l a r l yt h o s er e l a t e dt os t r o n gf a m i l yt i e s h av cs omehowc o n t r i b u t e dt ot h eeconomics u c c e s so fJ a p a nando fE a s t 八日i a more g e n e r a l l y . As D a v i dH o w e l l,t h e Chairman o ft h e Houseo f ( いmmonsF o r e i g nA f f a i r sCommittee,a r g u e s: . t hes o b e r i n gt h o u g h th a st ob ef a c e dt h a tn o to n l ya r et h eA s i a n n a t ion s、o ra ll e a s tgr o w i ngr e g i o n sw i t h i nt h e m ,nowb e t t e re q u i p p e d 1 07 Nnw ・,lRSI’ U 'IIVl: S りN I 'I II 'I 'AS I , ¥N I I II IL I ・ I {IS J, NI Gじ0 1 1 0 1 1 じa l l yandl e e IS I .八 1 ・ / \ N l ) I J,J , ' HRHN1・ 7 s 1 t y ,camet ot h es t u d yo fJ a p a nr e l a t i v e l yl a t ei nl i f e .S h ewasa s s i g n e dt o t h es t u d yo fJ a p a nb yt h eUSO f f i c eo fWarI n f o r m a t i o n(OWi)i nJ u n e 1 9 ! 4 ,a ndd i吋i n 1948.Y e th e rworkh a sh a da nenormo凶 ande n c i n n u e n c 巴 o nJ a p a n e s eS t u d i e s .U n t i lh e rJ a p a ns t u d y ,B e n e d i c twasb e s t . knownf o rh e rf i e l dworkamongn a t i v eA m e r i c a n sandh e rg e n e r a lw o r k s ?n culture. 民~- Pat削 1S ofO仇 r e ,f i r s tp u b l i山 d i n 1934、p l a y e da n 1 1 n p o r t a n tr o l e1 1 1p o p u l a r i s i n gt h ei d e at h a tc u l t u r e ,r a t h e rt h a nr a c e ,was t h emaind r i v i n gf o r c eb e h i n dhuman b e h a v i o u r .I nh e rg e n e r a lwork0 1 1 c u l t u r a la n t h r o p o l o g ys h ewasi n f l u e n c e db yc o n t e m p o r a r i e ss u c ha sMargar e l Meada n db yp r c d cじc s s o r ss u c ha sF r n n LBo a s、on eo ft h emo s ti n f l u e n t i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t st h isじc n t u r y. 1 1OnJ a p a ns p c c i恥 a l l y、h e ri n f l u e n c e si n c l u d e d 1 . Norman,t h el e f t i s te c o n o m i ch i s t o r ian,andJ o h nE m b r e e ,whose E.1 じa r l i e ra n t h r o p o l o g i c a l自e l ds t u d yo faJ a p a n e s ev i l l a g es h ed e s c r i b e da s ‘ i n v a l u a b l e '. 1 1 sTheChrysanthemumαndt h eS 1 1’ o r dwas白r s t A l t h o u g h Ruth B e n e d i c t’ p u b l i s h e di n1 9 4 6 ,i ts t i l lr e t a i n sg r e a ti n f l u e n c eb o t hona c a d e m i cs t u d i e s o fJ a p a nandonp o p u l a rj o u r n a l i s m .I nt h eUSAi th a ss o l d350,000c o p i e s , ah u g enumberf o raworko fa n t h r o p o l o g y .I nJ a p a ni th a ss o l do v e ro n e m i l l i o nc o p i e sd e s p i t ei t so r i g i n sa sas t u d yf o rt h eOWl.1 2B e n e d i c t’ Sw orki s s t i l lt h em o d e lf o rW e s t e r nw r i t i n gonJ a p a n ,andt h ea s s u m p t i o n si tv o i c e s h a v es e tt h es t a n d a r df o ro v e rf i f t yy e a r s .Manyo ft h ee o r ec o n c e p t su s e di n t o d a y’ sd i s c u s s i o n so fJ a p a nc a nb et r a c e db a c kt oB e n e d i c t .F o re x a m p l e , t h ec o n c e p to f‘ g r ou p i s m’ −t h ei d e at h a tJ a p a n e s es o c i e t yi sb a s e dont h e gr o u pr a t h e rt h a nt h ei n d i v i d u a l-i sc e n t r a lt oh e ra r g u m e n t .A l t h o u g hs h e d o e sn o tu s et h et e r mh e r s e l ft h ei d e ao fg r o u p i s mi si m p l i c i ti nh e rfamous d i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e n‘ s hamec u l t u r e s’and‘ g u i l tc u l t u r e s ' .S h eb e l i e v e dt h a t i n‘ g u i l tc u l t u r e s ',a si nt h eUSA,b e h a v i o u ri sr e g u l a t e dbyi n d i v i d u a lc o n s ci e n c e .Byc o n t r a s t ,i nshames o c i e t i e s ,s u c ha sJ a p a n ,p e o p l ea r ew o r r i e d m a i n l ya b o u tl o o k i n gb a di nf r o n to ft h eg r o u p ‘ :Trueshamec u l t u r e sr e l y one x t e r n a ls a n c t i o n sf o rgoodb e h a v i o u r,n o t,a st r u eg u i l tc u l t u r e sdo、on a ni n t e r n a l i s e dc o n v i c t i o no fs i n .’ 1 3 smethodi ss i m p l yt odrawa t t e n t i o nt ot h ec u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e s B e n e d i c t’ b e t w e enJ a p a nandt h eUSA.S h ed r a w sa t t e n t i o nt ot h e s ed i f f e r e n c e sf r o m t h eo p e n i n gs e n t e n c eo ft h ebook ‘ :TheJ a p a n e s ew e r et h em o s ta l i e nenemy t h eU n i t e dS t a t e shade v e rf o u g h ti na na l l o u ts t r u g g l e . ' 1 4Ther e s to ft h e booki sa ne x a m i n a t i o no ft h ed i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nt h etwon a t i o n s.So、i n J a p a ng r e a te m p h a s i si sp l a c e donh i e r a r c h y,w h i l ei nt h eUSAe q u a l i t yi s ak e yv a l u e ;i nJ a p a nt h es t a t ei st h es u p r e m eg o o d ,w h i l ei nt h eUSAi t i sa l w a y ss e e na sap o t e n t i a lt h r e a tt ol i b e r t y . B e n e d i c t’ sc o r ea s s u m p t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c eh a sp e r m e a t e dJ a p a n e s e S t u di e ss i n c et h eS e c o n dWorldW a r .Mostw r i t e r sonJ a p a nh a v ea c c e p t e d t h a ti ti su s e f u lt os e eJ a p a na sembodyingf u n d a m e n t a ld i f f e r e n c e sf r o mt h e West. T h i sp r e m i s ea p p l i e se q u a l l yt oa n t h r o p o l o g i s t se c o n o m i s t s ,h i s t o r i a n s, p o l i t i c a ls c i e n t i s t sands o c i o l o g i s t s .J o u r n a l i s t s,i nt u r n,h a v edrawnont h e s e worl くsi nt h e i rw r i t i n g sandh e l p e dt op o p u l a r i s et h e i rc o r ea s s u m p t i o n s . T h e r ea r e ,n a t u r a l l y ,d i s a g r e e m e n t sb e t w e e na u t h o r sonwhatc o n s t i t u t e st h e d e f i n i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fJ a p a n e s es o c i e t y .D i f f e r e n tw r i t e r sa t t a c hv a r y i n g d e g r e e so fi m p o r t a n c et oc u l t u r a lf a c t o r s, s o c i o e c o n o m i cf a c t o r st h eu n u s u a l c h a r a ct e ro ft h巴 J a p a n e s el a b o u rm a r k e t,andt h e‘ d e v e l o p m e n t a ls t a t e' . 1 5 B u tt h ei m p o r t a n c eo fd i f f e r e n c ei sa s s u m e d . RuthB e n e d i c t’ Si n f l u e n c ea l s ol i v e soni nh e rownf i e l do fa n t h r o p o l o g y . F o re x am p l e Und e r s t a n d i n gJapan e s eS o c i e t y ,b yJ o yHendry, ap r o f e s s o ro f S o c i al A n t h r o p o l o g ya tO x f o r dB r oo k e sU n i v e r s i t y, whoseworki sd i s c u s s e d 1 08 1 0 9 y i ngp h i l o s o p h i e so fI i i( 司 :d u lya n ι Iwork‘r c t l cじt c d t h a tt h e i ru n d e 1l i np e r s o n a l ,f a m i l yandcommunityb e h a v i o u r ,mayb emor 巴s u i t e d t os u p p o r tt h i sS附 e 佐 一i n d e e dmaya c t u a l l yacco~1 川 for i t .8 ‘ T h i sl a t e s tt w i s ti nt h ea r g u m e n tc l e a t 匂o wesmucht ot h er e l a t i v eslowdown o ft h eJ a p a n e s eeconomycomparedt oi t sE a s tA s i a nn e i g h b o u r s . Whik t : 1 eJ a p a附 eeconomyh出 v i r t u a l l y叫 削e d山 叩 1 9飢 m川 o ft h eE a s l A s i a ne c o n o m i e sh a v ec o n t i n u e dt oe x h i b i ts t r o n gg r o w t h.W e s t e r nw r i t e r』 h a v en a t u r a l l ys o u g h tt oe x p l a i nwhyt h eE a s tA s i a nr e g i o nh a sb e e ne x o e r i e n c i n gbyf a rt h es t r o n g e s teconomicg r o w t hi nt h ew o r l d. . P e r h a p st h eb a l d e s ts t a t e m e n to fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c eb yam a i n s t r e a m comme山 i t o ri nr e c e n ty 干a r si sS a n 川 e lH u n t i 1 o山 e s s, ふ ‘Th巴 Clashol C i v i l i z a t i o n s' ,p u b l i s h e d1 1 1 al e a d i n gAmericanf o r e i g np o l i c yj o u r n a l、i n t h esummero f1 9 9 3 .H u n t i n g t o n’ sa r g u m e n ti st h a tw i t ht h ee n do ft h e ColdW a r ,andt h ec o n s e q u e n te n do ft h ed i v i s i o nb e t w e e nt h eS o v i e tB i o じ andt h eWest,t h emaind i v i s i o n si nt h ew o r l dw i l lb ec i v i l i s a t i o n a l : I ti smyh y p o t h e s ist h a tt h ef u n d a m e n t a ls o u r c eo fc o n f l i c ti nt h i s i ( ln o tb ep r i m a r i neww o r l dヤ td 1 v 1 s i o n saηonghumankindandt h ed o m i n a t i n gs o u r c e Theg r巴a o fc o n f l i c tw i l lb ec u l t u r a l .9 , U n ( i k干somew r i t e r s,H u n t i n g t o nd r a w sac l e a rd i s t i 1 s ? c削 e sandJ a p a n .B u th es h a r e sw i t ht h em句o r i t yo fc o m m e n t a t o r st h e v i e wo fJ a p a na sc u l t u r a l l yd i s t i n c tf r o mW e s t e r ns o c i e t i e s . W h i l et h ee m e r g e n c eo ft h er e v i s i o n i s ts c h o o li sr e l a t i v e l yr e c e n t,t h巴 i d ec l s wh nform~uch 伽 temporary comme1 e r i o d.S p e c a ne a山 I p ~iffer干 nce o wesmuc AmericanC u l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g i s tRuthB e n e d i c t . ! 凶 Fromr a c et oc u l t u r e 司 司 尽u t hB e n e d i c t,whos p e n th e rw h o l ea c a d e m i cc a, 閃 a tC o l u州 aU n i v e r - 『 守 Nl, W ・ ・ 1I i . R Sl ’H 'IIVIしお り N ' II IF l ’ 八 NT /¥NI】 II II 1I {l ・ SI・NI , 川m ored e t a i lb e l o w、i se s s e n t i a l l ya na t t e m p t1 0u p d a 1 1 :l ' / 1’{・ in•so 111lwn111111 andt h eS 1 1・ ordf o ramoderna u d i e n c e .L i k eB c n c d i t : 仁川 1 ci sc o n c e r n e dw i t h e x a m i n i n gt h ed i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nJ a p a n e s es o c i e t yandt h eW e s t ,o n l yi n H e n d r y ' sc a s et h ec u l t u r a ld i f f e r e附 S t h a ts h ep o i n t st oa r es o附 i t 弘lC、! d i f f e r e n tf r o mB e n e d i c t .F o ri n s t a n c e ,Hendrys e t sg r e a ts t o r eb yt h ed i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e nu c h ia nds o / a -r o u g h l yt r a n s l a t e da st h o s e‘ i n s i d e’andt h o s e ‘ o u t s i d e’ap a r t i c u l a rg r o u p .Y e tt h ea s s u m p t i o no fg r o u p i s mr u n st h r o u g h t h eworko fb o t ha u t h o r s . What,t h e n ,i swrongw i t ht h en o t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e ?I tw o u l db e c l e a r l ya b s u r dt od e n yt h a tt h e r ea r ea n yd i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nJ a p a nandt hじ USAo rB r i t a i n .I twoulda l s ob ef o o l i s ht oc o n t e n dt h a ts u c hd i f f e r e n c e sa r c unworthyo fs t u d y .AsB e n e d i c ts a y s,i n1 9 4 0 st e r m i n o l o g y : T h e s ep r o t a g o n i s t so fOneWorldh a v es t a k e dt h e i rh o p e sonc o n v i n c i n gp e o p l eo fe v e r yc o r n e ro ft h ee a r t ht h a ta l lt h e -d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e nE a s tandW e s t ,b l a c kandw h i t e ,C h r i s t i a nandMohami a landt h a ta l lmankindi sr e a l l yl i k e m i n d e d . medan,a r es u p e r自c T h i sv i e wi ss o m e t i m e sc a l l e dt h eb r o t h e r h o o do fman. Idon o t knowwhyb e l i e v i n gi nt h eb r o t h e r h o o do fmans h o u l dmeant h a t o n ec a n n o ts a yt h a tt h eJ a p a n e s eh a v et h e i rownv e r s i o no ft h e c o n d u c to fl i f eandt h a tA m e r i c a n sh a v et h e i r s . 16 Thep r o b l e md o e sn o ta r i s ef r o mt h er e c o g n i t i o no fd i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n s o c i e t i e s,w h i c hi sat r u i s m ,b u tf r o mt h巴 i m p l i c i ta s s u m p t i o nt h a tt h e s e d i f f e r e n c e sr e f l e c tt h ei n n a t ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fd i f f e r e n tp e o p l e s .Feww r i t e r s t o d a ywouldb es oc r a s sa st op o s es u c ha r g u m e n t si nb i o l o g i c a lo re x p l i c i t l y r a c i a lt e r m s .I n s t e a d ,t h ed i s c u s s i o ni sf r a m e di nt e r m so fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c − 巴 Nowherei st h ea s s u m p t i o no f白x e d ,i n n a t ed i f f e r e n c ec l e a r e rt h a ni nt h e d i s c i p l i n eo fC u l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g y( o rS o c i a lA n t h r o p o l o g y ,a si ti sc a l l e d i n Britain~.1 7 Tou附 r s t a n dwhati swrongw i t ht h ea n t l 刊 ,o p o l o g i sぱ Vぼ o fJ a p a n1 ti sn e c e s s a r yt oe x a m i n et h emethodst h e yu s e.B o t hB e n e d i c t andHe一d r ys a yt l _ i a tt h e i rf i内 ta i mi st or e c o n s t川 tt h ev i e wo fJ a p a na s ‘ :Thei d e a la u t h o r i t yf o ra n y h e l db y, t sownc i t i z e n s .A c c o r d i n gt oB e n e d i c t s t a t e m e n ti nt h i sbookwouldb et h ep r o v e r b i a lmani nt h es t r e e t .I tw o u l d b ea n y b o d y .’ 1 8W h i l ef o r Hendry:‘ Thea i mi st oi n t r o d u c et h ew o r l da s i ti sc l a s s i自e dando r d e r e dbyt h eJ a p a n e s ep e o p l e .叶 9 Sof a rt h e r ei sn o ta ti sl e g i t i m a t et oe x a m i n ehowp e o p l ep e r c e i v et h e m s e l v e s ;t h i s p r o b l e m .I wouldo n l yb ep r o b l e m a t i ci fs u c hp e r c e p t i o n sw e r et a k e na tf a c e; a l u e. H o w e v e r ,b o t ha u t h o r ss t a t et h a tt h e ya r ek e e nt ogobeyonda p p e a r a n c e s . B e n e d i c td e f i n e dt h ea i mo fh e rs t u d ya s:‘ t od e s c r i b ed e e p l ye n t r e n c h e d a t t i t u d e so ft h o u g h tandb e h a v i o u r .’ 2 °F o rHendry‘ :1 ti so n eo ft h ea i m so r a na n t h r o p o l o g i c a la p p r o a c ht op e n e t r a t et h ed e e p e rl e v e l so fo p e r a t i o n b e h i n dt h ef a m i l i a rf a c ; a d e .ワl II O IS I八 l ’ 八N 1 ) 11 ・ l ・ I ・ I {1 ・ N II ' Y c tt h i si swhじIet h ep r o b l e ma r i s e s.B o t hB e n e d i c tand I l e n d r yt a k e : 1d e e p l ya h i s t o r i c a lv i e wo fJ a p a n.F o rb o t ha u t h o r s,‘ d e e p l ye n t r e n c h e d a t t i t u d e s'meansi d e a st h a th a v ee s s e n t i a l l ye x i s t e ds i n c et i m ei m m e m o r i a l . T h i si sn o tsomeab巴r r a t i o np e c u l i a rt ot h e s et w oa u t h o r s ,b u ti si nf a c t i m p l i c i ti nt h emethodanda p p r o a c ho ft h ea n t h r o p o l o g i s t .RuthB e n e d i c t ' s avoweda i mi st omakes e n s eo fJ a p a n e s eじu l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e.S h es a y st h a t, d e s p i t et h ep o p u l a rAmericanb e l i e ft h a tt h eJ a p a n e s ea r es od i f f e r e n tt h a t ‘ w h a t e v e rwedot h e ydot h eo p p o s i t e ' : S u c hac o n v i c t i o no fd i f f e r e n c ei sd a n g e r o u so n l yi fas t u d e n tr e s t s c o n t e n tw i t hs a y i n gs i m p l yt h a tt h e s ed i f f e r e n c e sa r es of a n t a s t i c t h a ti ti si m p o s s i b l et ou n d e r s t a n ds u c hp e o p l e. Thea n t h r o p o l o g i s t h a sgoodp r o o fi nh i se x p e r i e n c et h a te v e nb i z a r r eb e h a v i o u rd o e s n o tp r e v e n to n e’ su n d e r s t a n d i n gi t . 2 2 si t . Her a r g t ト Y e tB e n e d i c td o e sn o ti l l u m i n a t ed i f f e r e n c e ,b u tm y s t i白e ment r e d u c e si t s e l ft ot h ei d e at h a tJ a p a n e s es o c i e t yc a nb eu n d e r s t o o d t h r o u g hl o o k i n ga tt h et o i l e t t r a i n i n go fJ a p a n e s ei n f a n t s .I n' TheC h i l d L e a r n s ' ,t h ec l i m a c t i cc h a p t e ro fh e rbook,s h巴 s a y s,f o re x a m p l e ,t h a t : I ti st r u et h a t aJ a p a n e s e baby m u s tf i n dd i a p e r su n p l e a s a n t , n o to n l yb e c a u s et h e ya r eh e a v yb u tb e c a u s ec u s t o md o e sn o t d e c r e et h a tt h e yb ec h a n g e dw h e n e v e rh ew e t st h e m .Thebabyi s n e v e r t h e l e s st o oyoungt op e r c e i v et h ec o n n e c t i o nb e t w e e nn u r s e r y t r a i n i n gandg e t t i n gr i do fu n c o m f o r t a b l ed i a p e r s .Hee x p e r i巴n 回S o n l ya ni n e s c a p a b l er o u t i n ei m p l a c a b l yi n s i s t e du p o n .B e s i d e s ,t h e m o t h e rh a st oh o l dt h ebabyawayf r o mh e rb o d y ,andh e rg r i p m u s tb e和 m .Whatt h ebabyl e a r n sf r o mt h ei m p l a c a b l et r a i n i n g p r e p a r e shim t oa c c e p ti na d u l t h o o dt h es u b t l e rc o m p u l s i o n so f J a p a n e s ec u l t u r e. 2 ' Thep r o p o s i t i o nt h a tc u s t o m sr e l a t i n gt on a p p i e sh o l dt h ek e yt oJ a p a n e s e c u l t u r emays e e mr i d i c u l o u s .Y e tB e n e d i c ti n s i s t sont h ec e n t r a le x p l a n a t o r y i m p o r t a n c eo fc h i l d r e a r i n g : Thec o n t r a d i c t i o n sw h i c ha l lW e s t e r n e r sh a v ed e s c r i b e di nJ a p a n e s e c h a r a c t e ra r ei n t e l l i g i b l ef r o mt h e i ,c h i l dr e a r i n g .I tp r o d u c e s ad u a l i t yi nt h e i ro u t l o o k on l i f e , n巴i t h e rs i d eo fw h i c hc a nb e i g n o ・ ,e d.. ..I tg i v e s them a na s s e r t i v e n e s s and a c e r t a i ns e l f c o n自d e n c e .I tu n d e r l i e st h e i rf r e q u e n tw i l l i n g n e s st ot a c k l ea n y j o b,nom a t t e rhowf a ra b o v et h e i ra b i l i t yi tmays e e mt ob e. . . . Ono c c a s i o n、i tg i v e sthemac a p a c i t yf o rmassm e g a l o m a n i a . 2 4 I II Nl , W l ' IRSl ・1 , ( ' I I V li S< I N I ' l ll ・ 1 ・\ , \ I SJ ./ ¥P八 N 1 > 1 1, 1 , 1 , 1 U: NI / ' I, ¥NII I1 1 1:l ’ I (1 , SI•NI 八 !t h o u g ht h el e a p「 10 1 1 1じh i l d・r じa r i n gl omas sn1~g; 1l(11l\a111a mayhじじ 1 1h igh ly i m p l a u s i b l e ,B c ne d iじl ' sa r g u m e n tr es t sonak じyi dじao ls oじi als じi e nじ山司 t h a t o fs o ci a l is a ti o n. J o y Hendr yp o s e st h esamea r g u m e n ti naf as h i o nt h a ts o un dsm o i l ' f a m i l i a rt omoderne a r s : S o c i a l i s a t i o ni st h emeansb yw h i c ha ne s s e n t i a l l yb i o l o g i c a lb e 1 1 1 g i sc o n v e r t e di n t oas o c i alo n e,a b l et ocommunicate w i t ho t h e r memberso ft h ep a r t i c u l a rs o c i e t yt ow h i c hi tb e l o n g s. Ac h i l dl e a r ns t op e r c e i v et h ew o r l dt h r o u g hl a n g u a g e,s p o k e n and u n s p o k e n、 t h r o u g hr i t u a le n a c t e d ,andt h r o u g ht h et o t a ls y m b o l i cs y st e mw h i c h s t r u c t u r e sa n dc o n s t r a i n st h a tw o r l d.Throughs o c i a l i s a t i o nac h i l d l e a r nst oc l a s s i命 t h ew o r l di nw h i c hi tl i v e s, andt oi m p o s eas y s t em o fv a l u e suponi t . 25 怠 t oc h i l dr e a r i n g、 A c c o r d i n g l y , Hendry a t t r i b u t e sas i m i l a ri m p o r t a n c c i t i n g ,f o re x a m p l e,t h ewayt h a tJ a p a n e s ei n f a n t sa r et a u g h tt oc h a n g e t h e i rs h o e swhene n t e r i n go rl e a v i n gt h eh o u s ea sa ne x p l a n a t i o no ft h e i m p o r t a n c eo fu「h ia ndsolo ( i n g r o u pando u t g r o u p )t oJ a p a n e s es oじi a l 2 6 o r g a n i s a t i on. T h i sc o n c e p to fs o c i al i s a t i o ni sc e n t r a lt ot h ea n t h r o p o l o g i c a le x p l a n a t i o n o fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e .Y e ti to n l ymakess e n s ei fwee x a m i n e ,n o ts o c i e t y、 b u tt h ee x p e r i e n c eo ft h ei n d i v i d u a l .F o ra ni n d i v i d u a lJ a p a n e s ec h il d c u l t u r ei si n d e e dag i v e n :s o m e t h i n gt ob el e a r n e d,a s s i m i l a t e d ,andp a s s e d o n .Y e ti fwea s kw h e r et h i sc u l t u r ecamef r o m,t h ea n t h r o p o l o g i c a lmethod c a np r o v i d e no a n s w e r .I n s t e a dt h ep r o c e s so f‘ s o ci a l i s a t i o n’s t r e t c h e s b a c ki n an e n d l e s sc h a i nt h r o u g ht h eg e n e r a t i o n s .I ti st h i si n d i v i d u a lc e n t r e d method w h i c hg i v e sr i s et ot h ea h i s t o r i c a lc h a r a c t e ro fc u l t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s .Tou n d e r s t a n daphenomenons u c ha st h er e g i m e n t a t i o no f J a p a n e s es o c i e t y ,o n ewouldh a v et oe x a m i n ev a r i o u sa s p e c t so fJ a p a n e s e s o c i a lh i s t o r y:t h ee x p e r i e nじeo fm i l i t a r yd i c t a t o r s h i p,w o r l dwarandr a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n.F a i l u r et odot h i smeanst h a tc u l t u r a le x p l a n a t i o n sa r e i n e v i t a b l ya h i s t o r i c a l and c a n n o te x p l a i nt h ed i f f e r e n c e st ow h i c ht h e y p o i n t . Ana p p r o a c hw h i c hs t a r t sf r o mt h ei n d i v i d u a lmakesc u l t u r ea p p e a r ,n o t a sahumanp r o d u c t ,ap r o d u c to fs o c i e t y ,b u ta sas o m e t h i n ge x t e r n a lt o andb e a r i n gdownuponp e o p l e,d e t e r m i n i n gt h ewayt h e yb e h a v e.I nt h i s s e n s e ,t h en o t i o no fc u l t u r ei sn o tu n l i k et h ei d e ao fr a c e : we‘ i n h e r i t‘ c u l t u r e ;d i f f e r e n c e sa r ef i x e d .Thea n t h r o p o l o g i c a lc o n c e p t i o no fc u l t u r ei s r a c i a ls i n c e、a l t h o u g hc u l t u r emayb em o d i f i e do v e rt i m e,i t se s s e n c er e m a i n s u n a l t e r e d.I np r e w a rr a c i a lt h e o r i e st h ed i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nn a t i o nsw e r e s e e na sb e i n gf i x e dbyb i o l o g y. A f t e rt h eS e c o n dWorldWars u c hd i s c r e d i t e d t h e o r i e sw e r er e c a s tt or e l yona na h i s t o r i c a ln o t i o no fc u l t u r e .Asar es u l t、 t h es i gn i白c a n c eo fh u g e l yi m p o r t a n ts o ci a lc h a n g e si so f t e ndownplayed. 司 首 l k n c d iじ1じo u l da r g u巴 i n1946 a f t e rh a l faじe n t u r yo fd r a m a t i cs o c i al γhu、 t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t h a t‘ J a p a nh a sn o tc h a n g e ds of u n d a m e n t a l l ys i n c et h e 1 8 9 0ぶ. 2 7T h i si sa l s ot h ev i e wp r e s e n t e dr o u t i n e l yi ni n t r o d u c t o r yt e x t b o o k s onJ a p a n .~8 B e n e d i c tandトl e n d r yb o t ha v o i du s i n ga n yr a c i a l l y l o a d e dl a n g u a g e. The onl yt i m et h e ycomec l o s ei si ncomparingJ a p a nw i t ho th e rn o n w h i t e s o c i e t i e s .F o rB e n e d i c t ‘ :Th e r ea r emanys o c i a la r r a n g e m e n t sa ndh a b i t so f l i f ei nJ a p a nw h i c hh a v ec l o s ep a r a l l e l se v e ni nt h ep r i m i t i v et r i b e so ft h e P a c i f i ci s l . a n ds .明 Hendryi smo悶 e x p l i c i t ‘ :mucho ft h ee f f e c t i v e n巴s so fm e c h a ni s m so fs o ci a lc o n t r o lr e l i e s,i nt h eJ a p a n e s ec a s e ,onp r i n c i p l e sw h i c ha r e morecommonlyf o u n di ns m a l lc o m m u n i t i e so fA f r i c aandS o u t hAmeric~ t h a ni nt h ei n d u s t r i a ls o c i e t i e sw i t hw h i c hJ a p a ni su s u a l l yc o m p a r e d . '・ ' 0 B o t hB e n e d i c t and Hendry would u n d o u b t e d l yr e c o i lf r o ma n yo v e r t l y r a c i a ll a n g u a g et od e s c r i b et h eJ a p a n e s e.I n d e e d、B e n e d i c tf o l l o w e dt h e t r a d i t i o no f‘ s ci e n t i f i ca n t i r a c i s m’a s s o c i a t e dw i t hF r a n zB o a s,w h i c he x p l i じi tl yr e j e c t e dt h en o t i o no f白x e db i o l o g i c a ld i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nd i f f e r e n t h a tw h i l eB e n e d i c twasw r i t i n宅 e t hn i cg r o u p s .I ts h o u l da l s ob e問 問mberedt Amer i c a nn e w s p a p e r sw e r er o u t i n e l yp o r t r a y i n gt h eJ a p a n e s ei nt e r m so t a ni m a li m a g e s -a p e s ,monkeys, t e r m i t e sands oo n . 3 1Y e tb o t hB e n e d i c tand Hendryu s et h el a n g u a g eo fc u l t u r a lr e l a t i v i s mt op r e s e n tt h esamee s s e n t i a l i d e a f白x e dd i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e np e o p l e s.T h isi st h ek e yc o n t t 泊u t i o no f l i b e r a lC u l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g yt om a i n s t r e a mt h o u g h t :i tp u t st h ei d e a s o fr a c i a ls u p e r i o r i t yt h a tw e r ed i s c r 巴d i t e dt h r o u g ht h ee x p e r i e n c eo ft h e N a z ig a sc h a m b e r si n t op o l i t i c a l l yc o r r e c tl a n g u a g e. ' " 。: R e j e c t i n gd i f f e r e n c e 『 1 1 2 L e tu snowt u r nt ol o o ka tt h el e g a c yo fa n t h r o p o l o g yf o rt h eb r o a d e r ont e m p o r a r yd e b a t ea b o u tJ a p a n e s ed i f f e r e n c e .W r i t e r si no t h e rd i s c i p l i n e s a r er a r e l ya sc l e a ra b o u tt h e i ra s s u m p t i o n sa st h eC u l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g i s t s . I n d e e d ,af r u s t r a t i n gc h a r a c t e r i s t i co fA n g l o A m e r i c a nw巾 i n gonJ a p a na n dmoreg e n e r a l l y -i si t se m p i r i c i s tc h a r a c t e r .B o t hAmericanandB r i t i s h w r i t e r st e n dt oc o n c e n t r a t e on l i s t i n gf a c t s ,r a t h e rt h a n making t h e i r a s su m p t i o n se x p l i c i t .T h isp r a c t i c emeanst h a ti n t e l l e c t u a ld e b t s3 問 r a r e l y acknowl e d巴e d .I ti scommonf o rt h ep r e v a i l i n ga s s u m p t i o n st ob ewoven d i r e c t l yi n t ot h et e x t and t oi n f o r mt h ec h o i c eo fs u b j e c t ss t u d i e d .I n a t t em p t i n gt oc h a l l e n g et h ea r g u m e n t so ft o d a y’ sB r i t i s h and American comm e n t a t o r s on J a p a n,d i s p u t i n gi n c o r r e c tf a c t si ss t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , b u tmountingab r o a d e rc h a l l e n g ei smorec o m p l e x .The白r s ts t e pmustb e t ot e a s eo u tc o r ea s s u m p t i o n so f t e nl e f tu n s t a t e d by t h ea u t h o r sc o n じe r n ed.Ther 巴 a r ef o u rc h a r a c t巴r i s t i c scommon t o much c o n t e m p o r a r y じ WI ‘ t h es t a r t i ng -p o i n tf o re x p l a n a t i o n ;i t si r r a t i o n a l i t y;andi t sa p p l i c a t i o no fa d o u b l es t a n d a r d. 1 1 1 N l: W l ' l: l l S P I: ( ' II V l: S ON Il l l i I ’ / \ SI ¥ NI >' II l l・l ’R l: , ' , 1: NI I SI 八l ’ / \ N I >I FFI i R I: NT ' I L a c i ,,~{ h i s t o r i c a ls p e c i f i c i t y ( l じV じl o p m c n ts t i l ls t a n ds .A moref r u i t f u la p p r o a c hwouldb et or e c o g n i s e t l l i l tt h es e p a r a t ionofeconomic,p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a le l e m e n t si nu n d e r l a n d i ngJ a p a ni smorec o n c e p t u a lt h a nr e a l .Thek e yp o i n ti st ou n d e r s t a n d how a l lt h e s ee l e m e n t sr e l a t et oe a c ho t h e rr a t h e rt h a nr e d u c ea n a l y s i st o wh a ti se s s e n t i a l l yaf o r mo fc u l t u r a ld e t e r m i n i s m . Muchw r i t i n gonJ a p a n asha sa l r eadybe e nnot e d、i sa h is t or i ι a l .I ミa t h l ' I t h a ne x a m i n i n ghowp a r t i c u l a rc h a r a c t e r is t i ιsofJ a p a ne s es oc i e t yh a v ed l ' v e l o p e d,t h ea s s u m p t i o ni st h a tt h e ya r esomehowi n n a t e.Fore x a m p l e,t i l l ' n o t i o no fJ a p a na sagroups o c i e t y,acommonthemei nmucho ft h el i t e r a l u r e ,i sassumedr a t h e rt h a ne x p l a i n e d .O t h e rc h a r a c t e r i s t i c s,s u c ha sl i f c t i n w e m p l o y m e n t ,a r ea l s oo f t e ns e e na st y p i c a l l yJ a p a n e s e.Y e tt h i sp r a c t i c ei sn l r e l a t i v e l yr e c e n to r i g i nando n l ya p p l i e st oam i n o r i t yo fJ a p a n e s ew o r k e r目。H Anotherexamplei st h eo f t e n q u o t e dd i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e nhonne( i n n c 1 f e e l i n g so ri n t e n t i o n s ) and tatamae ( t h e way t h i n g sa r ep r 巴s e n t e d0 1 o s t e n s i b l em o t i v e s ) . ManyW e s t e r nw r i t e r sa r ehappyt ou s et h i sd i s t i n c t i o nt o make s w e e p i n go b s e r v a t i o n sa b o u tJ a p a n e s es o c i e t y.For Kal ℃ | v a nW o l f e r e n ,f o rexample,i t‘ p r o v i d e saf r a m eo fr e f e r e n c ei nw h i c hmany f o r m so fd e c e i ta r es o c i a l l ys a n c t i o n e d '.He g o e s on t oa r g u et h a tt l w dichotomya l l o w st h eJ a p a n e s et o‘ b eh o n e s ta b o u tt h e i rf a k e r yt oad e g,℃ピ t h a tW e s t e r n e r sc o u l dn o tp o s s i b l yb e .Theya r ea l l o w e dt op r e t e n dhones t y w i t h o u tf e a ro fb e i n gc h i d e df o rd i s h o n e s t y'3 4T h e r ei snoc l e a r巴x p l a n a t i o ,l ; i nv a nWol「 e r e n' sworka st owhyt h eJ a p a n e s es h o u l db eanymored i s h o l l l s t i ? t h a nWes t e r r s.A f t e ra l l,A m e r i c a n sandB r i t i s hp e o p l ea l s o ,i np r a c t iじじ司 d i s t i n g u i s hb e t w e e nwhatt h e ys a yandwhatt h e yt h i n k .Eveni fo n eassum山 t h a tt h ed i s t i n c t i o ni smorei m p o r t a n ti nJ a p a n ,i ti ss i m p l ya s s e r t e dt h a ti e x i s t sa sac u l t u r a lt r a i tr a t h e rt h a ne x p l a i n e d . 『 C u l t u r eαsas t αr t i l l f (p o i n t A h i s t o r i c a le x p l a n a t i o n so fJ a p a n e s es o c i e t yg e n e r a l l ys t a r tf r o ms u p p o sじd c u l t u r a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so ft h eJ a p a n e s e . As we h a v es e e n,J o y Hendry d i s c u s s e st h eJ a p a n e s ecustomo fr e m o v i n gs h o e sb e f o r ee n t e r i n gahous ' l a sawayo「t e a c h i n gc h i l d r e nt h ed i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e nac l e a ni n n e rdomain andanu n c l e a no u t e rone.Forトl e n d r yt h i si sf a rmoret h a nas i m p l eq u c s t i o no fh y g i e n e .I n s t e a d,s h ei sq u i c kt odraws w e e p i n gじonじl u s i o nsabou t howt h eJ a p a n e s el e a r nd i s t i n c t i o n sb e t w e e np u b l i cb e h a v i o u rand t hc 1 i t r u ef e e l i n g s. 3 5I nr eal i t y ,s u c hq u e s t i o n sa swhato n ed o e sw i t ho n e’ ss h o es one n t e r i n gahous eh a v el i t t l es o c i a ls i g n i f i c a n c e .Thes t u d yo fJ a p a nc sL ' b e h a v i o u rmustc o n s i d e rb r o a d e reconomic,p o l i t i c a lands o c i a lque s t ions . Onag r a n d e rs c a l e ,somea u t h o r sh a v et r i e dt ou s ec u l t u r et oe x p l a i n J a p a n’ seconomics u c c e s s . Morishima M i c h i o,ap r o f e s s o ra tt h eLondon S c h o o lo fEconomics,n o t e st h a t‘ J a p a nh a s had i t s own c u l t u re f ron , a n c i e n tt i m e s,andt h ee t h o so ft h eJ a p a n e s ep e o p l eh a sb e e nf o r m e dov 1 . : 1 manyy e a r sw i t h i nt h i sc u l t u r a le n v i r o n m e n t' . 3 6Morishimai smorec a u t山川 t h a nmanywhenh en o t e st h a tJ a p a n’ sn a t i o n a le t h o sw i l lg r a d u a l ly ,ov e ri i l o n gp e r i o do ft i m e,i n t e r a c tw i t hm a t e r i a lc o n d i t i o n s.How e v e r、h isc onc c p t i o no fane s s e n t i a ln a t ion a le t ho sw h i c hhe l pse x p l a i nJ a p a n’ se c onom ic 1 14 、 l r r a t i o 1 1 a l i t y 八 w e a k n e s sr e l a t e dt oa h i s t o r i c a la n a l y s i si si r r a t i o n a l i s m . From a 1 ai ton a l i s tp o i n to fv i e w,i d e n t i f y i n gp a r t i c u l a rc h a r a c t e r i s t i c so fJ a p a n e s e c i e t ymust b ef o l l o w e db ymoret h o r o u g ha n a l y s i s.Toa g a i nt a k et h e e x,川 1 p l eo fJ a p a na s ag r o u ps o c i e t y,a s s u m i n gt h a tt h ed e s c r i p t i o ni s c or r e c t ,t h en e x tl o g i c a lq u e s t i o nt oa s ki swhyJ a p a n e s es o c i e t yt a k e st h i s ' l orm.B e n e d i c t' so r i g i n a ld e s i g n a t i o no fJ a p a na sag r o u ps o c i e t yi ss u r e l y ba se dont h ec o n f o r m i s tc h a r a c t e ro fJ a p a nwhens h ew r o t eh e rc l a s s i cs t u d y i nt h em i d -I 9 4 0 s .G i v e nt h a tt h eJ a p a n e s ew e r ei nt h em i d s to fw a r ,i ti s har d l ys u刷 s i n gt h e ywe印 n o ti namoodt oe x p r e s s削 ri r v i d u YetB巴n e d i c tf e e l sf r e et og 巴n e r a l i s efrom t h巴 p a r t i c u l a re x p e r i e n c eo f : ip e r i o do fe x t r e m em i l i t a r i s mt oa s s i g nas u p p o s e dc u l t u r a lt r a i tt ot h e . J ap a n e s ep e o p l e. Ch a l m e r sJ o h n s o n ,oneo ft h em o s ts o p h i s t i c a t e dande r u d i t eW e s t e r n wr i t e r sonJ a p a n ,g o e ssomewayt o w a r d si n t r o d u c i n gr a t i o n a l i t yi n t ot h e di s cu s s i o no fJ a p a n .I nh i sc o n c l u s i o nt oMIT!andt h eJapane s eM i r a c l eh e n ot e st h a tt h e‘ p r i o r i t i e so ft h eJ a p a n e s es t a t ed e r i v ef i r s tandf o r e m o s tf r o m anas s e s s m e n to fs i t u a t i o n a li m p e r a t i v e s’r a t h e rt h a nc u l t u r e.ForJohnson, t he sei m p e r a t i v e s‘ i n c l u d el a t ed e v e l o p m e n t ,al a c ko fn a t u r a lr e s o u r c e s,a l ar g ep o p u l a t i o n,t h en e e dt ot r a d e,andt h ec o n s t r a i n t so ft h ei n t e r n a t i o n a l b al an c eo fp a y r n e n t s' . 3 8I nmakingt h i sargument,h eg o e sf u r t h e ri nt h e di re c t i o no fr a t i o n a l i t yt h a nmanyo fh i sd i s c i p l e s .B u ti ti su n f o r t u n a t et h a t 1 ' 01 ・J ohnsont h e s ep o i n t ss e e mt ob emoreo fa na f t e r t h o u g h tt h a nt h ec o r e o ' fh isa n a l y s i s.I na d d i t i o n ,manyo ft h ei m p e r a t i v e sh ei d e n t i f i e s ,t h o u g h i mpor t a n t,a r es e e ni nn a r r o w l yeconomico rdemographict e r m s .Thel a t e d e v el o p m e n to fJ a p a n ,a si sa r g u e di nt h eじo n c l u s i o no ft h i sc h a p t e r ,h a d i mpor t a n tp o l i t i c a lands o c i a lc o n s e q u e n c e s. 以 下 Doubles t a n d a r d s I ti sa s t o n i s h i n ghowp e r v a s i v ed o u b l es t a n d a r d sa r ei nr e l a t i o nt oc r i t i c i s m s ofJ a p a n e s eb e h a v i o u r .I nd i s c u s s i o n so fh i s t o r y ,f o rexample,t h eJ a p a n e s e ar ef r e q u e n t l yc r i t i c i s e df o rt h e i rb a r b a r i cb e h a v i o u rd u r i n gt h eS e c o n dWorld War.Nod o u b tmucho ft h i sc r i t i c i s mi sj u s t i f i e d,b u tW e s t e r ncommentators de mon s t r a t e a marked r e l u c t a n c et oa p p l yt h e same s t a n d a r d st ot h e i r own n a t i o n a lh i s t o r i e s.I ti sh a r dt oi m a g i n eB r i t i s hh i s t o r i a n sa t t a c k i n g B r i t a i n’ Sr e cor di nI n d i aorMalaya,o rAmericanh i s t o r i a n sd i s c u s s i n gt h e 1 15 N卜W I ’ 1 ・I {s l ’ l : 仁 lIVl : S O N I1 1 1:I・/\ SI /¥NI> ' 1 1 1 1;I’ I (1 : S I:N I IS I .八 l ’ 八N I >II • I ・ I ・ lI・N I/ ' KoreanWaro rV i e t川 mi nt h esamewaya st hじy ι Ii~Cll 』ト、 .Japanese a t r oじi t i c s. I nTheWagesofGui ! 人 「o re x a m p l e ,I a nBurumaじo n s t a n t l yじli t i c i s c sJ a p a n f o ri t sa m n e s i at o w a r d si t sw a r t i m ea t r o c i t i e s.Buruma i sc a r e f u lt oa c knowledget h a t‘ n o te v e r yJ a p a n e s es u f f e r sf r o mh is t o r i c ala m n e s i a ' ,b u th じ d o e ss e ei ta saw i d e s p r e a dt r a i ti nJ a p a n e s es o c i e t y .I nt h ei n t r o d u c t i o nt o t h ebook h en o t e st h a tno‘ J a p an e s ep o l i t i c i a n[ h a s ]e v e rgonedownon h i sk n e e s. . .t oa p o l o g i s ef o rh i s t o r i c a lc r i m e s' . 3 9Y e tt h ei d e at h a tt h eWes t s h o u l de v e nc o n s i d e ra p o l o g i s i n gf o rt h e bombing o fH i r o s h i m a and N a g a s a k id o e sn o te v e ns t r i k ehima sw o r t h yo fc o n s i d e r a t i o n . 4 0 U n d e r l y i n gt h ee m p h a s i sonc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c ei saf u n d a m e n t a l l yr a c i a l c o n c e p t i o no fJ a p a n.I d e a sw h i c hw e r ee x p r e s s e di nb i o l o g i c a lt e r m s up u n t i l1 9 4 5a r enowe x p r e s s e di nt h el a n g u a g eo fc u l t u r e .Asar e s u l t,s t u d i e s o fJ a p a nt e n dt ob ea h i s t o r i c a landi r r a t i o n a l .I nmanyc a s e se x p l i c i td o u b l e s t a n d a r d sa r ee v i d e n t . ul t w・ a ld i f f e r e n c emeanst h a tr e a lp o l i t i c a l I r o n i c a l l y ,t h ee m p h a s i sonc d i f f e r e n c e st h a te x i s tb e t w e e nJ a p a nandt h eWesta r eo f t e nn o te x p l o r e d . Fore x a m p l e ,t h ed i f l 白c u l t yt h eJ a p a n e s ee l i t eh ashadi ni n c u l c a t i n gac l e a r c u ts en s eo fn a t i o n a lp r i d ei nt h ep o p u l a t i o na tl a r g ei sr a r e l ye x a m i n e d . I nB r i t a i n and t h e USA t h en o t ion o fb e i n gp r o u d o「one ’ sc o u n t r y h a sg ene r a l l yb e e ns e ena su n p r o b l e m a t i ci nt h epos t w a rp e r i o d .I nJ a p a n‘ b yc o n t r a s t ,n a t i o n a l i s m was d i s c r e d i t e db yt h ee x p e r i e n c eo fd e f e a ti n t h eSecondWorldWarandt hep o s t w a rr e c o n s t r u c t i o no ft h es t a t ebyt h e s USA.Formanyy e ar st h eJ a p a n e s et e n d e dt oi d e n t i f yw i t ht h e i rc o u n t r y、 economics u c c e s s ,b u tw e r emorec i r c u m s p e c tab o u ti t sp o l i t i c a li n s t i t u t i o n s P e r h a p st h emosts t r i k i n ge x a m p l ei si nr e l a t i o nt ot h earmedf o r c e s ー o r ‘ s el fd e f e n c ef o r c e s’a st h e ya r ee u p h e m i s t i c a l l yknown-w h e r eJ a p a n e s e h a v et e n d e dt os u p p o r tt h ep aじi 自s tじo n s t i t u t i o n .MostAmericanandB r i t is h c i t i z e n s,ont h eo t h e rhand,t o o ks omep r i d ei nt h em i l i t a r ypowero ft h e i r nat i o n s . Whent h ek e yc h a r a c t e r i s t i c sa r eassumedr a t h e rt h a ne x p l a i n e d r e a leconomicandp o l i t i c a ld i f f e r e n c e sa r eo f t e nm is s e d . 目 司 Then o t i o no fd i f f e r e n c ei nJapan じo n f i rm a t iont h a tt heUS八 i sb e s t .1 3 u taJ a p a ne s ep e r s o nr e a d i n gt hes ame h es amec o n c l u s i o n . t e x tmaynotr c aじht T h u s ,t h e r ei sasymbi ot icr e l a t i o ns h i pb e t w e e nJ a p a n e s ep r o p o n e n t so f Niho りi n r o n( t h ec u l to fJ a p a n e s eu n i q u e n e s s )and W e s t e r nl i b e r a lc r i t i c s o fJ a p a n . Wes t er nc r i t i c sp o i n tt oc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e s,s u c ha sJ a p a n’ s a l l e g e dg r oup じh a r a c t e r,and u s et h i si m p l i c i t l yt or e i n f o r c eav i e wo f J a p a na si n f e r i o rt ot h eWestρ J a p a n e s et h e o r i s t st a k et h e s ed i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a ct e r i s t i c sb u ti n t e r p r e tthemd i f f e r e n t l y.Whereo n ep u t sap l u ss i g n , t h eo t h e rp u t saminus.AsI s h i h a r aS h i n t a r oar g u e st h eJ a p a n e s e‘ s h o u l d t u r nt h et a b l e sons e l f r i g h t e o u sAmericanc r i t i c sbys i m p l ya g r e e i n gw i t h i v el a them t h a to u r economy and s o c i e t ya r ed i f f e r e n tf r o mt h e i r s.V , ρ43 ( ' i n e r e n c e ! . 川・ on i sc i t e da st h eb a s i so ft h eg r e a t e s tW e s t e r n myth a b o u t Ni hoυ J a p a n :t h a tt h eJ a p a n e s ea r et h er e a lr a c i s t si ni n t e r n a t i o n a la f f a i r s .Edwin 0.R e i s c h a u e r,whowasUSambassadort oJ a p a ni nt h e1 9 6 0 s,andM a r i u s B.J a n s e n,aP r i nじe t o nE m e r i t u sp r o f e s s o rs p e ci a l i s i n gi nt h eF a rE a s t ,a r e t h ea u t h o r i t i e sf o rt h ec h a r g eo fJ a p a n e s er a c i s m .I n t e r e s t i n g l y,t h i sc h a r g e i su s u a l l ymad ew i t ho n ee y eont h eWest’ sownbadr e p u t a t i o n : 雫 I ' f ' , Weo f t e nt h i n ko fr a c i a lp r e j u d i c ea sb e i n gas p e c i a lp r o b l e mo ft h e w h i t er a c ei nr e l a t i o n sw i t ho t h e rr a c es ,b u ti ta c t u a l l yp e r v a d e s t h ew o r l d .Nowherei si tg r e a t e rt h a ni nJ a panandt h eo t h e rl a n d s o fE a s tA s i a. 4 4 Thes l e i g h to fhandh e r ei sb r e a t h t a k i n g .F i r s tr a c i s mi sno tpar t i c u l a r ly W e s t e r n ,b u tp e r v as i v e;t h e ni ti snow h e r eg r e a t e rt h a ni nJ a p a nandt h e o th e rl a n d so fE a s tA s i a .Twop a g e sl a t e r,R e i s c h a u e randJ a n s e nd i s m i ss t h er e p u t a t i o no f‘ s o ; べa l l e dr a e i s tAmerica’i na na s i d e . 45C h a r a c t e r i s i n g J a p a na sr a c i s ti sac o n v e n i e n twayo fw h i t e w a s h i n gt h er e c o r do fAmerican andEuropeana r m i e si nA s i a ,f r o mt h ebombingo fH i r o s h i m at ot h ek i l l i n g f i e l d so ft h e Koreanand V i e t n a m e s ew a r s .I nf a c t ,t h es u b s t a n c eo ft h e a c cu s a t i o nt h a tt h eJ a p a n e s ea r er a c i s ti s ,i r o n i c a l l y ,t h a tt h e ydon o ta c c e p t t h a tw h i t e sa r es u p e r io r . Givent h eu n d e r l y i ngr a c i a lt h i n k i ngi nB e n e d i c t’ sworki ti sp e r v e r s et h a t i tha sb e e ns op o p u l a ri nJ a p a n.Thee x p l a n a t i o no ft h i sa p p a r e n tp a ra do x i sq u i t es t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .AsAokiTamotsu,ap r o f es s oro fCu l t u r a lAnthro・ p o l o g ya tOsakaU n i v e r s i t y ,h a sn o t e d ‘ :h e rbookwasw i d e l ya c c e p t e di n J a p a n .Ther e a s o nl i e si nt h er e l a t i v i s tp a r a d i g ms h ea d o p t e d .叫 lT h i sr e l a t i v i s t methodmeanst h a tJ a p a n e s er e a d e r sc a ni d e n t i f yt h esamec u l t u r a lt r a i tsi n r e l a t i o nt ot h e i rc o u n t r ya sAmericansdo bu tp u tad i f f e r e n tv a l u ej u d g e mentonthem.I no t h e rw o r d s ,t h es amet r a i tst h a tm i g h tb ei d e n t 1 自e da s p o s i t i v e byaJ a p a n e s e migh tb es e en a sn e g a t i v eb ya nA m e r i c a n . An Americanr e a d i ngabou tc u l t u r a ld i f f e r en c esi sl i k e lyt os e et hed i s c u s s i o n日目 Ana l t e r n a t i v emethodf o ru n d e r s t a n d i n gJ a p a nw o r l ds t a r tb yr : 巴j e c t i n gt h e al l p e r v a s i v ei d e ao fh i s t o r i c a lc o n t i n u i t y . The b e h a v i o u ro fany n a t i o n c a nn o tb eu n d e r s t o o ds i m p l yi nt e r m so fal e g a c yf r o mt h ep a s t .TheB r i t a i n o ft o d a yf o re x a m p l e ,i sav e r yd i f f e r e n tp l aじef r o mt h a to ft h el 9 5 0 s -l e t al onet h eB r i t a i no ft h eV i c t o r i a ne r a .Thed i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nJ a p a nt o d a y ande ar l i e rt h isc en t u rya r ed r a m a t i c.I nt h es p a c eo fac e n t u r yJ a p a nh a s eme r g e da sar egi onalpower、b巴comeac o l o n i a l i s tn a t i o ni nA s i a ,l o s ta wor l dwar‘b e e no c c u p i e db yaf o r e i gnpowerandu n d e r g o n epos si b l yt h e 1 16 1 17 守 Ana l t e r n a t i v emethod 匂 N l: W l ’t RSI 'I ; {・1 ・ l V l・ S< > Nl ' l l hl ’ / \ SI, ¥NI I I1I 1 ・Rlパl 』NI m o s tr a p i de c o n o m i ct r a n s f o r m a t i o no f 'a l lt i 1 1 1じ. I l i ed i l lじ1 1 . ! l lじc sb じt wじじ 1 J a p a nb e f o r ea n da f t e r1 9 4 5a r ep a r t i c u l a r l ymarked.I nt l lじ y e a rso rOじじ upト , t i o nf o l l o w i n gt h ewar,t h eUSA r e f a s h i o n巴da l lo rJ a p a n p o l i t i c a la n d s o c i a li n s t i t u t i o n s .D u r i n gt h ew a r ,f o re x a m p l e ,J a p a nwasd o m i n a t巴db y t h em i l i t a r y ;a f t e r w a r d s ,t h eU S w r i t t e nc o n s t i t u t i o no f f i c i a l l yd e f i n e dJ a p a n ts t a t e . a sap a c i白s sb e h a v i o u rt h i sc e n t u r y ,w h i c ho f t e ns e e m sp e c u l i a rt oW e s t e r n J a p a n’ c o m m e n t a t o r s ,makesp e r f e c ts e n s ei nt h ec o n t e x to fi t su n i q u eh i s t o r i c a l e x p e r i e n c e .F o re x a m p l e ,J a p a n’ se m e r g e n c ea san o n w h i t epowere a r l yt h i s c e n t u r yp l a c e di ti na nawkwardp o s i t i o n .J a p a nwasd e s p e r a t et obecomea c o l o n i a lpowerj u s tl i k ei t sUSandEuropeanp e e r s ,p r o m o t i n gi t si n v a s i o n o fC h i n ai nt h e1 9 3 0 s ,a sp a r to fi t sownMonroeD o c t r i n e . 4 6H o w e v e r ,t h e w h i t ep o w e r swould n o tl e tJ a p a np l a ys u c har o l e,s i n c ei tc h a l l e n g e d t h ea s s u m p t i o no fr a c i a ls u p e r i o r i t yt h r o u g hw h i c ht h e i rowne m p i r e sw e r e j u s t i f i e d . 47Thep e c u l i a rp o s i t i o no fJ a p a ne x p l a i n st h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e n J a p a n e s en a t i o n a l i s mandt h er a c i a lo u t l o o ko ft h eAmericana n dE u r o p e a n p o w e r s.W h i l et h ew h i t ep o w e r sh a da l r e a d ye s t a b l i s h e dac o l o n i a ld i v i s i o n o fl a b o u rb e t w e e nt h e m ,t h eJ a p a n e s el a t e c o m e r sw e r en e v e ra c c e p t e di n t o t h ec l u b . N a t i o n a lp r i d ei nJ a p a na l w a y st o o kont h ed e f e n s i v ec h a r a c t e ro fa n e x c l u d e dp e o p l e,r e a c t i n gt ot h er a c i a ln o t i o n so fW e s t e r ni m p e r i a l i s m.I n t h ef i r s th a l fo ft h ec e n t u r y ,J a p a n e s epropagandawasf a rl e s sc o n c e r n e d w i t hd e n i g r a t i n go t h e rr a c e sa si n f e r i o rt h a nw i t hb u i l d i n gt h es e l f i m a g eo f J a p a na sau n i q u en a t i o n .AsJ o h nDowe,‘r e c o u n t s : 、 八l ’ / \ N l>ll · I SI l · l · IU • N ' I ・ 7 By t hじ l a t e |りお()日 J a p a nf o u n dt is c l「i nap o s i t i o nw h e r emanyo rt h e ol ι lじc r t a i n t i c sc o u l d nol o n g e rb ec o u n t e d on.F i r s t,t h er 巴l a t i v ed e c l i n e o ' ft h eUSA meantt h a tJ a p a nf e l tt h a t,r a t h e rt h a nr e l y i n gt o omuchon 八m e r i c a npower,i ts h o u l dp u r s u eamorei n d e p e n d e n tr e g i o n a landg l o b a l r ol e. T h i st r e n dwasa l r e a d ya p p a r e n tt oJ a p a n e s et h i n k e r so v e r白f t e e ny e a r s ago.Amaya N a o h i r o,al e a d i n gMI T Io f f i c i a l,l i s t e di nt h ec o n s e r v a t i v e βu n g e iS i n o υuj o u r n a li n1 9 8 0al i t a n yo fwhath er e g a r d e da sAmerican f a i l u r e s : Ont o po fV i e t n a mcamet h eW a t e r g a t ea f f a i r,t h eA r a b I s r a e l iwar andt h eo i lc r i s i so f1 9 7 3 ,u n c o n t r o l l a b l ei n f l a t i o ncombinedw i t h t h el o s so fAmericani n d u s t r y’ sc o m p e t i t i v ee d g e,t h ed e c l i n eo ft h e d o l l a r,t h ee x p o s u r eo ft h ee m b a r r a s s i n ggapb e t w e e nt h ep r o m i s e a n dr e a l i t yo fP r e s i d e n tJimmyC a r t e r' shumanr i g h t sd i p l o m a c y, and t h ei n c r e d i b l ys w i f tf a l lo ft h eShaho fI r a n .A g a i n s tt h i sb a c k d r o p t h巴r ew e r em e n a c i n gS o v i e ta d v a n c e si nAngola,E t h i o p i a ,S o u t h Yemen and A f g h a n i s t a n ,t h ed e c l i n eo fUS i n刊u e n c ei nM i d d l e E a s tp e a c en e g o t i a t i o n s, a n dt h ee r o s i o no fA m e r i c a nm i l i t a r ys u p e r i・ o r i t yt ot h ep o i n to fa c t u a li n f e r i o r i t yi nsomer e s p e c t s .5 0 J a p a n e s em i l i t a r yp r o p a g a n d a was o f t e nf r a m e di nt e r m so fo p p o s i t i o n t ot h ec o l o n i a l i s t West,h o w e v e ro p p r e s s i v eJ a p a n e s er u l ei nE a s tA s i a e v e n t u a l l yp r o v e dt ob e.A f t e r1 9 4 5 ,J a p a n,a sanonw h i t en a t i o nd e f e a t e d i naw o r l dw a r ,c o u l dn o tc l a i ms u p e r i o r i t y.I n s t e a d,t h ee m p h a s i swaso n t h ed i s t i n c t i v e n e s so fJ a p a n e s ei n s t i t u t i o n s . U n d e r s t a n d i n gt h i sa l s o makesp o s s i b l eamore r a t i o n a la p p r o a c ht o・ w a r d sJ a p a n’ sc o n t e m p o r a r yd i s c u s s i o no ft h eS e c o n dWorldW a r .J a p a n e s e p o l i t i c i a n s ,f a rf r o mi g n o r i n gt h eS e c o n dWorldWar,w e r ea l lt o oe a g e rt o t a l ka b o u ti tb yt h e1 9 9 0 s. S u c has t a n c ei sp e r f e c t l ye x p l a i n a b l ei nt e r m so f t h eu n c e r t a i nc h a r a c t e ro fJ a p a n e s ep o l i t i c sf o l l o w i n gt h ee n do ft h eC o l d Wari nt h el a t e1 9 8 0 s.A f u l le x p l a n a t i o no ft h e‘ d i p l o m a c yo fc o n t r i t i o n‘ p u r s u e db yJ a p a ni nt h e1 9 9 0 si sb e y o n dt h es c o p eo ft h i sc h a p t e r、b u ts ome o ft h eb a s i ce l e m e n t sc a nb eo u t l i n e d . 4 9 J a p a n’ sg e o p o l i t i c a lp o s i t i o nh a s ,a d m i t t e d l y ,c h a n g e dc o n s i d e r a b l ys i n c e Amayaw r o t et h i sp i eじ巴. H o w e v e r ,t h ei m p o r t a n tp o i n ti st h a t ,e v e nb y1 9 8 0, J a p a n’ sl e ad e, 叶1 i pwasc o n s i d e r i n gr e l y i n gl e s sont h eUSAandp l a y i n ga morei n d e p e n d e n tw o r l dr o l e .T h i st r e n dh a sc o n t i n u e ds t i l lf u r t h e rw i t ht h e e n do ft h eC o l dWar.J a p a n’ sq u e s tf o rap e r m a n e n ts e a tont h eU n i t e d N a t i o n sS e c u r i t yC o u n c i la n di t si n v o l v e m e n ti nUNp e a c e k e e p i n go p e r a t i o n s ar ej u s ttwoe x a m p l e so famorea s s e r t i v eJ a p a n .5 1 S e c o n d,t h ed e m i s eo ft h eS o v i e tUnion removedt h eo l dr a t i o n a l ef o r J a p a n e s ed e f e n c ep o l i c ya n dt h eUS-Japans e c u r i t yr e l a t i o n s h i p .D u r i n gt h e Col d Warp e r i o dt h es p e c t r eo ft h eS o v i e tt h r e a tp r o v i d e dt h er a t i o n a l e f ort h eUS-Japans e c u r i t yt r e a t y .Witht h eb r e a k u po ft h eUSSR,t h eUS・ J a p a nr e l a t i o n s h i pn e e d st ob ec o n c e p t u a l i s e di nneww a y s .5 2Y e tJ a p a n e s e p ol i t i c i a n sf e l ti twasn e i t h e rp o s s i b l en o rd e s i r a b l ef o rJ a p a nt or e v e r tt o ol d f a s h i o n e dm i l i t a r i s mt od e f e n di t si n t e r e s t si nE a s tA s i a .I n s t e a d ,J a p a n u s e dt h el a n g u a g eo fh u m a n i t a r i a n i s mt oj u s t i f yp l a y i n gab r o a d e rr o l ei n Asi a .By1 9 9 2,f o l l o w i n gt h ep a s s a g eo ft h eP e a c eK e e p i n gO p e r a t i o n sB i l l , J a p a nh a ds e n tt r o o p sonap e a c e k e e p i n go p e r a t i o nt oCambodia,f o l l o w e d byd i s p a t c h e so fu n i t st oMozambiqueandRwanda.5 3S u c hm o v e s ,w h i c h wou l dh a v eb e e nu n t h i n k a b l ei fpromotedi nt h eo l dl a n g u a g eo fm i l i t a r i s m , wer ea c c e p t a b l eo n c ep a c k a g e da sh u m a n i t a r i a n i s m .Thei m p o r t a n tp o i n t h e r ei sn o tt h ee x i s t e n c eo faf e wh u n d r e dl i g h t l yarmedJ a p a n e s et r o o p s i nf a r a w a yp l a c e s .I ti sr a t h e rt h a tt h eJ a p a n e s eg o v e r n m e n th a dmanaged t os e tap r e c e d e n t ,r e e s t a b l i s h i n gi t sr i g h tt op l a yab r o a d e rp o l i t i c a land m i l i t a r yr o l ei nw o r l da f f a i r s . 1 18 1 19 .t oa ni m m e a s u r a b l ed e g r e e ,t h e r ewasar e a c t i v ec a s tt ot h e a n t i W e s t e r nr h e t o r i co ft h eJ a p a n e s ed u r i n gt h ey e a r su n d e r d i s c u s s i o n-ac l e a rs e n s eo fr e v e n g ef o rp a s ti n d i g n i t i e sa n dm a l t r e a t mentw h i c h ,a g a i n,h a snop r e c i s ec o u n t e r p o i n ti nt h er a c i s mo f w h i t es u p r e m a c i s m. 4 8 司 、 NI ・v l ・ 1 ・ RS1 ・ l ;仁 l I VI ・ S( )N ' I1 1 1 1 \ ・, 'I, ¥NI> I1 1 1 I ・ ll ・ Sl : NI 八l ・八 N I )I ド1 ・ 1 : I U・ NI / ' I Sl The‘ diplomacyorc on t r i t ion h c l p e d j us t i ly; 1h r l l : 1 dじ1gl obal andr ι ei o naI r o l ebyr e d e f i n i ngt h巴 meaningo rt h eS cじo n ι IWo1 I dWarf o rJapan.U n t r l t h e1 9 9 0 st h ep r e v a l e n tv i e wi nJapanwast h川 、 s i n c ei thad p l a y e ds u c h ad e s t r u c t i v er o l ei nt h eSecond World War,i ts hou l dl i m i ti tsconじC ll p r i m a r i l yt oeconomica f f a i r s .Yett h ei m p l i c i ta s s u m p t i o nb e h i n dt h ed i p lomacyo fc o n t r i t i o nwast h a tt h el e g a c yo ft h eSecondWorldWar,f a rfrom l i m i t i n gJapan’ sr o l ei nw o r l da f f a i r s ,meantt h a ti thadam o r a lo b l i g a t i o n t op l a yab r o a d e rg l o b a lr o l e .Thewarwasc e r t a i n l yn o tf o r g o t t e n,b u tt is sDeputyP r i m eM i n i s t e rand meaningwasr e d e f i n e d. AsKonoYohei, Japan’ M i n i s t e rf o rF o r e i g nA f f a i r s ,s a i di nas p e e c ht ot h eUNG e n e r a lAss embly i nSeptember1 9 9 4: じt yじanon lyl e adt os up c r f iじi a lc o n c l u s i o n s.Twomor ef u n d aJapane s e詰Oじi m e n t a l ques t ionsn巴e dt o bea sk e d.F i r s t we n e e dt oa s k how g e n u i n e ands i gn i f ic an ts u c hd i f f e r e n c e sr e a l l ya r e.O f t巴nt h e r ei sas t r a i g h t f o r w a r d d o u b l es t a n d a r di n Wes t e r nw r i t i n gonJapan.S巴c ond,t ot h e巴x t e n tt h a t d i f f e r e n c e sdoe xi s t ,i ti se s s en t i a lwedemandar a t i o n a l,s oc i a le x p l a n a t i o n o fthem.Onlyi fs u c hq u e s t i o nsa r ea s k巴di si tp o ss i b l et ou n d e r s t a n dt h e c om p l e x i t ie so fmodernJapan. 司 、 Notes U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,t h edominantmodeo fWesterns ch o l a r s h i po f t e np r e d u d l :s a s k i n gsome o ft h e most i n t e r e s t i n gq u e s t i o n s about . J a p a n e s es o c i e t y l e ta l o n e白n d i n gt h er i g h ta n s w e r s.Toomucha t t e n t i o ni so f t e ng i v e nt o i d e n t i f yi ng t h ed i s t i n c t i v ec h a ra ct e r i s t i cso f. J a p a n e s ec u l t u r e , which al ℃ o f t e no fas u p e r f i c i a ln a t u r e,r a t h e rt h a ne xp l a i n i n gwhys u c hd i f f e r e n c l :s e x i s t .Ati t sw o r s t ,t h i sapproachl e a d st oane x a m i n a t i o no fJ a p a n e s es o c i e t yi nt e r m so fi t ss u p p o s e d l yi n n a t ec u l t u r a lt r a i t s.Evena ti t sb e s ti tt e n ds t obecomeo b s e s s e dw i t hp a r t i c u l a rf e a t u r eso fJapan,r a t h e rt h a nf i n d i ng r a t i o n a ls o c i a le x p l a n a t i o n sf o rt h ef o r m st h a tJ a p a n e s es o ci e t yt a k e s. Westernw r i t i n gonJapant o d a ymayb ec l o a k e di nt h es y m p a t h e t i cI a n guageo fC u l t u r a lAnthropology,b u ti t su n d e r l y i n ga s s u m p t i o ni st o oo f t e n t her a c i a li n f e r i o r i t yoft h eJ a p a n e s e.A d m i t t e d l y,f e wa u t h o r sa r ew i l l i ngt o s t a t ee x p l i c i t l yt h a tt h e yb e l i e v et h eWesti ss u p e r i o rt oJapan.Nori st h c 1じ ad is cu s s i o ni nr e s p e c t a b l ec i r c l e so fb i o l o g i c a ld i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e nt h eJ , ] l 下 a n e s eandW e s t e r n e r s.I n s t e a d,t h ed i s t i n c t i o nsa r eframedbyt h en o t ionof c u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e.D e s p i t ei t so r i g i n si nt h et h e o r yo f‘ s c i e n t i白ca n t i r a c i s m' t h ei d e ao fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c eembodiesi t sownf o 1 ・ mo fr a c i a lt h i n k i n g. Thじ predominanti n f l u e n c eonhumanb e i n g si ss e ena st h ec u l t u r ei n t ow h i c h t h e yhappent ob eborn.Suchd i f f e r e n c e sa r et h e nh e l dt oe x p l a i nd i f f e 1 ・ e nじc s b e t w e e ns o c i e t i e s .Then o t i o no fc u l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c et a k esi tsa u t h o r i t yfrom commons e n s ee x p e r i e n c e .I ti sc l e a rt oanyo b s er v e rt hatt h e r ear eso m~· d i f f e r e n c e si nt h eb e h a v i o u ro fJ a p a n e s eandAmericansorB r i t i s hpe op l e. Howe v e r ,t omakes u c hd i f f e r e n c est h eo r g a n i s i n gp r i n c i p l eofanys t u dyo l e vi s i o n’ i nr ev i s i on is m II tw a sr a r e l ye x p l a i n e di nt hed is cu s si on t ha tt he‘I r e f e 1 1e dt ot h ev i e woft hep o s t w a rmod e r n is at i o nt he o1 ・ i s t si n1 e l a t iont oJ a p an. T h e s ew r i t e r sa s s u m e dt h a tJ a p a nw o u l di n c r e a s i n g l yt a k eo nt h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o fA m e r i c a ns o c i e t y.Thed e m is eofmo d e r n is at i o nt h eor yr e f l e c t e dt h er e l a t i v e d e c l i n eofA m e r i c a ・ np o w e ri nt h ew o r l d .Onm o d e r n is ai tont h e o rys e e :Da vi d W i l l i a ms ,Japa11: Beyo11clthe Em/ofHistory,Lon don,Rou t l e d g e,1 9 9 4,p xv ; i a n dS h e l d o n Garon,‘ Re t h i n k i ngMo d e r n i z a t iona n dM o d e r n i tyi nJ a p a n e s e H is t or y ' ,JoumalofAsia11Studies,5 3( 2 ) ,Ma y1 9 9 4, p 3 4 7 .F o rar a d ic al c r i t i q u e o fmo . d er n is ai ton. t h e o r y,s e et h ei n tr o d u c ti on t o Gavan McCorma ck ,a n d S u g i m o t oYo sh io( e d s . ) ,TheJapa11ese Tl'(~jectm:i,、 Ca mbridge, C a m b r i d g eU n i v er s i t yP r es s ,1 9 88 . 2F r a n c i sFukuyamar e i t e r a t e st h isp o i n t ,r e f e r r i n gt oJ a p a na sah i g h t r us ts o c i et y. S e eh isTrust:.TheSocialV i r f l l e sam/t h eC r e a t i o 1 1ofProsper 旬 、L ondon ,H a m i s h H a m i l ton,1 9 9 5.Ch a rl e sHampdenTu ne ra n dF o n sT r o m p e n a a r sa t t e m p tt o g i v et hea r g u m e n ts omee m p i 1 ic al1 i gou r,s u r v ey in gma n a g er sf 1 o ms e v enoft h e ~lain i n d us tr i a lじo u n t r ie s ,i n c l u d i ngJ a p a na n dt h eUSA.S e et h e i rTheSe11 e1 川 、L ondon P ia t k u s,1 9 9 3 . C u l t u r e sofC a p i t a / i s r i n c e t on ,P r i n c e t onUni ve r s t iyP r 巴S S ,1 9 9 3 , 3K e n tCal d e r StrategicCapita/is川 、 P p l7 . i v e r s t iyP r es so fA m e r i c a, 4S a k a k i b a r aE i s u k e ,Beyo11clCapitalism,Lanham,Un 1 9 9 3. 5C a l d e r ,o p .c i t .,p l7 . 6I b i d, .p l 9. 7I b i d.p l 7.J a m e sF a l lowsd e v e l o p st h isa r g u m e n ti nLooki11‘ rattheSu11(New York,P a n t h eon,1 9 9 4 ),w h e r eh et r a c e se c o n o m i cn a t ion a l is mi nJ a p a nb a c kt o n de v e nf u r t he rb a c k F r i e d r i c hL is t ,t hen i n e te en t h c en t u r yGerman w r i t e r、a t oA l e x a n d e rH a m i l to n( 1 7 5 7 -1 8 0 4 ),t h eA m e r i c a ns t at esmana n dF i r s tS e c r e t a ryo ft h eT r e a s u r y 8Da . vi dHowe l ‘ ,E a s t er n is ai ton , 'DemosQuar t e・ 0 ヘI s su e6 ,1 9 9 5,p 2 7. 9S a m u e lP .H u n t i n g to n司 ‘ Th eCl a shofCi v i l iz ai ton s ' , Foreign Affairs,7 2( 3 ), Summer1 9 9 3、p 2 2 . 1 0J o h 1 】 D o w e r ,War” , i t l w u tNier り ・ , L on don,F a b e r& F a b e r ,1 98 6 ,p l1 9 . 1 1R u t hBe n e d ic t ,TheClwysa11the111u111a 1 1 c lt h eS l l ' o r c l ,L on don,Rou t l e dg e& Kega n ‘p 4. P au l .1 9 67 ‘A n t h r o p o l o g ya n dJ a p a n :A t t e m p t sa tW r i t i n gCu l t uぱ ,The 1 2A o k iTamotsu, J a p a 1 1F o w u l a t i o 1 1Nの 吋l e t t e r ,X XII( 3 ) ,O c t o b e r1 9 9 4,p p 4-5 . 1 3Be n e d i c t ,o p .c i t .,p p l 5 67 . l . 1 4I b i d.p MIT/am/t h eJ a p a 1 1 e s eM i r { l c / e( S t a n f o r d , 1 5S e ec h a p t e ro n eo fCh a r m e r sJ oh ns on, S t a n f o r dU n i v e r s it yP r e s s1 9 8 2 ) ,f o rad i s c u s s i o no fd i f f e r e n ts ch o ol si nr e l a t i o n a p a n e s eeconomi cm日・ a c l e. t oe x pl a na t i o n so ft h巴 J 1 2 0 1 21 R e f l e c t i n gw i t hr e m o r s eupont h eSecondWorld War,Japanh as n e v e rwaveredfromi t scommitmentt oc o n t r i b u t et ow o r l dp閉 じe and p r o s p e r i t y.Japan d o e sn o t,norw i l li t,r e s o r tt ot h eu s eo f f o r c ep r o h i b i t e dbyi t sC o n s t i t u t i o n .Japanw i l lr e m a i nr e sol u t e l ya n a t i o no fp e a c e .. I na c c or d a n c ew i t h what Ih a v ej u s ts t a t e d Japanh a sd i s p a t c h e dmemberso fi t sS e l f D e f e n c eF o r c e sa sw e l l a sじi v i l i a np e r s o n n e lt os ev e r a lc o u n t r i e s ,i n c l u d i n gCambodiaand Mo z ambique、i nr es p ons et or e q u e s tsb yt h eU n i t e dN a t i o n s. 5 4 司 司 司 , 司 司 ・ Ni:W I ’ l : RSPE('II V l : S ON 1 1 1 1・l ' / ¥S :l 八 NI > II II ¥ IR l: S l: NI I S J八 l ’八 N I )I I ・ 卜l : R l: NI I ' t .,p l O . 1 6 Be n e d i c t,o p .じi じi a lA n t h r o p o l o ι yt a k e s ad i l ' f・ c r c ntap p r o a r l i 1 7I ti ss ome t i m esar gu e dt h a t So 日omCu l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g y ,e v e ni ft hed i l T e r c nじC i son lyu n d e r s t o o dasoneol e m p h a s i s .Cl a u d eL e v i S t 1 a u s s ,f o re x ample ,s ug g e st st ha tt h e r ei sl i t t led i l T c r c n n ・ b e t w e e nt h es o c i a lan dc u l t u r a la p p r o a che st oa nt hr o p ol o g y ,c om p a r i ngt het w 1 i d i s c i p l i n e st obooksw h i c hc o n t a i nt h esamec h a p t e r s ,b u ti nad i f f e r e n to rd : L1 ( S t m c t u r a / i s tA 1 1 t h r o p o l o ιv ,Harmondswor t h,Pe ngu i n,1 9 63 ,p p 3 5 63 5 9 ) .I nt i∼ s t r o n g e rf o r m ,s u c hanar g u m e n tm i g h ts e em t oexemptS o c i a lA n t h r o p o l o巳y f r o mt h ec r i t i c i s m smadeh e r eo fC u l t u r a lA n t h r o p o l o g y ,i nt h a tw h i l et h el a t t: L1 c on c e n t r a t esoni d e asan dc o n c e p t s ,t h巴 f o r m e rs t u d ie ss o ci alr e l a t i o n s h i p s.F r n ,H is t or yand I de ol o gi c alS i g n i f i < . : ar e b u t t a lo ft h i sv i e w,s e e : Har r i s , Marvin‘ anc eo ft h eS e p a r a t i o no fS o c i a landCu l t u ralA n t h r o p o l o g y ',i nE r i cB.Ro sぉ . ( e d . ) ,Beyondt h eJ 悶) l t h sofCu l t u r e ,Lon don, AcademicP r es s ,1 98 0 .Ast h isc l r n p t e 1 g o e so nt o demons t rat e,t h ec r i t i c i s m sl e v e l l e d ataCu l t u r a l Anthropol o gi おt a l s u c ha sRuth B e n e d i c tar ee q u a l l ya p p l i c a b l et oac on te mpo r a r yB r i t is hSoじi A n t h r o p o lo gi s ts u c ha sJ o yHendry. 1 8B e n e d i c t,o p .c i t .,p1 1 . 1 9J oyHendr y ,U m l e r s t a m l i n gJapan,Lon don,Rou t l e dg e ,1 9 9 5( s e c o n de d i t i o n ) ,p2 . 2 0B e ne d i c t,o p .c i t .,p1 1 21Hendry ,o p .c i t .,p l 8 7 . 2 2B e n e d ic t ,o p .c i t . ,p 7 . 2 3I b i d .,p l 8 1 2 4I b i d .,p 2 0 0. 2 5 Hendry ,op.c i t .,p 3 8 . ,凶0 . 2 6I b i d. 2 7B e n e d i c t,op.c i t . ,p 2I 3 e is cha u e r ,an d Mar i usB.J a n s e n , TheJapane . w’ 2 8S e e ,f o rexampl e : Edwin0.R Today,London,TheBe l k napP r es so fHarvar dU n i v e r s i t yP r es s ,1 99 5( e n l a r ιじd e d i t ion ). 2 9B e n e d i c t,o p .c i t .,p 6 . 3 0 Hendry,o p .c i t . ,p 2 2 3 . 31S e eDo w e r ,op.c i t . a sti n 3 2 Forane x t e n d e da n a l y s i so ft h ep r o c e s sw h e r e b yr a c i a lt hough twasl巴c t h el a ng u a g eofcu l t u r a ld i f f e r e n c e ,s e e :I くe n anMal i k,TheM e a 1 1 i 1 1 gザ R似 'l' , Lon don,Ma cm i l l a n,1 9 9 6. ‘ ,B e f o r eL i f e t i m eEmploymen t :E m p l o y e r san dEmploy巴e si 1 3 3S e eJ a n e tH u n t e r P r e w a rJ a pan ,’ TheJapanSocieりY Proceediugs,No. 1 2 6,W i n t e r1 9 9 5 均1 1 aofJ α ≪ p 『 , ,esePo’, ’t 3 4 Kar e lv a nW o l f e r e n ,TheE, p 2 3 5. a t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t ’ 3 5S e eHendryo p .c i t . ,c h a p t e r3. T h i sd i s t i n c t i o nr e l a t e st ot h ed i s c u s s i o no ft and/ 1 0 1 1 1 1ea b o v e . S u c c e e d e d ' ,Cambr i dg e ,Cam b r i dg eUn 1v c1 3 6 Mor is himaM i c h io ,WhyHasJapan‘ s i t yP 1e s s ,1 9 8 2,p p v i i-v i i i . 3 7 Somep r e w a ra n t h r o p ol ogi s t s ,s u c ha sJ oh n Embree,d i dw r i t eo nt heg r oup ’ sw a r t i m eworkt h a t c h a r a c t e ro fJ a p a n e s es o ci e t y,b u ti twast h r o u g hB e n e d ict t h enot i o nwasp o p u l a ri s e d . 3 8J oh ns on,op.c i t . ,p 3 0 7 . u i l t,Lon don,J o n a t h a nCap e,1 99 4 ,p 9 3 9I anBuruma,TheWagesofG 4 0The i d e at hatt h e r et h e USA c o u l d ha v e ha d ar a c i alm o t i v ei nd r o p p i n p atomi cbombs on H i r os himaan dN a g a s a k ii sd i s m i s s e di n one p a r a g r . q ヲh i b i d, .p 9 8. 4 1 Aoki,o p .c i t . 4 2I l ow じv c r、 i nr e じ己 n ty e ar st h e noi ton ofg r o u p i s m of t e ni nt h eg u i s eo f じo m m u n i t a r i a n i s m ha sb e じo memorepopul a ri nt h eUSA J Mohammed M a h a t h i r,and I s h i ha r aS hi nt a r o , The V o i c e ofA s i a,T okyo, l くo n d a n s h a ,1 9 9 5、p1 0 9 . Foramoree x t e n si v ed i s c u s s i o no fN i l w 1 1 j i 1 1 r o 1 1 ,s e e sc ha p t eri nt h i sv olume . LynnR e v e l l’ 3 9 6 . 4 4R e i s c h a u e ran dJ a n s e n,o p .c i t .、p 4 5I bi d . ,p 3 9 8 . ‘A “ J apa n e s e Monroe D o c t r i n e” and 4 6S e e ,f o r exampl e : Kaneko Ke n ta ro, Manじh u r i a, 'Co1 1 t e 1 1 1 p o r n r yJapan,I( I ) ,J u ne1 9 3 2 ;an dKamikawaHikomats u, ‘ TheAmericanandJ a p a n e s eMonroeDo c t ri ne s ' ,C o 1 1 t e 1 1 1 po r n r yJapan,V I1( 6 ) , Auuus t1 9 3 9 . ForanAmericanv i ew‘s e e :GeorgeH.B l a k e s l e e‘ ,TheJ a p a n e s e Mo 川 1 r o eD o c t r i n e ,’ ForeignA 刀a i r s,1 1( 4 ),J u ly1 93 3 . 4 7T h i si sa na r e ao fg r e a tc o n tr o v e r s ywh ic hi ti sn o tp o s s i b l et oe n te ri n t oh e r e. U s e f u l booksw h i c ht o u c ho nt heg e o p ol i t ic alp o s i t i o no fp r e w a rJ a p a ni n e a r l/ / a r b o ra sH i s t o ヅ, e l u d e : Dorothy Bor gand OkamotoShumpei( e d s . ),P NewYork,Col u m b iaU n i v e r s i t yP r e s s ,1 9 7 3;andJamesB.Crowl e y ,J a p a n ' s Q u e s tρ , , .A t 1 t o 1 1 0 1 1 1 y ,P r i nc et o n ,P r i n c e t o n Uni v e r s i t yPr e s s ,1 9 6 6 ;C h r i s t o ph e r i m i tsofF o r e i g nP o l i c y , London,Ha m i s h Hamil to n ,1 97 2 ;and T h o r n e , TheL ta l .e d s .)司TheA 1 1 1b f r a l e 1 1 c eofN a t i o 1 1 a l i s 1 1 1’Lanhan J a111巴sW.Whitee s i t yP r e s so fAmerica’1 9 9 0 . 4 8 Dower,o p .c i t . ,p 2 0 4 . 4 9TheE c o 1 1 0 1 1 1 i s t( 1 7August1 9 9 1 )a r g u e st h a tJ a p a n’ s' d i p l o m a c yo fc o nt r i t i o n , ’ wh ic hc e n t r e do nJ a p a ns a y i n gs o r r yf o rp a s tt r a n s g r e s s i o n s ,b e g a nw i t hapolo~ gi e st oS o u t hKoreai nMay1 9 9 0 .Moreb r o a d l y ,J a p a n e s ed i p l o m a c yha sc 巴n t r e d onh u m a n i t a r i a nt h e m e s . 5 0B 1 1 1 1 g e iS / 1 1 1 1 , j u,Ma r ch1 98 0 ,t r a n s l a t e da s:‘ J a pana saM e r c a n t i l eN a t i o n, 'Japan I I( 2 ) ,1 9 8 0 ,p 5 4 . Echo,V 51T h i sa r gume n td o e sn o ti m p l yt h a tJ a p a ni ss e e k i n gat o t a lb r e a kfromt h eUSA. Ra the r ,i ti ss e 巴k i ngt op l a yamorea c t i v er ol ei nwor l da f f a i r sw h i l em a i n t a i n i n g f r i e n d l yr e l a t i o n swi t ht h eUSA. 5 2F o r us ef u ls tu d ie so fr e c en tt r e n dsi nJ a p a n e s ef o r e i g np o l i c y,s e e : Edward J .L i n c o l n ,J仰 側 、 NewC l o h a lR o l e,Wa sh i ngt on DC, B rooki ng sI ns t i tu t ion, a p a n e s eQ u e s t i o n,W ashingtonDC,American 1 9 9 3;andKe , ; ne thB .P y l e ,TheJ En te r p r i s eI ns t i tu te ,1 9 92 . 5 3S e eL i n c o l n,o p .c i t .Att h et i m eo fw r i t i n gi twasal s op l a n n e dt os en dt r o o p st o t h eI s r a ei lo c cu p ie dGolanH e igh ts . t a t e m e n ta tt h e4 9 t l ,G e n e r a lA s s e mhl y oft l i 』 t Un 5 4 Kono Yohe i ,S l 2 7S e 1 コ t e m t ヲe r1 9 9 4 .( P r e s sr e l e a s eo fs p 巴e chi s su e db yt h ep e r m a n e n tm is si o 1 ofJ a p a nt ot h巴 U n i t e dN a t i o n s . ) 1 2 2 1 23 パ MODERNJAPANESE CULTUREAND SOCIETY R o u t l e d g eL i b r a r yo fModernJ a p a n E d i t e db y D .P M a r t i n e z VolumeI P o s t w a rJ a p a n :S e t t i n gt h eS c e n e unk nvνRH 附 ’ N emO 間 恥 puv W且噌’ e m d. 山 川崎川 O U ’ ロHnα 削 翼極言回X 、tM CONTENTS F i r s tp u b l i s h e d2007 b yR o u t l e d g e 2P a r kS q u a r e .M i l t o nP a r k .Abingdon.Oxon、0XJ44RN.UK S i m u l t a n e o u s l yp u b l i s h e di nt h eUSAandCanada byR o u t l e d g e 270M 1 d i s o n八 venue‘NewY o r k .NY 1 0 0 1 6 ‘ Xl l l Aclrno1・ l edgeme1t s xv Chro, R o 1 1 1 / e d g ei sa ni 1 1 1 p r i n 1o ft i 即日1畑 d F r a n c i sG r o u p ,仰 i n β E d i t o r i a lm川 c r i a lands じl c c t i o nc 2007Dol o r e sP .M a r t i n巴z :i n d i v i d u泊 I ownersr e t a i nc o p y r i g h ti nt h e i rownm a t e r i a l T y p e s e ti nI 0 1 1 2 p tTimesbyGraphi c r a f tLimi t e d ,I l ongKong P r i n t e dandboundi nG r e a tB r i t ai nby ∼ 1 d s t o w Cornwal T . 1D i g i t a l,I 司 A l lr i g h t sr e s e r v e d .Nop a r tort hi sbookmayb er e p r i n t e do r r e p r o d u c e do ru t il i s e di nanyformo rbyanye l e c t r o ni c . m e c h a n i c a lo ro t h e rmeans nowknowno rh e r c a l t e r i n v e n t e d ,i n c l u d i n gphotocopyingandr e c o r d i n g .o ri nany i t h o u tp e r m i s s i o ni n 1 n l o r 1 1 1 a t i o ns t o r a g eo rr e t r i e v a ls y s t e m‘ w w r i t i n gfromt h ep u b l i s h e r s . 司 Introduction:O nJapaneseCultureandSociety V O L U M E I POST-WAR JAPAN: S ETTING T HE SCENE 司 B川l i s hL i b r a r yC r 1 1 a / o g 1 1 i n gi nP 1 1 b l i c a 1 i o nDara Ac a t a l o g u er e c o r df o rt h i sbooki sa v al ia b l efromt heB r i t i s hL i b r a r y L i b r a 川 ’o fC o n g r e s sC a r n l o g i n gi nP 1 1 b l i c a 1 i o nData Ac a t川ogr e c o r dr o,・t hi sbookha sb e e nr e q u e s t e d PART I N ew perspectiveson the pastand thepresent 2 9 t Thepasti nt he present CAROL GLUCK 2 I ttakesa village :i n ternationalizationandnost a lgi a I S l 3 N I O :0 4 1 5 41 6 0 9 4( S e t ) 1 5 4 1 6 1 0 8(Vol umeI ) I SBNI O :0・4 I Sl3Nl3:9 7 8 0 4 1 5 41 6 0 9 2( S e t ) I SBN1 3 :9 7 8 0 4 1 5 4 1 6 1 08(VolumeI ) 27 i npostwarJapan 6 2 J ENNI FER ROBERTSON 3 Rationalization andnost a lgi a:culturaldynamicsofnew 8 3 middlec l as sJapan P u b l is h e r ’ S No t e t e ra r ea st h e ya p p e a ri nt h eo r i g i n alcompl e t ework R e f e r e n c e sw i t h ine a c hc h討 p WI LLIAM W. KELLY 1 0 6 4 IsJapandifferent? DANI EL BEN-AMI 5 ’ Rethinking theoriesofnationalism:Japansnationalism i na 124 marketplaceperspec t i v e KOSAKU YOSI I INO 6 J l c isciyakuza:burstbubbleand B o a i / 1δ l ’ E「ER I I I LL v 143