Documentation Guide
for students and faculty
CSE
This is a condensed guide to the mechanics of research writing, based on
guidelines determined by the American Psychological Association. For more
thorough and detailed instruction, refer to Scientific Style and Format: The CSE
Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers or go to
http://www.councilscienceeditors.org.
All materials are available at the FLCC library and The Write Place.
Fall 2009
Important Conventions for Writing Scientific Laboratory Reports

The report is written in the passive third person rather than in the active first person. For
example, the sentence “I used a test tube” is in active first person while the sentence, “A
test tube was used” is in the passive third person.

The methods used in the experiment are written in the past tense.

Direct quotations are rarely, if ever, used in scientific lab reports. Instead all written
material should be paraphrased and in the writer’s own words. Citations should still be
used, however, when paraphrasing, to reference the idea as someone else’s.

Different sections of the report should be delineated with proper headings such as
Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. The reader
must be easily able to determine the location of each section in the report. Descriptions of
what should be included in these sections is described below:
Introduction
This section is an introduction to the experiment for the reader. The point of the
introduction is to provide background information so that the reader can understand the rest
of the lab report. It is important, for example, to provide any definitions of terminology
used in the report. This section should provide a brief statement of the point of the
experiment and what the hypothesis was for the experiment.
Materials and Methods
This section should describe the procedure that was followed to carry out the experiment.
You do not list steps, you write this in paragraph form in the past tense and in the third
person. This should be written in such a way, and with enough detail, that the reader could
repeat the experiment based on the information provided.
Results
This section should state each of the results of the experiment. These results are most often
reported in table or graph form. The results presented in this form are also provided in
paragraph form in the results section. This section should not include an explanation of the
results or why they happened. Only the actual results should be stated here.
Discussion
This section must include explanation of why each result happened. In this section, the
writer explains what the results actually mean. Any errors or problems with the lab are also
incorporated into this section. The results are most often explained by researching
information and the explanations of results in this section will then reference the
information used.
Conclusion
This section summarizes the final finding. It is typically only one or two sentences long
and must refer back to the original hypothesis described in the introduction section.
Name
Course Number and Section Number
Date
Title: Acid Precipitation Lab Report
Introduction
Notice that this report is double-spaced and
written with a common 12 point font such as
Times New Roman.
Each section in the report has a
bold-faced, underlined heading.
The term acid precipitation refers to rain, snow, fog or dew that contains acidic
In-text
reference for
the lab manual
that doesn’t
have an
author. See
reference list.
components (General Biology…2007). Acidity is measured in terms of pH, which is the
measurement of hydrogen (H+) ions in solution (Audesirk et al. 2006). The logarithmic
In-text reference
course
pHfor
scale
textbook. See
reference list.
ranges from 0-14 (Audesirk et al. 2006). The greater the concentration of H+ ions is, the more
acidic the solution and the lower the number on the scale (U.S. Geological Survey 2006). A
solution with a pH of 7 on the scale is therefore considered acidic while a pH greater than 7 is
In-text
reference for a
website with
no author. See
reference list.
considered alkaline (Audesirk et al. 2006). Normal rainfall is typically not at either extreme of
this scale, with a pH ranging between 5 and 7 (U.S. Geological Survey 2006).
When acid precipitation falls, it alters the pH of the soil. In an acidic soil environment,
normal nutrients levels may be dramatically altered. For example, highly acidic soil causes
nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium to be leached or removed from the soil
(Audesirk et al. 2006). Other soil nutrients such as aluminum and manganese may actually
increase to toxic levels (Taiz and Zeiger 2006).
Notice that a
scientific name
is in italics,
with a capital L
for the genus
Lycospersicon
and a lower
case e for
eculentum.
In-text reference for a
website with two authors.
See reference list.
In this lab experiment, the effects of acid precipitation on tomato plants (Lycopersicon
esculentum) were examined. Four individual tomato plants were potted and given identical
growing conditions but each plant was sprayed with a different pH solution (pH 2, 4, 6, and 8).
These various pH solutions were sprayed on the plants in an effort to mimic acid precipitation
falling on the plant. It was hypothesized that the tomato plant sprayed with pH 6 solution would
have the healthiest growth due to the fact that tomato plants are said to require well, drained soils
In-text
reference for a
website with
one author.
See reference
list.
The hypothesis
is stated in the
introduction.
with optimal soil pH ranging from 6-6.5 (Peet 2006). The other three plants being sprayed with
pH 2, 4 or 8 were hypothesized to grow slower and perhaps be damaged as a result of the
spraying. This was due to the fact that tomato plants are known to be fast-growing, and when
soil nutrients are limited, there is a tendency for growth deficiencies to occur (Taiz and Zeiger
2006).
Notice that the hypotheses are not just random guesses.
They are based on facts found in referenced materials.
Materials and Methods
Four similar tomato plant seedlings were transplanted into four separate containers, with
Notice that
this section is
written in the
past tense
since the work
was already
done. Also
note that this
entire lab
report,
particularly
this section, is
written in the
3rd person
rather than the
1st person.
one tomato plant per container. They were all put in the same type of container with the same
amount of potting soil in each. They were then labeled with which pH (2, 4, 6 or 8) was to be
sprayed on the plant, as well as the group member initials. A standard operating procedure was
established for the method by which the plants would be sprayed. The standard operating
procedure for this experiment was that each plant was sprayed 25 times with the appropriate
solution on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday at a distance of 12 inches directly above the plant.
The plants were then left in the greenhouse to grow, receiving equal amounts of sunshine and
placed in close proximity to each other. This standard operating procedure for spraying was
conducted for five weeks.
During the five weeks, the tomato plants were also observed and measured. They were
observed to note any change in the color of the leaves, the healthiness of the plants and any other
noticeable observations. Every Wednesday, plants were measured for height, number of leaves
and number of internodes and these measurements were recorded. After the completion of the
five weeks, the plants were measured for a final time and then they were removed from the
container. The soil was gently removed from around the roots and each plant was placed into a
labeled paper bag. This was done to dry out the plants and make it possible to measure the dried
biomass of the plants. After the plants had dried for two weeks, the four categories of plants were
pooled with others from the class, being grouped according to pH treatment. Each group of
plants was then weighed and the dried biomass was recorded.
Results
Results tables are attached to this report. As shown in Table 1, the height of the shoots of
the pH 2 plant increased from 13.5 cm to 27 cm. The number of internodes increased from one to
five and the number of leaves increased from 11 to 40. There were no flowers on the plant. It
was observed that this plant was very “leggy”, had curling on many leaves and had many yellow
spots on the leaves and stem.
As shown in Table 2, the height of the shoots of the pH 4 plant increased from 13.5 cm to
28 cm. The number of internodes increased from one to five and the number of leaves increased
from 12 to 63. There were no flowers on the plant. This plant had several yellow spots develop
over the course of the five weeks, but not as many as the pH 2 plant. It also had a small amount
of curling of leaves.
As shown in Table 3, the height of the shoots of the pH 6 plant increased from 13.5 cm to
31 cm. The number of internodes increased from one to six and the number of leaves increased
from 11 to 72. There were no flowers on the plant. This plant appeared to be a vigorous grower
with dark green, lush leaves and no yellow spots.
As shown in Table 4, the height of the shoots of the pH 8 plant increased from 13.5 cm to
29 cm. The number of internodes increased from one to six and the number of leaves increased
from 13 to 58. There were no flowers on the plant. This plant had dark green leaves but several
of them were droopy.
Table 5 displays results showing that the plants in the class treated with pH 6 had the
highest dried biomass weight in grams, whereas the plants treated with pH 2 had the lowest
weight in grams. The plants treated with pH 4 and pH 8 were very similar in their pooled weight.
Discussion
In general, the height of the shoots, number of internodes and number of leaves increased
each week for each plant. However, the amount of growth and observed “condition” of the
plants was quite varied for the test plants. The pH 6 plant had the greatest height at 31 cm, the
most leaves, with 72, and the heaviest pooled biomass at 41g. It would appear that these pH
conditions provide the ideal environment for the plant. This correlates with the original
hypothesis based on information from Peet (2006) that tomato plants prefer soil with a pH
between 6-6.5.
Notice that referenced background information is used to
explain the various results observed in the experiment.
The pH 2 tomato plant experienced yellow spotting, curling leaves and was the lowest in
all the categories that were measured: with a height of 27cm, only 40 leaves and a pooled
biomass of only 23.10g. These observations may be due to nutrient deficiencies as described by
Taiz and Zeiger (2006). For example, a calcium deficiency due to low pH can cause the outward
edges of the leaves to grow slower than the inside tissue (Taiz and Zeiger 2006). This may
explain why curled leaves were observed on the pH 2 and also the pH 4 plant. The leggy or
spindly growth of the pH 2 plant could also have been the result of deficiencies of nutrients such
as phosphorus and nitrogen, caused by the extremely low pH conditions (Taiz and Zieger 2006).
The plants watered with pH 4 and 8 were essentially the same in all of their
measurements. This demonstrated that perhaps being a little above or below the optimum range
was not completely detrimental to the plant but did cause the plants to not grow to their full
potential. This may have been because the pH levels outside of the preferred range made the
nutrients not as readily available to the plants to use for making their food and in turn not
growing as well (Taiz and Zeiger 2006).
Conclusion
Notice that this final section refers back to the
original hypotheses described in the introduction.
You must describe whether the hypotheses were
supported or refuted.
The hypotheses stated that the plants watered with pH 2, 4 and 8 would negatively affect
the growth of the plants whereas the plant watered with pH 6 would grow better. This
experiment supported those assertions. The plants watered with the pH 2, 4 and 8 did not
perform well as the plant watered with the pH 6. Extreme acid precipitation would most likely
cause severe problems for tomato plants.
Table 1: Plants treated with pH 2 water
Week
1
2
3
4
5
Height of
Shoot(cm)
13.5
14
14
19.5
27
Number of
Internodes
1
1
2
3
5
Number of
Leafs
11
14
17
21
40
Flowers
0
0
0
0
0
Table 2: Plants treated with pH 4 water
Week
1
2
3
4
5
Height of
Shoot(cm)
13.5
15
15
20
28
Number of
Internodes
1
2
3
3
5
Number of
Leafs
12
17
24
36
63
Flowers
0
0
0
0
0
Table 3: Plants treated with pH 6 water
Week
1
2
3
4
5
Height of
Shoot(cm)
13.5
16
16.5
26
31
Number of
Internodes
1
2
3
4
6
Number of
Leafs
11
15
24
39
72
Flowers
0
0
0
0
0
Table 4: Plants treated with pH 8 water
Week
1
2
3
4
5
Height of
Shoot(cm)
13.5
15
17
23
29
Number of
Internodes
1
2
3
3
6
Number of
Leafs
13
14
31
32
58
Flowers
0
0
0
0
0
Table 5: Weight of dried biomass (pooled plant material)
pH
Weight (g)
2
23.10
4
33.14
6
41.00
8
35.10
REFERENCES
This is the
reference for
the course
textbook with
multiple
authors.
Notice that the list of references cited in the text is in alphabetical order and is single
spaced. You must also be sure to include every in text citation on this list at the end of
your report. See details related to creating this reference list on the following page.
Audesirk, T., Audesirk A., and Byers B. Biology Life on Earth. Upper Saddle River (NJ):
This is the reference
Prentice Hall Publishers, 2006. p. 854.
General Biology 2 Laboratory. Finger Lakes Community College. 2007, p. 7.
This is
considered a
reliable
internet
reference
because it is
an online
reference
companion
for a
published
textbook.
for the course lab
book with no
named authors.
Peet, M. Sustainable Practices for Vegetable Production in the South: Tomato [Internet]. North
Carolina State University. c2006 (updated September 26, 2007; cited June 15, 2007). Available
This is considered a
from: http://cals.ncsu.edu/sustainable/peet/profiles/pp_toma.html/
th
Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. Plant Physiology Online [Internet]. 4 ed. Sunderland (MA):
Associates , Inc. Publishers; c2006 (cited June 15 2007). Available from:
http://4e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=t&id=289/
reliable internet
reference because it
Sinauer
is authored by an
expert in the field and
is in the .edu domain.
Water Properties: pH, Water Science for Schools [Internet]. U.S. Geological Survey. (updated
August 28, 2006; cited June 15, 2007). Available from:
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/phdiagram.html/
This is considered a reliable internet
reference because it is in the .gov domain.
A How-To Reference Guide for this Report
Course textbook
with multiple
authors
Audesirk, T., Audesirk A., and Byers B. Biology Life on Earth. Upper Saddle River (NJ):
Prentice Hall Publishers, 2006. p. 854.
Three authors last names and first initials. Title of book. Location of publication: Name of publisher, year
published. page number where information was found.
Notice above how this part of the reference
is written when there are three authors.
In the absence
of authors, the
title is used to
determine the
alphabetical
place in the list.
Online
reference
companion for
a published
textbook
General Biology 2 Laboratory. Finger Lakes Community College. 2007, p. 7.
Course lab book with
no named authors
Title of lab book. Publisher, year published, page number where information was found.
This web page
Peet, M. Sustainable Practices for Vegetable Production in the South: Tomato [Internet].
has an author.
Some sites do
North Carolina State University. c2006 (updated September 26, 2007; cited June 15, 2007).
not name an
Available from: http://cals.ncsu.edu/sustainable/peet/profiles/pp_toma.html/
author. If no
author is named,
Web page author’s last name and first initial. Title of web page [Internet]. Web page publisher, original date of
start with the
title of: the web
web page publication, if available (date web page last updated; date web page accessed and cited). Available from
page in your
Include complete URL of web page not just a part of the address.
reference listing.
Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. Plant Physiology Online [Internet]. 4th ed. Sunderland (MA):
Sinauer Associates , Inc. Publishers; c2006 (cited June 15 2007). Available from:
http://4e.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=t&id=289/
Two authors last names and first initials. Title of web page (this is an online textbook) [Internet]. Edition of online
textbook. Location of online textbook publication: Name of online textbook publisher, year published online (date
accessed online and cited). Available from: Include complete URL of web page not just a part of the address.
Water Properties: pH, Water Science for Schools [Internet]. U.S. Geological Survey.
(updated August 28, 2006; cited June 15, 2007). Available from:
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/phdiagram.html/
Notice that the
original date of
publication for this
Title of web page [Internet]. Web page publisher. (date web page last updated; date web page accessed and
cited).
web page was not
Available from : Include complete URL of web page not just a part of the address.
available and is
therefore not able to
be included in the
reference.
CSE Literature Cited Examples
Book with Single Author:
Gore A. 2006. An inconvenient truth: The planetary emergency of global warming and what we
can do about it. Emmaus (PA): Rodale.
In-text citation:
(Gore 2006)
Book with Two Authors:
Michaels PJ, Balling RC Jr. 2000. The satanic gases: Clearing the air about global warming.
Washington (DC): Cato Institute.
In-text citation:
(Michaels and Balling 2000)
Book with Editor as Author:
Galley, KEM, editor. 2004. Global climate change and wildlife in North America. Bethesda
(MD): Wildlife Society.
In-text citation:
(Galley 2004)
An Anonymous Book:
Environmental resource handbook. 2001. Millerton (NY): Grey House.
In-text citation:
(Environmental Resource…2001)
Article in a Reference Book (unsigned and signed):
Greenhouse effect. 2005. In: American heritage dictionary of science. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
p. 277.
Schneider SH. 2000. Greenhouse effect. In: World book encyclopedia, Vol. 8. Millennium ed.
Chicago: World Book, Inc. p. 382-383.
In-text citations:
(Greenhouse…2005)
(Schneider 2000)
Magazine Article:
Allen L. 2004 Aug. Will Tuvalu disappear beneath the sea? Global warming threatens to swamp
a small island nation. Smithsonian. 35(5):44-52.
Begley S., Murr A. 2007 July 2. Which of these is not causing global warming? A. Sport utility
vehicles; B. Rice fields; C. Increased solar output. Newsweek. 150(2):48-50.
In-text citations:
(Allen 2004)
(Begley and Murr 2007)
Newspaper Articles (unsigned and signed):
College officials agree to cut greenhouse gases. 2007 June 13. Albany Times Union. Sect. A:4.
Landler M. 2007 June 2. Bush’s greenhouse gas plan throws Europe off guard. New York Times
(Late Ed.). Sect. A:7.
In-text citations:
(College…2007)
(Landler 2007)
Journal Article in Print or from a Library Subscription Service Database:
Miller-Rushing AJ, Primack RB, Primack D, Mukunda S. 2006. Photographs and herbarium
specimens as tools to document phonological changes in response to global warming. American
Journal of Botany. 93(11):1667-1674.
In-text citation:
(Miller-Rushing and others 2006)
Journal Article from an Internet-only Journal:
Loppacher LJ, Kerr WA. 2005 [cited 2007 July 18]. Can biofuels become a global industry?:
government policies and trade constraints. CEPMLP Internet Journal [Internet]. 15:10. Available
from: http://www.dundee.ac.ukcepmlp/journal/html/Vol15/article15_10.html
In-text citation:
(Loppacher and Kerr 2005)
Website:
Climate change [Internet]. Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency;
2007 [cited 2007 July 6]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange
Gelbspan R. 2007 [modified 2007 May 23]. The heat is online [Internet]. Lake Oswego (OR):
Green House Network; [cited 2007 Aug 7]. Available from: http://heatisonline.org/main.cfm
In-text citation:
(Climate change 2007)
(Gelbspan 2007)
These are the MOST COMMON examples cited. For a complete list of examples please consult Scientific
Style and Format: The CSE Manual For Authors, Editors, and Publishers, 7th ed. (REF T 11 .S386 2006).
Feel free to ask for help at the Library’s Reference/Information Desk (585-394-3500 x7432) or at the Write
Place (585-394-3500 x7601).
cc 10/2007