Psychological Testing Psychological Testing 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Definition of Terms a) Assessment: the process of gathering information b) Measurement: the process of assigning numbers c) Evaluation: the process of determining worth of sth based on numbers (Evn=Qnt+Qlt) d) Testing: quantifying behavior by using a test (items, questions that make up a test) o Test: a tool used to quantify behavior (e.g. personality, spelling, ability, and interest test) Psychological Testing 2 What is Psychological Testing? • Psychological test: contains a set of items designed to measure characteristics of human behavior – Overt behavior: observable action – Covert behavior: takes place inside a person (cannot be directly measured) Psychological Testing 3 Psychological Testing vs Assessment Psychological Testing 4 Psychological Assessment • A general approach that utilizes various sources of data (portfolio, interviews, observations, etc in addition to a test) to make decisions • Combines both qualitative (subjective )and quantitative (objective) approach • Individualized, unlike psychological testing Psychological Testing 5 Collaborative assessment: the assesor and assessee work as partners (e.g. therapy) Dynamic assessment: an interactive approach that follows a model of evaluation, intervention, and evaluation Psychological Testing 6 Psychological Testing 7 Tools of psychological assessment • Test • Psychometrics: the science of psychological measurement • Portfolio • Case history data • Observation • Role play • Technology (EEG, etc) • Interviews (panel) Psychological Testing 8 Psychological testing • The use of psychological and educational tests to measure individual differences (personality, achievement, etc) Psychological Testing 9 Traits and States Tests often try to measure traits and states Traits: enduring predispositions States: specific status of a person (e.g. mood, situations) Psychological Testing 10 Function of Psychological Testing • Decision making: psychological tests cab be used determining promotion, • Placement: place students and workers to different categories (based on tests scores) • Administrative function: • Diagnosis: identifying psychological problems, learning difficulties, etc. • Research: using psychological tests for research purpose Psychological Testing 11 Psychological Testing is Applied in different Settings Educational. Tests are used to identify special children, to test achievement, and to diagnose students’ area of deficiency. Clinical. Hospitals and clinics use tests to screen behavioral disorders, and to test effectiveness of interventions. Legal. The legal setting utilizes results from clinics, psychologists in determining CTT, etc. Industrial setting. Industries and organizations heavily rely on tests to measure job motivation, competence, and commitment. Psychological Testing 12 Assumptions in Psychometrics 1. Psychological attributes exist 2. Psychological attributes can be measurable and quantifiable 3. The same attribute may be measured in various ways 4. Assessment processes are prone to errors Psychological Testing 13 1.2. History of Psychological Testing Psychological Testing 14 1. Ancient China In 2200 B.C. Chinese government employees were tested every three years Written exams were introduced in the Han dynasty (202B.C.–A.D. 200) Five topics were tested: civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography. Psychological Testing 15 2. Early Psychiatric tests In 1885, the German physician Hubert von Grashey found that many brain injury patients could recognize stimuli (words, pictures, or symbols) in their totality but could not identify them when shown through the moving slot. German psychiatrist Conrad Rieger developed an excessively ambitious test battery for brain damage (it took over 100 hours to administer) These tests did not win much acceptance. Psychological Testing 16 3. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) • Founded the first psychological lab in Germany, Leipzig (1879) • Thought meter, used pendulums to assess thought swiftness, based on observed vs actual pendulum position (1862). • Speed of thought varies from one person to another. • Focused on human similarity rather than difference. Psychological Testing 17 4. Francis Galton (1822-1911) • Sir Francis Galton (Darwin’s cousin), a British scientist, applied evolutionary theory to the study of intelligence, which he believed to be heritable. • Introduced a measure of relationship, later called correlation. • Believed that intelligence is quantifiable and normally distributed. • Known by eugenic movement (selective breeding of gifted individuals). • Intelligence is the ability to use sensory ability. • Used sensory discrimination and RT as tests of intelligence (1883). Psychological Testing 18 Francis Galton Psychological Testing 19 5. James McKeen Cattel (1860-1944) • American psychologist who worked with Galton in England. • Developed a battery of 50 tests to measure mental ability (1890s). • Like Galton, he relied on RT and sensory discrimination. • Later, one study (Clark Wissler, 1901) contradicted and the other supported the relationship between RT and processing speed with academic achievement. • Cattel introduced mental test in 1890. Psychological Testing 20 6. Alfred Binet (1857-1911) Alfred Binet, A French psychologists tried to develop the first standard intelligence test He used tests to identify developmentally disabled children from normal school children The approach was not deterministic (but aimed at training those who need help) In 1905, with Theodore Simon, Binet introduced items that are graded according to actual age level (CA). The number of right answers indicated mental age (MA) Psychological Testing 21 Binet’s principles Age differentiation: older adults perform better compared to younger children General mental ability: a set of specific abilities, to indicate intelligence, used in solving any problem in an environment. Task 1+Task2+Task3….Task30=Intelligence Psychological Testing 22 Alfred Binet Psychological Testing 23 Components of Binet-Simon test Binet-Simon test included practical knowledge, memory, reasoning, vocabulary, and problem solving The tests worked better at predicting school success compared to simple sensory tests Psychological Testing 24 Psychological Testing 25 Sample Binet-Simon items (1911) Age Three Four Five Task Shows nose, eyes and mouth. Repeats two digits. Describes objects in a picture. Gives family name. Repeats a sentence of six syllables. Gives own sex. Names key, knife, and penny. Repeats three digits. Compares the length of two lines. Compares two weights. Copies a square. Repeats a sentence of ten syllables. Counts four pennies. Psychological Testing 26 Age Six Seven Fifteen Task Distinguishes between morning and afternoon. Defines objects in terms of their use. Copies a shape. Counts 13 pennies. Compares faces from the aesthetic point of view. Identifies right hand and left ear. Describes a picture. Follows precise directions. Names four colors. Repeats seven digits. Gives three rhymes. Repeats a sentence of 26 syllables. Interprets a picture. Solves a problem from several facts. Psychological Testing 27 Evolution of Alfred-Binet test n 1908, Binet and Simon published a revised 58-item scale that incorporated the concept of mental level. In 1911, a third revision of the Binet Simon scales included each age level now had exactly five tests; the scale extended into the adult range. In 1912, Stern proposed dividing the mental age by the chronological age to obtain an intelligence quotient. In 1916, Terman suggested multiplying the intelligence quotient by 100 to remove fractions. Psychological Testing 28 7. Stanford-Binet Test • Lewis Terman and his colleagues modified Simon-Bine test in 1916. • It was renamed as “Stanford-Binet” test. • Multiplied the intelligence quotient by 100 to remove fractions. • Terman is the first to use the IQ for intelligence quotient, the ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100. Psychological Testing 29 Calculating IQ 𝑀𝐴 IQ= x100 𝐶𝐴 Where: MA=Mental age CA=Chronological (actual) age Psychological Testing 30 Example, • A 12 year child may score like a 14 year old child. His IQ will be: • 𝐼𝑄 = 14 𝑥100=1.6*100=116 12 Psychological Testing 31 • Modern intelligence tests—including the current Stanford-Binet test—no longer compute scores using the IQ formula. • Instead, they rely on how far the person’s performance deviates from the average performance of others who are the same age. • Most modern tests arbitrarily define the average score as 100. Psychological Testing 32 8. World War I (1914-1918) • Robert Yerkes and colleagues developed two intelligence tests to recruit individuals for US army. • Army Alpha: exam for literate recruits. – Included athematic, general knowledge, analogies, synonym-antonym, and other problems. • Army beta exam: for non-English speakers and illiterate recruits. – Included tests to complete pictures, missing elements, mazes, and solve puzzles • The recruits were chosen based on their scores. Psychological Testing 33 9. Spearman’s Two Factor Model In 1902 Charles Spearman, British psychologists, proposed two factor theory. Intelligence consists one general factor (g) and a number of specific factors Intelligence=g+s+e A single g factor is a predictor of all s factors He introduced factor analysis, to reduce a large number of variables into smaller (a single) factor, g. Psychological Testing 34 Tests that show high positive relationship are g loaded. All positive correlations on all mental tasks indicate a common variable (factor) producing the correlation, g. Tests with moderate or low relationship indicate a specific factor (s) or unique ability, requiring unique ability. Psychological Testing 35 10. Modern Tests • Personality inventories (1920-1940) • Vocational interest tests developed (19611980) • Computerized Testing System (1980-present) Psychological Testing 36 CHAPTER TWO INTELLIGENCE TESTING Psychological Testing 37 2.1. Psychological Attributes • Psychological attributes: refers psychological characteristics that differentiate individuals on different dimensions such as; personality, intelligence, etc. • Psychological attributes can be: – Stable attributes: relatively long lasting (e.g. intelligence, personality, etc. – Fluid attributes: attributes that vary on different occasions, situations, and times (e.g. mood). • Personal values, opinions, and attitudes may change from 18-25 years Psychological Testing 38 Stable attributes are good predictors of future behavior. Fluid attributes are less important to predic future behavior. Psychological attributes are assumed to be normally distributed. The attributes reveal individual difference. Psychological Testing 39 Defining Intelligence Intelligence: general mental ability to reason, solve problems, think abstractly, and apply what they know to solve practical problems. includes different forms of information processing: – – – – – Memory Learning Reasoning Thinking and Decision making Psychological Testing 40 2.2. Theories of Intelligence Psychological Testing 41 • Galton • Binet • Spearman • Unitary mental ability • Multiple factors • Cognitive theories Thurston Cattle & Horn Gardner Cattel-Horn Sternberg Carrol Psychological Testing 42 1. Spearman’s Two Factor Theory (1904) • Charles Spearman stated that general intellectual factor (g), reflects performance on different tasks (s). • Each intelligence tests measure some parts of g. • Test score=g+S+e Psychological Testing 43 g (General Mental ability) S1 (Abstract reasoning) S2 (Vocabulary) Psychological Testing S3 (Numerical) 44 2. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities (1939) • Louis Thurston, American psychologist opposed the notion of g factor • Proposed that intelligence consists different (seven) primary abilities that can be grouped, independent of one another (but still related to g). • Thurston and his wife administered a battery of 56 tests to college students and analyzed the scores by using their factor analysis. Psychological Testing 45 Thurston’s Primary abilities S.No Factor Ability Description 1 S Spatial ability Ability to perceive spatial relations (form and patterns of 3D objects) 2 P Perceptual ability The ability to distinguish visual details 3 N Numerical ability Ability to deal with numbers 4 V Verbal comprehension Ability to understand meaning of words 5 W Word fluency Ability to think and use words rapidly (e.g. rhyming tests) 6 M Memory Ability to remember (words, numbers, etc.) 7 R Reasoning Ability to think logically Psychological Testing 46 3. The gf-gc Theory (1963) Raymond B. Cattel and John L. Horn used new method of factor analysis. They identified two types of general intelligence: a). Fluid intelligence(gf): abilities that allow us to reason, think, and acquire new knowledge (biological base). – Increase into adulthood and then decrease. b). Crystallized intelligence(gc): the knowledge and skills acquired through learning and experience. – Increases throughout life span (e.g. vocabulary). Psychological Testing 47 g=gc+gf Where: gf= ability to see relationships gc=learned ability plus retrieval Psychological Testing 48 4. Guilfold’s Tri-dimensional Theory (1961, 67) J.P. Guilfold stated that every intelligence can be described in terms of three basic dimensions: – Operations: the act of thinking (action of the person). – Contents: nature of material for operation (e.g. words, pictures). – Products: the ideas we produce (information processing). Provided 120 primary abilities on a cube (4 contents x 5 operations x 6 products=4x5x6=120) Psychological Testing 49 Modified version • In 1967, he expanded his cube to make them 150. – Operations: Memory, Cognition, Recording, etc – Contents: Visual, auditory, semantic, symbolic, etc. – Products: units, classes, relations, etc. Psychological Testing 50 5. Multiple Intelligence Theory (1983) Howard Gardner, American Psychologist seriously challenged the notion of one general intelligence. He proposed that multiple intelligences exist, independent of one another. He observed prodigies (extremely talented young individuals) and savants (score low on IQ tests but extremely talented in some tasks such as drawing or memory) Presence of one extraordinary ability in absence of other abilities show the existence of multiple intelligences. Psychological Testing 51 Type of intelligence Description (with a typical example) 1. Linguistic intelligence Ability to use word and express thoughts (T.S. Elliot) 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence Ability reason logically and solve mathematical problems (A. Einstein) 3. Spatial intelligence Ability to perceive visual and spatial information (e.g. navigation) (Pablo Picasso) 4. Musical intelligence Sensitivity to musical rhythms, patterns, and sounds (Igor Stravinsky) 5. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence Ability to use one’s own body (Martha Graham) 6. Interpersonal intelligence Understanding others’ behavior (S. freud) 7. Intrapersonal intelligence Ability to understand one’s own self (Mohandas Gandhi) 8. Naturalistic intelligence Sensitivity to nature (Charles Darwin) Psychological Testing 52 6. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (1985) • Robert Sternberg was dissatisfied with traditional intelligence measures because they do not predict real life success. • Triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence states that intelligence consists of three main aspects: – Analytic intelligence: skill in reasoning, processing information, and solving problems (related to g). – Creative intelligence: skill in using past experiences to achieve insight and deal with new situations. – Practical intelligence: people’s ability to adapt to, select, and shape their real-world environment. It involves skill in everyday living (“street smarts”) and in adapting to life demands, and reflects a person’s ability to succeed in real-world settings. Psychological Testing 53 7. Three Structures Theory of Cognitive Abilities (1993) • J.B. Carrol proposed another multiple intelligence model based on factor analysis. • Cognitive abilities have three strata (the top level includes the rest). – Top level (stratum): the top strata that shows general intelligence (g). – The second stratum: where the g is further broken down into eight classes (e.g. fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, general memory, etc.) – Level three: then each level is broken down. Psychological Testing 54 Intelligence Strata Level 1 (g) Level 2 (Gf, Gc, Y, V, U, R, S, T) Level 3 Gf=general, quantitative, and Piagetian reasoning Psychological Testing 55 Psychological Testing 56 CHC Model • Carrol’s theory is similar to Cattel-Horn model and then it is renamed as CHC (Cattel-HornCarrol) Model. Psychological Testing 57 8. PASS Model of Intellectual Functioning () • • • • Planning Attention Simultaneous processing Sucsessive processing Psychological Testing 58 PASS Model Attention (Arousal) Information processing (Parallel, Successive) Psychological Testing Planning (Problem Solving Strategy) 59 2.3. Modern Intelligence Scales • Currently, the most accepted form of intelligence test are: – Stanford-Binet test – Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WAIS) Psychological Testing 60 Stanford-Binet test • The 1956 scale introduced deviation IQ-the comparison of performance of a subject with the performance of others in the same age in the standardization sample. • Test performance is converted into a standard score with a mean of 100 and SD of 16. Psychological Testing 61 IQ calculation Step 1: determine chronological age (calculated based on subject’s birth day). Step 2: determine mental age (calculated based on his or her score on a scale). Step 3: calculate IQ by dividing the mental age to the chronological age. Then, the score is multiplied by 100, to eliminate fractions. 𝑀𝐴 𝐼𝑄 = 𝑥100 𝐶𝐴 For example, Child 1 (MA=6, CA=6)=6/6*100=100 Adult 2 (MA=16*, CA=37=16/16*100=100 * The maximum age is 16 Psychological Testing 62 The Wechsler Intelligence Scales • David Wechsler challenged the single score offered by 1937 Stanford-Binet scale. • Stnford-binet test did not consider that intelligence deteriorates as we grow older. • Used the point scale rather than the age scale. • Included non-verbal (performance) test. • The point scale concept: the process of arranging similar test items together and involved assignment of a specific point (credit) for each test. • Performance scale concept: to overcome Binet’s emphasis on language and verbal skills, Wechsler introduced tests non-verbal intelligence (performance scale). • Performance scale: can help to overcome cultural bias due to language. Psychological Testing 63 Types of Weschsler Intelligence Test • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for children (WISCIV) • Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence (WPPSI-III) Psychological Testing 64 Subsets of Wechsler Intelligence Test Psychological Testing 65 2.3. Genetic and Environmental Influences • Intelligence is a result of both genetic and environmental factors. • Nature: a view that intelligence is predetermined by biological or genetic factors. – Individuals cannot change their intelligence. – Special education is not needed. – Political implication • Nurture: a view that attributes environmental factors to variations in intelligence. – Believes in intervention programs Psychological Testing 66 A. Genetic Factors • Genetic factors account for about 50 % of the variability in intelligence test scores. • Heritability estimates are applied to groups, not individuals. Psychological Testing 67 Biological evidence • Evidences: – Identical twins reared together have similar Iqs (r=.90) – Identical twins reared apart (r=0.72) – Fraternal twins reared together (r=0.60) – Brothers and sisters reared together (r=.50) – Fraternal twins reared apart (r=0.25) – Adopted children were more similar to their parents Psychological Testing 68 B. Environmental Factors • As children grow they tend to be similar to their adoptive parents. • Children adopted in higher SES showed increased IQ • Nowadays, IQ scores are increasing • Even height increased as a result of Industrialization. • These shows improved environment increases IQ scores. Psychological Testing 69 2.4. Intelligence Variation • Nowadays, intelligence levels vary from profound mental retardation to extreme giftedness based on IQ scores. – Profound retardation= below 25 – Severe retardation=25-30 – Moderate retardation=40-54 – Mild retardation=55-69 – Normal IQ=90-110 Psychological Testing 70 IQ Range Description level % in population > 130 Very superior 2.2 120-130 Superior 6.7 110-119 High average 16.1 90-109 Average 50 80-89 Low average 16.1 70-79 Borderline 6.7. < 70 Mentally retarded 2.2 Psychological Testing 71 Distribution of IQ Scores Psychological Testing 72 Psychological Testing 73 Chapter Three Personality Testing 3.1. Nature and Definition of Personality • It is very difficult to provide a complete definition of personality. • However, most textbooks define it as a stable unique characteristics that differentiate one person from the rest. – E.g. based on interests, attitudes, worldview, personal identity, sense of humor, and cognitive and behavioral styles. • People in different times to classify people based on their characteristics. Traits and types • Personality traits: relatively enduring distinguishable attribute in which one individual varies from another (e.g. shy vs outgoing, optimist vs pessimist, sociable vs unsociable, etc.) • Personality types: enduring characteristics that belongs to a certain classification (type). For example, Hippocratic classification. • Traits are individual descriptions, whereas types are descriptions for people sharing the same attributes. • Personality states: a relatively temporary predisposition (e.g. anxious state because of exam) Personality assessment • Personality assessment may be defined as the measurement and evaluation of psychological traits, states, values, interests, attitudes, etc. • Uses projective, objective, and behavioral methods. Humoral Theory • The first attempt to classify people came from Ancient Greece. • Hippocrates believed that four bodily humors or fluids (yellow bile, black bile, blood, and phlegm) determine temperaments. • The theory is less scientific. • Galen, expanded Hippocrates’ idea – Sanguine: cheerful personality associated with red blood. – Choleric: hot tempered trait as a result of yellow bile. – Melancholic: depressed personality due to the abundance of black bile. – Phlegmatic: unemotional and lonely tendency due to phlegm. Somatotypes theory • William Sheldon, classified individuals based on their body stracture. • Researches did not show correlation between personality and body structure. • The theory is formed based on embryonic development. – Endomorphs: outgoing, fun loving fat people. – Mesomorphs: assertive muscular people. – Ectomorphs: intellectual and lonely skinny people. Why do we need personality assessment • • • • Job selection Vocational choice Clinical (psychotherapy) National intelligence (e.g. the terrorist mind) 3.2. Objective Personality Tests • • • • NEO MMP CPI 16PF Factor Analysis • A data reduction methods that include several types of statistical techniques collectively known as factor analysis or cluster analysis. • Personality related terms (180,000 but 4,505 were real traits) in English language (Allport & Odbert, 1936) • Cattell reduced the list to 171 after judges rated “just distinguishable differences”, by eliminating the synonyms. • Then, distributed to college students to rate their friends on the 171 attributes. • 16 personality factors (16PF) were drawn. 4,504 word 171 36 16 PF Big 5 Cattel’s 16PF Dimensions Warmth Reasoning Warm Concrete Reserved Abstract Emotional stability Reactive Dominance Liveliness Deferential Serious Emotionally stable Dominant Lively Rule-Consciousness Expedient Social Boldness Perfectionism Shy Tolerates Disorder Rule conscious Socially bold Perfectionistic Sensitivity Vigilance Abstractedness Privateness Utilitarian Trusting Grounded Forthright Sensitive Vigilant Abstracted Private Apprehension Openness to Change Self-Reliance Tension Self-assured Traditional Group oriented Relaxed Apprehensive Open to change Self-oriented Tense An example from Cohen and Swerdlik on factor analysis – 1000 colors – Primary colors (Red, Yellow, Blue) – Secondary colors (possible combinations=RY, RB, RYB) Big Five Personality (abbr. OCEAN, CANOE) Personality Characteristics High score Openness to experience Curiosity, appreciation for art, Inventive/curios adventure, and unusual ideas, imagination, & creativity Low score Consistent/cautious Conscientiousnes Organized, disciplined, s planned, and inflexible Efficient organized Easygoing/careless (flexible, spontaneous, unplanned) Extraversion Assertiveness, energy, talkativeness, sociability, and stimulation seeking in the presence of others Outgoing/energetic Solitary/reserved Agreeableness Compassionate, cooperative, trusting , sympathetic Friendly/compassionate Analytical/detached Neuroticism Emotionality, impulsiveness, anger, anxiety, etc Sensitive/nervous Secure/confident NEO Personality Inventory: Measures big five personality traits Comparing “Big Five” with Castell's Five Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory • Developed by Starke R. Hathaway (psychologist) and John Charnley McKinley (psychiatrist/neurologist) • It contained 566 T/F items to identify personal, social, and behavioral problems. • MMPI is a trade mark of university of Minnestota. • MMPI-2 is introduced in 2008. • MMP-2 contains 338 items and 50 sclaes Continued “Type A” vs “Type B” Personality • Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman (cardiologists) classified personality into type A and B. • Type A personality: characterized by competitiveness, haste, restlessness, impatience, feelings of being time pressured, and strong needs for achievement and dominance. • Type B personality: characterized by calmness, patience, etc. 3.3. Projective Personality Tests Projective tests base on projection, a means to infer mental process that subjects fail to admit by using different tests. Judgment of the personality is made on the basis of performance on a task that involves supplying some sort of response to an ambiguous stimulus such as a word, an incomplete sentence, an inkblot, or an ambiguous picture. Less valid because of their subjective nature of interpretation These testes are based on the assumption that people tend to project their unconscious needs, wishes, fears, and conflicts in interpretation vague stimuli. A. Rorschach Inkblot Test • The test consists of ten inkblots, and the scoring considers location and content – Location: areas of blots used – Content: what qualitative characteristics perceived on a test The ten inkblots published by the Swiss doctor Hermann Rorschach in his book Psychodiagnostik. A subject is given an inkblot and is asked to report his or her perceptions. B. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) • Henry Murray • In Tat, an examiner will be shown pictures and asked to tell stories about each picture. C. Draw-A-Person Test (DAT) • An examiner is asked to draw a human figure 2.2. Aptitude Psychological Testing 100 2.3. Achievement Psychological Testing 101 2.4. Interest Psychological Testing 102 2.5. Personality Psychological Testing 103 CHAPTER THREE BASIC STATISTICS Psychological Testing 104 Scales Of Measurement Nominal: numbers are used to name and label (e.g. Gender; 1=Male, 2=Female) Ordinal: naming plus ordering (e.g. 1st, 2nd, etc.) Interval: scales showing equal intervals (e.g. Likert scale) Ratio: includes absolute zero score (e.g. age, height, scores, etc.) Psychological Testing 105