What is Data Communication?
Data communications means the exchange of data between two devices via
some form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part
of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs).
Characteristics of Data Communications:
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four
fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data
must be received by the intended device or user and only by that device or
user.
2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data
delivered late are useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are
produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called realtime transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the
uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us
assume that video packets are sent every 3D ms. If some of the packets
arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in
the video is the result.
Different Characteristics of Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
Performance:Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit
time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one
device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the
number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Reliability:In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is
measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from
a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security:Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Different Data Flow Directions
Communication between any two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex.
1. Simplex:In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a
one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive which can be represented in the following figure.
Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only
introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
2.Half-Duplex:In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and
receive, but not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other
can only receive, and vice versa which will represent in the following figure.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way
must wait. In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is
taken over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time; the entire capacity of
the channel can be utilized for each direction.
3.Full-Duplex:In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can
transmit and receive simultaneously as shown in the following figure.
The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one
direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in the other
direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain
two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other
for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided between the signals
traveling in both directions.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can
talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the
channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Types of Topologies:
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship
of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring which are
shown in the following figure.
1.Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The dedicated link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects. The number of physical links needed in a fully connected
mesh network with n nodes are, n(n - 1). However, if each physical link
allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the
number of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology,
we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To accommodate that many links,
every device on the network must have n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports to be
connected to the other n - 1 stations which are shown in the following
figure:
Advantages of Mesh Topology:
1. The dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links
must be shared by multiple devices.
2. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
3. Another advantage of Mesh topology is advantage of privacy or security.
When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining
access to messages.
4. point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This helps to
discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and
solution.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology:
1. Every device must be connected to every other device. So large amount
of cabling and the number of I/O ports are required. So, the installation and
reconnection are difficult.
2. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in
walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
3. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be
prohibitively expensive.
2.Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to
one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which
then relays the data to the other connected device as shown in the following
Figure.
Advantages of Star Topology:
A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each
device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of
others.
A star topology is robust. i.e If one link fails, only that link is affected. All
other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault
identification and fault isolation.
Disadvantages Star Topology:
1.One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
2.Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be
linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required in a
star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
3.Bus Topology:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus
topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a
backbone to link all the devices in a network which is shown in the following
figure. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop
line is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is
a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal
travels along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat.
Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther.
For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and
on the distance between those taps.
Advantages of Bus Topology:
1. The main advantages of a bus topology is ease of installation. Backbone cable
can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines
of various lengths.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology:
1. The disadvantage of bus topology is difficult reconnection and fault
isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at installation. It
can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal reflection at the taps
can cause degradation in quality.
2. A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals
back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.
4. Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the
ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a
signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and
passes them along. A typical ring topology is as shown in the figure.
Advantages of Ring Topology:
A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to
only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add or delete
a device requires changing only two connections.
A signal is circulating at all times (token) if one device does not receive a
signal within specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location
Disadvantages of Ring Topology:
The main disadvantage of ring topology is unidirectional traffic can be a
disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled
station) can disable the entire network.
5. Hybrid Topology:
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology
with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in
the following figure.
If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links remain
active.This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and
fault isolation.
Types of Networks
Network category is determined by its size, ownership, the distance it cover
and its physical architecture. The types of networks are local-area networks
and wide- area networks. The category into which a network falls is
determined by its size. A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 miles, a
WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in between are normally referred
to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.
Local Area Network:
A Local Area Network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a
single office, building, or campus (see Figure 1.10). Depending on the needs of an
organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs
and a printer in someone's home office; or it can extend throughout a company and
include audio and video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few
kilometers.
LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal
computers or workstations. The resources to be shared can include hardware
(e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or data.
Wide Area Network:
Wide Area Network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data,
image, audio, and video information over large geographic areas that may
comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world. A WAN can be as
complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dialup line that connects a home computer to the Internet.
Metropolitan Area Network:
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN
and a WAN. It normally covers the area inside a town or a city. It is
designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to the
Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good
example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can
provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
Different Characteristics of Networks
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are performance, reliability, and security
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to
travel from one device to another.Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including
the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of
the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.