Study on the possible effects on Human Health and the

UNITED NATIONS

ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

Chemicals Branch, DTIE

STUDY ON THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN

HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN AFRICA OF THE

TRADE OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING

CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

Draft of December 2008

Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv

1.0

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background objectives

1.3 Study coverage and report organization

1.4 Study methodology and sources of information

1

1

1

2

2.0 OVERVIEW OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND PRODUCTS

CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

2.1 Cadmium and products containing cadmium

2.1.1 General characteristics and occurrence of cadmium

2.1.2 Common products containing cadmium

2.2 Lead and products containing lead characteristics

2.2.2 Common products containing lead

2.3.1 General characteristic and occurrence of mercury

2.3.2 Common products containing mercury

3

5

7

8

3

3

4

5

8

9

3.0 OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE

ENVIRONMENT FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND

MERCURY 11

3.1 Cadmium and products containing cadmium 11

3.1.2 Potential effects of cadmium and products containing cadmium on the environment 11

3.1.2 Potential effect of cadmium and products containing cadmium on human health 13

3.2 Lead and products containing lead 14

3.2.1 Potential effects of lead, and products containing lead on the environment

3.2.2 Potential effects of lead and products containing lead on human health

3.3 Mercury

14

16

17

3.3.1 Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on the environment 17

3.3.2 Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on human health 18 i


4.0

KEY ORGANIZATIONS AND DATABASES DEALING WITH TRADE

STATISTICS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND

MERCURY 20

4.1 UN Comtrade and commodity classifications and codes for products containing cadmium, lead and mercury

4.2 Limitations and challenges associated with trade data statistics and data analysis.

20

23

5.0

PRODUCTION AND TRADE PATTERN OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING

CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

5.1 Products containing cadmium

5.1.2 Sources and supply of cadmium

5.1.3 Global cadmium trade

5.2 Lead and products containing lead

5.2.1. Global source and production

5.2 2 Global trade of lead

5.3 Products containing mercury production

5.3.2 Source and supply of mercury

5.3.3 Global mercury trade

6.0

ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND INITIATIVES FOR COLLECTION,

RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF USED PRODUCTS CONTAINING

CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN AFRICA

6.1.1 Environmental quality standards/guidelines

6.1.2 Environmental source control actions and regulations

6.1.3

6.4.3

6.4.4

Actions and regulations on products containing cadmium, lead or mercury

6.1.4 Other standards and waste management programmes

6.2 International agreements and instruments

6.2.1 Basel Convention

6.2.2 Rotterdam Convention

6.2.4 SAICM agreements

6.3 International organizations and programmes

6.4 Sub-regional and regional initiatives

6.4.1 Bamako Convention

6.4.2 The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN)

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)

East African Community (EAC)

6.4.5 Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities

6.4.6 The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP)

24

24

24

25

26

43

43

46

69

69

70

70

93

93

95

97

97

99

100

100

101

102

102

103

104

104

104

105

105

105

105 ii


7.0

LABORATORY ANALYSES RESULTS OF SELECTED PRODUCTS


7.1 Sampling procedure

7.2 Analysis of samples in various samples at SEAMIC Laboratory results

106

106

106

107

8.0

CASE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE

ENVIRONMENT FROM CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND

PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY 110

8.1 Case Study No. 1: E-waste management in Kenya

8.2 Case Study No. 2: Bridging the digital gap vs. creating a digital dump

110

111

8.3 Case Study No 3 E-waste environmental contamination in Ghana

8.4 Case No 4: Lead intoxication in Thiaroye sur Mer, Senegal

112

113

8.5 Case Study No 5: Dump sites in Africa: A hazard to children and the environment 115

ANNEX 1A: TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE STUDY 118

123 ANNEX 1B : QUESTIONNAIRE

ANNEX 6A : SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE FROM

GOVERNMENTS, IGOs AND NGOs

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

143

154 iii


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.

This report responds to the request of the Governing Council (GC) of the United Nations

Environment Programme (UNEP), Decision 24/3 III requesting UNEP to: “provide available information on lead and cadmium to address the data and information gaps identified in the

Interim Reviews and to compile an inventory of existing risk management measures ” to be presented to the Governing Council at its 25th session in February 2009.

2.

Based on concerns expressed by African countries, UNEP in cooperation with the Africa

Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) conducted this study on

“the possible effects on human health and environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury”. The study was financed by the Government of

Sweden.

3.

The report analyses the global flow of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury into and from Africa. The study also identifies databases dealing with such trade statistics, initiatives in place especially in Africa to address the negative impacts from products containing these heavy metals. Case studies of good management of wastes from these metals and effects of the trade to humans and environment are also given.

CHAPTER 2: OVERVIEW OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND

PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

4.

Cadmium (Cd) in its elemental form is a soft, silver-white metal which is easily cut with knife.

It belongs to Group IIB of the Periodic Table. It is present in nature as complex oxides, sulphides and carbonates in zinc, lead and copper ores. It is not recovered as a principal product of any mine, but as a by-product of other non-ferrous metal extraction, mainly from zinc-ores. About 18 percent of world consumption is sourced from recycling. Current major uses of refined cadmium are: batteries (NiCd batteries), pigments for plastics, ceramics and enamels; stabilizers for plastics; plating on iron and steel; and as an alloying element of some lead, copper and tin alloys.

5.

Lead (Pb) in its elemental form is silvery-white and turns blue-grey when exposed to air. It belongs to Group IVA of the Periodic Table. Its properties include: a low melting point, high density, ease of casting, low strength, ease of fabrication, acid resistance, and corrosion resistance. Naturally, lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and copper and it is extracted together with these metals. Mining produces more than 90 percent of current global consumption. Recycling accounts for about 10 percent of the total global lead consumption.

About three quarters of the lead consumption is mainly used in the production of batteries while one fifth in lead sheets for roofing and flashing, ammunition such as lead shot for shotguns, metal alloys, cable sheathing and petrol additives.

6.

Mercury (Hg) occurs naturally in the environment in a large number of forms. Like lead or cadmium, mercury is a constituent element of the earth, a heavy metal. There are several forms iv


of mercury occurring naturally in the environment. One of them, elemental mercury is a shiny, silver white metal which is in liquid form at room temperature. It belongs to Group IIB of the

Periodic Table. Sources of releases of mercury to the biosphere beyond human control include natural mobilisation of mercury and re-mobilisation of anthropogenic mercury previously deposited in soils, sediments and water bodies. The most common natural forms found in the environment are metallic mercury, mercuric sulphide, mercuric chloride, and methyl mercury.

Some micro-organism and natural processes can change the mercury in the environment from one form to another. Mercury is mainly used in many domestic and office appliances and industrial processes. Statistics have shown that in 2005 mercury uses in products (PVC, batteries, measuring devices, switches/relays, lighting and dental use) comprised almost two thirds of the total global mercury demand while one third of it was for industrial processes.

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD

AND MERCURY

7.

Generally the three heavy metals under consideration are toxic and harmful to environment and humans. Human activities are the major sources of these metals in the environment.

8.

Cadmium emissions to the environment migrate continually in the three main environmental media, as a result of which the cadmium level in the environmental media (air, water and soil) varies widely. However, its lifetime in the atmosphere is relatively short compared to other substances such as mercury or persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

9.

Cadmium is not an essential element for plants or animals life. It is toxic to plants, animals and micro-organisms. Excess cadmium exposure produces adverse health effects on human beings. The main sources of human exposure to cadmium include ambient air; occupational exposure and cigarette smoke.

10.

The primary adverse effects of cadmium include kidney damage and lung emphysema. The population at highest risk comprises women with nutritional deficiencies or low iron content, people with kidney disorders, and foetuses and children with low body iron stores. The World

Health Organization (WHO) has established a provisional tolerable weakly intake (PTWI) for cadmium at 7 P g/kg of body weight.

11.

Lead occurs naturally in the environment. Volcanoes are the major natural sources of emissions and mobilization of lead to air. Others are airborne soil particles, sea spray, and biogenic material and forest fires. Most lead in the environment result from human activities such as mining, industrial processes and energy generation. Human activities influence the global cycle of lead significantly. In 2004, an estimated 3.15 million tonnes of lead were extracted from the earth's crust by humans and brought into circulation.

12.

Exposure to lead can occur from breathing contaminated air (both in the workplace and elsewhere), eating lead-based paint chips or contaminated dirt. Dust and soil are significant lead exposure sources, especially in young children. The major source of direct lead releases to soil is through the use of products containing lead. v


13.

Lead toxic even at very low exposure levels and has acute and chronic effects on human health. It is a multi-organ system toxicant that can cause neurological, cardiovascular, renal, gastrointestinal, haematological and reproductive effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of lead can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, convulsions, coma or even death. Long-term (chronic) exposure to lead in humans results in effects on the blood, central nervous system (CNS), blood pressure, kidneys, and Vitamin D metabolism. Lead is a well-documented neurotoxicant and lead exposure in children is linked to a lowering of their intelligence quotient (IQ).

14.

Mercury is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the environment in different chemical forms.

Once released it can move easily between air, water and land. Natural processes can even change mercury from one form to another. Human activity is now the main source of mercury being released into the environment. Much is released unintentionally from processes where mercury is unwanted impurity. Emissions into the air from fossil fuel combustion (petrol, gas and coal power plant and incinerator), are expected to increase unless other energy sources are used or emissions better controlled. On average, around the globe there are indications that anthropogenic emission of mercury have resulted in deposition rates today that are 1.5 to 3 times higher than those during pre- industrial times. In and around industrial areas the deposition rates have increased by 2 to 10 times during the last 200 years. Highly contaminated industrial site and abandoned mining operations continue to release mercury. Also, land, water and resource management activities such as forestry and agricultural practices and flooding can make mercury more bio available.

15.

Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic to humans and environment. Large amounts can be fatal to humans, but even relatively low doses can seriously affect developing nervous systems. The toxicity to humans and other organism depends on the chemical form, the amount, the pathway of exposure and the vulnerability of the person exposed. Some populations are especially susceptible and vulnerable to mercury exposure, most notably the foetus, the new-born, and young children because of the sensitivity of the developing nervous system. Thus parents, pregnant women, and women who might become pregnant, should particularly be aware of the potential harm of methyl mercury. Preliminary critical limits to prevent ecological effect due to mercury in organic soil have been set at 0.07 -0.3 mg/kg for total mercury in the soils.

CHAPTER 4: KEY ORGANIZATIONS AND DATABASES DEALING WITH

TRADE STATISTICS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND

MERCURY

16.

Key organizations collect and maintain databases of commercial statistics on trade of products.

These include, among others, the UN Comtrade, Eurostat, United States (US) International

Trade Commission, Trade Analysis and Information System (TRAINS) and the Inter-

American Development Bank (IDB/CTS) databases. This report focused mainly on the UN

Comtrade database because it is comprehensive and easily accessible.

17.

UN Comtrade is an acronym for “United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database,” maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). The data, which is kept in a standard format, provides information on trade transaction for each country. This report has used information on commodities specified by the more commonly used classifications codes vi


which are: the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) and the Harmonized

Commodity Description and Coding System (HS)

18.

Some of the data provided in the UN Comtrade database, particularly the net weight of traded commodities, are only estimates. Data extracted for this study from this database revealed that some countries have not reported trade transactions and whereas one country shows an amount it exported to another, the other country does not show that it received a similar import during the referred time. Export figures were considered more accurate due to a common practice of underreporting to avoid taxes for imports. A big limitation and challenge of the trade data statistics is the unavailability of data for second hand products including those containing cadmium, lead and mercury.

CHAPTER PRODUCTION AND TRADE PATTERN OF PRODUCTS


19.

The trade pattern examined and described in this report looked at the trade flow of imports and exports for the years 2000 to 2005 and where data available to 2006, in terms of volume

/weight (Kg) of the products into and from the African countries based on the records of the

UN Comtrade. To address these issues the following information was extracted:

The major products containing cadmium, lead and mercury imported into and exported from the African countries.

The major importing and exporting countries and their partners.

The trend of importation and exportation of these products

20.

The data downloaded was compiled in tables, and analysed to allow ranking, identification of major players and creation of charts and maps of the trade flows.

21.

Cadmium production and trade.

The worldwide primary cadmium production is predominantly from China, Japan, Korea, United States of America, Canada, Mexico,

Australia and Kazakhstan. Primary cadmium production in Africa which was always quite small has virtually disappeared. In the 1980s cadmium pigment and platting were the main application areas followed by batteries and stabiliser in polymers. Generally, since 1990, cadmium consumption for pigments, stabilizers, alloys and other uses has decreased significantly. By 2005, batteries (NiCd batteries) share had surpassed others increasing to account for about 82 percent of the estimated world consumption.

22.

Imports of products containing cadmium into Africa comprised mainly phosphate fertilizers and cadmium anti oxidizing agents for rubber and plastics. Phosphatic fertilizers was the most imported cadmium containing product comprising over 90 percent of imports. Over 700 thousand tonnes were imported during the 2000-2005.

23.

During the period 2000 to 2005, phosphatic fertilizer materials were also the most exported product containing cadmium (99 percent). Others were plastic/rubber stabilizer and pigments.

Over 9 million tonnes of cadmium containing products were exported, equivalent to over

1300% per cent of import volumes. vii


24.

The major trading partners were Tunisia, Morocco South Africa, Algeria, Brazil, Iran, Portugal and Italy. The major importers, exporters and trading partners for above cadmium products is given in Table i and Table ii .

Table i: Major products containing cadmium imported into Africa: 2000-2005

S/N Product Quantity

(tonnes)

% Major importers

Major import partners

1 Phosphatic fertilizer materials SITC

1-5612

700,537 90.15% Morocco 22% Portugal

Italy

Egypt

Algeria 15% Turkey

France

Bulgaria

Corte d’Ivoire

14.% USA

Bulgaria

Morocco

35%

20%

16%

18%

17%

15%

44%

18%

17% oxidizing preps

381230

3. Cadmium

Nickel

850730

.

4,455

9.00% Mozambique 29% Portugal 100

%

Germany

Malaysia

Morocco 15% Belgium

Spain

Italy

0.57% South 26% China

Japan

Sweden

Algeria 18% France

Spain

UK

26%

21%

16%

27%

24%

15%

26%

13%

8%

45%

42%

3%

% viii


Table ii : Major products containing cadmium exported from Africa: 2000-2005

S/No Name of Quantity

Product (tonnes)

% Total

Cd products

Major

Exporters

Major

Export

Partners fertilizer materials

5612

Tunisia

Morocco

South Africa

52% Brazil

Iran

UK

35%

35%

Iran

Brazil

UK

Netherlands

India

Japan

19%

17%

0.44%

282%

22%

18%

45%

30%

6%

25.

The total imports of products containing cadmium have increased from about 72,000 tonnes in

2000 to a maximum of 196,000 tonnes in 2004 while reported exports decreased from about

1.7 million tonnes in 2000 to about 1.6 million tonnes in 2005, an increase of about 400 percent and a decrease of about 5 percent for imports and exports respectively.

26.

By far the leading traded product containing cadmium in Africa is phosphatic fertilizer and plastic and rubber stabilizers. Generally, further analysis of the import and export data for the selected cadmium containing products shows that during the period 2000/5, Africa was a net exporter of products containing cadmium which was mainly due to exports of phospahtic fertilizers from Morocco.

27.

Lead production and trade.

The total global mine production of lead has decreased slightly during the last thirty years, from 3.6 million tonnes in 1975 to 3.1 million tonnes in 2004.

During the same period, global refined lead production and metal consumption have increased from about 4.7 million tonnes to about 7.1 million tonnes. Globally, lead is mined in more than

40 countries, the major producers being China and Australia, which represent 30 percent and

22 percent of global lead mining production, respectively. China is also a leading world producer of refined lead producing 27 percent of the global production followed by United

States of America and Germany producing 23 and 5 percent respectively.

28.

South Africa and Morocco are the two major countries from Africa which produce, mine and refine lead. Between the years 2000-2005 both countries have produced one percent each of the total world production of the refined lead.

29.

During the period 2000/5, unwrought lead, automatic data processing machines (computers) and lead acid electric accumulators for vehicles formed over three quarters of total lead imports to Africa amounting to about 1.6million tonnes, while automatic data processing machines (computers) and lead ores and concentrates amounting to about 4 million tonnes formed over 90 percent of exports from Africa.

30.

While the major product containing lead which was imported into Africa during the period

2000 – 2006 was unwrought lead, the major product containing lead that was exported from ix


Africa was automatic data processing machines (computers) with more than half of the imported products containing lead. The major exporters of this product during the same period are Namibia and South Africa. Other major exported products include automatic data processing machines and lead acid accumulators.

31.

The general trend seems to be increasing from the period 2000 to 2006 with the maximum trade transaction carried out in the year 2004. The sudden increase is mainly contributed by the major imports of unwrought lead carried out in the same year by Namibia from South Africa, and export of lead ore concentrate in 2005 by South Africa to China, and automatic data processing machines (computers) by Namibia to South Africa in 2004. Namibia exported to

South Africa an equivalent amount of imports into all African countries (about 1.6 million tones)

32.

The major importers, exporters and trading partners for the above products containing lead are given in Table iii and Table iv.

33.

China is increasingly capturing the import market share of products containing lead in Africa.

For example, the import market share of automatic data processing machines (computers) to

South Africa by China in the year 2002 was 8 percent, 12 percent in 2003 and rose to 35 percent in 2006 taking over the market from United Kingdom with the market share reduced from 20 percent in 2002 to 5 percent in 2006. The same is for the market share of the import of automatic data processing machines into Algeria which is the second importer of the product. The market share of imports into Algeria has been captured by China and increasingly yearly from 9 percent in 2002 to 30 percent in 2006 taking over the market from

United Kingdom and France whose market share dropped from 12 percent in 2000 to 5 percent in 2006 and 26 percent in 2000 to 10 percent in 2006 respectively.

34.

Further analysis of the import and export data for the selected lead products shows that during the period 2000/6, Africa was a net exporter of about 700 million kgs of products containing lead equivalent to the amount of lead ores to China from South Africa x


Table iii: Major products containing lead imported to Africa: 2000-2006

2

Product Name

Automatic data processing machines ( computers) HS02-

8471

Quantity

(tonnes)

Percent of total products

1,002,009 46

Importer

(country)

1 Unwrought

HS96- 7801 lead

344,142 16

Namibia 76% South Africa

South Africa 11% Australia

China

Tunisia 4% Morocco

China

Canada

Belgium

South Africa 22% China

United Kingdom

Ireland

USA

Algeria 14% China

France

Indonesia

3 Lead acid electric accumulators for vehicles HS96-

850710

205,579 10

Morocco

Algeria

12% China

USA

France

14% France

China

Tajikistan

South Africa 11% France

Rep. of Korea

Germany

Ghana 10% China

Indonesia

Rep.of Korea

26%

19%

12%

40%

24%

5%

20%%

19%

17%

30%

26%

12%

Table iv : Top most exported products of lead from Africa, major exporters and partners:2000-2006 .

Product Name and

Code processing machines

( computers)

Quantity

( tones)

Percent of total products

1,701,333 48

Major

Exporter

Namibia

Major partners of trade

Africa

Angola

50%

50% concentrates

(SITC96-(260700

3 Unwrought

7801

1,204,892 34

338,349 10

South

Africa

80% China

Tunisia 5%

Belgium

Morocco

Germany

Italy

Morocco 10% Bulgaria

Italy

Belgium

Morocco 81% Spain

Belgium

Algeria

South

Africa

8% Belgium

Zimbabwe

India

Namibia 7% Korea

China

61%

21%

27%

22%

14%

38%

24%

17%

50%

10%

8%

33%

29%

18%

73%

26%

29%

9%

8%

8%

47%

9%

8%

100%

71%

23%

52%

17 %

9%

9% xi


35.

Mercury production and trade . The key players in the international mercury trade include, among others are, Kyrgyzstan, China, South America, European Union as well as Algeria in

Africa. Kyrgyzstan and China are the two countries that continue to mine virgin mercury, and only Kyrgyzstan mines for export, China uses all its virgin mercury for its own production.

The European Union supplies approximately 30 percent of the global mercury stock pile and is involved in more than half the global trade in mercury, even though it accounts for only 10 percent of the world’s demand.

36.

Recycled mercury has played an important role on the global market in recent decades. In

1982, the OECD estimated that the secondary production could be as much as 40 percent of the primary production. Masters (1997) 1 stated that 700 – 900 metric tonnes of mercury are recycled globally every year, of which some 200 – 400 metric tonnes originate from spent mercury containing products, and the rest come mainly from chlor – alkali facilities 2 .

37.

Among the major mercury containing products traded globally include batteries consuming about 300 – 600 tones per year, measuring and control (largely medical sector) consuming

150-350 tones per year, electric and electronic switches consuming 150 -300 tones per year, lighting consuming 100- 150 tones per year and cosmetics. African and South America countries use a large and still growing amount of mercury in small – scale gold mining, process in which mercury is heated and released nearly in its.

38.

Radio/TV transmitters, fluorescent lamps and thermionic cold cathode make more than 80 percent of mercury containing products imported by Africa. Similarly, Radio/TV transmitters, fluorescent lamps and mercury fluorescent lamps lamps make more than 80 percent of mercury containing products exported by Africa.

39.

The major importers, exporters and trading partners for mercury products is given in and Table vi below

Table v

1 Masters, H. B. (1997): Metals & Minerals Annual review – 1997, Mercury, Mining Journal Ltd

2 UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002 xii


Table v: Major products containing mercury imported from Africa, major exporters and partners: 2000-

2006

Product

Name

1 Radio/TV transmitters(

HS92 8525)

2 Florescent lamps

(HS92-

853931)

3 Thermionic cold cathode

(HS96-

8540)

4 Electric switch/relay

(SITC 772)

Weight

(Kgs)

71,759,845

11,309,086,16

7

% of total

Products

Importer/ % Partner %

34

South.

Africa

Tunisia

South Africa

Morocco

22% Finland

Rep. Korea

Germany

16%

14%

14%

Sweden

China

11%

USA

Germany

34%

22%

8%

11% France

Sweden

Japan

22%

18%

11%

33%

17%

14%

19% 97%

2%

13%

12%

China

Indonesia

China

Germany

USA

China

Hungary

Poland

39%

16%

9%

55%

14%

13%

Other Asia

USA

38%

23%

9%

20 China

Poland

Turkey

28%

17%

16%

** Kenya

South Africa 13%

France

Rep./Korea

Korea Rep.

China,

Brazil

88% Denmark

Germany

Belgium

56%

16%

11%

49%

24%

24%

86%

10%

1%%

Mozambique 6% China

Japan

Swaziland

39%

28%

27%

** Excluded in the calculations xiii


Table vi: Top major products containing mercury exported from Africa, major exporters and partners:

2000-2006

/

S

N

Name of product.

1 Radio/TV transmitters.

(HS92-

8525)

Weight

(Kgs)

Percent of total

Products

4,131,578 45 Mauritius

Exporter % Partner

30% United Arab

Emirates

Italy

France

%

64%

18%

4%

South.

Africa

25% Australia

Denmark

USA

Cote d 24% France

Ivoire

18%

7%

6%

99%

2 Fluorescent lamps.

(HS92-

853931)

3 Mercury

(HS02-

280540)

1,410,572 17

Africa

18% Zimbabwe

Mozambique

USA

41%

21%

9%

Syria

Iraq

South

Africa

83%

Zambia

Belgium

India

Netherlands

63%

16%

7%

49%

21%

13%

Arabia

Zimbabwe

Netherlands

47%

22%

21%

4 Mercury sodium vapour lamps

(HS92-

853932)

5 Electric switch/relay s

(SITC 772)

124,890,004

Libya

Areas nes

France

France

Italy

Germany

88%

5%

4%

51%

23%

16%

South

Africa

26% Mozambique

Zambia

Zimbabwe

France

Germany

Switzerland

15%

14%

7%

67%

7%

7%

** Excluded in the calculations

40.

The key trader in Africa of the products containing cadmium, lead or mercury is South Africa.

The north western African countries of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria are the next group of key traders. Overseas partners are mainly EU countries, Australia and China. The African named countries are also the richest and most technologically advanced countries in the continent.

Map i illustrates the trade movements of the products containing cadmium, lead and mercury into and from Africa. xiv


Map i: Summary of trade flow of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa

Total Heavy Metal Imports

Total Heavy Metal Exports

Cadmium

Lead

Mercury xv


COLLECTION, RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF USED PRODUCTS CONTAINING

CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN AFRICA

41.

National initiatives. Very few African countries have reported initiatives and future plans aiming at the prevention or control of emissions of cadmium, lead and mercury to the environment and the effects on human health and the environment. However, available information has shown that the environmental authorities in a number of countries consider the three heavy metals to be high-priority substances with recognised adverse effects. They are aware of the potential problems caused by use and release of these metals and their compounds.

42.

Globally also, no country has developed a comprehensive legislation specifically covering the whole life-cycle stages of cadmium, lead or mercury. Many countries, particularly the OECD countries, have a number of actions and regulations covering specific uses and releases, as well as more general legislation on releases and disposal of waste products. Such legislation normally includes other heavy metals, particulate matter (PM) and/or specific inorganic and organic pollutants, rather than being specific to products containing cadmium, lead or mercury.

43.

Reported initiatives aim to reduce or prevent the release of cadmium, lead or mercury to the environment and avoid direct or indirect impact on human health and the environment. The initiatives can be grouped into four general groups: a) Environmental quality standards or guidelines, specifying maximum acceptable concentration of cadmium, lead or mercury for different concentrations (such as drinking water, surface water, air, soil, and for food stuffs and feeds); b) Environmental source actions and regulations that control cadmium, lead or mercury release available technologies into the environment, including limits on air and water point sources and promoting use of best available technologies and waste treatment and waste disposal restrictions; c) Product control actions and regulations for products containing cadmium, lead or mercury; and d) Other standards, actions and programmes , such as regulations or guidance on exposure to lead in the workplace, requirements for information and reporting on use and releases of cadmium, lead or mercury in industry and consumer safety measures.

44.

Below are some of the actions taken by some African countries to regulate products containing cadmium, lead and mercury as extracted from the Draft final review of scientific information on lead and cadmium, and Global Mercury Assessment report:

45.

Ghana, Mauritius, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria have established standards setting maximum acceptable concentrations limits for heavy metals (including cadmium, lead and mercury) in a number of media, such as water, air, soil and foodstuffs.

46.

Mauritius, Morocco and Niger have reported to have regulations prescribing maximum allowable releases of heavy metals and other pollutants from various types of point sources to air, water and soil. xvi


47.

Mauritius has reported to have stopped the use of mercury in paints, reduced lead content in petrol from 0.84 g/L to a maximum of 0.4 g/l, introduced the use of unleaded petrol , phased out mercury batteries replacing them with Ni/Cd batteries and has launched a sensitization programme for collection of mercury buttons. .

48.

Burundi has prohibited import and use of mercury and mercury compound as pesticides in agriculture and has applied proposed norm for mercury in air.

49.

Cameroon has banned the importation, commercialization and use of cosmetic products containing more than 2% of mercury, whereas fertilizers containing cadmium must be registered by the committee for pesticide registration.

50.

Gambia has banned since 1997 the importation of mercury into the country.

51.

Ghana has restricted the importation and distribution of mercury. A phasing out plan for use of the leaded gasoline to unleaded gasoline has been drawn.

52.

Guinea has two regulations prohibiting the production, import and all forms of use of mercury and mercury compounds within industry and agriculture.

53.

Kenya has banned the importation, production and use of any cosmetic products containing mercury. In Kenya, an NGO called Computers For Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East

Africa's first e-waste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling needs.

54.

Lesotho has phased out the use of mercury based pesticides

55.

Madagascar has a decree to phase out leaded gasoline by end of 2005.

56.

Nigeria has banned mercury in batteries and mercury iodide in cosmetics. The allowed mercury in dental amalgam capsule is 0.3g.

57.

South Africa is also one of the countries which have a strategy to deal with e-waste..

58.

Tanzania has enacted the Environmental Management Act of 2004 (EMA, 2004), which among other issues, provides for the management of hazardous waste and chemicals. Other relevant legislations in Tanzania include the Consumer and Industrial Chemicals (Control and

Management) Act of 2003.

59.

Cameroon and Senegal have established lead batteries recycling facilities.

60.

Other environmentally sound initiatives in Africa include the National Cleaner Production

Centers aimed promoting and building capacity in cleaner production concepts. African countries which have established National Cleaner Production Centres include Ethiopia, Egypt,

Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda and Tanzania. The major activities of NCPCs include awareness creation, capacity building, assessments and policy advice in cleaner production. Cleaner production concept strives for optimal efficiency at every stage of the product life while preventing pollution at source and protecting the human health.

61.

The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) with its secretariat at UNEP supports countries to eliminate the use of leaded gasoline, reduce sulphur levels in fuels concurrent with the adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies. At the beginning of 2008, 19 countries worldwide xvii


were still using leaded gasoline. Morocco and Tunisia are expected to stop using leaded gasoline at the end of 2008, while Egypt is expected to stop using leaded gasoline by the end of 2010. The goal of the PCFV is the global elimination of leaded gasoline.

62.

International agreements and instruments. The relevant international agreements relevant to cadmium, lead and mercury to which most of the African countries are Parties to include the

Basel Convention and the Rotterdam Convention.

63.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous

Wastes and their Disposa l which was adopted in March 1989 and came into force in 1992 provides a global legal framework for controlling the transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and establishes obligations for its Parties to ensure the environmentally sound management of hazardous waste.

64.

The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain

Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade of September 1998 has two objectives:

To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals

To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those chemicals by facilitating information exchange.

65.

The Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals is one of the eight protocols to the United Nations

Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long - Range Transboundary

Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Aarhus Protocol adopted in June 1998 entered into force in

December 2003. The Protocol targets three harmful metals namely cadmium, lead and mercury.

66.

The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is a policy framework to foster the sound management of chemicals 3. SAICM was developed by a multistakeholder and multi-sectoral Preparatory Committee and supports the achievement of the goal agreed at the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development of ensuring that, by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimize significant adverse impacts on the environment and human health.

67.

International organizations and programmes which have activities in Africa and other parts of the world aiming at addressing the adverse impacts of cadmium, lead and mercury on human health and the environment include the International Agency for Research on Cancer

(IARC), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Programme on Chemical

Safety (IPCS), World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the World Bank

(WB). Other relevant programmes include the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety

(IFCS) and the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals

(IOMC).

3 SAICM, http://www.saicm.org/index.php?ql=h&content=home xviii


68.

Sub-regional and regional initiatives includes the Bamako Convention, the African

Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), the New Partnership for Africa’s

Development (NEPAD), the East African Community (EAC), the Clean Air Initiative in Sub-

Saharan African Cities and the African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and

Production (ARSCP).

69.

The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) is a nongovernmental, not for profit regional association of sustainable consumption and production

(SCP) practitioners in Africa. The pioneers of the association are the National Cleaner

Production Centres. Current membership comprises individuals and institutions engaged in

SCP activities. The mission of ARSCP is to promote the development of national and regional capacities for the effective promotion and implementation of principles of sustainable consumption and production principles and to serve as the regional clearinghouse for these issues. Currently, it is implementing the African Ten Year Framework of Programmes on sustainable consumption and production (10YFP on SCP) which incorporates sound management of chemicals.

CHAPTER LABORATORY TESTS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING

CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY.

53.

Fifteen selected products containing cadmium, lead and mercury including paints, plastics, toys, gasoline, switches and cosmetics were randomly picked from the general market in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and tested for presence of cadmium, lead or mercury at an accredited laboratory facility in Tanzania. Tanzania follows a free market and most of its products are mainly imported from Asia and Europe. The tests were carried out using an Inductively

Coupled Plasma (ICP) optical spectrometry, fully automated machine (ULTIMA2, HORIBA

JY, France). In all the 35 tested samples from 15 different products, the results revealed that compositions of cadmium and lead in the products were less than 0.01 ppm while mercury content was less than 0.01 ppb. Soil samples from a lead recycling facility in Dar es Salaam and its neighborhood were found to contain an average of about 0.6 ppm cadmium, 115 ppm lead and 0.5 ppm mercury which are within the acceptable levels.

CHAPTER 8: CASE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE

ENVIRONMENT FROM CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND PRODUCTS


70.

Below is an overview of case studies showing good and bad management of wastes from products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa as well as their impacts to human health and the environment.

71.

E-waste management in Kenya.

The electronic and information technology industry is currently the largest and fastest manufacturing industry in the world. Electronic equipment contains a number of toxic materials including cadmium, lead and mercury Thus e-waste is now recognized as the fastest growing waste stream in developed countries. In order to prevent significant environmental problems associated with the growing waste stream of exix


waste, the Computers for Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East Africa's first e-waste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling needs. .

This case study demonstrates one way of a good method for waste management

72.

Bridging the Digital Gap Vs Creating a Digital Dump in Nigeria The demand of information technology in developing countries is increasing very fast due to the natural hunger among the populace to stay abreast technological developments in order to communicate and compete in this globalized world. This has been contributed to a larger extend by importation of used or second-hand products from developed countries. These e-wastes often end up dumped in countries with little or no regulation of its recycling or disposal. In Nigeria alone .an estimated

500 containers of computers and other electronic equipment come there every month all of which ends up in computer markets. The Nigerian government is thus working to abolish the importation of second-hand goods. From above it is obvious that trade of used electronics equipment is actually a trade of hazardous wastes which should be controlled by the Basel

Convention. What we are seeing in Nigeria is unfortunately a harbinger of things to come; it is soon to be the future in the entire developing world.

73.

Outbreak of lead intoxication from recycling of lead batteries in Senegal.

Some countries have established facilities for recycling lead waste as away of handling lead waste from batteries. However, it is well known that exposure to lead can occur from breathing contaminated workplace air or house dust. This therefore requires good management to avoid causing problems to workers and people who live near such facilities, particularly the vulnerable group such as children. A lead recycling facility at NGagne Diaw quarter of

Thiaroye sur Mer, Dakar, Senegal was recently the source of cluster of deaths of children in its vicinity. WHO found the dead children to have extremely high blood lead concentrations, in many cases above 1000 µg/l. It is obvious therefore that recycling is not always a full proof waste management solution as it can transform one problem into another when not well managed.

74.

E-waste environmental contamination in Ghana. Greenpeace study at two e- waste recycling sites in Ghana in 2008 found soil samples from the two sites to contain numerous hazardous substances including very high levels of lead, phthalates and chlorinated dioxins. Therefore recycling of e-waste pollutes the environment if not well properly managed. In addition, the work of dismantling the electronic equipment is done by children (boys) aged between 11 and

18, but some were as young as 5 who are more vulnerable to the exposure of these hazardous chemicals.

75.

High lead concentration in children living near dump sites . A UNEP study in Kenya in 2007 found 328 children aged 2-18 living around the Dandora waste dump site in Nairobi to have concentrations of lead in their blood exceeding internationally accepted levels. When they examined and analysed soil samples from the dump site they found that 42 % of soil samples recorded lead levels almost 10 times higher than what is considered unpolluted soil (over 400 parts per million (ppm) compared to 50 ppm). xx


1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

1.

The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Governing Council Decision 24/3 III requested UNEP to: “provide available information on lead and cadmium to address the data and information gaps identified in the Interim Reviews and to compile an inventory of existing risk management measures ”.

4

2.

Based on concerns expressed by African countries, UNEP in cooperation with the Africa

Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) conducted this study on

“the possible effects on human health and environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury”. The study was financed by the Government of

Sweden. The Terms of Reference for the study are given as Annex 1A

3.

The main objective of this study is to fill the data and information gaps identified in the

‘Interim reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium’ and for mercury information gaps identified in the ‘Global Mercury Assessment Report’ and in particular to address the global flow of cadmium, lead and mercury in products.

1.3 Study coverage and report organization

4.

The study focused mainly on the analysis of trade, use and disposal of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa in order to assess how this can lead to adverse human and environmental effects due to release of these toxic heavy metals. This was done by sourcing data and information from published articles and authorized databases as well as country submissions.

5.

This report is divided into eight chapters. Chapter one gives the background, objectives, scope and methodology of the study. Chapter two provides an overview of the three heavy metals including their characteristics and applications in various products while chapter three gives an overview of their potential effects to humans and the environment. Chapter four provides a description of the main organizations and databases dealing with trade statistics which were used in the study. The shortfalls of these databases are highlighted. Chapter five gives an overview of the type, quantities and movements in trade (countries and routes) of major traded products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa for the period 2000 to 2006. The major African importers and exporters of the products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa are shown including their global trade partners. Chapter six describes the existing

4 UNEP Governing Council, Decision24/3 III, http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/GC-24-3-III-lead-andcadmium.htm

1


environmentally sound initiatives within the African region in terms of awareness and regulations for management of wastes from used traded products containing the three heavy metals while chapter seven describes the methods used and the results thereof in the analysis of selected traded products in Africa containing cadmium, lead and mercury.

6.

The final chapter presents a few case studies in Africa on the management of waste products containing cadmium, lead and mercury, demonstrating good practices as well as lessons learned for purposes of showing their effects on human health and the environment in Africa.

1.4 Study methodology and sources of information

7.

The methodology applied in carrying out this study includes data collection and analysis, literature review, peer review and laboratory analysis of selected products containing cadmium, lead and mercury

8.

Trade data was drawn from authorized trade statistical databases, mainly the United Nations

Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade) as well as other databases recommended by individual countries and organizations including the International Trade Commission (ITC) recommended by the United States of America, the Nordic on-line database, EU database and the WHO databases.

9.

A questionnaire ( Annex 1B) was also designed and distributed electronically to different countries in Africa and outside Africa, as well as Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and individual experts dealing with cadmium, lead and mercury for purposes of collecting additional information and data, particularly on the existing waste management strategies and initiatives.

10.

The major sources of information for the study comprised the Draft final reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium and the Global Mercury Assessment report and other relevant publications, articles and reports including reports of the International Lead and Zinc

Study Group (ILZSG) and the International Cadmium Association (ICdA); presentations and resolutions made at regional and international fora on chemicals including the SAICM meeting held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania in July 2008 and the 6th IFCS meeting held in Dakar, Senegal in September 2008.

11.

The UN Comtrade database played a major role in providing data for this report. Data for each of the products containing cadmium, lead and mercury from the selected list was downloaded from the database for the period 2000-2006 for each African country whose data was available.

The downloaded data for each product/commodity was then summarized to get the totals for export and import trade for each commodity and each country in the period indicated and partner country of trade for each product. These provided information on the top most traded products in Africa and the flow of these products in terms of trade trend, volume, and market share.

12.

Laboratory testing of selected products were carried out at the sub-regional Laboratory Centre in Tanzania known as the Southern and Eastern Africa Mineral Centre (SEAMIC) using standard methods for analyzing cadmium, lead and mercury. All tested products were sampled from the market in Tanzania which practices a free market economy.

2


2.0 OVERVIEW OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

AND PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND

MERCURY

2.1 Cadmium and products containing cadmium

2.1.1 General characteristics and occurrence of cadmium

13.

Cadmium (molecular formula - Cd) in its elemental form is a soft, silver-white metal which is easily cut with knife .5

It belongs to Group IIB of the Periodic Table and it has the following physical properties 6 :

Atomic weight

Atomic number

Melting Point

Boiling Point

Specific gravity

Oxidation state

112.411

48

321.070 C

7670C

8.65 (at 200C)

2

Readily soluble in acid and ammonium nitrate

The electrical conductivity of cadmium is less than that of silver or copper, but greater than that of iron.

14.

Cadmium is present in nature as complex oxides, sulphides and carbonates in zinc, lead and copper ores. It is not recovered as a principal product of any mine, but as a by-product of other non-ferrous metal extraction, mainly from zinc-ores 7.

15.

Recycled cadmium accounts for about 18 percent of total global supply. Countries with significant collection and recycling activities include France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of

Korea, Sweden and the United States of America 8.

16.

The main sources and releases of cadmium to the environment can be grouped into three major categories:

natural releases due to natural mobilization of naturally occurring cadmium from the earth crest and mantle, such as volcanic activity and weathering of rocks;

6

5 UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, version of November 2008

Hand book of Chemistry and Physics, 78

8 Ibid. th Ed.


3


current anthropogenic releases from the mobilization of cadmium impurities in raw materials such as phosphate minerals, fossil fuel and other extracted, treated and recycled metals particularly zinc and copper; and

current anthropogenic release of cadmium resulting from cadmium used intentionally in products and processes, releases by manufacturing, use, disposal, recycling, open burning and unofficial dumpsites or incineration of products.

17.

Other sources include remobilization of historical anthropogenic cadmium releases previously deposited in soils, sediments, land fills and waste or tailings piles .9

2.1.2 Common products containing cadmium

18.

Cadmium is intentionally used in various products including batteries, pigments, stabilizers, coatings, alloys and electronic components, such as semiconductors, and in the control rods of nuclear reactors.

19.

The general trend in global cadmium consumption over the last two decades has been a steep increase in the use of cadmium for batteries and a decrease in the use for nearly all other applications. In 1980, cadmium pigment and plating were the main application areas followed by batteries which accounted for 23 percent of total global consumption while stabilisers in polymers accounted for 12 percent of the total. In 2005, the batteries (NiCd batteries) accounted for about 82 percent of the estimated world consumption. Other major uses of refined cadmium are: pigments for plastics, ceramics and enamels; stabilizers for plastics; plating on iron and steel; and as an alloying element of some lead, copper and tin alloys. Since

1990, consumption for pigments, stabilizers, alloys and other uses has decreased significantly.

Figure 2.1 shows the end-uses of primary cadmium in 1990 and 2005.

Figure 2.1

: Consumption of primary cadmium by end-users in 1990 and 2005 (data compiled by

ICdA, 2005 )

9 Ibid

4


20.

The use of cadmium in some major products is explained below:

21.

Batteries - The market of rechargeable NiCd batteries covers small, sealed-type batteries for cordless power tools, telecommunications, emergency lighting and security, and portable household applications. The sealed batteries account for about 80 percent of the cadmium consumption in the battery market. The remaining 20 percent is consumed in large industrial

NiCd batteries for railroad, aero-space, electric vehicles and standby power, and other applications.

22.

Pigments - Cadmium pigments have been used in plastics, enamels, ceramics, paints, and possible other materials, although the use in paints and dyes may be obsolete today.

23.

Plating - Plating of iron, steel or other materials with coatings of cadmium or cadmium alloys is used for applications requiring a high degree of safety or durability in aerospace, industrial fasteners, electrical parts, automotive systems, military equipment and marine/offshore installations.

24.

Stabilizers - Organic cadmium compounds, generally cadmium laurates or stearates, used in combination with barium sulphate, have historically been widely used as a stabilizer in PVC and other polymers or copolymers of vinyl chloride.

25.

Alloy uses - The use of cadmium in alloys includes: soldering alloys, alloys with zinc

(sacrificial anodes for corrosion protection of iron and steel), alloys with lead and copper (lead cable sheaths, copper wires etc.), alloys with a low melting point for fire alarm systems and safety circuit breakers, alloys for switch contacts where arching occurs, such as high current relays made of silver-cadmium oxide, and silver-cadmium alloys as a partial replacement for silver (jewellery). The consumption in alloys has decreased significantly and is included in

"other" applications accounting for about 0.5 percent of the total global consumption in 2005.

26.

Other uses - Other uses include cadmium semiconductors that can have opto-electronic effects, which means their electrical properties are responsive to light.

27.

Cadmium is also found unintentionally (as an impurity) in other products such as non-ferrous metals (zinc, lead and copper), iron and steel, fossil fuels, coal, oil, gas peat, wood, cement and phosphate fertilizers. Fertilizers produced from phosphate ores may constitute a major source of cadmium pollution in soil. In Australia, for example, phosphate fertilizers have been a major source of cadmium additions to agricultural soil. This could also be the case in African countries which use phosphate fertilizers though specific examples are not included in this report.

2.2 Lead and products containing lead

2.2.1 General characteristics and occurrence of lead

28.

Lead (Pb) in its elemental form is silvery-white and turns blue-grey when exposed to air. It belongs to Group IVA of the Periodic Table. Its properties include, among others, a low melting point, high density, ease of casting, low strength, ease of fabrication, acid resistance, corrosion resistance, electrochemical reaction with sulphuric acid and the ability to attenuate sound waves, ionizing radiation and mechanical vibration. It is soft enough to be scratched

5


with a fingernail. It is hardened by alloying it with small amounts of other metals such as arsenic, copper and antimony. Other characteristics include:

Oxidation state 1.8

Atomic number 82

Atomic mass 207.2 g.mol

-1

11.34 at 20°C

Melting point

Boiling point

327 °C

1755 °C

29.

Because of these properties, lead has been one of the most widely used metals in the history of mankind in manufacturing various products 10 .

Pure lead is rare in nature. Currently lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and copper and it is extracted together with these metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS) and there are also deposits of cerrussite and anglesite which are mined. Galena is mined in Australia, which produces 19 percent of the world's new lead, followed by the United States of America,

China, Peru and Canada. Some is also mined in Mexico and West Germany. World production of new lead is about 6 million tonnes a year and total workable reserves are estimated at 85 million tonnes.

30.

Lead is chemically stable in air, water and soil. In the atmosphere, lead will deposit on surfaces or exist as a component of atmospheric particles. In the atmosphere, lead exists primarily as lead compounds. The residence time and transport of atmospheric lead ranges from hours to weeks, thus linked to the characteristics of aerosols 11.

31.

In the aquatic environment, lead can occur in ionic form (highly mobile and bio-available), organic complexes with dissolved humus materials (binding is rather strong and limits availability), attached to colloidal particles such as iron oxide (strongly bound and less mobile when available in this form than as free ions) or attached to solid particles of clay or dead remains of organisms (very limited mobility and availability) 12.

32.

The speciation of lead in water is controlled by a number of factors including pH, salinity, sorption and biotransformation processes cation (Pb 2+

13.

In fresh water, lead primarily exists as the divalent

) under acidic conditions, and forms PbCO

3

and Pb(OH)

2

under alkaline conditions. Lead speciation in seawater is a function of chloride concentration and the primary species are PbCl

3

> PbCO

3

> PbCl

2

> PbCl + > and Pb(OH) + . In surface waters, average residence times of biological particles containing lead have been estimated at two to five years.

33.

In soil, lead is generally not very mobile 14.

The downward movement of elemental lead and inorganic lead compounds from soil to groundwater by leaching is very slow under most natural conditions. Clays, silts, iron and manganese oxides, and soil organic matter can bind lead and other metals electrostatically (cation exchange) as well as chemically (specific

10 Ibid

11 Ibid

12 Ibid

13 Ibid

14 Ibid

6


adsorption). Soil pH, content of humic acids and amount of organic matter influence the content and mobility of lead in soils. Though lead is not very mobile in soil, lead may enter surface waters as a result of erosion of lead-containing soil particles.

2.2.2 Common products containing lead

34.

Lead is mainly used in the production of batteries which accounts for 78 percent of the reported global consumption in 2003 15 . Other applications of lead are in lead compounds (8 percent), lead sheets for roofing and flashing (5 percent), ammunition such as lead shot for shotguns (2 percent), metal alloys (2 percent) and cable sheathing (1.2 percent), and petrol additives and others 9.2 percent. Figure 2.2-a shows the intentional lead consumption by enduses in 2003.

Petrol additives

Miscellaneous

Lead compounds

Alloys

Ammunition

Rolled/extruded lead

Cable sheathing

35.

Batteries

Figure 2.2-a: Intentional lead consumption by end-uses in 2003 as reported by member countries of the International Lead and Zinc Study group (ILZSG) representing about 86 percent of the total global consumption of lead. (ILZSG, 2006)

The major types of lead batteries include starter batteries for vehicles, traction batteries for electric trucks, and stationary batteries for back-up power supply.

36.

Lead compounds are mainly used in the production of red lead for corrosion resistance, pigments, cathode ray tubes, crystal glass, PVC stabilizers, ceramics and enamels (glazing), and petrol additives. Figure 2.2-b below shows the consumption of lead compounds by end uses in 2001.

37.

Lead and its compounds are also used in various products including, among others, traditional base metal for organ pipes, solders for electronics, electrodes for electrolysis, glass for

15 Ibid

7


computer and television screens, and in X-ray rooms where it shields the viewer from radiation 16 .

Paints Ceramics

Glazes

Cathode ray tubes

Plastic additives

Light bulbs

Speciality

Crystal glass glass/optical glass

Figure 2.2-b: Consumption of lead compounds by end uses in 2001 as reported by "Western World" member countries of the International Lead and Zinc Study group (ILZSG, 2005). Blue colours indicate the use of lead in glass. (Lead compounds in batteries and petrol additives are not included).

2.3 Mercury and products containing mercury

2.3.1 General characteristic and occurrence of mercury

38.

Elemental mercury is shiny, silver white metal that is a liquid at room temperature. It belongs to Group IIB of the Periodic Table. Other characteristics include the following:

39.

Oxidation state:

Atomic weight:

Atomic number:

Boiling point:

Melting point:

Density:

1.2

200.5g

80

357

38.4

0

0

C

C

13.6 at 20 0 C

Mercury is mined as mercuric sulphide (cinnabar ore). Through history deposits of cinnabar have been the source of ores for commercial mining of metallic mercury. The metallic mercury is recovered by heating the ore at a temperature of 540 0 C. The vaporized mercury in the ore is then captured and cooled to form liquid mercury 17.

40.

Mercury is rarely found in nature as the pure, liquid metal but rather as compounds and in organic salts.

16 Ibid

17 UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002

8


41.

There are several forms of mercury occurring naturally in the environment. The most common natural forms found in the environment are metallic mercury, mercuric sulphide, mercuric chloride, and methyl mercury. Some micro-organism and natural processes can change the mercury in the environment from one form to another.

42.

The main sources of release of mercury to the atmosphere are divided into four categories, namely;

Natural sources – release due to natural mobilization of naturally occurring mercury from the earth crust, such as volcanic activity and weathering of rock.

Current anthropogenic (associated with human activity) releases from the mobilization of mercury impurities, in raw materials such as fossil fuels particularly coal, and to a lesser extent gas and oil and other extracted, treated and recycled minerals.

Current anthropogenic release resulting from mercury used intentionally in products and processes, releases during manufacturing, leaks, and disposal or in incineration of spent products etc.

Re-mobilization of historic anthropogenic mercury releases previously deposited in soils sediments, water bodies, land fills and waste/tailing piles.

2.3.2 Common products containing mercury

43.

Mercury is used in many domestic and office appliances. The major source categories of products containing mercury include batteries, measuring and control devices (mainly in the medical sector), electric and electronic switches, lighting and cosmetics. Typical products containing mercury include thermometers, thermostats, energy efficient lamps, high intensity discharge lamps, and button batteries. Other products are electric switches and relays, flame sensors, and dental amalgam.

44.

Statistics have shown that in 2005 mercury uses in products (PVC, batteries, measuring devices, switches/relays, lighting and dental use) comprised almost two thirds of the total global mercury demand while one third of it was for industrial processes as shown in the diagram below ( Figure 2.3

).

9


Global mercury demand

(2005)

Other

Batteries

PVC

Measuring

Devices

Switches/

Relays

Lighting

Dental

Small-scale gold mining

Chloro-

Alkali

Figure 2.3: Global mercury demand (2005) 18

18 UNEP: Summary of Supply, Trade and Demand Information on Mercury, Nov. 2006

10


3.0 OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING

CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

3.1 Cadmium and products containing cadmium

3.1.2 Potential effects of cadmium and products containing cadmium on the environment

45.

Cadmium levels in the environmental media (air, water and soil) vary widely. Cadmium emissions to the environment are normally migrating continually in the three main environmental media as explained further below:

Cadmium in the atmosphere

46.

The lifetime of cadmium in the atmosphere is relatively short compared to other substances such as mercury or persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Most of the cadmium in air is bound to small-size particulate matter of below 1 P m. In the atmosphere the particulate matter increases in size due to interaction between particles of different sizes, condensation of water vapour and other gases. Elemental cadmium and many of its compounds have relatively low vapour pressure, and thus are not particularly volatile. However, high heat processes can volatize cadmium which is then emitted as a vapour. Cadmium vapours quickly condense on aerosols as they exit the stacks and enter the environment. Thus, most cadmium in the atmosphere is in the form of particulate matter; which may consist of very small particles especially if it is produced by combustion processes 19 .

47.

A study on the occurrence of cadmium species in ambient aerosols have shown that cadmium chloride, cadmium sulphate and cadmium oxide appear to be the predominant species in ambient air and its atmospheric transport is governed by aerosol transport mechanism 20 .

48.

There are three distinct sources of human exposure to cadmium in the atmosphere:

49.

cadmium in ambient air;

cadmium in occupational exposure; and

cadmium in air from the smoking of tobacco.

Cadmium in ambient air represents, by far the majority of total air borne cadmium. Input from all three categories may affect human cadmium intake and human health, but the level and the transfer mechanism to human are substantially different for the three categories. Where as cadmium from occupational environments and cadmium from cigarette smoke are transferred


20 Ibid

11


directly to human, cadmium in ambient air is generally, deposited into water or soil, then eventually transferred to plants and animals and finally enters the human body through the food chain.

Cadmium in water

50.

Cadmium is a natural minor constituent of surface and ground water. It may exist in water as hydrated ion; inorganic complexes such as carbonates, hydroxides, chlorides or sulphates; or as organic complexes with harmonic acids. Cadmium may enter aquatic system through weathering and erosion of soils and bedrock atmospheric deposition; direct discharge from industrial operations; leakage from landfills and contaminated sites; and the dispersive use of sludge and fertilizers in agriculture. Most cadmium entering fresh water from industrial sources may be rapidly adsorbed by particulate matters and thus sediments may be significant sinks for cadmium emitted to the aquatic environment.

51.

Rivers containing excess cadmium can contaminate surrounding land, either through irrigation for agricultural purposes, dumping of dredged sediments or flooding. It has also been demonstrated that rivers can transport cadmium for considerable distances up to 50km from the source. Nonetheless, studies of cadmium contamination in major river systems over the past twenty to thirty years have conclusively demonstrated that cadmium levels in these rivers have decreased significantly since 1960’s and 1970’s.

52.

The average cadmium in the world’s oceans has variously been reported to be as low as

5.20mg/l. High cadmium levels have been noted around certain coastal areas and cadmium levels vary with ocean depths, presumably due to pattern of nutrient concentrations.

Cadmium in soil

53.

Cadmium in soil originates from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural source includes underlying bedrocks or transported parent material such as glacial till and alluvium.

Anthropogenic input of cadmium to soil occurs by carried deposition and sewage sludge, manure and phosphate fertilizer application. Cadmium is less mobile in soil than in air and water. The major factors governing cadmium speciation, adsorption and distribution in soil are pH, contents of soluble organic matter, hydrous metal oxide, clay, and type of organic and inorganic matter present as well as competition from other metal ions. The use of cadmium containing fertilizer and sewerages sludge is often quoted as the primary reason for the increase of cadmium content in soil.

54.

The average level of cadmium in soil has been reported between 0.1 – 0.5 ppm, but much higher and lower levels have been reported depending on a large number of factors. Igneous and metamorphic rocks tend to show lower values from 0.02 to 0.2 ppm where as sedimentary rocks have much higher value from 0.1 – 25 ppm. Zinc, lead and copper ores, which are mainly sulphides and oxides, contain even higher levels of 200-14,000 ppm for zinc ores; and around 500 ppm for typical lead and copper ores.

55.

Cadmium in soil must be distinctly classified in three separate areas with regard to their relative effects on human health and the environment, namely:

agricultural soils;

non-agricultural soils; and

controlled land fills.

12


56.

Cadmium in controlled land fills is virtually immobile and is unlikely to have any effect on human health or the environment simply because it is so well contained. Cadmium in nonagricultural soil will generally not affect human heath as it does not enter the food chain readily or may do so only indirectly by transfer from non-agricultural soil to agricultural soils via air bone or water transport. Cadmium in agricultural soil is relatively immobile under normal conditions, but could become more mobile under certain conditions such as increased soil acidity. Cadmium levels may be enhanced by the usage of phosphate fertilizer, manure or sewage sludge.

57.

Cadmium occurs naturally in all soils and is taken up in all food stuffs and therefore all humans are exposed to natural level of cadmium. Although much attention has been focused upon the cadmium content in agricultural soils, it is important to recognize that the cadmium content in food items varies more as a function of the nature of the crop grown, atmospheric cadmium deposition from natural or anthropogenic source and the agricultural practices in the particular area such as use of phosphate fertilizers, sewage sludge and manure application.

58.

In plants, cadmium accumulates mainly in the leaves. For plants grown in the same soil, cadmium accumulation decreases in the order of leafy vegetables > root vegetable > grain crops. Leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach and certain staples such as potatoes and grain food exhibit relatively high values from 30-150 ppb. Peanuts, soya beans and sunflower seeds also exhibit naturally high values of cadmium with seemingly no adverse heath effects.

59.

Meat and fish normally contain lower cadmium contents, from 5-40 ppb. Animal offal such as kidney and liver can exhibit extraordinarily high cadmium value up to 1,000 ppb as these are the organs in animals where cadmium concentrates.

60.

In terrestrial ecosystems, soil micro-organisms and plants are more sensitive to cadmium than soil invertebrates. However, both invertebrates and plants can accumulate cadmium. Predators feeding on such soil invertebrates can introduce cadmium into the food which leads to secondary poisoning through the food chain. The accumulation of cadmium by plants results in this contaminant entering the human food chain.

3.1.2 Potential effect of cadmium and products containing cadmium on human health

61.

Cadmium is not an essential element for plants or animals life. It is toxic to plants, animals and micro-organisms. However, as explained above, cadmium bio-accumulates in the liver and kidneys of vertebrates and also accumulates in all levels of food chain. The accumulation of cadmium has been reported in food crops and grasses, earthworms, domestic animals such as poultry, cattle and horses as well as in wild animals. Thus food is the major source of cadmium exposure to humans.

62.

Humans normally absorb cadmium into the body either by ingestion or inhalation. Dermal exposure is generally not regarded to be of significance. It is widely accepted that approximately 2 to 6 percent of the cadmium ingested is actually taken up into the body.

Factors influencing cadmium absorption in the body are the forms in which cadmium is present in the food and the iron status of the exposed individual.

13


63.

It has been estimated that 98 percent of the ingested cadmium come from terrestrial foods (i.e. from plants grown in soil or meat from animals which have ingested plants grown in soil containing cadmium), while only 1 percent come from aquatic food such as fish, and 1 percent from drinking water.

64.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has established a provisional tolerable weekly intake

(PTWI) for cadmium at 7 P g/kg of body weight 21 .

65.

Tobacco is another source of cadmium uptake in smokers which my equal or exceed that from food. The cadmium concentrations in cigarettes vary in different brands depending mainly on the origin of the tobacco, and may range from 0.19 to 3.0 microgram per gram of dry weight.

The amount of cadmium inhaled from smoking one cigarette containing about 1.7 P g cadmium has been estimated to be 0.14 to 0.19 P g, which corresponds to about 10 percent of the total content in the cigarette 22 .

66.

It has been well established that excess cadmium exposure produces adverse health effects on human beings. The primary effects of high cadmium in the body include kidney damage and lung emphysema 23 . The population at highest risk comprises women with nutritional deficiencies or low iron content, people with kidney disorders, as well as fetuses and children with low body iron stores. Maternal exposure of cadmium is associated with low birth weight and spontaneous abortion 24.

3.2 Lead and products containing lead

3.2.1 Potential effects of lead, and products containing lead on the environment

67.

Lead occurs naturally in the environment. However, most lead concentrations that are found in the environment are a result of human activities such as mining, industrial processes and energy generation.

68.

Due to the use of lead in gasoline an unnatural lead-cycle has been established. In car engines lead is heated, resulting in lead salts (chlorines, bromines, and oxides). These lead salts enter the environment through car exhausts. The larger particles will drop to the ground immediately and pollute soils or surface waters, while the smaller particles will travel long distances through air and remain in the atmosphere. Some of this lead will be deposited when it rains.

This lead-cycle caused by human production is much more extended than the natural leadcycle. It has caused lead pollution to be a worldwide issue.


22 Ibid

23 Ibid

24 Ibid

14


Lead in the atmosphere

69.

The major natural sources of emissions of lead to air are volcanoes, airborne soil particles, sea spray, biogenic material and forest fires. Human activities significantly influence the global cycle of lead. In 2004, an estimated 3.15 million tonnes of lead were extracted from the earth's crust by humans and brought into circulation. Besides this, a significant amount of lead ended up in metal extraction residues or was mobilized as impurity by extraction of other minerals like coal and lime. Lead release into air is mainly through industrial emissions, smelters and metal/oil refineries.

70.

With the introduction of unleaded gasoline in many developed countries, lead concentrations in the air have declined significantly 25.

Lead in water

71.

The major natural sources for mobilizations of lead from the Earth's lithosphere to the biosphere are volcanoes and weathering of rocks. In addition, insignificant amounts of lead enter the biosphere by meteoritic dust. The weathering of rocks from volcanic eruptions releases lead to soils and aquatic systems. This process plays a significant role in the global lead cycle, but estimates of the total amount released by weathering of rocks have not been available.

Lead in soil

72.

The major source of direct lead releases to soil is through the use of products containing lead such as ammunition, paints with lead pigments, lead balancing weights for vehicles, lead sheathing of cables left in the ground and lead batteries (loss by breakage and recycling). Lead in soil can also originate from the air or from erosion of lead-bearing rocks.

73.

Lead dust can be found in our homes, especially homes that used lead-based paints or lead solder or carried indoors as dust from air. Dust and soil can be significant lead exposure sources at home, especially for young children.

74.

Studies from Denmark and the Netherlands indicate that about 10 percent of the total flow of products containing lead ends up in landfills 26.

Since lead compounds (which in most countries are hardly recycled) account for about 10 percent of the total global lead consumption, it is highly probable that at least 10 percent of consumption is accumulated in landfills. The concern in some countries in this regard is the potential fate of the disposed lead over the long term. If not managed in an environmentally sound fashion, the large amounts of lead ending up in tailings and other residues from mining and base metal production represent a substantial threat to local water resources and soil and hence potential health risks to humans.

25 US Environmental Protection Agency: Technology Transfer Network Air Toxics website http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/

26 UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on lead, version of November 2008

15


3.2.2 Potential effects of lead and products containing lead on human health

75.

Lead is toxic at very low exposure levels and has acute and chronic effects on human health. It is a multi-organ system toxicant that can cause neurological, cardiovascular, renal, gastrointestinal, haematological and reproductive effects. The type and severity of effects depend on the level, duration and timing of exposure. Everyone is exposed to trace amounts of lead through air, soil, household dust, food, drinking water and various consumer products 27 .

It is estimated that 65 percent of lead entering human body is through uptake of food, whereas through water is 20 percent and air 15 percent.

76.

Short-term exposure to high levels of lead can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, convulsions, coma or even death. However, even small amounts of lead can be harmful, especially to infants, young children and pregnant women. Symptoms of long-term exposure to lower lead levels may be less noticeable but are still serious. Anaemia is common and damage to the nervous system may cause impaired mental function. Other symptoms are appetite loss, abdominal pain, constipation, fatigue, sleeplessness, irritability and headache. Continued excessive exposure, as in an industrial setting, can affect the kidneys 28 .

77.

Long-term (chronic) exposure to lead in humans results in effects on the blood, central nervous system (CNS), blood pressure, kidneys, and Vitamin D metabolism. Children are particularly sensitive to the chronic effects of lead leading to among others slowed cognitive development and reduced growth. Reproductive effects, such as decreased sperm count in men and spontaneous abortions in women, have been associated with high lead exposure. The developing fetus is at particularly high risk from maternal lead exposure, with low birth weight and slowed postnatal neurobehavioral development noted. Human studies regarding lead exposure and cancer are still inconclusive 29 .

78.

Lead exposure is most serious for young children because they absorb lead more easily than adults and are more susceptible to its harmful effects. Even low level exposure may harm the intellectual development, behaviour, size and hearing of infants. During pregnancy, especially in the last trimester, lead can cross the placenta and affect the unborn child. Female workers exposed to high levels of lead have experienced more miscarriages and stillbirths.

79.

Exposure to lead can occur from breathing contaminated workplace air or house dust, eating lead-based paint chips or contaminated dirt. Dust and soil can be significant lead exposure sources, especially for young children. Lead dust can also be generated within the home, especially older homes that used lead-based paints or lead solder. Lead dust is especially dangerous for babies and young children, because they tend to put things in their mouths and their breathing zone is closer to floor level.

80.

Lead is a well-documented neurotoxicant and lead exposure in children is linked to a lowering of their intelligence quotient (IQ). Epidemiological studies consistently find adverse effects in

27 Health Canada-www.hc.sc.gc.ca

28 Ibid

29

EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) website : www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/lead.

16


children at blood lead levels down to 10 µg/dl 30.

Recent studies reported lead-induced IQ decrements in children with blood lead levels below 10 µg/dl 31 . There is presently no known threshold for the effect of lead. A growing number of studies suggest that exposure to lead may cause behavioural deficits and lower functional skills during childhood and later in life 32.

Other vulnerable population groups include socially and economically disadvantaged populations and the malnourished, whose diets are deficient in proteins and calcium.

81.

Lead exposures occur in almost all countries of the world 33 . Available data suggest that, on the global scale, the highest blood lead levels occur in Latin America, the Middle East, Asia, parts of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Available data indicate a substantial falling trend in environmental lead exposure in many developed countries mainly due to the elimination of lead from petrol, but also to reductions in other sources of exposure

(e.g., lead in paint, lead in drinking water and lead in soldered cans).

82.

Lead remains an environmental health problem. A growing number of countries (mainly developing countries and countries with economies in transition) are recognizing and reporting the problem of environmental lead exposure in some population groups. For instance in Cape

Peninsula, South Africa, epidemiological studies for children recorded blood levels of 0.836g/l of lead in the 1980’s and 90’s and down to 10mg/l in 2002 after banning leaded petrol. The IQ in children of same age also recorded tremendous improvements .34

83.

In many parts of the world, for many decades, there was very little public awareness of and policies relating to the potential of lead contamination and its public health effects. As a result of its health effects and impact on development, lead may cause significant economic losses for society.

3.3.1 Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on the environment

84.

Mercury is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the environment in different chemical forms.

The pure form, elemental mercury, is liquid at room temperature and slowly forms a vapour in the air. Forms more commonly found in nature are inorganic mercury such as mercuric sulphide, mercury oxide, mercury chloride and organic mercury such as dimethyl mercury, phenyl mercury, ethyl mercury and methyl-mercury. However, the most common organic mercury compound in the environmental is methyl-mercury.

85.

Natural events (e.g. volcanic activity and weathering of rocks), human activities (e.g. mining, processes and use of fossil fuels and products) can cause mercury release into the environment.


31 Ibid

32 Ibid

33 Ibid

34 Ibid

17


Once released it can move easily between air, water and land. Natural processes can even change mercury from one form to another.

86.

Human activity is now the main source of mercury being released into the environment. Much is released unintentionally from processes where mercury is unwanted impurity. Emission into the air mainly from fossil fuel (petrol, gas and coal power plant and incinerator), are expected to increase unless other energy sources are used or emissions better controlled.

87.

Today’s emissions of mercury from soil and water surface are composed of both natural source and re-emission of previous deposition of mercury from both anthropogenic and natural resources. This makes it very difficult to determine the actual natural mercury emission.

88.

On average, around the globe there are indications that anthropogenic emission of mercury have resulted in deposition rates today that are 1.5 to 3 times higher than those during pre- industrial times. In and around industrial areas the deposition rates have increased by 2 to 10 times during the last 200 years .35

89.

A good percent of mercury in the environment is from anthropogenic emission though it’s difficult to estimate.

90.

Highly contaminated industrial sites and abandoned mining operations continue to release mercury. Also, land, water and resource management activities such as forestry and agricultural practices and flooding can make mercury more bioavailable.

91.

In addition, frequent extreme weather event can contribute to release of mercury through flooding and soil erosion.

3.3.2 Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on human health

92.

Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic to humans and the environment. Large amounts can be fatal to humans, but even relatively low doses can seriously affect developing nervous systems. The toxicity to humans and other organism depends on the chemical form, the amount, the pathway of exposure and the vulnerability of the person exposed.

93.

Mercury can change in the environment into a more complex and harmful compound called methyl-mercury. Methyl-mercury passes both the placental barrier and the blood brain barrier, and so can inhibit children potential mental development even before birth. Studies have shown that methyl mercury in pregnant women’s diets can have subtle, persistent adverse effects on children development as observed at about the start of school age. Moreover, some studies suggest that small increases in methyl mercury exposure may cause adverse effects on the cardiovascular system. Many people (and wildlife) are currently exposed at the levels that pose these risks, and possibly other adverse effects 36 .

35 UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, December 2002

36 Ibid

18


94.

Some populations are especially susceptible and vulnerable to mercury exposure, most notably the fetus, the new-born, and young children because of the sensitivity of the developing nervous system. Thus parents, pregnant women, and women who might become pregnant, should particularly be aware of the potential harm of methyl mercury.

95.

However, moderate consumption of fish (with low mercury levels) is not likely to result in exposures of concern. On the other hand, indigenous populations and others who consume high amounts of contaminated fish or marine mammals, as well as workers who are exposed to mercury such as small scale gold and silver mining, may be highly exposed to mercury and are therefore at risk.

96.

There are also ecosystems and wildlife populations which are particularly vulnerable to methyl mercury. These include top predators in aquatic food webs (such as fish eating birds and mammals), artic ecosystem, wetlands, tropical ecosystems and soil microbial communities 37.

97.

Recent evidence suggest that mercury is responsible for reduction of micro-biological activity vital to the terrestrial human food chain in soil over large part of Europe and potentially in many other places in the world with similar soils characteristics. Preliminary critical limits to prevent ecological effect due to mercury in organic soil have been set at 0.07 -0.3 mg/kg for total mercury in the soils.

98.

Rising water levels associated with global climate changes may also have implication for the methylation of mercury and its accumulation in fish.

38

37 Ibid

38 Ibid

19


4.0 KEY ORGANIZATIONS AND DATABASES DEALING WITH

TRADE STATISTICS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM,

LEAD AND MERCURY

99.

This section provides description of the main key organizations and databases dealing with trade statistics of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury. Also other sub-topics are included in this section describing the commodity classification and codes and the limitations of the trade data.

100.

Key organizations collecting and maintaining databases of commercial statistics on trade of products are available. These include, among others, the UN Comtrade, Eurostat, United

States (US) International Trade Commission, Trade Analysis and Information System

(TRAINS) database and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB/CTS) databases.

101.

This report focuses mainly on the commodity statistics available through the UN Comtrade database, since it is the most comprehensive and easily accessible. Hence a brief description of it is given below.

4.1 UN Comtrade and commodity classifications and codes for products containing cadmium, lead and mercury

102.

UN Comtrade is an acronym for “United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database,” maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). The data which is kept in a standard format provides information on trade transaction for each country for a specified commodity and code, a partner country, value of trade, net weight or number of items for a specific year. For many countries the data coverage starts as far back as 1962 and goes up to the most recent completed year 2007.

103.

Commodities are classified primarily according to SITC (Rev.1 from 1962, Rev.2 from 1976 and Rev.3 from 1988) and the Harmonized System (HS from 1988 with revisions in 1996 and

2002), as well as some more specialised systems. Currently most data are reported according to HS-2002, and automatically converted and stored in all of the other classifications.

104.

This report has used information on commodities specified by the more commonly used classification codes which are:

Standard International Trade Classification (SITC)

Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS).

105.

The selected commodities and their codes are shown in Table 4.1

to Table 4.3

. However, in the cause of extracting data from the databases, it was found that some codes had missing data, some had different names for the same group categories and others were repeated. Therefore the data downloaded and analyzed in this study was from the codes give in Table 4.4

only.

20


Table 4.1: Commodity codes for products containing cadmium

HS02- 283030

SITC3-53313

HS 92- 850730

SITC3 -68982

HS96 -381230

Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)

Pigments and preparations based on cadmium compounds

Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators

Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and scrap; powders

Anti-oxidizing preps. & other compound stabilizers for rubber/plastics

SITC4 -5622 Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic

SITC1-5612 Phosphatic fertilizers and materials

HS07-262091

Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture of iron/steel) containing antimony/beryllium/cadmium/chromium/their mixtures

Table 4.2: Commodity codes for products containing lead

HS1992-850710 Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)

HS1992-850720 Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles

HS96 - 262020

HS92 - 2824

HS92 - 282410

HS96- 381111

HS96-7801

HS96-7802

HS96-7803

HS96-7804

HS92-7805

HS96-7806

Ash or residues containing mainly lead

Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead

Lead monoxide (litharge, massicot)

Anti-knock preparations based on lead comps.

Lead and Lead alloys unwrought

Lead waste and scraps

Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.

Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes.

Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).

Articles of Lead

SITC 3-6852

SITC 3 - 52375

SITC 1 - 71421

Lead and lead alloys, worked

Lead carbonates

Electronic computers

Table 4.3: Commodity codes for mercury and products containing mercury

HS92 -853931

HS92-9025

HS02-853932

HS02-850630

SITC3-772

HS02-847160

HS92-8525

H02-854012

HS96-8540

SITC.2-51551 and

SITC.1-51283

Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode

Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc

Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultraviolet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...

Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide

Electric switch relay/circuit

Input/output units (of auto. data processing machines), whether or not cont. storage units in the same housing

Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras

Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black & white/other. monochrome

Thermionic and cold cathode valves and tubes

Organo- mercury compounds

21


Table 4.4: Commodity codes for the analyzed data

Products containing cadmium

Code Description

HS02- 283030

SITC3-53313

HS 92- 850730

Cadmium sulphide ( Electroplating )



SITC3 -68982

HS96 -381230


Anti-oxidizing preps. & other compound stabilizers for rubber/plastics

SITC1-5612 Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic/ phosphatic fertilizers and materials

Products containing lead


HS1992-850720

HS96-260700

HS96-7801

HS96-7802

HS96-7803

HS96-7804

HS92-7805

HS96-7806

HS02-9606

HS 02-8471

HS92 - 2824

SITC 3-6852

SITC 3 - 52375

HS96 - 262020

Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles

Lead ore& concentrate

Lead and Lead alloys unwrought




Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves)

Articles of Lead, not elsewhere specified (nes)

Pencils lead, black/coloured

Automatic data processing machines (Computers)



Lead carbonates


Products containing mercury


HS92 -853931 Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode

HS02-853932

HS02-850630

SITC3-772

HS92-8525

H02-854012/

SITC.4-776/HS96-

8540

Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultraviolet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...


Electric switch relay/circuit


Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black & white/other. monochrome

Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or vapour or gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc rectifying valves and tubes, cathode-ray tubes, television camera tubes); diodes, transistor.s

22


HS02-262060

SITC.4-776

Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture of iron/steel) cont. mainly arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mix.

Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or vapour or gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc rectifying valves and tubes, cathode-ray tubes, television camera tubes); diodes, transistors and similar semiconductor devices.

4.2 Limitations and challenges associated with trade data statistics and data analysis.

106.

Some of the data provided in the UN Comtrade database, particularly the net weight of traded commodities, are estimated. Data analyzed was that downloaded from the database where in most cases many countries have not reported the trade transactions. For example, where one country will indicated that it has imported from a certain country in a certain year or certain amount, at the same time that certain country will not show that particular trade transaction.

The data does not tally between countries that have traded as partners. This created difficulties in deciding which data to include/take for the analysis. A very prominent example is the data for Unwrought Lead where Namibia showed in the year 2004 to have imported from South

Africa almost 99 percent of the total import of the product for the period 2000-2006, while in the same year the data from South Africa did not show any export of such product to Namibia.

The same for lead alloys and Data processing machines (computers). The assumption is that import data is more likely to be correct than export data since it is tied up with import taxes.

107.

Many countries have not reported trade transactions. This is shown in most cases when one country has exported or imported from a certain country while that country does not show any such trade transactions. Therefore the data becomes unreliable.

108.

Another limitation and challenge of the trade data statistics is the unavailability of data for second hand products containing cadmium, lead and mercury. The trade data available in the databases does not show whether it includes second hand products or not. It is well known that the trade of second hand computers, TVs, radios, cell phones and other electrical and electronic products containing cadmium, lead and mercury are a booming business in Africa.

Thus the actual figures on the trade of electrical and electronic products could be more than what has been presented in this report.

23


5.0 PRODUCTION AND TRADE PATTERN OF PRODUCTS


109.

This section provides the global production and the trade flow of the most traded products containing cadmium, lead and mercury to the African countries for the period covering 2000-

2006. The information has been derived from the data collected from UN Comtrade and UN

Database websites. However, in gathering the data several gaps were experienced which will be mentioned herewith. Data analysis was done bearing in mind the gaps identified and the data available.

110.

Responses for the questionnaires in respect of the study were received from governments, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The relevant responses to the questions which were included in the questionnaire are compiled in

Annex 5A . The countries which responded are Australia, Burkina Faso, Chad, Czech Republic,

Finland, Jamaica, Mexico, Norway, Togo, United Kingdom, United States of America,

Sweden, and Switzerland while the IGOs include the European Commission and the World

Health Organization (WHO). The only NGO which responded to the questionnaires is Toxic

Link.

111.

The trade pattern described here looks at the trade flow of imports and exports in terms of volume /weight (kg) of the products to and from the African countries based on the records of the UN Comtrade. Data analysis using tables and charts have been used to provide information to address the following:

The major products containing cadmium, lead and mercury imported into and exported from the African countries.

The major importing and exporting countries and their partners.

The trend of importation and exportation of these products.

These aspects are covered in details below:

5.1 Products containing cadmium

5.1.1 Global production

112.

Cadmium is produced mainly as a by – product of mining, smelting and refining of zinc and, to a lesser degree as a by – product of lead and copper production. It is therefore primarily a function of zinc production rather than cadmium demand. Global cadmium production almost doubled between 1950 and 1990. Since 1990 global consumption has remained constant, at about 20,000 tonnes per year, although many changes have occurred with the geographical distribution of this production. Until 1997, production in Europe, the Americas and Asia remained constant. Since 1997, however, production in Asia has increased sharply; whereas the production in Europe has decreased.

113.

Depending on world production of zinc, the production of cadmium has been estimated and are given in Table 5.1-a below.

24


Table 5.1-a: Global cadmium production

Country Quantity

(tonnes)

United States 90,000

Australia 53,000

Canada 55,000

China 90,000

India 3,000

Japan 10,000

Kazakhstan 50,000

Mexico 35,000

Peru

Russia

Other countries

World Total

12,000

16,000

120,000

540,000

Source: U.S Geological survey, mineral commodity summaries January 2007

5.1.2 Sources and supply of cadmium

114.

There are two main sources of cadmium namely primary cadmium recovered from smelting of

Zinc and secondary cadmium derived from recycling of Nickel-Cadmium batteries, Copper-

Cadmium alloys, and other iron – ferrous alloys, as well as Cadmium – containing dust from the recycling of iron and recycled (secondary) cadmium. In 2004 recycled cadmium accounted for 3,500 tonnes corresponding to about 17.5 percent of a total global supply of about 20,000 tonnes 39.

115.

There are three major industry programs in the world which organize and promote the collection and recycling of NiCd batteries i.e. Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation

(RBRC) in the United States of America and Canada, Battery Association of Japan (BAJ) in

Japan and RECHARGE in Europe.

116.

The leading producers of primary cadmium from 2003 – 2006 and their production are summarized in Table 5.1-b.

117.

Worldwide primary cadmium production continues to originate predominantly from Asia

(China, Japan and Korea) and the Americas (Canada and Mexico) with only small production from Europe and Australia. Cadmium production in Africa which was always quite small has virtually disappeared.

39 Cadmium Markets and Trends September 2005

25


Table 5.1-b: Leading producers of primary cadmium metal (in tonnes)

Country Quantity (tonnes)

Korea

China

Japan

Canada

Mexico

Kazakhstan

2003 2004 2005 2006

2379 2633 2782 3450

2705 2900 3000 3000

2490

1759

1606

930

2222

1881

1590

2358

2297

1727

1627

1624

2289

2094

1397

1140

United States

Russia

Germany

700

650

640

Netherlands

India

495

477

Peru 529

Australia 673

1010

650

640

572

489

532

469

1070

650

640

570

409

409

429

892

650

640

570

457

416

425

Source: Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, UNEP, version of November 2008

5.1.3 Global cadmium trade

118.

Many products in which cadmium is used intentionally are traded globally. This is the case in particular for its use in NiCd batteries which commands 82 percent of consumption, but also for many applications in alloys, plastics, pigments, plating and in electronic and electrical equipment. In this context, as consequence of international trade, products containing cadmium will be spread to consumers in countries worldwide.

119.

The general trend in global cadmium consumption over the last two decades has been a steep increase in the use of cadmium for batteries and a decrease in the use for nearly all other applications.

120.

In 1980 cadmium pigment and plating were the main application areas followed by batteries which accounted for 23 percent of total global consumption and stabiliser in polymers for 12 percent of the estimated world consumption. In 2005, batteries (NiCd batteries) accounted for about 82 percent of the estimated world consumption 40.

Other major uses of refined cadmium are: pigments for plastics, ceramics and enamels; stabilizers for plastics; plating on iron and steel; and as an alloying element of some lead, copper and tin alloys. Since 1990, consumption for pigments, stabilizers, alloys and other uses has decreased significantly.


26


Trade patterns in Africa

Major traded products containing cadmium in Africa

121.

The major traded (imported/exported) products containing cadmium in Africa include phosphatic fertilizers, plastic/rubber stabilizers/anti-oxidizing agents, NiCd electric accumulators, pigments, cadmium sulphide, cadmium unwrought/cadmium waste and antioxidizing agents. The total volume of imported and exported products to/from Africa during the period 2000 – 2005 is shown in Table 5.1c.

Table 5.1-c: Imports and exports volumes of products containing cadmium to and from

Africa: 2000-2005

Phosphatic fertilizer and materials

Plastic/Rubber stabilizers/anti oxidizing agents.

NiCd electric accumulators

700,537,761

69,911,734

4,455,116

9,174,381,922

27,256,763

36,597,974

Pigments 2,094,786 147,057

Cadmium sulphide 44,233 1,988

Cadmium unwrought/waste 4,875 47,611

Total 777,048,505 9,238,433,315

122.

It can be noted from Table 5.1-c that the most leading traded product containing cadmium in

Africa is phosphatic fertilizer followed by plastic and rubber stabilizers, NiCd batteries and pigments. Other products include cadmium sulphide and cadmium wrought. The import market shares of each product are illustrated in Figure 5.1-a and Figure 5.1-b while exports are shown in Figures 5.1-c and Figure 5.1-d.

Table 5.1-d: Annual volumes of imports and export of products containing cadmium to and from Africa: 2000-2005.

27


Table 5.1-e: Import volumes of products containing cadmium into Africa:

2000-2005.(Kg)

Imports 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Total

Phosphatic fertilizer materials

64,518,712 57,423,267 100,660,564 121,385,027 186,662,934 169,887,257 700,537,761

Plastic/rubber stabilizers/anti oxidizing agents/anti oxidizing preps

6,300,085 27,567,423 9,597,841 7,932,872 8,487,659 10,025,854 69,911,737

Cadmium nickel accumulators

Cadmium pigments

Cadmium sulphide

Cadmium unwrought

490 2,040 431 383 668 863 4,875

TOTAL 71,740,686 85,773,851 111,370,384 130,499,182 196,455,714 181,208,688 777,048,505

Table 5.1-f: Export volumes of products containing cadmium from Africa:

2000-2005 (Kg)

Exports

Phosphatic fertilizer materials

NiCd Electric accumulators

Plastic/rubber stabilizer/anti oxidizing

Pigments

Cadmium unwrought

Cadmium sulphide

TOTAL

1,718,363,973 1,525,691,389 1,450,534,210 1,205,908,957 1,676,362,646 1,597,520,747 9.174,381,922

1,724,492,235 1,532,551,507 1,457,090,938 1,209,498,412 1,687,057,531 1,627,742,692 9,238,433,315

28


Import of cadmium products including phopshatic fertilizers, 2000-2005

Pigments

0%


1% Cadmium sulphide.

0%

Plastic/rubber stabilizers.

9%

Phosphatic fertilizer

90%

Figure 5.1-a: Volume of products containing cadmium imported into Africa

Import of cadmium products excluding phosphatic fertilizers, 2000-2005

Pigments

3%

Cadmium sulphide.

0%


6%

Cadmium unwroug

0%


91%

Figure 5.1-b: Volume of products containing cadmium (excluding phosphatic fertilizer) imported to Africa

29


Export of cadmium products including phosphatic fertilizers 2000-2006


0% NiCd electric accumulators

0%

Cadmium unwrought/waste

0%

,

Phosphatic fertilizer

100%

Figure 5.1-c: Volume of products containing cadmium (including phosphatic fertilizer/ materials) exported from Africa

Export of cadmium products excluding phosphatic fertilizers, 2000-2005

Cadmium sulphide.

0%

Pigments

0% Cadmium unwrought/waste

0%


43% NiCd electric accumulators

57%

Figure 5.1-d: Volume of products containing cadmium (excluding phosphatic fertilizer/ materials) exported from Africa

30


123.

The general trade trend of products containing cadmium in Africa is increasing. The total imports of products containing cadmium have increased from about 73,000 tons in 2000 to about 192,000 tons in 2005 while reported exports decreased from about 1,779,000 tons in

2000 to about 752,000 tons in 2005 as shown in Table 5.1-d.

The high volume in exports is mainly contributed by phosphatic fertilizers which are exported from Tunisia and Morocco.

The import and export trends of products containing cadmium during the period 2000 to 2005 are further illustrated in Figures 5.1-e and Figure 5.1-f respectively while details on the import/export data of each cadmium product for the same period are given in Table 5.1-e and

Table 5.1-f .

Import trend for cadmium, 2000-2005

250000000

200000000

150000000

100000000

50000000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.1-e : Import trend of products containing cadmium during 2000 to 2005

31


Export trend for cadmium, 2000-2005

2,000,000,000

1,800,000,000

1,600,000,000

1,400,000,000

1,200,000,000

1,000,000,000

800,000,000

600,000,000

400,000,000

200,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.1-f: Export trend of products containing cadmium during 2000 to 2005

124.

The import and export trends of major products containing cadmium including their partners is given in Table 5.1-g and Table 5.1-h respectively while Map 5.1-a and Map 5.1-b illustrate the trade movements of the same products.

Table 5.1-g: Major products containing cadmium imported to Africa, major importers and partners:

2000-2005

S/N Product name

Quantity

(tonnes)

% Major importers

Major partners

1 Phosphatic fertilizer materials

700,537 90.15% Morocco 22% Portugal

Italy

Egypt

Algeria 15% Turkey

France

Bulgaria

Corte d’Ivoire

14.% USA

Bulgaria

Morocco

35%

20%

16%

18%

17%

15%

44%

18%

17% oxidizing preps

69,911 9.00% Mozambique 29% Portugal

Germany

Malaysia

Morocco 15% Belgium

Spain

Italy

100%

26%

21%

16%

27%

24%

15%

32


3.

.

6

NiCd electronic accumulators

4 Cadmium

Pigments

5. Cadmium sulphide

Cadmium unwrought

4,455

2,094

0.57% South 26% China

Japan

Sweden

Algeria 18% France

Spain

UK

0.27% Egypt

44.23 0.01%

Tanzania

South Africa

China

USA

France

Brazil

South Africa

Iran

98% Italy

China

Indonesia

Algeria 31% UK

* Areas not elsewhere specified

57%

25%

98%

33

52.%

25%

13%

55%

17%

12%

83%

9%

7%

98%

2%

26%

13%

8%

45%

42%

3%


Table 5.1 – h: Major exported products containing cadmium, major exporters and partners:

2000-2005

S/N Name of Product materials

Quantity

(tones)

9,1743.81

% Total

Cd products

99.31%

Major exporters %

Tunisia 52.%

Major partners %

Brazil

Iran

UK

Morocco 35% Iran

Brazil

South 35%

Africa

UK

Netherlands

India

Japan

19%

17%

0.4%

28%

22%

18%

44%

29%

6%

36.597 accumulators

3. Plastic/rubber stabizer/antioxidizing

27,256

0.40% Sudan 54% India

Indonesia

Vietnam

Tunisia 18% Jordan

Philippines

0.30% South 99%

Africa

China Hong

Kong

Botswana 7% South Africa

Germany

Belgium

India

58%

13%

6%

42%

24%

8%

100%

22%

15%

11%

4.

5.

7.

Pigments

Cadmium unwrought

Cadmium sulphide

147.05

47.61

1.98

Tunisia 0.40% Angola

Ghana

Libya

<0.10% Zimbabwe

38%

South Africa

Zambia 20% Zimbabwe

South Africa 19% Angola

Zimbabwe

37%

37%

25%

100%

100%

39%

23%

<0.01% South Africa 53% China

USA

79%

18%

Ghana 44% Rep.of Korea 100%

United Rep 3%

Of Tanzania

Dem Rep of

Congo

100%

<0.01% Namibia 96%

South

Africa 45%

South Africa

Zimbabwe

Areas nes

Uganda

100%

70%

18%

11%

34


Map 5.1-a: Import flow of major products containing cadmium into Africa

Phosphatic fertilizers

Ni Cd Accumulators

Anti oxidizing agents

Cadmium pigments

Map 5.1-b : Export flow of major products containing cadmium from Africa

35


125.

Based on Table 5.1-g and Table 5.1-h , further description on the trade trend of each product is given below:

NiCd electric accumulators

126.

NiCd electric accumulators are the 3rd largest cadmium product traded in Africa. The major importer is South Africa commanding 26 percent of the market share and the main partners being China/Hong Kong, Japan and Sweden. The second importer of NiCd batteries is Algeria with 18 percent of the market share importing from France and Spain. The third importer is

Swaziland importing only from South Africa

127.

On the other hand the major exporter of NiCd batteries is Sudan with 55 percent of the market share exporting to India with 58 percent share, followed by Indonesia and Vietnam with 13 percent and 6 percent respectively. The second major exporter is Tunisia with 19 percent market share exporting to Jordan 42 percent and Philippines 24 percent share. Botswana is the next exporter exporting only to South Africa

128.

The import trend was increasing almost from year 2001-2005 with a slight drop in 2003, while the export was constant from year 2000 to 2003 when it started to pick up sharply to maximum figure in 2005 as indicated in Figure 5.1-g and Figure 5.1-h below.

Import trend NiCd accumulators, 2000-2005

1,200,000

1,000,000

800,000

600,000

400,000

200,000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.1- g: Import trend of NiCd electric accumulators

2004 2005

36


Export trend for NiCd accumulators, 2000-2005

25,000,000

20,000,000

15,000,000

10,000,000

5,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.1-h: Export trend of NiCd electric accumulators

Pigment

129.

Pigment is the fourth largest cadmium product traded in Africa. The main importer is Egypt commanding 31 percent of the market share importing 52 percent of it supplies from Saudi

Arabia. And China with 25 percent share. South Africa is second major importer commanding

30 percent of the market share mainly importing from United Kingdom (55percent) followed by France with 17percent. United Republic of Tanzania is the next major importer mainly from

India with 82 percent market share. The main exporter of pigments was noted to be Zimbabwe commanding 38 percent of the market share mainly exporting to South Africa, followed by

Zambia with 31 percent of the market share exporting only to Zimbabwe. South Africa is the next major exporter with 18% market share exporting to Angola (39 percent) and Zimbabwe

(23 percent)

130.

The import trend was fluctuating and the maximum import and export volumes were achieved in 2003. Import s continued to decrease but exports have been increasing since 2004 as shown in Figure 5.1- i and Figure 5.1-j.

37


Import trend for cadmium pigment, 2000-2005

700,000

600,000

500,000

400,000

300,000

200,000

100,000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.1-i: Import trend of cadmium pigments

Export trend for cadmium pigments, 2000-2005

2004

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.1-j: Export trend of cadmium pigments

2004

2005

2005

38


Cadmium sulphide

131.

Cadmium sulphide is fairly traded product in Africa compared to heavy industrialized countries. The main importer of this product was South Africa commanding 98 percent of the market share importing 98 percent of this product from Italy. The main exporter was Namibia commanding 96 percent of the market share exporting to South Africa. Import picked up in

2003 to 2004 and declined again in 200 while export trend was minimal. Figures 5.1-k and

5.1-l illustrate the import and export trend of cadmium sulphide respectively, for the period

2000 to 2005.

Import trend for cadmium sulphide, 2002-2005

45000

40000

35000

30000

25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0

2002 2003 2004 2,005

Year

Figure 5.1- k: Import trend of cadmium sulphide for the period 2000 to 2005

Export trend for cadmium sulphide, 2002-2005

1800

1600

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0

2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.1- l: Export trend of cadmium sulphide for the period 2000 to 2005

39


Plastic/rubber stabilizers .

132.

This product is widely traded in Africa. The major importers include Mozambique with 29 percent, South Africa 19 percent and Morocco 15 per cent. The major importing partners include Portugal for Mozambique, Italy, Germany and Malaysia for South Africa and Belgium,

Spain and Italy for Morocco. The main exporter is South Africa commanding 99 percent of the market share exporting mainly to Germany, Belgium and India. It is not clear why South

Africa has to import from Germany and export the same product percentage to Germany.

133.

The general trade trend of this product is decreasing in Africa. Reported import and export volumes have been decreasing since 2001. However exports started to increase again sharply since 2004 (see Figures 5.1- m and Figure 4.1-n )

Import trend for cadmium rubber and plastic stabilizers, 2000-2005

30,000,000

25,000,000

20,000,000

15,000,000

10,000,000

5,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.1-m: Export/Import Trend of Plastic/Rubber Stabilizer

2004 2005

40


Export trend of cadmium rubber and plastic stabilizers, 2000-2005

60,000

50,000

40,000

30,000

20,000

10,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.1-n: Export/Import Trend of Plastic/Rubber Stabilizer

Phosphatic fertilizer materials

134.

This is the most traded product in Africa, commanding 90 percent of the market share of products containing cadmium imported in Africa and 99 percent of products exported from

Africa .

135.

The major importer is Morocco commanding 22 percent of the market share importing from

Portugal, Italy and Egypt followed by Algeria with 15 percent importing from Turkey, France and Bulgaria. Similarly Corte d’Ivoire commands 15 percent market share importing form

USA, Bulgaria and Morocco. The major exporter is Tunisia commanding 52 percent of the market share exporting mainly to Brazil and Iran followed by Morocco with 35 percent share exporting also to Brazil and Iran. South Africa is also a major exporter of this product also with 35 percent market share exporting to Netherlands, India and Bangladesh.

136.

Import trend has increased by over 160 percent between year 2000 and 2005 while exports have decreased by 59 percent during the same period. Figures 5.1-o and Figure 5.1-p below show the import and export trend of phosphatic fertilizers and materials respectively.

41


Import trend for phosphatic fertilizers, 2000-2005

200,000,000

180,000,000

160,000,000

140,000,000

120,000,000

100,000,000

80,000,000

60,000,000

40,000,000

20,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.1-o: Import trend of phosphatic fertilizers and materials

2004 2005

Export trend for phosphatic fertilizers 2000-2005

2,000,000,000

1,800,000,000

1,600,000,000

1,400,000,000

1,200,000,000

1,000,000,000

800,000,000

600,000,000

400,000,000

200,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004

Figure 5.1-p: Export trend of phosphatic fertilizers and materials

2005

42


5.2 Lead and products containing lead

5.2.1. Global source and production

137.

Lead-rich minerals most often occur together with other metals, particularly silver, zinc, copper and sometimes gold. Thus, lead is also a co-product of zinc, copper and silver production, making the extraction of lead more economical than if it occurred in isolation.

About two-thirds of worldwide lead output is obtained from mixed lead-zinc ore 41

138.

After mining, the lead-rich ore (typically 3-8 percent lead) is separated from the other minerals to form ore-concentrate. The ore concentrate is converted into metallic lead with impurities by a smelting process, and the impurities are subsequently removed by pyrometallurgical or electrolytic refining. The different steps often take place in different countries, and there is extensive trade of intermediary raw products.

139.

Globally, lead is mined in more than 40 countries, the major producers being China and

Australia, which represent 30 percent and 22 percent of global lead mining production, respectively. The production and reserves by country in 2004 are shown in Table 5.2-a.

Table 5.2-a: Mine production of lead and reserves by country in 2004 (USGS, 2006)

Country Mine production Percentage of global Reserves 1)

42

China

2004

1000 tonnes Pb

950 production

30

2004

1000 tonnes Pb

11,000

Australia

United States

678

445

22

14

15,000

8,100

Peru

Mexico

Canada

Morocco

Ireland

Kazakhstan

India

South Africa

271

139

77

65

65

40

40

37

9

4

2

2

2

1.3

1.3

1.2

2,000

1,500

2,000

500

NA

5,000

NA

400

Sweden

Other countries

34

275

1.1

9

500

19,000

World total 3,150 100 67,000

(rounded)

1)

Reserves are defined by the USGS as that part of the resources which could be economically extracted or produced at the time of determination. Reserves include only recoverable materials.

NA: not available


42 Ibid

43


140.

China is also a leading world producer of refined lead producing 27 percent of the global production followed by United States of America and Germany producing 23 and 5 percent respectively ( Table 5.2-b )

141.

The total global mine production of lead has decreased slightly during the last thirty years, from 3,600,000 tonnes in 1975 to 3,100,000 tonnes in 2004. During the same period, global refined lead production and metal consumption have increased from about 4,700,000 tonnes to about 7,100,000 tonnes.

43

142.

South Africa and Morocco are the two major countries from Africa continent which produce, mine and refine lead. Between the years 2000-2005 both countries have produced one percent each of the total world production of the refined lead. The annual production of refined lead for South Africa has been increasing between the years 2000-2005 ( Table 5.2-b ) while for

Morocco it has been decreasing. At the same time the production of mine lead had been decreasing for both countries (Morocco and South Africa) between the years 1998 and 2002 and 2004 as indicated in Table 5.2-c below. The table also indicates that in the year 2004

Morocco and South Africa produced 2 percent and 1.2 percent of the global production of mine lead compared to the leading world producer China which produced 30 percent of the total global production 44 . At the same time there has been a general increase of use of lead by the African countries, the major users being South Africa and Algeria (see table 5.2-d). On the other hand data available show that the recovery of the recycled lead has been increasing during the period 1998 to 2002 as shown in Table 5.2-e .

Table 5.2-b Global production of refined lead per country for the years 2000-2005 (in 1000 tonnes)

Year

Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005


China 1113.4 1195.4 1324.7 1542.6 1973.6 2394.1 9543.8 27

USA

Germany

UK

Korea, republic

1420 1340 1330 1370 1250 1270 7980

284.4 268.48 278.28 266.22 321.02 318.82 1737.2

236 366 370 320 243

23

5

1535 4

Canada 284.33 230.93 251.82 169.66 241.4

Australia 235 215 276 267 182

1178.1 3

1175 3

796.91 2

Peru

Japan

116.4 121.2 119.6 112.3 118.6 122.1 710.12

239.38 236.04

Morocco 117.4 110.9 87.4 64.47 25

475.42

405.13

2

1

1

India 77.9 96.4 89.2 11.28 51.76 1

43 Ibid

44 Ibid

44


Russia

Sweden

60.35 66 66 318.85 1

France 138.11 134.13

Belgium 81 63.02 52.43 51

Malaysia 35.2 42 40 57 54

299.47 1

272.24 1

247.45 1

228.3 1

Poland 21.5 44.8 50.5 51 54.75

Argentina 35.67 35.43 43.57 41.31 43 198.98

1

1

Thailand 27.2 30 30 47 58 192.2 1

Other countries 845.08 5641.65 16

Total 5795.51 5839.41 5931.48 5932.8 6032.27 5292.88 34824.2

Source: UNdata website, 2008

Table 5.2-c: Mine production of lead by country in Africa from 1998-2002 (1000 tonnes)

Country 1998

Morocco

Namibia

80

14

80

12

82

12

77

12

73

12

65

South Africa

Other Africa

84

4

80

8

75

8

51

8

50

7

37

Source : CANADIAN MINERALS YEARBOOK, 2002 * Source : Draft final review of scientific information on lead,

UNEP, version of November 2008

Table 5.2-d: Refined lead use by country in Africa (1000 tonnes):1998-2002

Country Quantity/Year

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

South Africa

Other Africa

Total Africa

74

32

135

67

37

133

59

41

130

59

35

123

71

42

143

Source :

CANADIAN MINERALS YEARBOOK, 2002

Table 5.2-e: Recovery of recycled lead (1000 tonnes) in Africa; 1998-2002

Country Quantity/Year

1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

South Africa

Other Africa

Total Africa

50

9

69

Source :

CANADIAN MINERALS YEARBOOK, 2002

52

7

71

46

6

62

49

5

64

61

5

76

45


5.2 2 Global trade of lead

143.

Lead is mainly used in the production of batteries which accounts for 78 percent of the reported global consumption in 2003 45 . Other applications of lead are in lead compounds (8 percent), lead sheets for roofing and flashing (5 percent), ammunition such as lead shot for shotguns (2 percent), metal alloys (2 percent) and cable sheathing (1.2 percent), and Petrol additives and others 9.2 percent.

Trade Patterns in Africa

Major traded products containing lead in Africa

144.

The import and export quantities of products containing lead in Africa is shown in Table 5.2-f.

The major imported products including the importing countries and their partners are summarized in Table 5.2-g while the major exported products and their partners are given in

Table 5.2-h.

Table 5.2-f: Import and export volume of products containing lead to Africa region 2000-2006

Product Total Import/Kg Total Export/Kg

20,159,919 13,245,518 Lead oxides

Lead Acid Electric Accumulators for Vehicles

( Lead Batteries)

Lead Batteries -Others

Lead alloys worked

Lead Carbonate

Antiknock Preparations

Articles of Lead (Sheets, Scraps, Bars

Lead Ore & Concentrate

Ash Residue

Unwrought Lead

Glasses of Lead Crystal

205,579,273 128,320,613

53,990,248 37,057,441

7,698,722

256,699

54,215,799

7,596,685

8,038

513,982

15,209,628

167,987,858

978,297

1,002,008,975

5,429,387

20,689,408

1,204,891,617

1,438,435

338,349,441

700,578

Automatic Data Processing Machines (Computers)

Lead pencils

344,141,872

243,865,242

1,701,333,727

17,515,995

Total 2,121,520,919 3,471,661,478

145.

It can be noted from the tables that the major product containing lead which was imported into

Africa during the period 2000 – 2006 is unwrought lead which accounted for about 56 percent of the total imported products. More than 70 percent of this product was imported by Namibia from South Africa and the highest imported figure was reported in the year 2004 which accounted for almost 95 percent of the total imports of that product in the same year. However, the correctness of the data reported by Namibia in year 2004 could not be verified as the data was not reported by the importing partner, namely South Africa in the same year. South Africa is the second major importer of unwrought lead importing mainly from Australia and China.

45 Ibid

46


146.

Other major lead containing products imported into Africa during the period 2000 – 2006 include automatic data processing machines (computers) (17 percent); lead acid accumulators for vehicles (10 percent); Pencils (6 percent); lead ores and concentrates (8 percent); and lead acid accumulators other than for vehicles (3 percent); and antiknock preparations (3 percent).

Figure 5.2-a shows the major imported products and their percentage market shares during the period 2000 – 2006.

147.

The major product containing lead that was exported from Africa during the period 2000 –

2006 is automatic data processing machines (computers) which accounted for about 53 percent of the exported products containing lead. The major exporter of this product during the same period was Namibia exporting to South Africa (50 percent) and Angola (50 percent).

148.

Other major exported products include lead ores and concentrate; unwrought lead and lead acid accumulators. Figure 5.2-b shows the market share of the different exported products during the period 2000 – 2006.

Market share of imports of products containing Lead into Africa:

2000-2006

Lead Acid Electric

Accumulators-Vehicles

(HS 850710)

10%

Lead pencils (HS 9609)

11%

Others (Alloys w orked, lead carbonate, ash or residues, glass crystals

Lead oxides (HS 2824)

1%

1%

Lead Batteries -Others

(HS 850720)

3%

Automatic Data

Processing Machines

(Computers) HS 8471

16%

Unw rought Lead (HS

7801)

46%

Antiknock Preparations

(HS 381111)

3%

Lead Ore &

Concentrate (HS

Articles of Lead

(Sheets, Scraps, Bars, etc)- HS 7802 - 06)

1%

260700)

8%

Figure 5.2a- Import market share of products containing lead into Africa: 2000-2006

47


Exports of products containing Lead from Africa: 2000 - 2006

Lead pencils

1%

Automatic Data

Processing Machines

(Computers)

48% lead alloys w orked, lead carbonate, Antiknock, Ash or resduue, glass crystal, lead oxides

1%

Lead Acid Electric

Accumulators for

Vehicles

4%

Lead Batteries -

Others

1%

Articles of Lead

(Sheets, Scraps, Bars

1%

Unw rought Lead

10%

Lead Ore &

Concentrate

34%

Figure 5.2-b: Export market share of product containing lead from Africa: 200-2006

149.

The import and export trends of major products containing lead including their partners is given in Table 5.2-g and Table5.2-h respectively while Map 5.2-a and Map 5.2-b illustrate the trade movements of the same products.

48


Table 5.2-g: Major products containing lead imported to Africa and major importers and partners:2000-2006

Product Name

1 Unwrought Lead

HS96- 7801

2 Automatic Data processing machines ( computers)

HS02-8471

Quantity

(tones)


Importer

(country)

1,002,009 46 Namibia

Tunisia

76% South Africa

South Africa 11% Australia

China

4% Morocco

China

Canada

Belgium

344,142 16 22% China

United Kingdom

Algeria

Ireland

USA

Germany

14% China

France

Indonesia

Germany

Malaysia

Acid

Accumulators for vehicles HS96-850710

Ores

Concentrate

HS96-260700

167,988 8

Morocco 12% China

USA

France

Germany

Japan

14% France

China

Tajikistan

Thailand

Italy

South Africa 11% France

Rep. of Korea

Germany

China

USA

Ghana 10% China

Indonesia

Rep.of Korea

Thailand

China, Hong

Kong

Morocco 100% Ireland

Brazil

Poland

Tunisia

100%

71%

23%

52%

17 %

9%

9%

29%

9%

8%

8%

6%

40%

24%

5%

3%

3%

20%%

19%

17%

12%

7%

47%

9%

8%

6%

4%

26%

19%

12%

6%

5%

30%

26%

12%

9%

5%

59%

15%

14%

6%

49


Product Name

5 Pencils (ordinary)

HS92- 9609

Acid accumulators-Others

HS96-850720 based on Lead

HS96- 381111

8 Articles of Lead (Bars, sheets, scraps, rods, pipes (HS 7802, 7803,

7804, 7805,7806)

Quantity

(tones)

243,865

53,990

Perce nt of total

11

3

54,216 3

15,210 1

Importer

(country)


Thailand

Germany

Algeria

Namibia


France

USA

Nigeria

Morocco 4% France

United Kingdom

China

Greece

Germany

South Africa 70% United Kingdom

Russia

Germany

Netherlands

Switzerland

Algeria 8%

Kenya

See next table

9% France

9%

9%

3%

Partner of trade

Mozambique 28% United Arab

Emirates

Denmark

Pakistan

Rep. of Korea

Malaysia

Rep. of Korea

China

Syria

Rep.of Korea

South Africa

United Kingdom

Italy

China

Germany

Other Asia

China, Hong Kong

United Kingdom

United Kingdom

France

Switzerland

Egypt

Germany

United Kingdom

Australia

France

Belgium

82%

14%

1%

1%

1%

56%

33%

8%

2%

19%

12%

9%

5%

89%

4%

4%

2%

2%

24%

23%

11%

8%

7%

44%

32%

6%

3%

3%

40%

10%

4%

1%

1%

62%

9%

5%

3%

3%

52%

26%

7%

4%

100%

50


Articles of lead imported to Africa, major importers and partners:2000-2006

Product Name

8.1 Articles of Lead, nes

(HS 7806)

8.2 Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes (HS 7804)

Quantity

(tones)

4,880

4,419

Percent of

Total

< 1

< 1

Importer

(country)

Zambia

South Africa

% Partner of Trade %

Africa

Zimbabwe

90

10

13 Zimbabwe

China

16

14

Zambia 53% 98

Zimbabwe 2

8.3 Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire (HS 780300)

South Africa 6%

Zimbabwe

Mozambique

France

United Kingdom

Portugal

Swaziland

1

20

18

18

95

2

2

8.4 Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings

(HS 7805)

Zambia 19% Africa

Zimbabwe

66

34


Australia

Germany

60

13

12

Spain

China

Germany

93

5

1

Zambia 22% 66

United Kingdom

Kenya

29

5

8.5 Lead waste & scraps (HS

780200)

368 < 1

Emirates

China

Other Asia

63

22

15

51


Table 5.2-h: Major exported products containing lead from Africa, major exporters and partners: 2000 - 2006.

Product Name and

Code

Processing

Machines

( computers)

Ores

Concentrates

SITC96-260700

3 Unwrought lead

HS 7801

4 Lead acid electric accumulators for vehicles

HS96-850710

5 Lead acid accumulators other than for vehicles

HS 850720

Quantity

( tonnes)

Percent of total products containing lead

1,701,334 48

1,204,891 34

338,349 10

128,321 4

37,057 1

Major

Exporter

Namibia

% Major partners of

Trade

99% South

Angola

%


Belgium

Tunisia 5% Morocco

Germany

Morocco

Morocco

Italy 14%

China

10% Bulgaria

Italy

Belgium

81% Spain

38%

24%

17%

50%

50%

50%

61%

21%

27%

22%

South Africa

Namibia

Belgium

Algeria

Turkey

Italy

8% Belgium

Zimbabwe

India

Zambia

7% Korea

China

10%

8%

7%

7%

33%

29%

18%

4%

73%

26%

South Africa 56% UK

Mozambique

Zambia

Tunisia 14% Morocco

Senegal

Libya

Botswana

Burkina Faso

11% South Africa

Zimbabwe

Namibia

Malawi

54% France Tunisia

Morocco

Libya

Iraq

Italy

South Africa 26% UK

Kenya 6%

Nigeria

Australia

singapore

India

Singapore

Tanzania

24%

13%

12%

12%

35%

13%

12%

6%

42%

18%

11%

54%

11%

7%

58%

14%

6%

6%

48%

18%

17%

7%

27%

52


Articles of lead exported from Africa, major exporters and partners:2000-2006

8.1

Product Name

Lead waste & scraps

(HS 780200)

Quantity

(tones)

Percent of Total

Exporter

Cote d'Ivoire

% Partner

Trade

5 India

Belgium

Saudi Arabia

8.2 Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire (HS 780300)

3,120 plates, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes (HS

7804)

5,957

8.4 Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings

(HS 7805)

8.5 Articles of Lead, nes

(HS 7806)

447

4,687

< 1

< 1

< 1

< 1

South Africa

Morocco

Kenya

South Africa

Zambia

Ethiopia

South Africa

Namibia

Kenya

South Africa

Ghana

%

61

20

12

32

Angola

Zimbabwe

Zambia

Mozambique

29 United

Kingdom

Spain

7

Ethiopia

63

13

4

India

Rwanda

Zambia

France

South Africa

United

Kingdom

Bulgaria

India

United Arab

Emirates

68

17

6

69

9

24

Sri Lanka

Zambia

Angola

Seychelles

Angola

9

84

7

2

87

South Africa

Equatorial Guinea

13

66

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Mozambique

Spain

United Kingdom

23

9

76

9

29

22

26

18

77

10

50

22

22

58

50

23

10

5

48

48

39

53


Map 5.2a: Import flow of major products containing lead to Africa

Map 5.2b: Import flow of major products containing lead to Africa

Electric accumulators for vehicles Pencils Data processing machines

Lead ore and concentrates unwrought lead Electric accumulators for non vehicles

54


Trade trend of products containing lead

150.

The trend of import and export trade of products containing lead is shown in Table 5.2-i and

Figure 5.2-c . The general trend seems to be increasing from the period 2000 to 2006 with the maximum trade transaction carried out in the year 2004. The sudden increase is mainly contributed by the major imports of unwrought lead carried out in the same year by Namibia from South Africa, and export of lead ore and concentrates in 2005 by South Africa to China, and automatic data processing machines (computers) by Namibia to South Africa in 2004 (see

Table 5.2-h and Table 5.2-i ).

151.

China is increasingly capturing the import market share of products containing lead in Africa.

For example the import market share of automatic data processing machines (computers) to

South Africa by China in the year 2002 was 8 percent, in 2003 which went up to 35 percent in

2006 taking over the market from United Kingdom with the market share reduced from 20 percent in 2002 to 5 percent in 2006 . The same as the market share of the import of automatic data processing machines to Algeria which is the second importer of the product has been captured by China increasing yearly from 9 percent in 2002 to 30 percent in 2006 taking over the market from United Kingdom and France whose market share dropped from 12 percent in

2000 to 5 percent in 2006 and 26 percent in 2000 to 10 in 2006 respectively.

Table 5.2-i: Trade trend of total products containing lead in Africa

Year

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Total

Import/Kg

107,366,644

199,558,742

173,022,338

201,663,885

978,688,738

284,498,234

176,722,338

2,121,520,919

Export/Kg

230,441,704

127,775,820

203,428,808

191,483,962

1,868,502,564

748,204,751

101,823,869

3,471,661,478

55


Import and export trend of products containing

Lead in Africa: 2000 - 2006

2,000,000,000

1,500,000,000

1,000,000,000

500,000,000

Import/Kg

Export/Kg

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

Figure 5.2-c: Import and export trend of products containing lead in Africa: 2000-2006

The trade trend and partners of specific products is further describes below:

Unwrought lead

152.

Unwrought lead is shown as a major product imported into Africa and over 70 percent of this is imported by Namibia from South Africa. The major importation happened in the year 2004 where almost 95 percent of the total amount was imported. However, the authenticity of this data which was collected from the UN Comtrade data base is uncertain as the data was shown only by Namibia as imports from South Africa however not shown by South Africa being the partner in the trade in the same year. South Africa is the second major importer of unwrought lead importing mainly from Australia and China.

153.

The total imported amount of unwrought lead to Africa for the period 2000-2006 is indicated as about 50 percent of total volume of major products containing lead imported to Africa in the same period ( Table 5.2g

). Unwrought lead also takes a third place of the major products containing lead exported from Africa. Over 80 percent of which is exported by Morocco to many partners including Spain (50 percent), Belgium (10 percent), Algeria (8 percent) and

Turkey (10 percent). South Africa also is the major exporter of this product taking 8 percent of the total market share of the export of the product from Africa mainly to Belgium (33 percent),

Zimbabwe (29 percent) and India 20 percent. The product is also exported by Namibia taking 7 percent of the market share and exporting to Korea (73 percent) and China (26 percent) ( see

Table 5.2-h).

154.

The trend of import of unwrought lead to Africa is increasing and maximized in the year 2004.

The export trend also increased during the period 2000 to 2006. The export trade is within the continent. Figures 5.2-d and 5.2-e show the import and export trends of unwrought lead respectively, during the period 2000 – 2006. Quantities of import and export of unwrought lead to and from Africa is given in Table 5.2-j.

56


Table 5.2-j: Quantities of import & export of unwrought lead to Africa: 2000-2006

Year Import (Kg)

2000 27,347,707

2001 49,220,242

2002 29,343,596

Export (Kg)

4,003,313

25,448,893

8,0999,191

2003 35,145,949

2004 800,695,056

67,036,357

21,998,073

2005 36,251,461 62,565,689

2006 24,004,964

Total 1,002,008,795 339,952,990

IMPORT TREND OF UNWROUGHT LEAD TO AFRICA 2000-2006

900000

800000

700000

600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003

YEAR

2004

Figure: 5.2-d: Import trend of unwrought lead in Africa: 20002006

2005 2006

57


EXPORT TREND OF UNWROUGHT LEAD TO AFRICA 2000-

2006

90000

80000

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003

YEAR

2004 2005 2006

Figure: Export trend of unwrought lead in Africa: 2000-2006

Automatic data processing machines (Computers)

155.

Automatic data processing machines (computers) with 16 percent of the imports are the second major imported products containing lead in Africa and South Africa being the major importer.

The major import partners of South Africa include China (29 percent), United Kingdom (9 percent), Ireland (8 percent), USA 8 percent and Germany (6 percent). Another major importer is Algeria (13 percent), major partners being China (47 percent), France (9 percent) and Germany (6 percent). Morocco (12 percent according to the data) is also major importer of

Computers in Africa. Her major partners being China (26 percent), USA (19 percent) and

France (12 percent).

156.

At the same time, automatic data processing machines (computers) tops the list of the major exported products from Africa accounting for 53 percent of the total exports. The highest exported volume of this product was reported by Namibia in 2004. The reported data represents nearly 95 percent of the total exports of this product from Africa. 90 percent of the total export of this product was exported by Namibia to South Africa in the year 2004. This is basically trade within African countries. However the authenticity of the data could not be verified as there were no such records in the UN-Comtrade showing South Africa as having imported that huge amount of computers in the same year.

157.

The general import and export trend data for processing machines (computers) for the period

2000 to 2006 is increasing as shown in Figures 5.2-e and 5.2-f respectively. Imports tripled within this period, increasing from about 28,000 tons in 2000 to about 76,000 tons in 2006.

However, exports from Africa are minimal increasing from about 1,000 tons in 2000 to about

1,800 tons in 2006. Reported quantities of trade flow of data processing machines (computers) to and from Africa for the period 2000-2006 is shown in Table 5.2-k.

58


Table 5.2-k: Quantities of import & export of data processing machine (computers) in

Africa 2000-2006

2000 28,134,876 1,156,689

2001 18,804,107 138,158

2002 31,176,407 435,327

2003 36,257,396 372,009

2004 57,355,905 1,695,554,311

2005 96,504,128 1,847,511

2006 75,909,053 1,829,722

Total 344,141,872 1,701,333,727

IMPORT TREND OF DATA PROCESSING MACHINES TO AFRICA

2000-2006

1200000

1000000

800000

600000

400000

200000

0

IMPORT/TONNES

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

YEAR

Figure 5.2-f: Import trend of data processing machines (Computers) 2000-2006

59


EXPORT TREND OF DATA PROCESSING MACHINES FROM

AFRICA 2000-2006

1800000

1600000

1400000

1200000

1000000

800000

600000

400000

200000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

YEAR

Figure 5.2-g: Export trend of data processing machines (Computers) 2000-2006

Lead acid electric accumulators for vehicle

158.

Lead acid electric accumulators (batteries) for vehicle are the third major imported products containing lead to Africa which accounted for 10 percent of the total products containing lead.

The major importers include Algeria (14 percent) importing mainly from France (40 percent) and China (24 percent). Another major importer is South Africa with 11 percent of the imports, major partners being France (20 percent), Republic of South Korea (19 percent) and China 17 percent. Ghana accounts for 10 percent of the imports importing mainly from China (30 percent) and Indonesia (26 percent).

159.

The product is also the fourth among the major exported products from Africa and the major exporters being South Africa (56 percent) exporting to UK (54 percent) and Mozambique(11 percent), Tunisia (14 percent) exporting to Morocco (58 percent) and Botswana (11 percent) exporting to South Africa (48 percent) Zimbabwe (18 percent) and Namibia (17 percent)

160.

Import trade of this product has been tremendously increasing over the years from 2000-2006 while export has been decreasing as shown in F igure 5.2-h below. Reported data of import and export for this product during 2000 – 2006 is given in Table 5.2- l

60


Table 5.2-l: Quantities of import and export of lead acid electric accumulator for vehicles into and from Africa 2000-2006

Year

Import (Kg)

Export (Kg)

2000 14,177,953

2001 16,490,227

9,364,847

2,078,484

2002 23,277,042

2003 33,044,866

2004 40,430,016

2005 51,255,714

2006 26,903,455

Total 205,579,273

1,928,336

1,617,290

15,195,846

11,366,542

2,485,668

44,037,013

IMPORT AND EXPORT TREND OF LEAD BATTERRIES FOR

VEHICLE TO AND FROM AFRICA 2000-2006

60000000

50000000

40000000

30000000

20000000

10000000

EXPORT/ KG

IMPORT( KG)

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

YEAR

Figure 5.2-h: Trade trend of import and export of lead acid electrical accumulators for vehicle 2000-2006

61


Lead ores and concentrates

161.

Lead ores and concentrates are the second most exported products from Africa and fourth most imported lead product. The major exporter of this product is South Africa exporting 80 percent of the total volume and exporting to China (61 percent) and Belgium (21 percent). Morocco exported 10 percent of the total volume of lead ore and concentrates to among others, Bulgaria

(38 percent) and Italy 924 percent). Tunisia contributed 5 percent of the total exports of this product and its export partners included Morocco (27 percent) and Germany (22 percent). The three exporting countries are also the major producers of mine and refined lead in Africa. At the same time, the major importer of this product in Africa is Morocco importing almost 100 percent of the total volume imported to Africa. The product is mainly imported from Ireland

(59 percent), Brazil (15 percent) and Poland (14 percent).

162.

Generally the trend of imports of this product is increasing every year while exports are almost constant except in year 2005 where-by a big increase in export was recorded. The increase was mainly due to reported data from South Africa in 2005. The figure accounted for almost

(90 percent) of the total exported volume of this product from Africa within the period 2000 –

2006. The export was mainly to China. However the data from China show a different figure of import from South Africa in the same year. South Africa reported in 2005 a total amount of

536,000,000 Kg as exports to China while China reported only 27, 528,144 Kg as imports of that product from South Africa in the same year. The authenticity of the data could not be verified in this study. Figures 5.2-i and 5.2-j show the trade trend of import and export of lead ores and concentrates respectively during 2000 – 2006. The trade data is given in Table 5.2- m.

Table 5.2-m: Quantities of export and import of lead ore & concentrate in Africa region

2000-2006


2000 10,369

Export (Kg)

120,607,488

2001 91,599

2002 47,710,623

2003 57,874,484

2004 21,325,765

88,361,643

111,407,647

113,767,964

119,996,933

2005 40,974,638

2006 380

Total 167,987,858

651,646,832

79,110

1,205,867,617

62


IMPORT QUANTITIES OF LEAD ORE

&CONCETRATE TO AFRICA (2000-2006)

70,000,000

60,000,000

50,000,000

40,000,000

30,000,000

20,000,000

10,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

YEAR

Figure 5.2-i: Import trend of import of lead ore& concentrate to Africa

EXPORT QUANTITIES OF LEAD ORE &

CONCETRATE FROM AFRICA (2000-2006)

700,000,000

600,000,000

500,000,000

400,000,000

300,000,000

200,000,000

100,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

YEAR

Figure 5.2-j: Export trend of export of lead ores & concentrates from Africa

63


Lead pencils, crayons

163.

Lead pencils and crayons is the product commonly used in almost all African countries. It is the fifth most imported product in Africa and the major importer of this product is

Mozambique (28 percent) followed by South Africa (16 percent). Major import partners of

Mozambique being United Arab Emirates (10 percent) and Denmark (4 percent). The product is mainly imported by South Africa from China (62 percent).

164.

The import trend of this product to Africa has increased during the period 2000 to 2006 while exports have remained almost constant during the same period ( see Figure 5.2-k and Figure

5.2-l ). 40 percent of the total imported volume of this product was reported in 2001. The quantities of this product imported into and exported from Africa are indicated in Table 5.2-n.

Table 5.2-n: Quantities of import and export of lead pencils and crayons into Africa:

2000-2006

Year Import/Kg

2000 14,628,593

2001 96,299,521

2002 20,952,984

2003 21,223,815

1,520,259

2,055,945

975,565

903,440

2004 36,311,143

2005 30,202,600

2006 24,246,586

Total 243,865,242

1,188,322

911,778

1,203,798

8,759,106

IMPORT TRADE TREND OF LEAD

PENCILS TO AFRICA( 2000-2006)

60000000

50000000

40000000

30000000

20000000

10000000

0

20

00

20

01

20

02

20

03

20

04

YEAR

20

05

20

06

F igure 5.2-k: Import trend of lead pencils into Africa: 2000 - 2006

64


EXPORT TRADE TREND OF LEAD

PENCILS FROM AFRICA 2000-2006

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

YEAR

Figure 5.2-l: Export trade trend of Lead pencils from Africa

Lead acid electric accumulators other than for vehicles

165.

Lead electric accumulators for other uses than for vehicle is the sixth most imported lead product to Africa taking 3 percent of the total imports volume of products containing lead into

Africa. The product is imported mainly by South Africa (52 percent) importing from China 24 percent, France 23 percent, United States of America11 percent and United Kingdom 8 percent. The product is also imported by Nigeria 9 percent from China (44 percent) and

Germany (32 percent).

166.

The product is also the fifth most exported product from Africa taking 1 percent of the total exported volume of products containing lead. It is mainly exported from Tunisia which accounts for 54 percent of the total export volume of the product and South Africa takes 26 percent of the market share. The major export partners of South Africa include United

Kingdom which accounts for 35 percent of the market share, Nigeria (13 percent), Australia

(12 percent) and Singapore (6 percent). Kenya also is exporting 6 percent of the total exports of this product from Africa and is exporting to India (42 percent), Singapore (18 percent) and

Tanzania (11 percent). The trade trend has been increasing over the years for both export and import as indicated in Figure 5.2-m.

The reported trade data is given in Table 5.2-o

Table 5.2-o: Volume of lead acid electric accumulators other than for vehicles


2000 7,304,471

2001 3,466,845

2002 2,682,259

2003 4,332,174

2004 8,917,512

2005 12,542,108

2006 14,743,879

Total 53,989,248

Export (Kg)

6418922

2,406,056

2018495

2,597,477

7,110,919

9,984,017

6,521,525

37,057,441

65


IMPORT AND EXPORT TREND OF LEAD BATTERIES OTHER THAN FOR

VEHICLE TO AND FROM AFRICA 2000-2006

16000000

14000000

12000000

10000000

8000000

6000000

4000000

2000000

0

IMPORT /KG

EXPORT /KG

2000 2001 2002 2003

YEAR

2004 2005 2006

Figure 5.2-m: Export and import trade trend of lead acid electric accumulators other than for vehicle 2000-2006

Antiknock preparations based on lead

167.

Antiknock preparations is the seventh most imported product in Africa taking 2 percent of the total imported volume of products containing lead into Africa. It is mainly imported by South

Africa (70 percent) from United Kingdom (89 percent), Russia (4 percent), Germany (4 percent) and the Netherlands (2 percent).

168.

The trade trend of import of antiknock preparation to and from Africa has tremendously decreased over the recent years. This is because most of the countries are banning the use of leaded gasoline and the leaded antiknock preparations are slowly being replaced by other less harmful products to the environment. Figure 5.2-n below shows the import trend between year

2000 and 2006.

Table 5.2-p: Quantities of import and export of antiknock preparations into and from

Africa: 2000-2006

Year Import (Kg) Export (Kg)

2000 11,900,480 1,707

2001 6,313,456 47,163

2002 10,848,630

2003 7,886,113

2004 9,417,480

2005 6,860,311

2006 989,329

Total 54,215,799

69,274

82,524

53,924

80,677

178,713

513,982

66


Import trend of antiknock preparations into Africa:

2000-2006

14,000,000

12,000,000

10,000,000

8,000,000

6,000,000

4,000,000

2,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

Figure 5.2-n: Import trend of antiknock preparations into Africa 2000-2006

Articles of lead ( bars, scrap, steel products )

169.

Articles of products containing lead including lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes, lead bars, rods, profiles and wire; lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings; and lead waste and scraps are mainly used for construction purposes. Zambia and Mozambique were the biggest importers mostly from South Africa, whereby about 15,900 tonnes were imported. Main exporters include Cote d'Ivoire and South Africa, their major export partners being United Kingdom and other African countries..

170.

The trend of imports and exports over the period 2000-2006 is increasing as shown in Table

5.2-q and Figure 5.2-o . A total of about 15,000 tones were imported while the total exports were more than 20,000 tones.

67


Table 5.2-q: Volume of export and import of articles of lead for Africa 2000-2006

(Kg) Export

2000 903,069

2001 2,466,811

2002 2,156,502

2003 1,419,336

2004 1,552,508

2005 2,590,030

2006 4,121,372

863,055

1,401,461

2,712,347

2,305,763

2,688,445

3,685,398

7,032,939

Total 15,209,628 20,689,408

Import and Export trend of Articles of Lead in

Africa: 2000 - 2006

8,000,000

7,000,000

6,000,000

5,000,000

4,000,000

3,000,000

2,000,000

1,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

Year

Figure 5.2-o: Trade trend of articles of lead in Africa 2000-2006

Imports

Exports

68


5.3 Products containing mercury

5.3.1 Global production

171.

Mercury is a natural component of the earth, with an average abundance of approximately

0.05mg/kg in the Earth’s crust, with significant local variations. Mercury ores that are mined generally contain about one percent mercury, although the deposits in Spain typically contain up to 12 -14 percent mercury. While about 25 principal mercury minerals are known, virtually the only deposits that have been harvested for the extraction of mercury are cinnabar.

172.

Mercury is also present at very low levels through the biosphere. Its absorption by plant may account for the presence of mercury within fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, since these fuels are conventionally thought to be formed from geological transformation of organic residue.

173.

Mercury production world-wide is summarized in Table 5.3a.

Between year 2000 and 2003,

Algeria, Spain and Kyrgyzstan mined more than 90 percent of global mined mercury. Both

Algeria and Spain closed down the mercury plants in 2003 and are not expected to reopen.

Table 5.3-a: Mercury produced from worldwide mining operations in metric tonnes.

Country/Region Primary mercury (Virgin) Secondary mercury

Year 2000

Algeria

China

Finland

Peru

Spain

Kyrgyzstan

Tajikistan

Rusia/Siberia

Other

236

554

40

240

200

727

530

50

307

745

530

50

250

50

415

45

48

69


5.3.2 Source and supply of mercury

174.

The mercury available on the world market is supplied from a number of different sources including:

Mine production of primary mercury;

Recovered primary mercury from refining of natural gas;

Reprocessing or secondary mining of historic mine tailings containing mercury;

Recycled mercury recovered from spent products and waste from industrial production processes;

Mercury from government reserve stock or inventories; and

Private stocks (such as mercury in use in chlor - alkali and other industries some of which may later be returned to the market

.

175.

The key players in the international mercury trade include, among others, Kyrgyzstan, China,

South America, European Union as well as Algeria in Africa. Kyrgyzstan and China are the two countries that continue to mine virgin mercury, and only Kyrgyzstan mines for export,

China uses all its virgin mercury for its own production. Both countries mine are all government – sponsored or – owned and are heavily subsidized.

176.

The European Union supplies approximately 30 percent of the global mercury stock pile and is involved in more than half the global trade in mercury, even though it accounts for only 10 percent of the world’s demand for mercury annually. China’s principal use of mercury is thought to be in vinyl – chloride and battery manufacturing. India’s heaviest use is for her mercury – based chlor – alkali plants. African and South American countries also use a large and still growing amount of mercury in small – scale gold mining process in which mercury is heated and released nearly in its entirety to the atmosphere.

177.

Recycled mercury has played an important role on the global market in recent decades. In

1982, the OECD estimated that the secondary production could be as much as 40 percent of the primary production. Masters (1997) 46 stated that 700 – 900 metric tonnes of mercury are recycled globally every year, of which some 200 – 400 metric tonnes originate from spent mercury containing products, and the rest come mainly from chlor – alkali facilities 47. Among the major recyclers include U.S.A, German, Denmark and Netherlands.

5.3.3 Global mercury trade

178.

Following the trail of mercury across multiple boarders can be difficult. A quantity of mercury might be recovered from a Western European Mercury – cell chlor – alkali plant, sold to a

Spanish mercury mining and trading company, shipped to Germany for conversion into mercuric oxide, and sold to mainland China for the manufacture of button – cell batteries. The batteries could then be exported to Hong Kong for incorporation into mass – produced watches that are then shipped to the United States of America or the European Union. This sort of

46 Masters, H. B. (1997): Metals & Minerals Annual review – 1997, Mercury, Mining Journal Ltd

47 UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002

70


globetrotting traffic in mercury greatly diminishes the positive impact of rules that a developed country may have put in place to eliminate source of mercury pollution within its boarders.

Existing methods for tracking mercury trade are inadequate, sometimes failing to provide adequate or consistent data 48

179.

Among the major mercury containing products traded globally includes batteries consuming about 300 – 600 tonnes per year, measuring and control (largely medical sector) consuming

150-350 tonnes per year, electric and electronic switches consuming 150 -300 tonnes per year, lighting consuming 100- 150 tonnes per year and cosmetics 49 .

Trade patterns in Africa

Major traded products in Africa.

180.

Among the major products containing mercury traded in Africa which were analyzed in this study includes primary cells, elemental mercury, electric discharge lamps, hydrometers/thermometers/barometers, fluorescent lamps, mercury/sodium discharge lamps, thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes, electrical switches/ relays, radio and television transmitters and organo mercury compounds.

181.

In the course of analyzing the data, it was noted that organo mercury compounds are no longer traded in Africa as the products were last imported by Cape Verde in 1994; hence the product was eliminated from the study list.

182.

Table 5.3-b shows the ranking of the major imported products, the major importers as well as the trade partners while Table 5.3-c shows the major exported products including the importers, exporters and their partners. Map 5e and Map 5f illustrate the trade movements of the same products.

183.

The import volume of products containing mercury in Africa (excluding switches/relay) for the period of 2000-2005 is shown in Figure 5.3-a while Figure 5.3-b shows the market share of the imports (including switches/relays) during the same period. Figure 5.3-c shows the market share of exports during the same period.

48 Issues: International issues, last revision

49 UNEP, An overview of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury, August 2007

71


Table 5.3-b: Major products containing mercury imported into Africa with major importers and

Partners

Product Weight

(Kgs) switch/relay 11,309,086,167

(SITC 772)

% total Importer

** Kenya

% Partner %


(HS92-8525)

71,759,845 46

Mozambique

South Africa

88% Denmark

Germany

Belgium

6% China

Japan

Swaziland

22% Finland

Rep. of Korea

Germany

86%

10%

1%

39%

28%

27%

16%

14%

14% lamps

(HS92- 853931)

15%

Sweden

China

Finland

22%

18%

11%

11%

34%

USA

Germany

48,552,281 31

Tunisia 11% France

Sweden

Japan

22%

8%

33%

17%

14%

97%

2%

Sudan 19% China

Indonesia


Germany

USA

Morocco 12% China

Hungary

Poland

39%

16%

9%

55%

14%

13%

4 Thermionic cold cathode

(HS96- 8540)

16 China

Poland

Turkey

24%

France

Rep.of Korea

South Africa 13% Rep. of Korea

China, Hong Kong

Brazil

28%

17%

16%

56%

16%

11%

49%

24%

24%

Mercury/ sodium lamps

(HS92- 853932)

3

25%

Germany

Hungary


Japan

Germany

55%

19%

12%

25%

21%

18%

72


Hydrometer/ thermometer barometers

(HS92 – 9025).

Africa

Belgium

USA

Algeria

China

29%

22%

11%

24%

24%

Italy

China

Germany

United Kingdom

Primary cells.

(HS02- 850630)

52%

China

Ethiopia

14%

21%

17%

16%

97%

2%

South Africa

Other Asia

Elemental Mercury

(HS02- 280540)

Mozambique

50%

29%

19%

Finland

Kyrgyzstan

28%

27%

17%


Table 5.3-c: Major products containing mercury exported from Africa, major exporters and partners

S/N Name of product. Weight (Kgs) % Partner %

(SITC 772) Italy

Germany


(HS92-8525) lamps

(HS92- 853931)

4,131,578 55

Africa Zambia

Zimbabwe

France

Germany

Switzerland

Mauritius 30%

South.

Africa

Italy

Emirates

France

25% Australia

Denmark

USA

Cote d

Ivoire

24% France

1,410,572 19 South

Africa

18% Zimbabwe

Mozambique

USA

Iraq

Zambia

41%

21%

9%

63%

16%

7%

51%

23%

16%

15%

14%

7%

67%

7%

7%

18%

4%

18%

7%

6%

99%

73


4 Mercury

(HS02- 280540)

1,242,981 16 Algeria

South

Africa

Swaziland

83% Belgium

India

Netherlands

Arabia

Zimbabwe

Netherlands

49%

21%

13%

47%

22%

21% cathode

(HS96- 8540). or vapour lamps

(HS92- 853932)

South

Africa

Rep. of Korea

France

19% Zambia

Zimbabwe

Mozambique

Zimbabwe

South

Africa

Emirates

Turkey

South Africa

Libya

Areas nes

France

5% Zambia

Angola

Zimbabwe

2

(HS02- 850630)

Kenya 14% Tanzania

Sudan

8 Hydrometers/ thermometer

/Barometers

(HS92 – 9025).


146,368 2 South 22% Tanzania

Africa Zimbabwe

Mozambique

Nigeria 15% Areas

Angola

Mauritius 12% Italy

Hungary

Belgium

19%

7%

88%

5%

4%

22%

13%

12%

80%

14%

3%

53%

14%

5%

74

98%

2%

100%

17%

12%

11%

91%

9%

83%

14%

1%


Table 5.3-d: Import/ export volume products containing mercury into and from Africa:

2000-2005

Product

Total Imports

(Kg)

Total Exports

(Kg)

Electric switch relay circuit (SITC 772)


(HS 8525)

11,309,086,167

71,759,845

124,890,004

4,131,578

Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode (HS 853931) 48,552,281 1,410,572


(HS 8540) 26,214,694

328,172

Sodium or vapour lamps (HS 853932) 5,561,210 181,697

Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers (HS 9025) 5,094,747 146,368

Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide (HS

850630) 1,420,793

173,746

Mercury (HS 280540) 629,710 1,242,981

Ash or residues (excl. from mfr. of iron/steel) containing mainly arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixtures (HS

Imports of products containing mercury into Africa: 2000 - 2005

(excluding switch relays)

Hydrometers, etc.

(HS 9025)

3%

Sodium or vapour lamps (HS

853932)

3%

Primary cells, etc

(HS 850630)

1%

Mercury

(HS 280540)

0%

Thermionic and cold cathode valves & tubes

(HS 8540)

16%

Radio and TV transmitters, etc.

(HS 8525)

46%

Fluorescent lamps, etc. (HS

853931)

31%

Figure 5.3-a : Imports of products containing mercury (excluding switches) into Africa:

2000 - 2005

75


Imports of products containing mercury into Africa:

2000 - 20005 (including switches/relays)

Others (Radio & TV transmitters,

Fluorescent lamps, etc.)

1%

Electric switch relay circuit

99%

Figure 5.3-b: Imports of products containing mercury (including switches) into Africa:

2000 - 2005

Exports of products containing mercury from Africa (including electric switch/relays): 2000 - 2005

Mercury

1% Fluorescent lamps

1% Others

1%

Radio and TV transmitters

3%

Electric switch relay circuit

94%

Figure 5.3-c: Exports of products containing mercury (including switches) from Africa:

2000 – 2005

76


Exports of products containing mercury from Africa:

2000 - 2005 (excluding switch relay)

Sodium or vapour lamps

2%


4%

Mercury

16%


2%

Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers

2%

Ash or residues (HS

262060)

0%


55%


19%

Figure 5.3-d: Exports of products containing mercury (excluding switches) from Africa:

2000 - 2005

Map 5e: Trade flow of major mercury products imported into Africa, importers and their partners

Thermionic cold cathode

Hydrometre/Thermometres

Mercury

77


Map 5f: Trade flow of major mercury products exported from Africa, exporters and their partners

Thermionic cold cathode

Hydrometre/Thermometres

Mercury

Trade trend of products containing mercury in Africa

184.

The general trade trend for products containing mercury in Africa from year 2000-2005 is increasing. The imports reported in 2005 have increased by over 70 percent as compared to the quantities reported in 2000 while exports in 2005 have almost doubled compared to those reported in the year 2000. Table 5.3-e below shows the reported trade quantities of products containing mercury in Africa while F igures 5.3-e and 5.3-f show the import and export trends respectively, during the period 2000 and 2005.

Table 5.3-e. Trade trend of products containing mercury: 2000 - 2005.

78


Imports of products containing mercury into

Africa: 2000 - 2005

10,000,000,000

8,000,000,000

6,000,000,000

4,000,000,000

2,000,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004

Figure 5.3-e: Import trend of products containing mercury: 2000 - 2005

Exports of products containing mercury from

Africa: 2000 - 2005

2005

35,000,000

30,000,000

25,000,000

20,000,000

15,000,000

10,000,000

5,000,000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Year

Figure 5.3-f: Export trend of products containing mercury: 2000 - 2005

2005

79


185.

Table 5.3-e and Figure 5.3-e show that import of products containing mercury picked up to maximum point in 2002. This was mainly due to very large amount of reported imports of electrical switches by Kenya from Denmark in the same year. However, the correctness of this data in the UN Comtrade could not be verified beyond reasonable doubts since the importing partner (Denmark) did not report the same figure in 2002.

186.

Generally the exports of products containing mercury into Africa were minimal but growing throughout the period of 2000-2005. Import and export quantities of major products containing mercury in Africa are shown in Table 5.3-f and Table 5.3-g respectively.

Table 5.3-f: Import quantities of products containing mercury : 2000-2005 (Kg)

IMPORT 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 TOTAL

Electrical switch/rela 87,938,874 691,501,126 9,143,644,723 1,054,850,866 173,026,808 158,123,770 11,309,086,167

Radio/TV transmitter 11,334,193 6,963,940 5,717,941 11,742,979 14,225,178 21,775,614 71,759,845

Fluorescent lamps 5,711,115 4,435,829 14,977,865 6,134,232 6,300,496 10,992,744 48,552,281

Themionic cold cath 6,807,510 4,517,139 2,371,397 2,056,787 5,848,611 4,613,250 26,214,694

Mercury/Sodium lam 467,258 482,068 497,817 586,288 2,877,686 650,093 5,561,210

Hydrometers, etc 654,525

Primary Cells 0 0 248,184 272,855 342,048 557,706 1,420,793

Ash or residues 0 0 0 0 1 4,076 4,077

TOTAL 113,109,636 708,944,991 9,168,217,286 1,076,383,999 203,726,132 197,941,480 11,468,323,524

Table 5.3-g: Export quantities of products containing mercury:2000-2005 (Kg)

Electrical switch/rela 14,544,004 16,423,113 18,579,248 22,073,317 25,907,656 27,362,666

Radio/TV transmitter 573,769

Fluorescent lamps

Themionic cold cath

Mercury/Sodium lam

Hydrometers, etc

Primary Cells

115,212

127,856 58,414 11,503 5,698 94,387 30,314 328,172

7,523

17,471

0

26,108

14,131

0

1,236

10,171

55,595

34,280

27,479

42,167

10,942

17,790

50,754

101,608

59,326

25,230

181,697

146,368

173,746

Ash or residues 0 0 1,006 732 1,434 4,289 7,461

TOTAL 15,559,780 16,995,114 19,475,283 22,965,753 27,167,926 30,348,723

187.

Description on the trade trend and movements of each major product containing mercury in

Africa including the major importers/exporters and their partners are further given below:

80


Primary cells

188.

The share of primary cells compared to other mercury products is minimal 1-2 percent.

Primary cells are mainly imported into Africa by Namibia which accounted for 52 percent of the market, the major importing partner being South Africa which contributed almost 97 percent of the imports. On the other hand, Namibia commands 84 percent of the exports of this product mainly trading with Angola 99 percent.

189.

Reported data show that imports increased gradually between 2000 and 2005 while exports decreased by 50 percent in 2005 as compared to 2001 ( see Figures 5.3-g and 5.3h).

Import trend of Primary cells, ect (HS 850630) into

Africa: 2000 - 2005

600000

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.3-g: Import trend of primary cells: 2000 - 2005

2004 2005

81


Export trend of Primary cells, etc (HS 850630) from Africa: 2000 - 2005

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.3-h: Export trend of primary cells: 2000 - 2005

Mercury

186.

The largest amount of elemental mercury imported into Africa during 2000 – 2005 was reported by Botswana which accounted for 43 percent of the import market, importing mainly from South Africa (100 percent) between 2000 and 2002. Reported import data from Botswana between 2003 and 2005 is negligible. Other countries which reported import of mercury between 2000 and 2005 include Kenya (9 percent), Morocco (1.4 percent), Mozambique (12.7 percent), South Africa (11.9 percent), Swaziland (7 percent), Togo (8.1 percent), United

Republic of Tanzania (0.96 percent) and Zimbabwe (3.5 percent). Quantities of imports and exports of mercury between 2000 and 2005 are shown above in Table 5.3f and Table 5.3g respectively.

187.

Export of elemental mercury during the same period was dominated by Algeria (which has mercury mines) commanding 83 percent of the market and the major export partners being

Belgium (49 percent) and India (21 percent).

188.

The market share of exported mercury compared to other products is 16 percent. The general trade (import/export) trend of mercury into Africa is declining throughout the reviewed period as shown in Figures 5.3-i and 5.3-j.

82


Import trend of Mercury (HS 280540) into Africa:

2000 - 2005

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004

Figure 5.3-i: Trend of imports of elemental mercury into Africa: 2000 - 2005 .

Export trend of Mercury (HS 280540) from Africa:

2000 - 2005

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0

2005

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004 2005

Figure 5.3-j: Trend of exports of elemental mercury from Africa: 2000 - 2005.

83


Hydrometers/Thermometers/Barometers

189.

Hydrometer/thermometer/barometers, compared to other products containing mercury command 3 percent of the market share. The main importer is South Africa accounting to 15 percent of the market share importing from Germany (29 percent), Belgium (22 percent) and,

USA (11 percent). Another major importer of this product is Algeria commanding 14 percent importing from France (24 percent), China (24 percent) and Italy (14 percent).

190.

The main exporter of measuring instruments containing mercury was South Africa which accounted for 22 percent of the market share. The major export partners include Tanzania (17 percent), Zimbabwe (12 percent) and Mozambique (11 percent).

191.

The general trade (import/export) trend of the product over the period 2000 – 2005 is increasing as shown in Figures 5.3-k and Figure 5.3-l.

Import trend of Hydrometers,etc. (HS 9025) into

Africa: 2000 - 2005

1400000

1200000

1000000

800000

600000

400000

200000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004

Figure 5.3-k: Import trend of hydrometers/thermometers/barometers: 2000-2005

2005

84


Export trend of Hydrometers,etc. (HS 9025) from

Africa: 2000 - 2005

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000

10000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.3-l: Export trend of hydrometers/thermometers/barometers: 2000-2005

Fluorescent lamps

194.

Fluorescent lamps are among the major products containing mercury imported into Africa.

This product accounts for 31 percent of the market share, the major importer being Sudan commanding 19 percent of the imports and the major exporting partner being China (97 percent). The second major importer of fluorescent lamps in Africa is South Africa which takes 13 percent of the imports, also importing mainly from China (39 percent).

195.

The major exporter on the other hand is South Africa with 18 percent of the market exporting mainly to Zimbabwe (41 percent) and Mozambique (21 percent).

196.

The trade trend of this product over the period 2000 – 2005 was generally increasing although the export quantities were minimal compared to imports as shown in Figures 5.3-m and Figure

5.3-n.

85


Import trend of Fluorescent lamps (HS 853931) into Africa: 2000 - 2005

16000000

14000000

12000000

10000000

8000000

6000000

4000000

2000000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004

Figure 5.3-m: Import trend of fluorescent lamps: 2000 - 2005

Export trend of Fluorescent lamps (HS 853931) from Africa: 2000 - 2005

2005

400000

350000

300000

250000

200000

150000

100000

50000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.3-n: Export trend of fluorescent lamps: 2000 - 2005

2004 2005

86


Mercury/Sodium lamp

197.

This product is least traded in Africa. It only accounted for 3 percent of the market share. The main importer of this product is Ethiopia with 41 percent of the market share and mainly importing from India 99 percent). The second major importer was noted to be Algeria accounting for 25 percent of the imports and importing mainly from China (55 percent).

198.

Tunisia also appeared to be the main exporter commanding 91 percent of the market and exporting mainly to Libya (88 percent).

199.

The trade (import/export) trend show a general gradual increase over the period 2000 to 2005 except in 2004 when it picked to a maximum (see Figure 5.3-o).

The sharp increase in 2004 was mainly due to reported import data from South Africa, the major partners in that year being China (about 35 percent), Japan (about 17 percent), Germany (about 16 percent),

Belgium (about 10 percent) and Hungary about 9 percent). The export trend was almost constant throughout the period.

Import trend of mercury or sodium vapour lamps

(HS 853932) into Africa: 2000 - 2005

3500000

3000000

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.3-o: Import trend of mercury/sodium lamp: 2000 – 2005

2004 2005

87


Export trend of mercury or sodium vapour lamps

(HS 853932) from Africa: 2000 - 2005

120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Fig 5.3-p: Export trend of mercury/sodium lamp: 2000 - 2005

Thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes

200.

The main importer of the product was noted to be Tunisia commanding 59 percent, importing from China (28 percent) and Poland (17 percent) followed by Algeria which accounted for 24 percent of the market and importing 56 percent of it from China. On the other hand data showed that Tunisia is the major exporter of this product with 55 percent of the market share and the major exporting partners being Algeria (80 percent) and Republic of Korea (14 percent).

201.

The imports in 2005 declined to almost half the volume reported in 2000 (see Figure 5.3-q), while exports on the other hand were minimal and decreasing during the same period as shown in Figure 5.3-r.

88


Import trend of Thermionic cold cathod valves and tubes (HS 8540) into Africa: 2000 - 2005

8000000

7000000

6000000

5000000

4000000

3000000

2000000

1000000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004 2005

Figure 5.3-q: Import trend of thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes: 2000-2005

Export trend of Thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes (HS 8540) from Africa: 2000 - 2005

140000

120000

100000

80000

60000

40000

20000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003 2004 2005

Figure 5.3-r: Export trend of thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes: 2000-2005

89


Electric switches/Relays

202.

This is the most traded product in Africa. The major import of the product was Kenya commanding 88 percent of the imports, importing from Denmark (86 percent).

203.

The main exporter was Tunisia commanding 49 percent exporting to France (51 percent) and

Italy (23 percent). The second major imported was noted to be South Africa which accounted for 26 percent exporting to Mozambique (15 percent) and Zambia (14 percent). The general trend of imports increased during the period 2000 to 2005. The highest volume of imports occurred in 2002 due to reported data from Kenya. However, as pointed out earlier there could be an error in posting figures of imports made by Kenya in year 2002 since the other partner

(Denmark) did not report the same figure.

204.

The exports though minimal compared to the imports also increased from about 14,500 tons in

2000 to about 27,000 tons in 2005 (see Table 5.3-f and Table 5.3-g).

Figures 5.3-s and Figure

5.3-t below shows the import and export trends of electric switches and relays into and from

Africa during the period 2000 – 2005 respectively.

Import trend of electric switch/relay circuits

(SITC 772) into Africa: 2000 - 2005

10000000000

8000000000

6000000000

4000000000

2000000000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.3-s: Import trend of electric switches/relays: 2000-2005

2004 2005

90


Export trend of electric switch/relay circuits

(SITC 772) from Africa: 2000 - 2005

30000000

25000000

20000000

15000000

10000000

5000000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

Figure 5.3-t: Export trend of electrical switches/relays: 2000-2005

Radio/ TV transmitters

205.

This is another well traded product in Africa. The major importer of the product is South

Africa accounting for 22 percent of the market. The major importing partners include Finland

(16 percent) and Republic of Korea (14 percent). Other major importers include Morocco,

Nigeria and Tunisia which imported mainly from France, United Kingdom, and Sweden.

206.

Mauritius took the lion’s share in exports commanding 30 percent and major export partner being United Arab Emirates (64 percent). South Africa (26 percent) took the second position in exports of this product and exported mainly to Australia.

207.

Both the import and export of this product showed an increasing trend between 2000 and 2005

(see Figures 5.3-u and 5.3-v).

91


Import trend of Radio & TV transmitters (HS 8525) into Africa: 2000 - 2005

25000000

20000000

15000000

10000000

5000000

0

2000 2001 2002

Year

2003

Figure 5.3 u: Import trend of radio/ TV transmitters: 2000 – 2005

2004

Export trend of Radio & TV transmitters (HS 8525) from Africa: 2000 - 2005

2005

3000000

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0

2000 2001 2002 2003

Year

Figure 5.3 v: Export trend of radio/ TV transmitters: 2000 - 2005

2004 2005

92


6.0 ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND INITIATIVES FOR

COLLECTION, RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF USED

PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN

AFRICA

208.

This section provides examples of existing environmentally sound management strategies and practices put in place by the different African governments for the environmentally sound collection, recycling and disposal of used products containing cadmium, lead and mercury.

The section focuses on existing country policies, legislations and programmes for prevention and control of wastes containing cadmium, lead and mercury. It also provides information on local, international, regional and sub-regional initiatives taken by governments and other stakeholders that are geared towards the prevention and control of waste containing cadmium, lead and mercury.

209.

General overviews of the different types of environmental management measures implemented by various States in the world to control the effects of cadmium, lead and mercury in the entire life-cycle (i.e. production, use and disposal) are documented in the UNEP Draft final reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium 50 while initiatives for the control of the effects of mercury are provided in the Global Mercury Assessment Report 51 . These prevention and control measures and the States in which they are being implemented are reproduced in Table

6.1

50 UNEP Review of Scientific Information on Lead and Cadmium

51 Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002

93


Table 6.1: Overview of implemented measures related to cadmium, lead and mercury

TYPE AND AIM OF MEASURE

Production and Use Phase of Life-Cycle

POINT

SOURCES

Apply emission control technologies to limit emissions of cadmium, lead or mercury from combustion of fossil fuels and processing of mineral materials.

PRODUCTS

Prevent or limit the release of cadmium, lead or mercury from industrial processes to the waste treatment system and the environment

Prevent or limit the intentional use of mercury in processes

Require use of best available technology to reduce or prevent cadmium, lead or mercury releases

Prevent or limit products containing cadmium, lead or mercury from being marketed nationally

STATE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Implemented in most countries

Implemented in many countries

General bans implemented in very few countries

Implemented in some countries, especially

OECD countries

General bans implemented in a few countries only. Bans or limits on specific products are more widespread, such as batteries, lighting and clinical thermometers for mercury products: some types of cadmium products including pigments; and gasoline and paints for lead products. In EU the use of lead has been restricted or prohibited for use in electric and electronic equipment as well as in vehicles.

Only implemented in a few countries Prevent products containing mercury from being exported

Prevent the use of already purchased mercury and mercury containing products

Limit the allowable content of cadmium or mercury present as impurities in high volume materials – e.g. in phosphate fertilizers

Limit the allowed contents of cadmium, lead or mercury in commercial foodstuffs and feed.

Only implemented in a few countries

Only implemented in a few countries

Implemented in some countries, especially

OECD countries. WHO guidelines are used by some countries.

TYPE AND AIM OF MEASURE

Disposal Phase of Life-Cycle

Prevent cadmium, lead or mercury in products (especially batteries in cadmium and lead products) and process waste from being released directly to the environment, by efficient waste collection

Prevent cadmium, lead or mercury in products and process waste from being mixed with less hazardous waste in the general waste stream, by separate collection and treatment

Prevent or limit cadmium, lead or mercury releases to the environment from treatment (e.g. incineration) of household waste, hazardous waste and medical waste by emission control technologies

STATE OF IMPLEMENTATION

Implemented in many countries, especially

OECD countries

Implemented in many countries, especially

OECD countries

Implemented or implementation is on-going in many countries

Set limit values for allowable cadmium, lead or mercury contents in sewage sludge and other organic waste products used for land application

Implemented in many countries

Set limit values for cadmium, lead or mercury in solid incineration residues used in road-building, construction and other applications

Implemented in few OECD countries

Prevent the re-marketing of used, recycled mercury Implemented only in a few countries

Source: UNEP Draft final scientific reviews on cadmium and Lead; UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report.

94


210.

The overall objective of these initiatives is to reduce or prevent the release of cadmium, lead or mercury to the environment and avoid direct or indirect impact on human health and the environment. The initiatives are grouped into four general groups: a) Environmental quality standards or guidelines, specifying maximum acceptable concentration of cadmium, lead or mercury for different concentrations (such as drinking water, surface water, air, soil, and for food stuffs and feeds); b) Environmental source actions and regulations that control cadmium, lead or mercury release available technologies into the environment, including limits on air and water point sources and promoting use of best available technologies and waste treatment and waste disposal restrictions; c) Product control actions and regulations for products containing cadmium, lead or mercury; and d) Other standards, actions and programmes , such as regulations or guidance on exposure to lead in the workplace, requirements for information and reporting on use and releases of cadmium, lead or mercury in industry and consumer safety measures.

211.

Available information has shown that no country has developed a comprehensive legislation covering the whole life-cycle stages of cadmium, lead or mercury. Many countries, particularly the OECD countries, have a number of actions and regulations covering specific uses and releases. In most countries, legislations on releases and disposal of waste products are often more general. They normally include other heavy metals, particulate matter (PM) and/or specific inorganic and organic pollutants and not specific to cadmium, lead or mercury containing products.

212.

On the other hand very few African countries have reported initiatives and future plans aiming at the prevention or control of emissions of cadmium, lead and mercury to the environment and its effects to human health and the environment. The following section describes some of the existing initiatives reported by African countries. Most of these initiatives have been extracted from the Appendices of the UNEP Draft final reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium; Global Mercury Assessment Report as well as the information submitted for this study report. Responses submitted for this study have been summarized and provided in Annex

5A.

6.1.1 Environmental quality standards/guidelines

213.

A number of African countries have established standards setting maximum acceptable concentration limits for heavy metals (including cadmium, lead and mercury) in a number of media, such as water, air, soil and foodstuffs. Among these countries include, Ghana,

Mauritius, Morocco, Niger, and Nigeria. The limits vary from country to country 52 as shown in the Table 6.2

.

52 UNEP Draft final scientific reviews on lead and cadmium – Appendices - , version of November 2008

95


Table 6.2: Maximum acceptable concentration limits for cadmium and lead in different media

Country

Niger

Morocco

Maximum acceptable concentration for different media

Water Effluent

Drinking water:

Pb: 0.05mg/l

Cd: 0.005mg/l

Nigeria Max. contaminant level:

Pb: 0.015 mg/l (set by US EPA)

Cd: 0.005 mg/L (set by US EPA)

Drinking water:

Pb: 0.05mg/l

Cd: 0.005mg/l

Moroccan

Mauritius

Mediterranean

Coastal water –

Pb: 200 µ g/l.

Cd: 500 µ g/l.

Drinking water:

Pb: 0.01mg/l

Cd: 0.003mg/l

Coastal water:

Pb: 0.05 mg/l

Cd: 0.02mg/

Inland surface water:

Pb: 1.3 µ g/l.

Cd: 0.7 µ g/l l

Irrigation water:

Pb: 2.0 mg/l.

Cd: 0.01 mg/l.

Effluent discharge standard:

Pb: 0.05 mg/l.

Cd: 0.01mg/l

Standards for effluent discharge into the ocean:

Pb: 2 mg/l.

Cd: 0.02 mg/L

Standards of effluent for use in irrigation:

Pb: 2 mg/l.

Cd: 0.01 mg/l

Standards for discharge of industrial effluent into a waste water system:

Pb: 1 mg/l

Cd: 0.05 mg/l.

Ambient air: 1.5

µ g/m 3 (3month average).

Ghana Effluent discharges into natural water bodies or water courses:

Pb: 0.1mg/l

Cd: <0.1mg/l

Source: UNEP Interim Scientific Reviews on Cadmium and Lead – Appendices

96


6.1.2 Environmental source control actions and regulations

214.

In Africa, only Mauritius, Morocco and Niger have reported to have regulations prescribing maximum allowable releases of heavy metals and other pollutants from various types of point sources to air, water and soil as follows;.

215.

Mauritius. Existing regulations include the Promulgation of the Road Traffic (control of vehicle emissions) Regulations of November 2002 (GN No. 198 of 2002, and its amendments of 2003 (GN No. 35 of 2003) which provide for registration of only petrol driven motor vehicles capable of running on unleaded petrol. In order to monitor air pollution and content of lead in the air, the ministry of Environment in Mauritius procured in March 2001 two ambient air quality monitoring stations for their two Monitoring stations, one permanent and one mobile.

216.

Morocco. Existing relevant regulations include the Law 03-03 on the prevention of air pollution. The decree concerning the traffic defines arrangement for the prevention of pollution due to transport. Revision of the characteristics-octane petrol was limited to 0.15g/l.

The reduction of lead and sulfur content in fuels for motor vehicles has contributed to the reduction of some emissions of movable sources.

217.

Niger. Existing relevant regulations include the Law No. 98-56 of 29/12/1998 which supports the framework law relating to environmental management; Order no. 89-24 of 8/12/1989 covers the ban on the import of industrial and toxic nuclear waste; and Order no.

140/MSP/LCE/DGSP/DS of 27/09/2004 establishes the standards for waste disposal in the natural environment (maximum concentration of lead in effluent containing heavy metals and other toxic metals at 0.5 mg/L).

6.1.3 Actions and regulations on products containing cadmium, lead or mercury

218.

Very few African countries have reported to have actions or regulations that limit or prevent the use of products containing heavy metals including cadmium, lead and mercury. However few countries have started to phase-out the use of lead in petrol including, among others,

Burkina Faso, Ghana, Madagascar, Mauritius, Niger, and Togo 53 . Below are some of the actions taken by some of the countries to regulate products containing cadmium, lead and mercury as extracted from the Draft final reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium, and Global Mercury Assessment report:

219.

Mauritius has reported to have stopped the use of mercury in paints 54.

220.

Burundi has prohibited import and use of mercury and mercury compound as pesticides in agriculture and has applied proposed norm for mercury in air.

221.

Cameroon has banned through the inter-ministerial order No 19 AI-MSP-SP-DMPHP-SHP of

27th July 1989 the importation, commercialization and use of cosmetic products containing

53 UNEP Draft final scientific reviews on lead and cadmium – Appendices - , version of November 2008

54 Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002

97


more than 2% of mercury. The country has also put in place a system where fertilizers containing cadmium must be registered by the Committee for pesticide registration.

222.

Gambia banned since 1997 the importation of mercury into Gambia.

223.

Ghana has in 1989 enacted a law, PNDC law 217 which restricts the importation and distribution of Mercury. A phase out strategy plan has been implemented since January 2004 to ensure a smooth change from the use of the leaded gasoline to unleaded gasoline. The country has also put in place a system where-by samples of specific imported raw materials such as granules fertilizers and meat products are analysed regularly for levels of heavy metal.

224.

Guinea.

Two regulations prohibiting the production, import and all forms of use of mercury and mercury compounds within industry and agriculture are being finalised one at the ministry of Environment and the other at the Ministry of Agriculture.

225.

Kenya has banned the importation, production and use of any cosmetic products containing mercury and the total amount of heavy metals in finished products shall not exceed 3% and mercury is no longer used in paint manufacture. Since 1986 no pesticide containing mercury has been imported in the country. The Kenya Bureau of Standards have been given a full time involvement by the laws of Kenya to ensure products evaluation and testing surveillance of imported products at points of entry and conducts regular market survey sampling.

226.

Lesotho has phased out the use of mercury based pesticides

227.

Madagascar has decree No 8913/2002/MEM the national phase out of leaded gasoline by end of 2005.

228.

In Mauritius reduction of lead content in petrol from 0.84 g/l to a maximum of 0.4 g/l was passed on 1992. From Sept 2002, Mauritius introduced the use of unleaded petrol. The country has also phased out mercury batteries replacing them with Cd/Ni batteries and launched a sensitization programme for collection of mercury buttons until a policy decision is taken regarding their safe disposal. Mercury is no longer used in paints and banned the use of pesticides containing mercury.

229.

Nigeria. No mercury batteries are allowed. Mercury Iodide is banned in cosmetics and the allowed mercury in dental amalgam capsule is 0.3g.

230.

The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) with its secretariat at UNEP has continued to support countries to eliminate the use of leaded gasoline, reduce sulphur levels in fuels concurrent with the adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies. At the beginning of 2008,

19 countries worldwide were still using leaded gasoline. Within the year four countries namely, Jordan, Palestine, Laos PDR and Mongolia have stopped the use of leaded gasoline and an additional three countries – Afghanistan, Morocco and Tunisia are expected to stop using leaded gasoline at the end of 2008, while Egypt is expected to stop using leaded gasoline by the end of 2010. Through sub-regional and national events, countries have been assisted to set timelines and strategies to stop the use of leaded gasoline. The goal of the PCFV is the global elimination of leaded gasoline.

231.

South Africa is also one of the countries which have a strategy to deal with e-waste. Though there are no specific legislations that deal with e-waste in South Africa, various legislations

98


can be considered to impact on e-waste. A sustainable approach to waste management in general, echoed in both the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) of South Africa and the Polokwane Declaration 43, moves towards reducing the waste stream. The NWMS was initiated in 1997 by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) and the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), with financial support from the

Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED). Also, for the last four years the Environmental and Process Systems Engineering Research Group (E&PSE) have been conducting a study on e-waste use in South Africa. It is hoped that, this imitative would provide a good starting point for finding a useful way of handling e-wastes in the region Ewaste is both valuable as source for secondary raw material, and toxic if treated and discarded improperly.

232.

Rwanda has passed a law relating to the protection of environment. This law came into force on May 1st 2005. The application of this law will mainly be implemented through the

Rwandese Environmental Management Bureau which has been created in order to offer the framework for the management of all environmental problems, including problems inherent to the emissions of lead and cadmium (and mercury). Rwanda has regularly participated in all the sensitization conferences and workshops on the gradual elimination of leaded fuel both at sub regional and regional levels. A sensitisation programme is now being implemented at the national level with the financial support of the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP).

233.

Tanzania has enacted the Environmental Management Act of 2004 (EMA, 2004), which among other issues, provides for the management of hazardous waste and chemicals 55.

Other relevant legislations in Tanzania include the Industrial and Consumer Chemicals (Management and Control ) Act of 2003.

234.

Generally most of the countries, including developed countries, do not have comprehensive systems in place to register the intended use of products containing lead, cadmium or mercury before import/export/re-export. Finland however has a register for chemical products on the market, and a common Nordic database (SPIN) based on the publicly available data; although these do not cover all other technical products, articles and materials containing heavy metals.

SPIN is a database for substances in products in the Nordic Countries. The database is based on data from the Product Registries of Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland . The database is financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, Chemical group. The direct internet address to the Nordic on-line database is http://195.215.251.229/DotNetNuke/default.aspx

6.1.4 Other standards and waste management programmes

235.

Lead batteries recycling facilities have been established in few African countries, especially in

West Africa including Cameroon and Senegal. For instance, CREPD (Centre de Recherches et d'Education pour le Développement) in Cameroon has taken an initiative to collect and recycle used batteries in the main cities of Cameroon. Although lead recycling facilities exist in

Cameroon, the country does not have any specific regulations to control and manage hazardous waste such as waste of products containing lead. The impact of these recycling facilities to human health and the environment has been a major concern in many of the respective countries due to poor environmental management practices.

55 Environmental Management Act, No 20 of 2004

99


236.

In Kenya, an NGO called Computers For Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East Africa's first e-waste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling needs. The project, undertaken in collaboration with the Nairobi City Council and the local

Embakasi community, will dismantle and separate electronic waste from Kenya and eventually from Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. The workers will be properly equipped and educated on how to handle and separate metals such as aluminium and copper, which can be recycled locally, while motherboards will be shipped to Asia and Europe for disposal. Apart from training, the workers will be provided with heavy duty gloves, goggles and dust masks to protect them from injury. For the monitors that are considered toxic, CFSK will be shipping them to Norway for recycling. The Norwegian government supports recycling of 50,000 tonnes of monitors from CFSK every year. The monitors are sent to Fair International, which has the expensive equipment required to dispose of the monitors. CFSK is scheduled to visit companies in the U.S. to learn how they handle the recycling of motherboards and monitors in order to replicate the processes in the Embakasi plant.

237.

CFSK has been promoting local innovation by recycling cathode ray tube (CRT) computer monitors and converting them to affordable TV sets. The organization has signed a memorandum of cooperation with the Kenya National Environmental Management Authority

(NEMA), to develop sustainable models for the management of electronic waste. NEMA is yet to develop a law governing e-waste management in Kenya.

238.

Other programmes include the National Cleaner Production Centres in several African countries which promote and build capacity in cleaner production concept in the respective countries. Countries which have established National Cleaner Production Centres include

Ethiopia, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda and Tanzania.

The major activities of NCPCs include awareness creation, capacity building, assessments and policy advice in cleaner production. Cleaner production concept strives for optimal efficiency at every stage of the product life while preventing pollution at source and protecting the human health.

6.2 International agreements and instruments

239.

There are a number of international agreements and instruments that contain provisions to manage and control releases, limit use and exposures of hazardous chemicals including cadmium, lead and mercury. The relevant international agreements relevant to cadmium, lead and mercury in which most of the African countries are Parties to include the Basel

Convention and the Rotterdam Convention.

6.2.1 Basel Convention

240.

Basel Convention on the Control of Tranboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their

Disposal which was adopted in March 1989 and came into force in 1992 provides a global legal framework for controlling the Tranboundary movements of hazardous wastes and establishes obligations for its Parties to ensure that such wastes are minimized and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner. The main objectives of the Basel Convention are to control and reduce transboundary movements of hazardous wastes; prevent and minimize their generation at source; support the environmentally sound management of such wastes; and actively promote the transfer and use of cleaner technologies. The Convention covers all toxic

100


wastes including cadmium, lead and mercury. The Basel Convention currently has 170 Parties including most of the African countries 56 .

241.

The Convention requires Parties to cooperate in developing technical guidelines to improve and achieve environmentally sound management of wastes. The Convention is also promoting development of partnerships and programmes of activities on the environmentally sound management of e-waste, including wastes from mobile phones, computers and other sources.

One of the challenges facing this process is how to distinguish between waste and non-waste as some of these e-wastes may be traded as used products. More information about the Basel

Convention, its activities and achievements is found on the Secretariat’s website http://www.basel.int/ .

Basel Convention Ban Amendment

242.

The Basel Ban Amendment 57 , adopted by the third Conference of the Parties to the Basel

Convention in September 1995, bans hazardous wastes exports for final disposal and recycling from what are known as Annex VII countries (Basel Convention Parties that are members of the EU, OECD, Liechtenstein) to non-Annex VII countries (all other Parties to the

Convention). The Ban Amendment has to be ratified by three-fourths of the Parties who accepted it in order to enter into force. The Basel Ban has not entered into force.

6.2.2 Rotterdam Convention

243.

The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous

Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade of September 1998 has two objectives:

To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm; and

To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those chemicals by facilitating information exchange about their characteristics, providing for a national decision-making process on their import and export, and disseminating these decisions to Parties 58 .

244.

The Convention establishes a specific procedure to identify and include chemicals in the

Convention based on actions taken by Parties to ban or severely restrict the use of a pesticide or industrial chemical or a Party is experiencing problems with a severely hazardous pesticide formulation under condition of use. Certain banned or severely restricted chemicals and severely hazardous pesticide formulations appear in Annex III of the Convention known as the

“The PIC List”. Among these chemicals include 24 pesticides, 11 industrial chemicals and 4 pesticide formulations.

245.

The Rotterdam Convention currently has 119 Parties including most of the African countries 59.

According to the Convention, Parties may export listed substances to other Parties only if the prospective importing Party first provides its informed consent. Exporting Parties are obliged

56 Basel Convention, http/www.basel.int/ratif/convention.htm

57 The Basel Ban Amendment, http://www.basel.int/pub/baselban.html

58 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998), http://www.pic.int/ConventionText/

59 Rotterdam Convention, “Ratifications”, http://www.pic.int/home.php?type=t&id=63&sid=17

101


to provide importing Parties with an export notification that includes specified information when they (or an entity in their territory) wish to export a chemical that is banned or severely restricted in their territory, but not yet included in Annex III. The Convention provides for importing Parties to require additional information about the chemical related to occupational safety or environmental impact or human health.

246.

Tetraethyl lead and tetramethyl lead, the two anti-knocking agents for gasoline (petrol) are covered by the Rotterdam Convention. Cadmium is not listed in the “PIC List” and hence not covered by the Convention. Inorganic and organic mercury compounds used as pesticides are covered by the Convention and hence subjected to PIC procedure.

6.2.3 Other agreements

247.

Other existing agreements relevant to subject issue include the Aarhus Protocol on Heavy

Metals. The Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals is one of the eight protocols to the United

Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long - Range

Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) 60.

The Aarhus Protocol adopted in June 1998 entered into force in December 2003. The Protocol targets three harmful metals namely cadmium, lead and mercury. According to one of the basic obligations, Parties will have to reduce their emissions for these three metals below their levels in 1990 (or an alternative year between

1985 and 1995).

248.

The Protocol aims to cut emissions from several sources including industrial sources (iron and steel industry, non-ferrous metal industry), combustion processes (power generation, road transport) and waste incineration. It lays down stringent limit values for emissions from stationary sources and suggests best available techniques (BAT) for these sources, such as special filters or scrubbers for combustion sources or mercury-free processes. The Protocol requires Parties to phase out leaded petrol. It also introduces measures to lower heavy metal emissions from other products, such as mercury in batteries, and proposes the introduction of management measures for other mercury-containing products, such as electrical components

(thermostats, switches), measuring devices (thermometers, manometers, barometers), fluorescent lamps, dental amalgam, pesticides and paints 61.

249.

Although any State may ratify the LRTAP and the Aarhus Protocol, none of the African countries are Parties to these agreements. Only States in the UNECE region are currently

Parties to the LRTAP and the Aarhus Protocol.

6.2.4 SAICM

250.

The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is a policy framework to foster the sound management of chemicals 62.

60 The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/

61 The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals, http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/hm_h1.htm

62 SAICM, http://www.saicm.org/index.php?ql=h&content=home

102


251.

SAICM was developed by a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral Preparatory Committee and supports the achievement of the goal agreed at the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on

Sustainable Development of ensuring that, by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimize significant adverse impacts on the environment and human health.

6.3 International organizations and programmes

252.

There are a number of international organizations and programmes which have activities in

Africa and other parts of the world aiming at addressing the adverse impacts of cadmium, lead and mercury on human health and the environment. Among these include the International

Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), International Labour Organization (ILO), and

International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), World Health Organization (WHO),

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Industrial Development

Organization (UNIDO) and the World Bank (WB). Other relevant programmes include the

Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). An overview of the type of activities for some of the organizations and programmes related to cadmium, lead and mercury is given in

Table 6.3.

General descriptions of each organization or programme and their relevance to cadmium, lead and mercury are provided in the UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on lead and cadmium as well as the Global Mercury Assessment report.

Table 6.3: Overview of international organizations and programmes with activities addressing the adverse impacts of cadmium, lead and mercury on human health and the environment.

Name Geographic

Coverage

Relevancy

WHO Global Addresses lead and mercury in products.

Type of Activities addressing cadmium, lead or mercury

Assessments/evaluations of health risks of individual chemicals, information dissemination, setting standards and guidelines.

ILO

IARC

UNEP -

PCFV

Global

Global

Global

UNIDO Global

Addresses occupational health and safety issues associated with the use of chemicals including smallscale mining activities and mercury

Information, guidelines, capacity building

Addresses the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemicals including cadmium, lead and mercury, to humans

IPCS Global Addresses environmental aspects of chemicals including cadmium, lead and mercury

OECD OECD

UNEP -

GPA member

States

Global

Addresses among other things issues related to cadmium, lead and mercury containing products and their wastes.

Addresses heavy metals (including cadmium, lead and mercury)

Addresses issues of clean fuels in vehicles

Evaluations on individual chemicals, information, guidelines

Information (risk evaluations, scientific data and precautionary information)

Information, recommendation

Goal definition, guidelines

Addresses sustainable industrial management including prevention, monitoring, treatment, recycling and disposal of toxic and hazardous chemical wastes and remediation of contaminated sites

Information, capacity building awareness,


WB Global Addresses environmentally sustainable industrial activities including artisanal mining


103


6.4 Sub-regional and regional initiatives

6.4.1 Bamako Convention

253.

One of the regional initiatives in Africa relevant to this study is the Bamako Convention on the ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous

Wastes within Africa which was adopted in Bamako, Mali, on 30 January 1991 and came into force on 10 March 1999 63.

The objective of the Bamako Convention is to protect human health and the environment from dangers posed by hazardous wastes by reducing their generation to a minimum in terms of quantity and/or hazard potential. Only States which are members of the

African Union (AU) can become a Party to the Bamako Convention.

254.

All Parties are obliged to prohibit the import of all hazardous wastes, for any reason, into

Africa from non-Contracting Parties (article 4.1). The categories of wastes listed in Annex I of the Bamako Convention include among others, wastes containing cadmium, lead and mercury.

The Convention states that the dumping of radioactive wastes, industrial wastes, sewage and sewage sludge is prohibited. The Bamako Convention places the duty on the Parties to monitor their respective waterways to ensure that no dumping occurs. The Convention prohibits or bans the dumping at sea of hazardous wastes, including their incineration at sea and their disposal in the seabed and sub-seabed. Each State Party must report annually to the Secretariat all the hazardous wastes generated each year.

255.

There are also other initiatives which address general issues of environment including pollution caused by hazardous chemicals such as cadmium, lead and mercury. Among these is the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), the New Partnership for

Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and sub regional cooperation groups such as the East African

Community (EAC), ECOWAS, etc.

256.

Other activities dealing with hazardous chemicals and wastes of products containing hazardous chemicals are carried out under the Basel Convention Regional Centres (BCRCs) in Africa as well as the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM).

6.4.2 The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN)

257.

257. The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) is a permanent forum where African ministers of the environment discuss mainly matters of relevance to the environment of the continent 64.

258.

258. AMCEN was established in 1985 when African ministers met in Egypt and adopted the

Cairo Programme for African co-operation. The Conference is convened every second year.

The objective of AMCEN is to halt environmental degradation and promote sustainable development in Africa by enhancing inter-governmental co-operation among African countries.

63 Bamako Convention on the ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of

Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1991), http://www.imo.org/Safety/mainframe.asp?topic_id=1514&doc_id=7607

64 AMCEN, http://www.unep.org/roa/Amcen.

104


6.4.3 The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)

259.

The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is a vision and strategic framework for Africa’s renewal. NEPAD is designed to address the current challenges facing the African continent including escalating poverty levels, underdevelopment and the continued marginalisation of Africa. The primary objectives of NEPAD are to eradicate poverty; to place

African countries, both individually and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and development; to halt the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process and enhance its full and beneficial integration into the global economy; and to accelerate the empowerment of women. Environment is one of the priority areas of NEPAD 65.

6.4.4 East African Community (EAC)

260.

The East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovernmental organisation of the

Republics of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Republic of Burundi and

Republic of Rwanda with its headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania 66.

EAC aims at widening and deepening co-operation among the Partner States in, among others, political, economic and social fields for their mutual benefit. Environment is also a priority among the Partner States.

6.4.5 Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities

261.

The objective of the Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities (CAI-SSA), launched in 1998, is to improve air quality through the reduction of air pollution originating in particular from motorized transport .67

6.4.6 The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and

Production (ARSCP)

262.

ARSCP is a non-governmental, not for profit regional association of sustainable consumption and production (SCP) practitioners in Africa. The pioneers of the association are the National

Cleaner Production Centres. Current membership comprises individuals and institutions engaged in SCP activities. The mission of ARSCP is to promote the development of national and regional capacities for the effective promotion and implementation of principles of sustainable consumption and production principles and to serve as the regional clearinghouse for these issues. Currently, it is implementing the African Ten Year Framework of

Programmes on sustainable consumption and production (10YFP on SCP) which incorporates sound management of chemicals.

65 NEPAD, http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/inbrief.php

66 EAC, http://www.eac.int/


105


7.0 LABORATORY ANALYSES RESULTS OF SELECTED

PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY

7.1 Sampling procedure

263.

A range of products for the laboratory tests were purchased in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where operates a free market environment under an elected civilian Government. Each lot consisted of 5 samples which were tested for presence of any quantity of the heavy metals under consideration.

264.

Criteria for selecting a product was based on track record of that particular type of product with respect to these heavy metals. During product purchase, samples were randomly picked from same and/or different shops depending on the availability of the product. Five samples were randomly picked for each type of product. Imported products were given preference over locally produced goods. For locally produced goods only those manufactured from imported raw materials were selected. In total 13 different consumer products were procured as shown in Table 7.1

below. All together some 35 tests were carried out.

265.

Soil samples from ‘’Tabata Dumpo’’ also in Dar es Salaam were also sent for testing. This is an area of vehicles and batteries repair workshops which is on a hill which descends to a river.

Soil samples were collected within the facility from 20m, 50m, 100m and 250m from one battery repair shop along a descending slope which ends up at the river. Soil samples from the river bed, about 500m away from the battery shop was also tested.

7.2 Analysis of samples in various samples at SEAMIC Laboratory

Sample preparation

266.

The method of sample preparation used depended entirely on the type of the material.

 Petrol, lipstick, and skin lightening creams

These were dissolved/diluted with petroleum spirit and the organic solution was made to a 10 ml ready for analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-OES).

Fertilizer and soil sample from recycling site/dump

An accurately weighed material was taken and digested by aqua regia (3:1 HCl:

HNO

3

) and then diluted to 20 ml ready for analysis by the ICP-OES machine.

 Medicated Soaps

Samples were cut into fine pieces

A known mass was weighed and dissolved in de-ionised water, then diluted to 50 mls ready for analysis by ICP-OES

106


Equipment used

267.

ULTIMA2 Manufactured and serviced by HORIBA JY, France. Fully automated with user friendly auto sampler.

268.

Principle: ICP, abbreviation for Inductively Coupled Plasma, is one method of optical emission spectrometry. When plasma energy is given to an analysis sample from outside, the component elements (atoms) are excited. When the excited atoms return to low energy position, emission rays (spectrum rays) are released and the emission rays that correspond to the photon wavelength are measured. The element type is determined based on the position of the photon rays, and the content of each element is determined based on the rays’ intensity.

269.

Special Features of ICP a.

Simultaneous, sequential analysis of multiple elements possible b.

Wide linear region of analytical curve c.

Few chemical interference or ionization interference, making analysis of high-matrix samples possible d.

High sensitivity (low limit of detection for majority of elements is 10ppb or lower) e.

High number of measurable elements - elements that are difficult to analyze in atomic absorption spectrometry such as Zr, Ta, rare earth, P and B can be easily analyzed f.

Stable

270.

The laboratory results are given in Table 7.1

below. As will be noted from the table, all the tested samples have cadmium, lead or mercury content within the acceptable levels. Results for soil samples were compared with soil quality standards of few countries (given in Table 7.2

).

107


Table 7.1: Sample results of products tested for presence of cadmium, lead and mercury

S/N Type of sample

Corporate Brand

Name/Mark

Manufacturer/

Country of origin

No of

Samples

Tested

Heavy Metal Concentration

(ppm) (ppm)

Hg

(ppb)

1 Car paint Master Paint,

Synthetic/ Enamel Gloss 1,

670 vermilion,

National Paints

Factories Co .Ltd,

UAE

2. Household paint Kiboko water paint

Goldstar Tanzania

Kiboko Industries

5

1

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

1 <0.01 <0.01

4. Toilet/me dicated soap

Camel

Oilcom

Engen

Shell

Medsoft dedorant ,

Trichloro Carbanilider USA

India 5

5 Beauty soap

6. Skin cream

Teint Clair, Yous Types de

Peaux

Fermco sprl

Rep. of Congo

Skin Glow, Fairness Crème Tanzania 5

8 Switch relay

Electric bell switch, UK

Overflow switch

15(8)A250V~U T80 >PP<

India

England

5

1

1

1

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

Electronic switch

Electronic Ballast (choke), hongyu

China 1 <0.01

9. PVC pipes Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½

Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½


10. Toys

(Funny

Airplane battery operated)



Toy 1, xie yu No A360





India

China

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

11 Phosphate

Fertilizers 28-30%

Phosphate

Fertilizers

Di-Ammonium Phosphate

(DAP) 18-46-0

12. Floor paint reconditio ning site soil

Red cement floor paint

13 Dumpsite/ battery

Soil sample at 20m

Soil sample at 50m

Soil sample at 100m

Soil sample at 250m

Soil sample at 500m

Tanzania

South Africa

India

Tabata Dar es

Salaam

1 0.12

1 17.14

1

1

1

1

1

1

0.27

0.65

1.00

0.20

0.05

0.96

50.56

263.71

131.52

102.16

11.01

65.40

Note: Samples analyzed by Southern and Eastern African Mineral Centre (SEAMIC), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

0.26

<0.01

0.01

0.19

0.03

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

<0.01

2.87

0.82

0.76

0.46

<0.01

0.64

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Table 7.2: Contaminant Limits for Habitat and Agriculture Soil:

Parameter Upper Limit (mg/kg)

Netherlands 1 Thailand 2 France Tanzania

1

Mercury 0.5

Source:

2

1 VROM,1983, Leidrand Bodemsanering – Guidelines for soil clean-up – Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Planning and Environment, Soil, Water and Chemical Substances Department, The Hague, Netherlands.

2 http://www.pcd.go.th/info_serv/en_reg_std_soil01.html#s1

271.

As noted in Table 7.1

and Table 7.2

the concentrations of cadmium, lead and mercury in the tested soil samples were within the acceptable levels. .

109


8.0 CASE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM CADMIUM, LEAD AND

MERCURY AND PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD

AND MERCURY

272.

This chapter presents some cases studies showing good and bad management practices of wastes from products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa as well as impacts to human health and the environment which have resulted from activities or the trade of these products.

8.1 Case Study No. 1: E-waste management in Kenya

Country: Kenya

Problem

273.

The electronic and information technology industry is currently the largest and fastest manufacturing industry in the world. As a consequence of this remarkable growth combined with the phenomenon of rapid obsolescence of products, discarded electronic equipment known as e-waste is now recognized as the fastest growing waste stream in developed countries. Electronic equipment contains a number of toxic materials including cadmium, lead and mercury. Thus electronic wastes are technically hazardous wastes and should be managed properly as recognized under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary

Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.

Action Taken

274.

In order to prevent significant environmental problems associated with the growing waste stream of e-waste, the Computers for Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East Africa's first ewaste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling needs. The monitors which are considered toxic will be shipped to Fair International in

Norway, which has the expensive equipment required to dispose of the monitors.

Lessons learned

275.

This case study demonstrates one way of a good method for waste management. Considering that most African countries are in the developing group, the project demonstrates a method which other countries could adopt to solve their e-waste problems.

110


8.2 Case Study No. 2: Bridging the digital gap vs. creating a digital dump

Country: Nigeria

Problem

276.

The growth rate of information technology in developing countries like Nigeria is similarly increasing due to among other issues, the natural hunger among the populace to stay abreast technological developments in order to communicate and compete in this globalized world.

However, due to financial limitations in most of the people in developing countries, the growth of information technology in developing countries has been contributed to a larger extend by importation of used or second-hand products from developed countries whose consumers are more than happy to find buyers for their used products. This could be regarded as a ‘win-win’ situation whereby the rich countries from the North are sweeping out their e-waste mountains which pollute their environment while at the same time benefit those in the South who are too poor to afford a brand new equipment. As a result, the trade in used electronic equipment has become a big business.

Action taken

277.

The Nigerian government is working to abolish the import of second-hand goods. Ironically,

Nigeria has already ratified the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.

Assessment of action

278.

Study conducted by Basel Action Network (BAN) in Nigeria in 2005 revealed that containers loaded with computers keep coming to Nigeria and most of them are non-functional or have very short life span. Large amounts of televisions, cellular phones and computer scraps from

North America and Europe are being dumped into Nigeria. Consequently, these fast growing hazardous wastes end up in dumpsites or landfills and pollute the environment in developing countries. Electronic equipment contains a number of toxic materials including cadmium, lead and mercury. Thus electronic wastes are technically hazardous wastes and should be managed properly as recognized under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary

Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. Exporters from the west on the other hand continue to violate the Basel Convention by calling electronic waste as second-hand products. The Basel Action Network says that if all parties involved don’t take responsibility soon, this toxic trade nightmare will never end.


279.

Trade of used electronics equipment is actually a trade of hazardous wastes which should be controlled by the Basel Convention. These e-wastes often end up dumped in countries with little or no regulation of its recycling or disposal. What we are seeing in Nigeria is unfortunately a harbinger of things to come; it is soon to be the future in the entire developing world. Therefore efforts should be made to test all electronic equipment before shipment to ensure that they comply with the Basel convention.

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8.3 Case Study No 3

Ghana

E-waste environmental contamination in

Country: Ghana

Problem

280.

Electronic products such as laptops and mobile phones contain hazardous chemicals and materials. Thus recycling or disposal of these products can pose serious threats to human health and the environment if not well managed. Since, many developing countries have no restrictions for importing used electronic products, these e-wastes often end up dumped in countries with little or no regulations for its recycling or disposal. Exporting hazardous ewaste is illegal in the European Union (EU), however the US Environment Protection Agency classifies it as legitimate recycling.

281.

As the global market for electronic goods expands, and the lifespan of many of those products gets shorter, there has been a rapid growth in electronic waste (e-waste). The UN estimates that

20-50 million tonnes of e-waste is produced globally every year, making e-waste the fastest growing waste stream in the world.

282.

In 2006 millions of tonnes of obsolete electronics products were unaccounted for in the US and

EU amounting to about 6.6 million tonnes. It is believed that some of these e-wastes are still stored in people’s homes; some disposed of in landfills; some incinerated while some are exported to developing countries where they are considered useful. After a short useful lifespan these products become obsolete.

Action taken

283.

At Agbogbloshie, in Ghana, the obsolete electronics products are manually dismantled at numerous small workshops within the market to remove valuable parts. Some parts are burned to remove plastics from valuable metals. Materials of no value are dumped along with other waste. Much of the work is carried out by children, some as young as 5, with no protective equipment and using basic tools, or bare hands.

Assessment

284.

The Greenpeace team documented in Ghana e-waste from European, Japanese, and US brands, including: Philips, Sony, Microsoft, Nokia, Dell, Canon and Siemens. Labels revealed the equipment came from a range of organizations such as Den Kongelige Livgarde – the Danish

Royal Guard, and the US Environmental Protection Agency. The team saw containers of ewaste from Germany, Korea, and Switzerland and the Netherlands being opened at Tema harbour; the biggest port in Ghana. The container numbers revealed that all the European containers had been shipped via Antwerp in Belgium

285.

Greenpeace experts collected soil and sediment samples from two e-waste recycling sites: the

Agbogbloshie scrap market in the capital city, Accra, the main centre for e-waste recycling in the country; and from a scrap yard in the smaller city of Korforidua, which were thought to be typical of the numerous small-scale e-waste recycling workshops in Ghana. The soil samples were analyzed at one University of Exeter in Britain.

112


286.

The study found that many soil and sediment samples contained numerous hazardous substances: including very high levels of the toxic metal lead and other chemicals such as the phthalates, DEHP and DBP, which are known to interfere with human sexual reproduction; and chlorinated dioxins known to promote cancer. Though the study did not attempt to quantify the damage caused to the environment or human health, the results indicated that there may be substantial exposure of workers and bystanders to hazardous chemicals.


287.

Illegal trade of hazardous waste is being practiced by many countries, especially developed countries, under the legitimate term of recycling or reuse. Many of the old computers, monitors and television sets that end up in Ghana come from the European Union, despite laws there that prohibit the export of such hazardous materials. The materials are exported as "second hand goods" and purportedly meant to be reusable. But it has been reported that 25-75% of

“second hand goods” imported into Africa are broken and cannot be reused again. This simply means dumping useless equipment containing hazardous chemicals on the poor.

288.

Therefore in order to end this dumping of toxic chemicals in developing countries, there is need for electronics manufacturers to eliminate hazardous chemicals from their products, and to take responsibility for their products over their entire lifecycle; from design to use to waste disposal, otherwise this dumping of toxic chemicals will not stop.

Some countries and regions including the EU have introduced a legislation to restrict the use of certain hazardous substances in electronic goods and regulate the collection and recycling of e-waste. The regulation is however limited, as it excludes many hazardous substances used in electronics and many countries fail to fully address the management of e-waste. An international and more comprehensive legislation must therefore be put in place.

8.4 Case No 4: Lead intoxication in Thiaroye sur Mer, Senegal

Country: Senegal

Problem

289.

About 70% of the lead manufactured worldwide goes into car batteries. As the demand for cars increases, the demand for lead-acid car batteries also increases. Although North America and Europe continue to be the world's biggest buyers of cars, fewer and fewer car batteries are made there. Both the manufacturing and the recycling of these batteries have now been moved mostly to developing countries such as China, India and Africa where labor is cheaper and environmental protections regulations are weak, and/or at least more leniently enforced.

290.

In developed countries, recycling of lead batteries is regulated. Most states in North America and Europe require anyone who sells lead-acid batteries to collect spent ones and ship them to recycling plants licensed and regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency. However, this is not the case in the third world like Senegal, where there are hardly any attempts to control the movement of these products.

291.

The Thiaroye sur Mer, a suburb of Dakar, Senegal, is a town of about 100,000 people. Like many African families, most of the families here are very poor. Most of the people depend on

113


petty agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. For years, the town's blacksmiths extracted lead from car batteries and remolded it into weights for fishing nets. This is a dangerous and messy process in which workers crack open the batteries with a hatchet and pull small pieces of lead out of skin-burning acid. This work left the dirt of Thiaroye dense with small lead particles; consequently the soil in the town became heavily contaminated with lead due to informal recycling of lead batteries.

292.

When the world price of lead increased in recent years, traders from India came and offered to buy bits of lead particles from the dirt soil by the bag for 60 cents a kilogram. So the locals in

Thiaroye sur Mer, mostly women, started to dig the dirt soil and carried bags of it back home for sifting in order to separate the lead particles. The sifting, which was done in the presence of children, created a lot of lead dust. On the other hand, the same business created more and quick income to the families than selling vegetables at the market. However, as the sifting continued, sickness among the children in the town started and eventually some died. About

20 children were reported to have died with same symptoms between October 2007 and March

2008.

Action taken

293.

The government of Senegal through the health and environmental authorities conducted blood tests on 71 siblings and mothers of the dead children in March 2008 and found extremely high blood lead levels of 1,000 micrograms per liter (just 100 micrograms per liter is enough to impair brain development in children).

Assessment

294.

Following a formal request from Senegal, the World Health Organization (WHO) deployed in

June 2008 an international team consisting of a clinical toxicologist, an environmental health specialist and analytical chemist to investigate further this outbreak and to assist the Ministry of Health in managing the outbreak. The team conducted clinical examinations and further environmental investigations in Thiaroye sur Mer. Clinical examinations confirmed continuing high blood lead concentrations in the original group studied, as well as in a randomly-selected group of adults and children who were not involved in lead recycling. Many children showed evidence of neurological damage. Environmental investigations found very high concentrations of lead both outside and inside peoples' homes. These have been mapped to an area inhabited by approximately 950 people, who are continuously exposed through ingestion and inhalation of lead-contaminated dust.

295.

The following are some of the key findings of the WHO mission to Thiaroye sur Mer in June

2008:

Out of the 47 children examined, 25 showed evidence of neurological damage including, in some cases, developmental regression;

Blood lead concentrations in those children ranged from 439 P g/L to 6139 P g/L. The lowest level was in a 3 month old baby who was presumably exposed in utero;

40 children had a blood lead concentration above 700 P g/L, for which immediate removal from exposure and chelation therapy was advised;

114


An additional 6 children had a blood lead concentration above 450 P g/L, for which removal from exposure and chelation therapy was also advised;

Of the 32 children whose blood lead was measured in March 2008, 12 had increased blood lead concentrations, indicating continuing exposure;

Lead concentrations of up to 200,000 ppm were found in NGagne Diaw. In areas previously decontaminated by the Ministry of Environment, lead was measured at 100,000 ppm which is much higher than the maximum permissible concentration level in France of 400 ppm in residential areas;

Measurements performed inside houses also showed high levels of lead up to 14,000 ppm.

296.


Recycling/recovery of valuable products from waste is a good economic strategy for reducing poverty but it can also be very disastrous when not properly managed and controlled.

Governments must establish waste recycling regulations for purposes of protecting the human health and the environment. Monitoring of recycling sites or activities is essential.

8.5 Case Study No 5: Dump sites in Africa: A hazard to children and the environment

Country: Kenya

297.

Problem

Human activities normally generate different waste streams including solid wastes, which need to be well controlled and managed in order to prevent negative impacts to the environment and human health. Huge amounts of solid wastes are being generated in municipalities and cities due to high populations in these urban centres. Thus environmental disposal of municipal solid waste is very important in order to avoid adverse effects to the environment and human health. Municipal solid wastes are normally disposed of in land-fills or dump sites. Thus local authorities are supposed to set aside sites for disposal of rubbish. However, many countries in developing world lack proper solid waste disposal facilities. Waste sorting and separation is hardly practiced before disposal. Existing land-fills/dump sites such as the Dandora dumping site in Nairobi, are uncontrolled and unmanaged. This means that even hazardous wastes such as waste products containing lead / cadmium and mercury are not given the required handling and treatment to prevent the potential health and environmental effects caused by these metals.

298.

The Dandora dumping site in Nairobi, Kenya, is one of the largest waste dumps in Africa. The

30-acre dumping site receives 2,000 tonnes of rubbish every day, including plastics, rubber and lead paint treated wood, generated by some 4.5 million people living the Kenyan capital City,

Nairobi.

299.

Every day, scores of people, including children, from the nearby slums and low-income residential areas use the dump to find food, recyclables and other valuables they can sell as a source of income, at the same time inhaling the noxious fumes from routine waste burning and

115


methane fires. Waste often finds its way into the Nairobi River that runs just meters away from the dumpsite, polluting water used by local residents and farmers downstream

Action taken

300.

A study, commissioned by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), examined 328 children aged 2-18 living around the Dandora waste dump and its impacts on public health and the environment. Experts from the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, Kenyatta National

Hospital and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute as well as local community leaders from

St. John's Catholic Church in Korogocho supported the study. The study also compared soil samples from the site with another location just outside of Nairobi. Soil and water samples were analyzed for heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, and persistent organic pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides. Blood and urine samples were analyzed for the same pollutants and for signs of diseases associated with them

301.

Assessment

Half of the children tested had concentrations of lead in their blood exceeding internationally accepted levels, while 42 percent of soil samples recorded lead levels almost 10 times higher than what is considered unpolluted soil (over 400 parts per million (ppm) compared to 50 ppm).

302.

Children have been exposed to pollutants such as heavy metals and toxic substances through soil, water and air (smoke from waste burning) with implications for respiratory, gastrointestinal and dermatological or skin diseases. Almost half of the children tested were suffering from respiratory diseases, including chronic bronchitis and asthma.

303.

The results show dangerously high levels of heavy metals, especially lead, mercury and cadmium, at the dumpsite, in the surrounding environment and in local residents. Lead and cadmium levels found on the dumpsite were 13,500 ppm and 1,058 ppm, respectively, compared to the action levels in The Netherlands of 150 ppm/5 ppm for these heavy metals.

304.

One soil sample from the banks of Nairobi River indicates high levels of mercury (over 18 ppm against the safe level of 2 ppm). The soil surface samples also recorded cadmium concentration 50 times higher than in unpolluted soil (53 ppm compared to 1 ppm). Health wise, 50 percent of the children had blood lead levels equal to or above the internationally accepted action levels of 10 micrograms per decilitre of blood, including two children with concentrations of over 29 and 32 micrograms. Low haemoglobin levels and iron deficiency anaemia, some of the known symptoms of lead poisoning, have been detected in 50 and 30 percent of the children, respectively. Exposure to high lead levels is also linked with a wide range of other ill effects including damage to the nervous system and the brain, whilst cadmium poisoning causes damage to internal organs, especially kidneys, and cancers.


305.

The poor are the best recyclers in the world, nothing of value goes to waste. Many local people around the Dandora dump site depend on the wastes. However, uunrestricted and uncontrolled waste dumping is causing serious threat to their health and the environment. Thus a controlled and well-managed waste processing facility should be established. This will not

116


only reduce health and environment impacts but also generate jobs and income for the local community.

306.

The challenge is for the authorities to minimize or prevent the level of hazardous materials coming to the dump site in the first place and better treatment of toxic and medical wastes before disposal. Safe and sustainable conditions for the people working on, and living near, the dump site need to be put in place for purposes of assisting the poor people who depend on this waste and promote the recycling and reuse of this waste as a safer opportunity both economically and environmentally.

117


ANNEX 1A: TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE STUDY

118


1.

BACKGROUND

The UNEP Governing Council, at its 23rd session in February 2005, requested UNEP to undertake a review of scientific information on lead and cadmium, focusing especially on long-range environmental transport, in order to inform future discussion of the Governing Council on the possible need for global action in relation to lead and cadmium. Interim scientific reviews were made available to the Governing Council for consideration at its 24th regular session in February 2007 and they can be accessed at http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/SR/Interim_reviews.htm

. The Interim scientific reviews identified some essential gaps in information, in particular, the need to examine global flow of lead and cadmium in products.

UNEP Governing Council decided in February 2007 ( Decision 24/3 III ) to encourage efforts by

Governments and others to reduce risks to human health and the environment of lead and cadmium throughout the whole life cycle of those substances; and requested UNEP to provide available information on lead and cadmium to address the data and information gaps identified in the Interim

Reviews, and to compile an inventory of existing risk management measures; with a further report back to the next Governing Council at its 25th regular session in 2009.

The aim of this study is to fill some of the data and information gaps identified in the Interim scientific reviews on lead and cadmium and for mercury information gaps identified elsewhere.

Lead, cadmium and mercury are used and traded globally as metals in various products.

The major use of lead in recent years is in lead batteries, accounting for 78 percentage of reported global consumption in 2003 68 . Other major application areas are lead sheets, ammunition, alloys and cable sheathing. Other uses include plastics, paints, electrical and electronic equipment and certain toys.

Cadmium is produced mainly as a by-product of mining, smelting and refining of zinc and, to a lesser degree, as a by-product of lead and copper production. Cadmium is used and traded globally as a metal and as a component in various products. This is the case in particular for its dominant use -NiCd batteries- but it is also used for many applications in alloys, plastics, plating and in electronic and electrical equipment. A special issue of concern that is not addressed in this project is the presence of cadmium in phosphate fertilizers.

Main source categories of products containing mercury includes batteries, dental amalgams, measuring and control devices (largely medical sector), electric and electronic switches, skin lighting creams and cosmetics. The rate of decline in mercury demand in the future will depend primarily upon reductions in the battery, electrical product, and measuring device manufacturing sectors, and in dental use. These sectors represent the greatest potential for short-term declines because alternatives are readily available and are of equal or better quality. For these sectors, the challenges are not technical but relate to the rate of and incentive to phase out.

As awareness of the adverse impacts of lead, cadmium and mercury has increased, many uses have been reduced significantly in industrialized countries. In addition, as public awareness has grown, waste management systems have increasingly been put in place in industrialized countries to reduce releases of these three heavy metals to the environment. However, some of the uses of lead, cadmium

68 Interim review of scientific information on lead –Version of October 2006- Figure 6

( http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/SR/Interim_reviews.htm

)

119


and mercury which have been phased out in industrialized countries have continued in developing countries, and even increased in some less developed regions and countries.

A specific problem faced by developing countries is the import of new and used products containing lead, cadmium and mercury, including electrical and electronic equipment and batteries, since some countries lack the capacity to manage and dispose of such products in an environmentally sound manner. Regulations and restrictions are less comprehensive or less well enforced in some developing regions. This has resulted in some of the health and environmental risks, local and regional, that accompany the use, management (including collection, storage, recycling and treatment) and disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury. These hazardous disposal practices include open burning and indiscriminate dumping in sensitive ecosystems such as rivers and wetlands.

2.

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF WORK

The main objective of this project is to analyze the trade, use and disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury in Africa in order to assess how this can lead to adverse human and environmental effects due to the release of these toxic elements. The study will be the basis for identifying measures that need to be taken on a regional and global level.

The full range of products should be assessed in order to be able to identify and focus on types of products that constitutes the main hazards to health and environment.

The study will consist of a comprehensive collection, compilation and analysis of data on trade and transfers of products to Africa based on available databases and sources. The study should quantify the extent of the problem to be able to identify what measures need to be taken on a national, regional and global level to reduce the risks to human health and the environment.

The study should include case studies to describe concrete examples of how some products containing lead, cadmium and mercury can have adverse effects on the human health and the environment in Africa, but also examples of sound management of products containing these toxic metals.

The study is to be written in English.

UNEP will be involved in the work through teleconferences in order to follow progress and discuss how the results are presented in the study.

Issues to be covered

The following elements should be covered in the study:

(a) Background and context of the work (incl. a reference to the UNEP Governing

Council mandates, specific objectives, scope and coverage of the study);

(b) Brief overview of lead, cadmium and mercury and products containing lead, cadmium and mercury;

(c) Brief overview of possible effects on human health and the environment from products containing lead, cadmium and mercury;

(d) Brief description of production, use and trade patterns of lead, cadmium and mercury containing products (description of type of products, quantities, etc.) in a

120


global perspective and with emphasis on Africa (incl. international trade to Africa and trade routes within Africa);

(e) Brief overview or examples of environmentally sound initiatives taken in Africa for collection, recycling and disposal of used products containing lead, cadmium and mercury;

(f) Key organizations and databases dealing with lead, cadmium and trade statistics

(data collection, reporting, scope and limitations of trade data);

(g) Screening analysis of selected products to determine presence of lead, cadmium and/or mercury;

(h) Case studies including a description of effects on human health and the environment from products containing lead, cadmium and mercury within the

African context; and

(i) Glossary of terms and reference list.

A more detailed chapter outline should be developed and approved by UNEP Chemicals within the

2 nd to 3 ½ month. The report should be aimed to be less than 80 pages total.

Sources of information

The sources of information to be used to develop the report are:

Information from Governments, IGOs, NGOs and the private sector regarding trade information of lead, cadmium and mercury containing products. This information is/will be made available on a running basis on a dedicated web-page;

Publications, articles and reports of relevance to lead, cadmium and mercury contained products identified through a search of the scientific literature;

Additional available information, publications and reports publicly available on websites of various Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations; and

Data bases, included but not limited, to the UN Comtrade database (exports and imports of reported lead, cadmium and mercury containing products), the International Lead and Zinc

Study Group (ILZSG), The International Cadmium Association (ICdA), the Secretariat of the

Basel Convention for (national reporting on transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and other wastes for the year 2004 with special focus on under cover wastes that can become second hand products) and the World Customs Organization database.

Expected output

It is expected that the study will include a review of relevant materials and databases, compilation and assessment of collected information, drafting, language editing and final formatting of the study

(word version with other relevant supportive documentation e.g. excel sheets, figures, tables, etc).

The development of this study is to be performed over a period of approximately 8 months, in accordance with the workplan and timetable given in the next section.

3.

DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK TO BE UNDERTAKEN

The work can be organized in the main tasks as described below, together with suggested deadlines, to be adjusted as necessary during the course of the work:

121


TASKS

TO BE

AVAILABLE

BY THE END

OF

EXPECTED

OUTPUT

A.

Data collection (briefly review materials by performing literature search, collect and review identified materials and download 2000-2005 data bases from the suggested different sources of information)

B.

Develop more detailed study outline (to be discussed and agreed with UNEP Chemicals by taking into consideration the tentative outline in these terms of references)

C.

UNEP Chemicals providing to the contractor input received from GOV, IGOs and NGOs

D.

Develop of the first draft of the study, including suggested case studies

E.

UNEP Chemicals providing comments to the draft study and t he contractor incorporating those comments and developing a 2 nd draft

2 nd to 3 ½ month

2 nd to 3 ½ month

5 th month

6 th month

6 ½ to 7 th month

Summarized background information and data

Detailed study outline

Information from

UNEP

First draft of the study

Second draft of the study

F.

Incorporation of final comments and results

(including case studies)

7 th – 7 ½ month

Incorporated comments and case studies

G.

Contractor submitting final study 8 th month

Final study to be submitted

H.

Contractor submitting final certified financial statement

8 th to 8 ½ month

Final certified financial statement

UNEP Chemicals will contribute to the work as follows:

Establish and ensure all communication with the GOV, IGOs and NGOs with regard to the requested information (incl. developing a questionnaire for requests of information);

Put all information and submissions received from Governments, IGOs and NGOs up on a dedicated webpage to allow easy electronic access for the contractor.

Draft an introductory chapter providing necessary background and context;

Provide guidance with regard to the direction of the work, through teleconferences hosted monthly and/or by a country visit;

Provide comments and input to the draft documents according to the agreed workplan;

Publish, print and distribute the finalized study.

4.

COSTING. To be further discussed

122


ANNEX 1B : QUESTIONNAIRE

123


1.0

CONTACT DETAILS

Please indicate the country or organization submitting the information and provide a contact institution and/or person, with full contact details for eventual follow-up questions.

Name of country or organization……………………………………………………………

Name and address of contact institution and/or person (physical address, telephone, email in case follow-up is needed)…………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………

Date:………………………………………………………………………………………….

2.0

TIMEFRAME AND UNITS FOR THE DATA

Comprehensive trade statistics for lead, cadmium and mercury for United Nations member states are publicly available through the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics

Database (Comtrade). Comtrade contains detailed export and import statistics reported by statistical authorities of close to 200 countries and area. These data are processed into a standard format with a consistent coding and valuation. The data are then stored in a computerized data base system, called UN Comtrade. For many countries the data coverage starts as far back as 1962 and goes up to the most recent completed years. The data can be accessed at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/comtrade/ .

In addition there are a few other commercial statistical database maintained by key organizations that provide trade data on lead, cadmium and mercury. These include, among others, Eurostat (the statistical office of the European Communities) and the United States

International Trade Commission, which focus on statistics for trade between their own region/country and other countries.

In connection with the study on possible effects on human health and the environment in

Africa of the trade of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury, while going through

UN Comtrade website, it was noted that some countries, especially African countries have never submitted their trade data or, if submitted, data were not in the standard format of

Comtrade.

As background information to the study, we would like you to provide information and input relevant to:

1.

Countries dealing with production/use/export/import/re-export of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury to and within Africa, which have either already been submitted to UN Comtrade or which have been reported to other databases in your country, including to customs authorities

2.

Data requested should be covering the period 2000-2006 and amounts should be given with a unit clearly defined, preferably in kilogramme (kg) and not in pieces or not Applicable (N.A) or zero.

124


3.

TRADE OF PRODUCTS CONTAINNING LEAD, CADMIUM AND MERCURY.

3.1


Does your country have any system in place to register the intended use of products containing lead before import/export/re-export? YES / NO . If YES what kind of systems are in place?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

During the collection and reporting of trade statistics in your country, is there any requirement to identify the final destination or use of products containing lead being transported?. YES / NO. If

YES, please give details and respond through the relevant tables below.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Give names of the trade partners to your country of products containing lead.

Import partners: …………………………………………………………………………..

Export partners: ………………………………………………........................................

Please provide data on the production, use, export, import and re-export of products containing lead for the year 2000-2006 to Africa and within Africa, as indicated in the following tables:

125

Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury

Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)


Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)










Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded antiknock compound sludges

Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings

(for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).

Lead and lead alloys unwrought


Lead carbonates


Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might containing lead

Second hand mobile phones that might contain lead.

Any additional products containing lead that are treaded in your country? Please specify and give details.

2000 2001 2002

P U E I R P U E I R P P R I R

89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

126














Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded antiknock compound sludges

Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings

(for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).



Lead carbonates





2003 2004 2005


89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

127














Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded anti-knock compound sludges




Lead carbonates





2006

P U E I R

89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

128


3.2


Does your country have any system in place to register the intended use of products containing cadmium before import/export? YES / NO . If YES what kind of systems are in place?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

During the collection and reporting of trade statistics in your country, is there any requirement to identify the final destination or use of products containing cadmium being transported?. YES / NO. If YES, please give details and respond through the relevant tables below.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Give names of the trade partners of products containing cadmium in your country.

Import Partners: ……………………………………………………………………………………….

Export Partners: ……………………………………………………………….....................................

Please provide data on the production, use, export, import and re-export of products containing cadmium for the year 2000-2006 to Africa and within Africa, as indicated in the following tables:

129








Anti-oxidising preps. & oth. compound stabilisers for rubber/plastics

Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic

Phosphatic fertilizers and materials


Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might containing cadmium

Second hand mobile phones that might contain cadmium

Any additional products containing cadmium that are treaded in your country? Please specify and give details.

2000 2001 2002


89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

130















2003 2004 2005


89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

131















2006

P U E I R

89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

132


3.3


Does your country have any system in place to register the intended use of products containing mercury before import/export? YES / NO . If YES what kind of systems are in place?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

During the collection and reporting of trade statistics in your country, is there any requirement to identify the final destination or use of products containing mercury being transported?. YES / NO.

If YES, please give details and respond through the relevant tables below.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Give names of the trade partners of products containing mercury in your country.

Import Partners: ……………………………………………………………………………………….

Export Partners: ……………………………………………………………….....................................

Please provide data on the production, use, export, import and re-export of products containing mercury for the year 2000-2006 to Africa and within Africa, as indicated in the following tables:

133






Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultra-violet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...


ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT



Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black & white/oth. monochrome


Organo-mercury compounds

Ash & residues (excl. from the mfr. of iron/steel) cont. mainly arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixts.


2000 2001 2002


89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

134


Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might containing mercury

Second hand mobile phones that might contain mercury

Skin lightening creams which might contain mercury

Any additional products containing mercury that are treaded in your country? Please specify and give details.

135
















2003 2004 2005


89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

136






137




















2006

P U E I R

89765 89765 89765 89765 89765

138


4.

ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND INITIATIVES

4.1

Do you have any awareness raising activities on the effects of lead, cadmium and mercury?

YES / NO. If YES, please provide names and contact details of key organization(s) that provide such activities.

Organization name ………………………………………………………………………

Contact person and detailed address ……………………………………………………

Organization name ………………………………………………………………………

Contact person and detailed address ……………………………………………………

(use another sheet of paper if necessary)

4.2

Are you aware or have you reported cases of possible effects on human health and the environment from products containing, lead, cadmium and mercury in your country? YES /

NO.

If YES, provide a brief on the case(s) and some reference material, if possible.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………


4.3

Does your country have policies and regulations to prevent and control production, use and disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury? YES / NO.

If YES, please list them below:

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………


4.4

Does your country have any strategy for collection, recycling, transportation and disposal of products and/or waste containing lead, cadmium and mercury? YES/NO. If YES please mention:

National strategies………………………………………………………………………

International strategies……………………………………………………………………


NGO strategies…………………………………………..………………………….……

Regional / sub-regional strategies…………………………………………………………

139


4.5

Has waste of products containing lead, mercury and cadmium been recognized/appreciated as a threat for human health and environment in your country? YES / NO. If YES, are there any initiatives which are in place to manage/alleviate the problem?. Provide a brief on them.

National strategies………………………………………………………………………



NGO strategies…………………………………………..………………………….……

Regional / sub-regional strategies…………………………………………………………

4.6

Does your country have facilities to measure the levels / amount of lead, cadmium and mercury in:

Water

Air

Soil

Products

– Yes/No

– Yes/No

– Yes/No

- Yes / No

If the answer is YES, what type of facilities does your country have? Government and/or private laboratories, universities, technical institutes, etc?

Do you have any views or suggestions on measures that could be implemented at national, regional or global level to better understand the trade of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury, and to take steps to reduce the potential effects to human health and the environment resulting from this trade?...........................................................................................................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

140


ANNEX COMMODITY CLASSIFICATIONS AND CODES

PRODUCTS CONTAINING LEAD

HS1992-850710 Lead-acid

HS1992-850720 Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles

HS96 - 262020

HS92 - 2824

HS92 - 282410

HS96- 381111

HS02-780300






HS92-7804

HS02-780200

HS02-960920

HS02-262021

HS92-7805




Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded anti-knock compound sludges


SITC 3-6851

SITC 3-6852

SITC 3 - 52375

HS96-7016

SITC 1 - 71421



Lead carbonates

Glass blocks, bricks, tiles, leaded lights, etc.


Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might contain lead


PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM

CODE

HS02- 283030

SITC3-53313

HS 92- 850730

SITC C3-68982

Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)




HS96-381230

SITC.4-5622

SITC.1-5612

HS07-262091





Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might contain cadmium

Second hand mobile phones that might contain cadmium.

141


PRODUCTS CONTAINING MERCURY

PRODUCT

HS92 -853931 Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode

HS92-9025

HS02-853932

...

HS02-850630


Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultra-violet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour


SITC3-772 ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT

HS02-847160 Input/output units (of auto. data processing machines), whether or not cont.

HS92-8525 storage units in the same housing

Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras television black & white/oth. monochrome

HS96-8540 Thermionic and cold cathode valves and tubes

SITC.2-51551 and

SITC.1-51283

HS02-262060

SITC.4-776




Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might contain mercury

Second hand mobile phones that might contain mercury.


142


ANNEX 6A : SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO THE

QUESTIONNAIRE FROM GOVERNMENTS, IGOs AND NGOs

143


QUESTION

Burkina Faso

System in place to register the intended use of products containing Cd, Pb and/or Hg before import/export/re-export None

Requirement to identify final destination of products. None

SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY

Seychelles

None

None

Togo

Products containing

Pb: Yes – Customs

Office


Cd: No


Hg : Yes – Customs

Office


Pb: YES - Exterior and

Interior Trade

(Ministère du

Commerce; de l’Industrie et des

Petites et Moyennes

Entreprises)


Cd: No


Hg : Yes - Exterior and

Interior Trade

(Ministère du

Commerce; de l’Industrie et des

Petites et Moyennes

Entreprises)

144


Policies and regulations to prevent and control production, use and disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury

QUESTION

Awareness activities on the effects of products containing cadmium, lead and/or mercury

Awareness on Cases of possible effects on human health and environment

Strategies for collection, recycling, transport and disposal of products containing cadmium, lead and/or mercury

Waste recognised / appreciated as a threat for human health and environment.

Facilities to monitor or measure levels of Cd, Pb & Hg in products, water, air and soil

Views or suggestions on measures that could be implemented at national, regional or global level to better understand the trade of the products


Burkina Faso Seychelles

Available None

Yes

Burkina Faso is a mining country.

There is an industrial production mainly of gold, but we have an important informal production. In this case they use a lot of mercury with possible effects on human health and the environment

None, but an action plan is being prepared.

None

Water - NO

Air NO

Soil NO

Products - NO

Many countries don’t have actions plan of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury management. Each country must elaborate its action plan. In second time we have to implement it. But

Togo

None

None None

None None

Water – Yes, but in ppm level for lead & cadmium

Air – No

Soil – Yes, but in ppm level for lead & cadmium

Products - Yes, but in ppm level for lead & cadmium

Water – YES

Air – No

Soil – No

Products- No

Nationally, it is important that specific regulations be established for the trading and use of such products.

These regulations should cover the whole life-cycle a) Reduce the informal trade; b) Find new alternatives; c) Have the registrations for trade importation and exportation;

145


QUESTION

Trade data and trade partners for products containing cadmium, lead and mercury it is not evident because the most of those countries don’t have sufficient capacities technically and materially for products containing lead, cadmium and mercury sustainable management

Burkina Faso

None of the products right from the moment of entering the country to its final disposal or re-cycling. The same approach could be c) Have the data of inventory extended on an international or regional scale.


Seychelles Togo

Import partners: the products are imported by licensed

Import partners:

France; United importers

Export partners: No exporters

States of

America;

England;

Belgium; China;

Re-exported partners: exporters

No re-

Holland; Brazil

Nigeria

Indonesia; Hon

Import data for products containing Cd, Pb and Hg for the period 2000 to 2006 provided

Kong and

German.

Re-exported partners for products containing Hg :

Niger; Burkina

Faso; Mali;

Ghana; Chad;

Nigeria.

146


B: OTHER STATES OUTSIDE AFRICA

QUESTION

Czech Republic European

Community 69


Finland

/

Sweden

System in place to register the intended use of products containing Cd, Pb and/or

Hg before import/export/re-export

Yes

EU legislation:

Council Regulation

(EEC) No 2658/87 of

23 July 1987 on the tariff and statistical nomenclature and on the Common

Customs Tariff etc .

Czech legislation:

Tariff law No.

13/1993 Sb.

Briefly there are no completely covering systems in place to register the intended use of products containing lead, cadmium or mercury before import/export/re-export.

Finland however has a register for chemical products on the market, and also a common Nordic database

(SPIN) based on the publicly available parts of the same data, but these do not cover all other technical products, articles and materials containing heavy metals. The direct internet address to the Nordic online database is http://195.215.251.22

9/DotNetNuke/default.aspx

Requirement to identify final destination of products.

Yes.

EU legislation:

Council Regulation

(EEC) No 2658/87 of

23 July 1987 on the tariff and statistical nomenclature and on the Common

Customs Tariff etc.

Czech legislation:

Tariff law No.

13/1993 Sb.

69 / The European Community (EC) legislation reported here applies to all Member States of the EC. Currently, there are 15 Member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland,

France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

147


QUESTION


Czech Republic





Yes.

EU Legislation

Czech legislation : Water law No

254/2001sb; Waste law No

185/2001sb; Chemical law No

356/2003sb; Law on Air pollution

No 86/2002 sb

Yes

No

YES

Yes

National Strategies: The Waste

Management Plan of the Czech

Republic stipulates the objectives and measures for waste

Waste recognised / appreciated as a threat for human health and environment. management in the territory of the

Czech Republic, in accordance with the principles of sustainable development

International Strategies: Waste

Framework Directive

Yes

European

Community

Finland Sweden

148


QUESTION

Republic


European

Community

Finland

Facilities to monitor levels of Cd, Pb and

Hg in products, water, air and soil

Water – Yes

Air – Yes

Soil – Yes

Products - Yes


Trade data and partners - Trade data are based on UN

COMTRADE and are available at http://madb.europ

a.eu/mkaccdb2/st atistical_form.htm

, http://exporthelp.

europa.eu/thdapp/ comext/ComextSer vlet?languageId=EN

Sweden

Export data of products containing

Cd, Pb and Hg to all

African countries for the period 2000 to

2006 provided

149


QUESTION

WHO

SUBMISSION RESPONSES/ORGANIZATION

Toxics Link, NGO, India

System in place to register the intended use of products containing

Cd, Pb and/or Hg before import/export/re-export

Requirement to identify final destination of products.



None

No

Yes


Yes

Teaching material for the health sector on lead and children's health;

Information sheet on mercury : http://www.who.int/phe/new s/Mercury-flyer.pdf

Yes

Policy paper on mercury in health care: http://www.who.int/water_sa nitation_health/medicalwaste/ mercurypolpap230506.pdf

World Health Organization

Regional Office for Africa: website contains relevant material http://afro.who.int/

Yes Mass lead poisoning in

Thiaroye sur Mer, Dakar

Yes

150



Waste recognised / appreciated as a threat for human health and environment

QUESTION

Trade data and partners

Yes

Facilities to monitor levels of Cd, Pb and/or Hg in products, water, air and soil


SUBMISSION RESPONSES/ORGANIZATION

World Health Organization

(WHO)

Toxics Link, NGO, India

Should identify existing facilities for measuring Cd, Pb and Hg in blood & urine, and also food.

1. Labeling and information availability on products

2. Information availability to various stakeholders who come in contact with them through out their life cycle.

3. Substitution of lead cadmium and mercury in products by cleaner alternatives

4. Working with medical community to improve sensitization of health impacts.

5. Specific disposal guidance for such products at end-of-life

151


Top Six Products Containing Hg. Cd, Pb Exported by Sweden into African Countries:

2000 – 2006.

Submission from Sweden

Quantity (Kg), Product and HS Code

Country

Electrical apparatus for voltage > 1 kv, nes HS

853590

Lead unwrought containing mostly antimony

HS 780191

Digital auto data processing units

HS 847149

Portable digital processing machines

HS 847130

Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire

HS 780300

Refined

Lead

HS

780110

Angola

Benin

Burkina Faso

Botswana

C. African Rep.

Congo

Cote d Ivoire

Cameroon

The DRC

Egypt

Ethiopia

Gabon

Ghana

Gambia

Guinea

Guinea-Bissau

Kenya

Lesotho

Liberia

Libya

Madagascar

Morocco

Mali

Mauritania

Mauritius

Malawi

Mozambique

Namibia

Niger

Nigeria

Seycheles

Sudan

Siera Leone

Senegal

Togo

1,694

3,736

3,343

12,670

414

703,708

24,406

600

1,155

8

8,561

38,985

431

2

740

2

10,487

4,251

79

872,727

126

409,936

1,845

35,225

300,000

22

23

47

1

311

209

196

1470

4740

360

3789

16

33

6

472

504

100483

129

163

483

1350

3560

1

23

18236

606

30

1

26

345

52

3

2

30

451

11

20

2085

13

9614

53594

7

278

10

947

108

10

34

46,496

50,964

152


Quantity (Kg), Product and HS Code

Country

Electrical apparatus for voltage > 1 kv, nes HS

853590

Lead unwrought containing mostly antimony

HS 780191

Digital auto data processing units

HS 847149

Portable digital processing machines

HS 847130

Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire

HS 780300

Refined

Lead

HS

780110

Tunisia

Tanzania

Uganda

South Africa

Zambia

Zimbabwe

27,612

36,617

9,602

59,424

4,508

18,111

276

383

34

2305

579

1

246

11677

7521

1722

1831

41

9,000

Import Data for the period 2000 to 2006 for cadmium, lead and mercury (kg )

Submission from Seychelles

HSCODE 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006

3811.1100 75 0 0 152 132 0 0

7803.0000

7805.0000

8507.1000

8507.2000

8507.3000

8539.3100

8540.1200

9609.2000

2.850630

92.8525

2.850630

2.847160

92.8525

92.9025

SITC

772.000

776.000

533.130

562.220

27 0 822 2 24 95 0

163 25 0 52 84 552 0

13,326 52,990 48,040 35,391 55,684 39,486 60,364

157 982 314 725 1,619 3,551 5,533

34 196 52 133 245 557 127

2,273 3,921 4,216 3,245 4,806 1,811 5,284

0 0 3 99 0 2 0

1,065 686 2,268 581 892 1,632 744

257 387 739 130 149 126 369

190 2,615 95 224 183 130 727

21,902 23,502 19,469 32,733 32,059 32,907 31,445

66,337 63,462 75,172 95,046 73,586 107,381 65,120

13,069 21,975 43,881 11,337 12,626 26,142 12,502

89,751 90,652 97,743 128,714 106,869 142,176 98,405

177,943 243,069 205,420 171,657 166,275 353,768 183,008

20,019 12,396 14,105 2,808 6,607 1,945 1,395

19 188 126 391 3,493 15 1

1,000 13,253 2,663 0 0 5,000 5,282

153


ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AMCEN

ARSCP

African Ministerial Conference on the Environment

African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production

BAJ

BAT

BCRC

Battery Association of Japan

Best Available Techniques

Basel Convention Regional Centres

°C degree Celsius (centigrade)

Cd Cadmium

CAI-SSA

CFSK

Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities

Computers For Schools Kenya

CNS

CREPD

Central Nervous System

Centre de Recherches et d'Education pour le Développement,

Cameroon

DANCED

DEAT

DWAF

EAC

EMA

Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

East African Community

Environmental Management Act

GC g.cm

-3 g.mol -1

Governing Council

Gram per cubic centimeters

Hg Mercury

Hg2+ or Hg(II) divalent mercury

HS Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System

IARC

IDB

International Agency for Research on Cancer

Inter-American Development Bank

154


IOMC Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of

IPCS

Chemicals

International Programme on Chemical Safety

ILZSG International Lead and Zinc Study Group

LRTAP Long - Range Transboundary Air Pollution km kilometre mg milligram

µ g microgram

NEPAD

NWMS

NCPC

New Partnership for Africa’s Development

National Waste Management Strategy

National Cleaner Production Centre

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

Ni Nickel

P Phosphorus

PIC

PCFV

Prior Informed Concert

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles ppb parts per billion pH

PTWI

PVC

RBRC

Power of Hydrogen (measure for acidity or basicity of a solution)

Provisional Tolerable Weakly Intake

Poly vinyl chloride

Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation

SITC

SCP

Standard International Trade Classification

Sustainable Consumption and Production

SEAMIC Southern and Eastern Africa Mineral Centre

TV Television

UN United Nations

TRAINS

UNCOMTRADE

UNSD

Trade Analysis and Information System

United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database

United Nations Statistics Division

155


UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UNEP

UNIDO

USA

United Nations Environment Programme

United Nations Industrial Development Organization

United States of America

WHO

10YFP

World Health Organization

Ten Year Framework of Programmes

156

157