Basic Electrical Lab 2010
Practical Number 01
Identify various resistances and understand their specifications
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Basic Electrical Lab 2010
Objective:
To identify various resistors & measure their value using Color Code identification Methode. .
Equipments and components:
Resistors with 4 ,5 & 6 Bands ,Resistor Banks, Resistor in IC Package, Wire wound Resistor
Theory :
Resistor Types
There are many different Resistor Types and they are produced in a variety of forms because their
particular characteristics and accuracy suit certain areas of application, such as High Stability, High
Voltage, High Current etc, or are used as general purpose resistors where their characteristics are less of a
problem. Some of the common characteristics associated with the humble resistor are; Temperature
Coefficient, Voltage Coefficient, Noise, Frequency Response, Power as well as Temperature Rating,
Physical Size and Reliability.
All modern resistors can be classified into four broad groups;
1. Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values
2. Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values
3. Wire-Wound Resistors. - Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting, very high wattage ratings
4. Semiconductor Resistors - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology
Composition Resistors
Carbon Resistors are the most common type of Composition Resistors as they are a cheap general
purpose resistor. Their resistive element is manufactured from a mixture of finely ground carbon dust or
graphite (similar to pencil lead) and a non-conducting ceramic (clay) powder to bind it all together. The
ratio of carbon to ceramic determines the overall resistive value of the mixture and the higher this ratio is
the lower the resistance. The mixture is then moulded into a cylindrical shape and metal wires or leads are
attached to each end to provide the electrical connection before being coated with an outer insulating
material and colour coded markings.
Carbon Resistor
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Carbon Composite Resistors are low to medium power resistors with low inductance which makes them
ideal for high frequency applications but they can also suffer from noise and stability when hot. Carbon
composite resistors are prefixed with a "CR" notation (eg CR10kΩ) and are available in E6 (±20%
tolerance (accuracy)), E12 (±10% tolerance) and E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerance) packages with power
ratings from 0.125 or 1/4 Watt up to 2 Watts.
Film Resistors
The generic term "Film Resistor" consist of Metal Film, Carbon Film and Metal Oxide Film resistor
types, which are generally made by depositing pure metals, such as nickel, or an oxide film, such as tinoxide, onto an insulating ceramic rod or substrate. The resistive value of the resistor is controlled by
increasing the desired thickness of the film and then by laser cutting a spiral helix groove type pattern into
this film. This has the effect of increasing the conductive or resistive path, a bit like taking a long length
of straight wire and forming it into a coil.
This method of manufacture allows for much closer tolerance resistors (1% or less) as compared to the
simpler carbon composition types. The tolerance of a resistor is the difference between the preferred value
(i.e, 100 ohms) and its actual manufactured value i.e, 103.6 ohms, and is expressed as a percentage, for
example 5%, 10% etc, and in our example the actual tolerance is 3.6%. Film type resistors also achieve a
much higher maximum ohmic value compared to other types and values in excess of 10MΩ (10
Million Ω´s) are available.
Film Resistor
Metal Film Resistors have much better temperature stability than their carbon equivalents, lower noise
and are generally better for high frequency or radio frequency applications. Metal Oxide Resistors have
better high surge current capability with a much higher temperature rating than the equivalent metal film
resistors.
Another type of film resistor commonly known as a Thick Film Resistor is manufactured by depositing a
much thicker conductive paste of CERamic and METal, called Cermet, onto an alumina ceramic
substrate. Cermet resistors have similar properties to metal film resistors and are generally used for
making small surface mount chip type resistors, multi-resistor networks in one package for pcb's and high
frequency resistors. They have good temperature stability, low noise, and good voltage ratings but low
surge current properties.
Metal Film Resistors are prefixed with a "MFR" notation (eg MFR100kΩ) and a CF for Carbon Film
types. Metal film resistors are available in E24 (±5% & ±2% tolerances), E96 (±1% tolerance) and E192
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(±0.5%, ±0.25% & ±0.1% tolerances) packages with power ratings of 0.05 (1/20th) of a Watt up to 1/2
Watt. Generally speaking Film resistors are precision low power components.
Wirewound Resistors
Another type of resistor, called a Wirewound Resistor, is made by winding a thin metal alloy wire
(Nichrome) or similar wire onto an insulating ceramic former in the form of a spiral helix similar to the
Film Resistors. These types of resistors are generally only available in very low ohmic high precision
values (from 0.01 to 100kΩ) due to the gauge of the wire and number of turns possible on the former
making them ideal for use in measuring circuits and Whetstone bridge type applications.
They are also able to handle much higher electrical currents than other resistors of the same ohmic value
with power ratings in excess of 300 Watts. These high power resistors are moulded or pressed into an
aluminum heat sink body with fins attached to increase their overall surface area to promote heat loss.
These types of resistors are called "Chassis Mounted Resistors". They are designed to be physically
mounted onto heatsinks or metal plates to further dissipate the generated heat increasing their current
carrying capabilities even further.
Another type of wirewound resistor is the Power Wirewound Resistor. These are high temperature, high
power non-inductive resistor types generally coated with a vitreos or glass epoxy enamel for use in
resistance banks or DC motor/servo control and dynamic braking applications. The non-inductive
resistance wire is wound around a ceramic or porcelain tube covered with mica to prevent the alloy wires
from moving when hot.
Because the wire is wound into a coil, it acts like an inductor causing them to have inductance as well as
resistance and this affects the way the resistor behaves in AC circuits by producing a phase shift at high
frequencies especially in the larger size resistors. The wire wound resistors must not be designed into AC
or amplifier type circuits where the frequency across the resistor changes. However, special non-inductive
wirewound resistors are also available.
Wirewound Resistor
Wirewound resistor types are prefixed with a "WH" or "W" notation (eg WH10Ω) and are available in the
WH Aluminium Cladded package (±1%, ±2%, ±5% & ±10% tolerance) or the W Vitreous Enamelled
package (±1%, ±2% & ±5% tolerance) with power ratings from 1W to 300W or more.
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Resistor Color Code Identification
The standard color coding method for resistors uses a different color to represent each number 0 to 9:
black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, grey, white. On a 4 band resistor, the first two
bands represent the significant digits. On a 5 and 6 band, the first three bands are the significant digits.
The next band represents the multiplier or "decade". As in the above 4 band example, the first two bands
are red and purple, representing 2 and 7. The third band is orange, representing 3 meaning 103 or 1000.
This gives a value of 27 * 1000, or 27000 Ohms. The gold and silver decade bands divide by a power of
10, allowing for values below 10 Ohms. The 5 and 6 band resistors work exactly the same as the 4 band
resistor. They just add one more significant digit. The band after the decade is the tolerance. This tells
how accurate the resistance compared to its specification. The 4 band resistor has a gold tolerance, or 5%,
meaning that the true value of the resistor could be 5% more or less than 27000 Ohms, allowing values
between 25650 to 28350 Ohms. The last band on a 6 band resistor is the temperature coefficient of the
resistor, measured in PPM/C or parts per million per degree Centigrade. Brown (100 PPM/C) are the most
popular, and will work for most reasonable temperature conditions. The others are specially designed for
temperature critical applications.
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Alpha-Numeric Code Identification
With the sizes of resistors and other components shrinking or changing in shape, it is getting difficult to
fit all of the color bands on a resistor. Therefore, a simpler alphanumeric coding system is used. This
method uses three numbers, sometimes followed by a single letter. The numbers represent the same as the
first three bands on a 4 band resistor. On the above SIL network, the 4 and 7 are the significant digits and
the 3 is the decade, giving 47 x 1000 or 47000 Ohms. The letter after the numbers is the tolerance. The
different representations are: M=±20%, K=±10%, J=±5%, G=±2%, F=±1%.
Naming Convention
To simplify the writing of large resistor values, the abbreviations K and M are used for one thousand and
one million. To keep the convention standard, R is used to represent 0. Because of problems in seeing the
decimal point in some printed texts, the 3 letters: K M or R are used in place of the decimal point. Thus, a
2,700 Ohm resistor is written 2K7 and a 6.8 Ohm resistor is written 6R8.
The E12 Range
These identify a range of resistors that are know as "preferred values". In the E12 range there are 12
"preferred" or "basic" resistor values, and all of the others are simply decades of these values:
1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8 and 8.2
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The table below lists every resistor value of the E12 range of preferred values. You will notice that there
are 12 rows containing the basic resistor values, and the columns list the decade values thereof. This
range most commonly covers standard carbon film resistors, which are not readily available in values
above 10 Megohms - 10M.
1R0 10R 100R 1K0 10K 100K 1M0 10M
1R2 12R 120R 1K2 12K 120K 1M2 n/a
1R5 15R 150R 1K5 15K 150K 1M5 n/a
1R8 18R 180R 1K8 18K 180K 1M8 n/a
2R2 22R 220R 2K2 22K 220K 2M2 n/a
2R7 27R 270R 2K7 27K 270K 2M7 n/a
3R3 33R 330R 3K3 33K 330K 3M3 n/a
3R9 39R 390R 3K9 39K 390K 3M9 n/a
4R7 47R 470R 4K7 47K 470K 4M7 n/a
5R6 56R 560R 5K6 56K 56OK 5M6 n/a
6R8 68R 680R 6K8 68K 680K 6M8 n/a
8R2 82R 820R 8K2 82K 82OK 8M2 n/a
The E24 Range
The E24 range of preferred values includes all of the E12 values, plus a further 12 to enable the
selection of more precise resistances. In the E24 range the preferred values are:
1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2 and 9.1
The table below lists every resistor value of the E24 range of preferred values. You will notice that there
are 24 rows containing the basic resistor values and the columns to the right list the decade values thereof.
This range most commonly covers metal film resistors which are not readily available in values above 1
Megohm - 1M0.
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1R0
10R
100R
1K0
10K
100K
1M0
1R1
11R
110R
1K1
11K
110K
n/a
1R2
12R
120R
1K2
12K
120K
n/a
1R3
13R
130R
1K3
13K
130K
n/a
1R5
15R
150R
1K5
15K
150K
n/a
1R6
16R
160R
1K6
16K
160K
n/a
1R8
18R
180R
1K8
18K
180K
n/a
2R0
20R
200R
2K0
20K
200K
n/a
2R2
22R
220R
2K2
22K
220K
n/a
2R4
24R
240R
2K4
24K
240K
n/a
2R7
27R
270R
2K7
27K
270K
n/a
3R0
30R
300R
3K0
30K
300K
n/a
3R3
33R
330R
3K3
33K
330K
n/a
3R6
36R
360R
3K6
36K
360K
n/a
3R9
39R
390R
3K9
39K
390K
n/a
4R3
43R
430R
4K3
43K
430K
n/a
4R7
47R
470R
4K7
47K
470K
n/a
5R1
51R
510R
5K1
51K
510K
n/a
5R6
56R
560R
5K6
56K
56OK
n/a
6R2
62R
620R
6K2
62K
620K
n/a
6R8
68R
680R
6K8
68K
680K
n/a
7R5
75R
750R
7K5
75K
750K
n/a
8R2
82R
820R
8K2
82K
82OK
n/a
9R1
91R
910R
9K1
91K
910K
n/a
There are also E48 and E96 tables, which have even more values. Resistors in these groups are less
common and tend to have a better tolerance rating.
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Power Rating
Type
Power Rating
Stability
Metal Film
Low at less than 3W
High 1%
Carbon
Low at less than 5W
Low 20%
Wirewound
High up to 500W
High 1%
Assignment:
Identify various resistance & Measure the resistance using color coding.
Record the readings in observation table.
Observation Table
S.No.
Type Of Resistance
Code no /Color Code
Decoding of Code
R(ohms)
Uses
Compare the results and verify them.
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Practical No 02
Identify various capacitors and understand their specifications
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Objective:
To identify various Capacitor & measure their value using Color Code identification Method.
Equipments and components:
Electrolytic Capacitor, Axial wire Electrolytic Capacitor, Tantalum Capacitor, Ceramic Capacitor
Theory:
There are many different types of capacitors depending on the type of dielectric material used
between the two electrodes and the shape of the electrodes. The main types are electrolytic,
tantalum, mylar, ceramic and polyester capacitors as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Capacitor Types (not to scale)
a. Electrolytic capacitors:
These are large capacitors both in volume and in capacitance value (tens of microfarads). They
look like a cylinder, as shown in Figure 3a. Electrolytic capacitors consist of a pair of aluminum
plates separated by borax paste electrolyte. This provides a large capacitance value in a relatively
small volume. Be careful when using these capacitors. They are polarized which means that the
capacitor is not symmetrical and that you can destroy it when putting a voltage of the wrong
polarity over it. As shown in Figure 3b, one of the terminals has a plus sign (with the largest leg)
(or minus sign - shortest leg) indicating that his terminal always has to be more positive
(negative) than the other one. If you violate this rule, the capacitor will be destroyed and may
even explode! Also capacitors have voltage ratings. Never put a larger voltage over the capacitor
than what is specified on the capacitor. This is also the case for all other capacitor types. Used
for all values above 0.1µF. Electrolytic have lower accuracy and temperature stability than most
other types. It's usually best to only use an electrolytic when no other type can be used, or for all
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values over 100µF. Cheap electrolytic are usually made from plastic and rubber and therefore
melt easily during soldering.
b. Tantalum capacitor
These are smaller capacitors and can have different colors and have the shape of a deformed
oval. Tantalum capacitors are also polarized, as shown in Figure 3b. The positive terminal has
the longest leg and is usually marked by a plus sign. Tantalum capacitors pack a large capacity
into a relatively small and tough package compared to electrolytic, but pay for this in voltage
ratings. They are range from 0.1µF to 100µF.
c. Mylar capacitors
These are usually yellow cylinders. They are not polarized. A variation of polyester capacitors
used where price matters less than performance. High temperature stability and accuracy land
MKT capacitors in higher end audio circuits and power supplies. They range from 1nF to about
10µF. (values over 1µF are quite expensive)
d. Ceramic capacitors
These can have circular shapes (usually orange) or look like little boxes (often blue) as shown in
Figure 3d. Ceramic capacitors work well up to high frequencies in contrast to mylar capacitors.
While they are limited to quite small values, disc ceramics boast small and solid construction
with comparatively high voltage ratings. They range from 1pF to 0.47µF and are not polarised.
This type can often be used to replace a polyester capacitor of the same value.
e. Polyester capacitors
These capacitors usually have a glossy cover and can have a square or oval shape. They are not
polarized. Ranging from 0.01µF to 5µF polyester capacitors have similar properties to disc
ceramics with some larger values and a slightly larger construction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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Disc Ceramic
Polyester "Green Caps":
MKT Polyester
Tantalum
Radial Electrolytic
Axial Electrolytic
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Basic Electrical Lab 2010
Reading capacitance
Reading capacitance values can be tricky and is generally more difficult than reading resistance
values. Here are some general guidelines. The unit of a capacitance is Farad. One Farad is a huge
capacitor (also in physical size). Capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (x10-6F) for
large capacitors and picofarad (x10-12F) for small capacitors. The largest capacitance you will be
using ever is around 100 uF. Figure 3 gives a few examples to help you read capacitor values.
The value of the electrolytic capacitors in Figure 3a are 100 uF and 6.8uF (sometimes the unit u
may be omitted; however, we know that it cannot be picofarad as electrolytic capacitors usually
have large values). The values of the capacitors in Figure 3b are 22uF (with 25V rating) and
4.7uF (35V). An equivalent way of indicating the value is 226 (=22uF). The third digit indicates
106 x pF (or 226M = 22 x 106 x 10-12 = 22 uF). The M in 226 does NOT stand for Mega or milli
but refers to the tolerance (M = +/- 20%). The value of the capacitor in Figure 3c is 0.2uF (again,
M stands NOT for mega but for the tolerance). The value of the capacitor in Figure 3d is 20nF
(the 3rd digit is the power of 10: 203=20 x 103 x 10-12 = 20nF) with a 25V rating. Finally the
value of the capacitor in Figure 3e is 1uF (45 V).
The tolerance codes for capacitors are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1: Tolerance
Tolerance Code
M
K
J
G
F
D
C
B
A
Z
code of Capacitors
Value (+/- %)
20
10
5
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.1
0.05
0.025
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Assignment:
Identify various Capacitors & Measure the capacitance using color coding.
Record the readings in observation table.
Observation Table
S.No.
Type Of Capacitor
Code no
Decoding of Code
C(pf/uF)
Voltage
Use of
Capacitor
Compare the results and verify them.
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Practical Number 03
Familiarization of Digital Multi meters and Analog Multi meters
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Objective:
To measure voltage, current, and resistance using the Analog & Digital Multi meter and Verify
theoretically calculated results using basic network laws.
Equipments and components:
Variable Power Supply
Analog & Digital Multi meter
Resistors
Theory :
The digital multi meter
The hand-held digital multi meter is used widely to make electrical measurements Of
1. voltage dc & ac
2. current dc & ac
3. resistance
4. continuity
5. other quantities, such as frequency, depending on meter’s features
Input impedance:
In the voltage mode, the input impedance of a digital multi meter is usually high enough (several MΩ)
that it has negligible effect on the circuit being measured.
Continuity check:
Many models allow you to check continuity, emitting an audible beep so that you don’t need to look at
the meter while making the test.
Hooking up the meter:
Note that the meter is connected:
• in parallel to measure voltage or resistance
• in series to measure current.
See the figures to see how this is done.
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Analogue multi meter
Analogue multi meters, like digital ones have a variety of ranges. They are described in terms of Full
Scale Deflection or FSD. This is the maximum that the range can read. In order to get the best reading, it
is necessary to have the scale reading somewhere between about a quarter and all of the FSD. In this way
the optimum accuracy and significant number of figures can be read. As a result of this meters have a
variety of ranges, that may appear to be reasonably close to each other.
A typical meter may have the following ranges (note that the figures indicate the FSD):
•
•
•
•
DC Voltage: 2.5V, 10V, 25V, 100V, 250V, 1000V
AC voltage: 10V, 25V, 100V, 250V, 1000V
DC Current: 50uA, 1mA 10mW, 100mA
Resistance: R, 100R, 10 000R
There are several points to note from this typical analogue multi meter specification:
1. The low voltage AC voltage, and in this example the 10V AC range may have a different scale to
the others. The reason for this is that at low voltages a bridge rectifier is non-linear and this needs
to be taken into consideration. It is also for this reason that no 2.5V AC range was included.
2. The 1000V or 1kV ranges will often use a different input connection to enable the reading to be
taken through a different shunt and kept away from the rotary switch that may not be able to
handle a voltage this high.
3. AC current is often not included in the lower end meters because of the difficulties of undertaking
the measurement without a transformer to step up any voltage across a series sensing resistor for
rectification.
4. Batteries inside the multi meter are used to provide a current for the resistance measurements. No
other readings require the use of battery power - the meter is passive from that viewpoint.
5. The three resistance ranges of varying sensitivity multiply the meter reading by 1, 100, or 10 000
dependent upon the range. This allows for low resistance measurements to be made as well as
very high ones. Typically the higher resistance ranges may use a higher voltage battery than the
one used for the low resistance ranges.
Multimeter sensitivity
One of the specifications for an analogue multimeter is its sensitivity. This comes about because the meter
must draw a certain amount of current from the circuit it is measuring in order for the meter to deflect.
Accordingly the meter appears as another resistor placed between the points being measured. The way
this is specified is in terms of a certain number of Ohms (or more usually kOhms) per volt. The figure
enables the effective resistance to be calculated for any given range.
Thus if a multimeter had a sensitivity of 20 kOhms per volt, then on the range having a full scale
deflection of 10 volts, it would appear as a resistance of 10 x 20 kohms, i.e. 200 kohms.
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When making measurements the resistance of the meter should be at the very least ten times the
resistance of the circuit being measured. As a rough guide, this can be taken to be the highest resistor
value near where the meter is connected.
Normally the sensitivity of an analogue meter is much less on AC than DC. A meter with a DC
sensitivity of 20 kohms per volt on DC might only have a sensitivity of 1 kohm per volt on AC.
Multimeter operation
The operation of an analogue multimeter is quite easy. With a knowledge of how to make voltage, current
and resistance measurements , it is only necessary to know how to use the multi meter. If the meter is new
then it will obviously be necessary to install any battery or batteries needed for the resistance
measurements
.When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:
1. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because there may be a number of
different connections that can be used.
2. Set switch to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement to be made. When
selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is above that anticipated. The range on the
multi meter can be reduced later if necessary. However by selecting a range that is too high, it
prevents the meter being overloaded and any possible damage to the movement of the meter
itself.
3. Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible adjust it so that the maximum deflection of the
meter can be gained. In this way the most accurate reading will be gained.
4. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the voltage
measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage. In this way if the meter is
accidentally connected without thought for the range used, there is little chance of damage to the
meter. This may not be true if it left set for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally
connected across a high voltage point!
Schematic diagrams:
An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage)
between two points, and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A multimeter combines these
functions and possibly some additional ones as well, into a single instrument.
The following diagrams show a multimeter can be used to measure current, voltage and
resistance:
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8
Procedure:
1. To measure current, the circuit must be broken to allow the ammeter to be connected in series.
Ammeters must have a LOW resistance
2. To measure potential difference (voltage), the circuit is not changed: the voltmeter is connected in
parallel. voltmeters must have a HIGH resistance
3. An ohmmeter does not function with a circuit connected to a power supply. If you want to measure the
resistance of a particular component, you must take it out of the circuit altogether and test it separately.
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Assignment:
Measure the resistance using color coding and also measure voltage and
current of the circuit given theoretically. Implement the hardware ,& Measure voltage, current &
resistance using Analog & Digital Multi meter. Record the readings in observation table.
Observation Table
S.No
Using Color Codes & Basic
Using Digital Multimeter
Using Analog Multimeter
Calculations
R(ohms) I(Amp) V(Volts) R(ohms) I(Amp) V(Volts) R(ohms) I(Amp) V(Volts)
Compare the results and verify them.
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