COVER STORY
D
PREPARE
DITCH
TO
itching has been in the news
again. US and Australian media closely followed the November 20, 2004 saga in which
Ray Clamback, of the well-known Bankstown-based flying training and ferrying
outfit, Clamback and Hennessy, ditched
in the Pacific Ocean while ferrying a Cessna 182 from the US to Australia.
It was Clamback’s second ocean ditching. The first was five years earlier, when
his Piper Archer went into the drink after an engine failure. That Clamback is
alive today is a testament to his calm under pressure, logical thinking and efforts
to conserve energy. It’s also due to a good
life jacket, some incredible luck, and the
efforts of the US Coast Guard (see story
page 28).
Ditching is an extreme – and relatively
rare – event. But is survivable, as Clamback’s experiences show. Data compiled
by the Flight Safety Foundation from
information supplied by insurers, accident investigation bodies and regulatory
authorities show that 75 per cent of those
aboard aeroplane ditching accidents survive to tell the tale.
The most notable of Australian ditching accidents occurred just on 10 years
ago, when a Douglas DC-3 ditched in
Botany Bay in April 1994 following an
engine malfunction after takeoff from
Kingsford-Smith airport. The DC-3
was on a charter flight carrying 21 college students and their band equipment
from Sydney to Norfolk Island as part of
Anzac Day celebrations.
All 25 occupants, including the four
crew, successfully evacuated the aircraft
before it sank. One of the crew was seriously injured.
The Australian Transport Safety Bureau investigation report concluded that
the circumstances of the accident “were
consistent with the left engine having
suffered a substantial power loss when an
inlet valve stuck in the open position”.
The ATSB also found contributing factors included the overweight condition of
the aircraft, an engine overhaul or maintenance error, non-adherence to operating procedures and the pilot’s inability to
get optimum asymmetric performance
from the aircraft. The regulatory authority also attracted criticism for inadequate
communication and insufficient moni-
Surviving a ditching requires
knowledge, preparation and
skill. Rod Bencke and Flight
Safety Foundation writers
report
24
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
COVER STORY
toring of the operating company.
Should something happen to make a
ditching probable, there will be scarce
time for contemplation; action will be
required straight away.
In an emergency, the best action is
planned action, and having a plan goes
beyond knowing where to find the aeroplane’s ditching checklist.
A good way to begin developing a
ditching plan is to make an inventory of
your resources. If you are flying a large
aeroplane (more than 5700 kg maximum
takeoff weight) or a turbine-powered
aeroplane, you need to be familiar with
the emergency equipment and the procedures for using the equipment.
For a light aeroplane you should make
sure you have the right emergency equipment on board and are able to use the
equipment. You might also need to develop your own ditching checklist derived from advice in the aircraft’s flight
manual and maritime survival guides.
Emergency equipment: Your inventory
of emergency resources should include
an evaluation of their suitability and
your ability to use them.
The first aid kit aboard the aeroplane
might be suitable for bandaging a cut finger or for relieving a headache, but how
suitable will that first aid kit be if fellow
crew members or passengers require serious medical attention after a ditching?
Maybe you should carry a more comprehensive medical kit aboard the aeroplane
and get appropriate medical training to
use it – just in case.
What about your life raft? Did the boss
opt for the most inexpensive life raft on
the market? Think about spending hours
or days on rough water in very close
proximity to your colleagues in something that might not be more durable
than a floating “kiddie pool” (see equipment standards, CAO 103.15).
The standard equipment and supplies
provided with even top-of-the-line life
rafts are meagre. Maybe you should
specify more suitable equipment and
assemble a waterproof “ditch bag” as a
supplement. The ditch bag should be capable of being removed rapidly through
an emergency exit and should be waterproof, durable and buoyant. It should
contain such items as drinking water,
emergency (“space”) blankets that can
be used either to retain body heat or to
protect from sunlight, sun block, waterproof flashlights and extra batteries, waterproof emergency locator equipment,
plastic bags (useful for many purposes),
a spare strobe light and whistles.
Operators should review their individual requirements to determine the contents of their ditch bags.
According to US Coast Guard Lt Cmdr
Paul Steward emergency locator transmitters (ELTs) currently required aboard
aeroplanes will activate on impact, but
will stop transmitting a distress signal
and a homing signal when the ELT antenna becomes submerged.
What about your
life raft? Did the
boss opt for the most
inexpensive life raft
on the market?
Think about spending
hours or days on
rough water in very
close proximity to
your colleagues in
something that might
not be more durable
than a floating
“kiddie pool”.
“Moreover, the automatic fixed ELTs
installed in most aircraft generally cannot be taken out of the aircraft for use in
a life raft. So if the aeroplane sinks rapidly after a ditching, an ELT signal might
be broadcast only for a few seconds,” he
says
“It is good to have a portable beacon as
a backup, be it a waterproof PLB (personal locator beacon), an EPIRB (emergency position-indicating radio beacon)
or a backup ELT that is waterproof, floats
and can be carried into the life raft.” The
more people aboard, the more EPIRBs
you should have, in case people become
separated.
If one of your regular passengers is dependent on a medication, a week’s supply
of that medication also should be included in the ditch bag.
Emergency/survival equipment (life
jackets, life rafts and so on) usually has
printed instructions for correct use, but
the crew should determine whether the
instructions are legible and thorough –
or even applicable (the instructions may
not match the equipment).
Surviving a ditching largely will depend
on the flight crew’s knowledge and skill
in flying the aeroplane. Survival will also
depend and the cabin crew’s knowledge
and skill (for passenger flights) in preparing the passengers and the cabin (see
story, “Brace for impact”, pages 32-33).
The preflight briefing could be the
crew’s last opportunity to thoroughly
prepare the passengers for a ditching.
A valuable exercise during the cruise
flight is to discuss ditching procedures
and the location and use of the emergency equipment aboard the aeroplane. The
discussion will help to reinforce the crew
action plan and get them one step ahead
of any problem that might occur.
The Flight Safety Foundation aeroplane ditching checklist (see page 31) is
intended as a framework for discussion
of ditching procedures. These apply to
transport category business jets operated
with cabin crew members and might not
he appropriate for other types of aeroplane operations.
For example, ditching checklists for
transport category aeroplanes typically
recommend that the flaps be extended
fully, to help achieve the slowest possible speed at which the aeroplane remains
controllable on touchdown. Other advice
on ditching light general aviation aeroplanes, however, says that extending full
flaps is inadvisable because they could
cause the aeroplane to pitch down excessively on contact with the water.
Another common recommendation for
light aeroplanes is to open emergency
exits and doors before ditching, to prevent them from being jammed shut by
distortion of the fuselage during impact.
Certification standards usually require
transport category aeroplane manufacturers to minimise the probability that
emergency exits will become jammed
during a minor crash landing. Transport
category aeroplanes are also required to
have ditching emergency exits – one exit
above the waterline on each side of the
aeroplane.
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
25
COVER STORY
An item that is at the top of every aeroplane ditching checklist is to notify air
traffic control (ATC).
Communication: Early recognition of a
problem that might require a ditching
and promptly notifying ATC that a ditching is possible, increases the likelihood of
getting help during the emergency and
of timely involvement and response by
search-and-rescue (SAR) authorities.
The flight crew should use the assigned
radio frequency to notify ATC that they
have a problem. The controller will want
to know the aeroplane’s position, the nature of the emergency and the crew’s intentions.
The controller also might want to know
the number of people aboard the aeroplane, airspeed, fuel remaining (in hours
and minutes), weather conditions and the
types of emergency equipment aboard
the aeroplane (for example, life rafts, life
jackets and ELTs and their frequencies).
The limited time to communicate and
the possibility of disruption of radio
communication also are reasons to notify
ATC of a problem as soon as the problem
becomes apparent.
You may not have very much time for
communication with ATC in a ditching
situation. It is therefore critical that you
communicate the most important information. This includes the aircraft’s registration, the present position and heading,
the number of people aboard, the nature
of the distress situation and the intentions of the person in command.
A flight crew departing from Australia
typically will be in VHF radio contact
and in radar contact with ATC up to 200
nm of shore.
Beyond 200 nm in oceanic airspace
controlled by Airservices Australia the
crew likely will be communicating by
high frequency (HF) radio with ATC.
Frequencies are published as a group for
each part of the ocean.
Loss of HF communication with a flight
crew occurs rarely.
If a loss of radio communication does
happen, and no one answers on the
primary HF frequency, the flight crew
should try the assigned secondary HF
frequency.
In the unlikely event that there is still
no reply, the pilot should select another
frequency from an appropriate navigational chart.
If a flight crew is communicating with
ATC, they should insist upon remaining
on the frequency in use. If ATC has no
option but to assign a different frequency
– especially an HF frequency – the crew
should tell ATC that if communication
has not been established within 60 seconds, the crew will return to the previous
radio frequency.
Depending on the location and the time
available, a SAR aircraft might be dispatched to intercept and escort the crew.
If pilots provide their position, altitude,
course and speed, the emergency and
rescue personnel can deduce accurately
– working with ATC – their estimated
point of ditching. They will want to know
any changes in course, altitude or speed.
ATC will need know about any major
changes.
Coordinates can be obtained readily
from on-board equipment, such as the
flight management system (FMS) or a
global positioning system (GPS) receiver.
Nevertheless, the crew should know the
aeroplane’s location with respect to the
nearest coast or island. Among the “whatifs” to consider is failure or malfunction
of the navigation equipment.
The crew should try to establish radio
communication with ATC on any of the
assigned or published frequencies, and
DITCHING
DISASTERS
Boeing S-307 Stratoliner
28 March 2002: Seattle,
considered to be part of the pre-flight
inspection. The National Transportation
Safety Board found that the accident
happened because of the loss of all
engine power due to fuel exhaustion
that resulted from the flight crew’s
failure to accurately determine onboard
fuel during the pre-flight inspection, and
a lack of adequate crew communication
regarding the fuel status.
26
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
A crew of four was flying a vintage
Boeing S-307 Stratoliner over Elliott
Bay, west of Seattle in Washington
State, USA, when it was forced to
ditch into the bay after running out of
fuel. All aboard survived the accident.
Before the flight, the crew discussed
fuel endurance, which was calculated
to be two hours, based on the captain’s
knowledge of the Stratoliner’s fuel
consumption, and the quantity of fuel
indicated on the gauges. The fuel tanks
were not dipped. The aircraft had flown
39 hours since restoration, and exact
fuel capacities, fuel flow calculations
and unusable fuel amounts had not
been established. A dipping chart had
been prepared, with one person in the
cockpit and one person with a yardstick
putting fuel in a main tank in 25-gallon
increments. However, the data had
not been verified, and dipping was not
Shorts 360-300
31 January 2000: Libya
During an approach, as the Shorts 360300 aircraft was descending through
about 2,000 ft, about 4.5 miles from
the Marsa el Brega airport, the left
engine flamed out. About 30 seconds
later, the right engine flamed out. The
pilot conducted a forced landing in the
sea, some distance from the coast. The
aircraft was subsequently damaged
and sank within minutes. It was not
equipped with life jackets as the seat
make a distress call to “all stations” on
121.5 MHz, the VHF aeronautical emergency frequency. The transponder should
be set to the emergency code, 7700. Often
other aircraft will be able to provide assistance relaying your communication to
ATC.
Most of the world’s SAR facilities continuously monitor 121.5 MHz for distress
calls from pilots and for distress alerts
from radio beacons. The International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requires pilots of all aircraft to monitor
121.5 MHz during long overwater flights.
Similar to transmitting an “any-station”
call on 121.5 MHz, the crew can try to establish radio communication on Channel
16 with a SAR facility or someone in the
area who can provide assistance and relay
a message to ATC.
Several experts recommend that the
ELT be activated while the aeroplane is
airborne. Many ELTs, however, transmit a
distress signal on 121.5 MHz, and all ELTs
transmit a homing signal on 121.5 MHz.
The 121.5 MHz signal will interfere with
voice communication conducted on that
frequency and might interfere with voice
communication on adjacent frequencies.
Therefore, after activating the ELT, the
crew should check for interference with
radio communication and deactivate the
ELT if necessary.
Ditching technique: The last thing in the
world you want to do is to land head-on
into a swell. Unless you have very strong
winds that will substantially slow down
your landing speed, flying into a swell
would be like running into a brick wall.
After evaluating sea conditions and selecting a ditching heading, the flight crew
should depressurise the aeroplane. If the
cabin remains pressurised after ditching,
opening the emergency exits and/or door
could be impossible or dangerous.
All the business-aeroplane ditching
checklists reviewed by the Flight Safety
Foundation recommend that the landing
gear remain retracted.
If the aeroplane is equipped with a headup display (HUD), the crew should use it.
Without these enhancements, the crew’s
best option is to maintain a power setting
and a pitch attitude that result in the slowest possible rate of descent and airspeed
– and fly the aeroplane onto the water.
By wearing a life jacket in the aeroplane
your survival prospects are greatly improved. Do not inflate the life jacket until
you are out of the aircraft – you do not
cushions were intended to be used as
flotation aids. However, the passenger
briefing cards aboard the aircraft
described the use of life vests and there
was a placard on each seat stating, “Life
Vest Under Your Seat”. The passengers
were not told that the aeroplane was
being ditched. Of the 41 on board, there
were 19 survivors.
Boeing 767-200ERM
23 November 1996:
Comoros
Douglas DC-3
24 April 1994:
Botany Bay
Twenty-five passengers and crew
successfully evacuated a Douglas DC3 aircraft after it was forced to ditch
into Botany Bay, Sydney, Australia. An
investigation into the accident found
contributing causes included: that the
aircraft was over weight; an engine
overhaul or maintenance error; nonadherence to operating procedures;
and lack of skill of the handling pilot.
A hijacked airliner crashed in the
shallow, sheltered waters of a
small bay off the northern tip of
Grande Comore Island after the pilot
attempted to ditch, following fuel
exhaustion. The Boeing 767-200ERM
broke up and sank. Forty-eight people
survived the accident, but there were
127 fatalities.
AP Photo/Cobus Bodenstein
COVER STORY
want an inflated life jacket hindering your
exit.
You should hit the water as slowly as
possible under full control; don’t stall the
aeroplane in. Keep the wings parallel with
the surface of the water on impact, that is,
wings level in calm conditions. One wing
tip striking the water first will cause a violent uncontrollable slewing action.
In ideal conditions you should always
ditch into wind because it provides the
lowest speed over the water and therefore
causes the lowest impact damage. This
process is effective provided the surface of
the water is flat or if the water is smooth
with a very long swell inside which the
aeroplane will come to rest.
If the swell is more severe, including
breaking waves, it is advisable to ditch
along the swell, accepting the cross wind
and higher speed over the water, because
this is preferable to ditching into the face
of a wave and nosing in.
You must be careful to maintain sufficient airspeed to ensure that any action
you take in controlling the path of the
aeroplane does not lead to a stall.
In extremely windy conditions, greater
than 20 kt for light aeroplanes with low
stalling speeds or 30 kt or more for heavy
aeroplanes with high stalling speeds, it
may be worth ditching into wind to gain
the large reduction in speed over the water. Aim to touchdown on the receding
face of the swell.
In many cases, especially for modern or
the more complex aeroplanes, the aircraft
flight manual (or pilot operating handbook) will provide detailed handling information for the execution of a ditching.
In the absence of such information you
should consider the following:
• Reduce the aeroplane’s weight to a
minimum if you have time and if
practicable. This will reduce the stalling
speed and therefore your planned impact
speed.
• Dispose of, or restrain, any loose
articles in the cabin that could create a
hazard during impact.
• There could be airframe distortion on
impact; you should arrange to have an
escape door or hatch open before impact
so that you can vacate the aeroplane.
• Make every effort to precisely control
airspeed and rate of descent, both should
be as low as possible, consistent with
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
27
COVER STORY
PLUCKED FROM THE PACIFIC
Ray Clamback has survived two Pacific Ocean ditchings.
His partner, Aminta Hennessy, tells his story.
O
n November 20, 1999 at 1620 the
US Coast Guard rang our number
and said: “I am not sure who I am
supposed to be talking to, but a
Ray Clamback asked me to call you.” The
long wait had started.
Ray had left Santa Barbara at 0631 for Hilo
Hawaii on a normal ferry – something like
his 170th crossing. About 10 hours out his
co-pilot, Shane, noticed the oil pressure had
dropped.
When it dropped again, Ray put out a call
on 121.5. Half the Pacific lit up. One airliner
got a message to the Coast Guard passing on
the location, the size and direction of the sea
swell, the speed and direction of the wind
and the whereabouts of any shipping.
A US Coast Guard Hercules (C130) arrived within hours.
When the engine finally quit it was dark.
Ray told the C-130 crew as soon as it happened, and they turned north and laid a
flare path on the water.
Ray glided from 6000 ft to the water plunging through cloud and rain. When he spotted the flare path he was too high, so he doglegged to lose height. He was lucky – when
he touched down, the swell was kind.
Both Ray and Shane, both with life jackets
on, managed to get out onto the wing. They
threw the life raft into the water, and pulled
the cord. But nothing happened.
Within 3 minutes the aircraft went nose
down and started to sink.
Meanwhile, unable to see them through
cloud, the Coast Guard crew dropped a
data buoy at the end of the flare path. After1.5 hours of further searching and not
sighting them they dropped a second data
buoy and left to refuel and return.
The Coast Guard contacted a bulk carrier, the Nyon, which changed course and
headed for the data buoy.
A long lonely night in the water ensued.
The life jackets kept Shane and Ray afloat,
but nothing could stop them from drinking the seawater. Shane, a doctor, told Ray
to induce vomiting to get rid of the seawater from his stomach. This they did about 4
times during their 10 hours in the water.
The second C130 came back and used
night vision goggles to search the area.
Incredibly they spotted the tiny lights on
Shane and Ray’s life jackets.
Flight path: The sequence of events for Ray Clamback’s October 2004 ditching in a C180.
28
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
At 0210 I got the call. Ray and Shane had
been picked up by the bulk carrier Nyon.
Not again: Nearly five years later, on October 4, 2004 Ray was forced to ditch for the
second time – again in the Pacific Ocean.
It was the latter half of the 2004, and the
ferrying business had gone mad. Ray was
very busy. Our senior instructor, Lyn, had
served her ferrying apprenticeship.
On this occasion Lyn was flying a new
Cessna 182, Ray was ferrying another C182,
and I was flying a Cessna Caravan 208 from
the US to Australia.
My co-pilot, Simon, and I gave Lyn and
Ray a 45 minute start for the 1060nm leg
from Hilo to Christmas Island. We were
within VHF radio coverage of each other, so
we were all chatting.
Out of the blue I heard Lyn ask Ray, “Have
you just reduced power?” Ray replied, “No
my engine is running rough”. Then Ray
suddenly announced that his low oil pressure light had come on and that he was now
unable to maintain height.
Lyn asked Ray if he had his life jacket on
– he did.
I got on the HF radio to call San Francisco
to get the Coast Guard
out, while Lyn followed
Ray. At around 1500 ft to
2000 ft she said, “There
is a puff of blue smoke
coming out of your engine.” Ray replied, “The
engine has just stopped.”
Then I heard Lyn say,
“He’s down. He has
turned upside down. I
can see the life raft has
come out the door – a
little yellow dot. I cannot see Ray.” She then
gave me the coordinates,
and information about
wind and waves so that
I could pass them on to
San Francisco.
The aircraft went down
COVER STORY
Seven News, Brisbane/Austral Images
Over and out: The Cessna 182 hit the
water and flipped over in the 2004 ditching.
Water filled the cabin very quickly. Advice
is to take a deep breath just before contact.
Sometimes the only thing that will tell you
which way is up is the direction of water
bubbles.
AAP Image
An affinity for water: Ray Clamback,
shortly after return to Sydney following his
November 1999 ditching.
in under 10 seconds. Lyn searched overhead
at 500 ft and recorded the coordinates of the
debris that she came across, which she later
gave the Coast guard.
I went on to Christmas Island to get the
runway lights up and running in case Lyn
got back after dark and to monitor the situation from there. Lyn joined me later when
fuel considerations forced her to stop searching for Ray.
There were two US Coast Guard C-130 aircraft sent to look for Ray.
Usually they don’t use search radar when
they are looking for a person in the water,
but the flight engineer of the first C-130 at
the scene told the radar operator to look at
the radar anyway. Miraculously, the radar
reflected a metal tab on Ray’s life jacket.
The C-130 crew dropped life rafts within
reach of Ray as soon as they could. The US
Coast Guard aircraft circled the area until
Ray was picked up by the P&O Nedlloyd. He
had been in the water for just over 6 hours.
Ray has actually ditched three times: Once
in the Georges River behind Bankstown and
twice in the Pacific. He seems to have an attraction for water.
Aminta Hennessy is a partner in Clamback
and Hennessy, a flying training school and
ferrying service operating from Bankstown
(www.clahen.com.au).
maintaining full control of the aeroplane.
If you are conducting a glide approach
you must consider approaching at a
higher speed which will provide the lift
energy necessary for the larger than usual
round-out to reduce the rate of descent at
impact to one which is appropriate.
• Ditch into wind if possible otherwise
ditch along the swell (see above), a
compromise may be necessary in extreme
cases.
• Use flaps set to a medium position to
ensure the slowest speed on impact;
flaps also usually induce a lower angle
of incidence and therefore smaller
aeroplane body angle when approaching
stalling speed thus providing for a better
aeroplane attitude on impact.
• If possible make the approach using
power. If the ditching has to occur
because of impending fuel exhaustion
make the approach before all the fuel is
expended. A powered approach provides
for the greatest potential to execute
a successful round-out and hold off
enabling the aeroplane to have almost no
descent rate at impact.
There will probably be two or more violent impacts, the tail end of the aeroplane
followed by the entire fuselage.
At night the use of lights could be critical. You should set the cockpit lights as
low as possible to optimise your night
vision and carefully consider the use of
landing lights or possibly taxi lights.
The very directional nature of landing
lights could cause confusion for the pilot,
whereas the more general light provided
by taxi lights may prove more satisfactory. If the air is misty (a serious probability if there is blowing spray), the glare
of external lights could upset your night
vision and prove a hindrance.
One of the most difficult things to get
right in a ditching is judging the height for
the round-out and hold-off. Most people
will not have experienced many landings
without an undercarriage. Therefore you
will be used to seeing a particular attitude at the round-out. In the ditching
case that attitude will be a little different
because the aeroplane should be a little
bit closer to the surface to cater for the
lack of an undercarriage. You will need
to make some allowance for that. This is
where a powered approach can be most
beneficial because you can use power to
control that final descent onto the water.
Judging height over water can be extremely difficult particularly when the
water is calm or on a very dark night. An
aneroid altimeter will be of little use unless you have an accurate QNH. The best
device to use is a radio/radar altimeter if
you have one. If all else fails set up a low
rate of descent, less than 200 ft a minute
and wait.
Impact: The overall design of an aeroplane has a big effect on how it will behave during the ditching impact. As a
general rule, aeroplanes with an almost
straight fuselage under surface will behave in a more benign manner than ones
with a swept up rear fuselage. Because of
the angle of attack of the wings near the
stall, all aeroplanes have a nose high tail
low attitude near the stall and therefore,
if flown correctly, will have such an attitude as they impact the water.
The rear fuselage will impact the water
first, except for fixed undercarriage aeroplanes. If the rear fuselage is markedly
upswept it is not unusual immediately
after impact for the aeroplane to violently pitch up to an almost vertical attitude
before violently crashing down onto the
surface and probably nosing under the
water. Aeroplanes with straight under
surfaces are less likely to suffer such a
violent pitch up and subsequent violent
pitch down.
Aeroplanes with fixed undercarriages
strike the water wheels first. This is most
likely to cause violent nose down pitch
with the aeroplane ending up in a near
vertical position with the nose buried under the water. Aeroplanes with retractable
undercarriages should always be ditched
with the gear retracted unless the flight
manual specifically instructs otherwise.
For light propeller driven aeroplanes it
may be worth considering stopping or
feathering the propeller when you close
the throttle during round out to ditch
– this may help prevent the aeroplane
flipping over.
After the aeroplane has come to rest,
high wing aeroplanes may quickly assume an attitude where most of their fuselage, and therefore you, is under water.
Low wing aeroplanes are more likely to
keep the fuselage above water.
It is best to assume that you will have
little time, so evacuate the aeroplane
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
29
COVER STORY
SEA CONDITIONS COUNT
You should not simply land into
the wind without regard to sea
conditions; the swell system
or systems must be taken into
consideration.
S
ea conditions are the product of complex processes. A swell can be defined
generally as a form of wave that is caused
by a distant disturbance, such as a storm.
A swell appears as an undulation of the
sea surface and does not “break” (topple)
until close to shore. Swells created by two
or more distant disturbances and travelling in different directions can be present;
the largest and most dominant swells are
called primary swells and the smaller
swells are called secondary swells.
Sea conditions also might include
“wind waves” – that is, waves caused by
winds from a local storm or from a passing weather front. Wind waves can be
superimposed on the crests of swells and
appear as whitecaps when they break.
Wind can cause the waves to break with
sufficient force onto a ship or aeroplane
to cause considerable damage.
If flight visibility is sufficient, the flight
crew can begin evaluating sea condi-
tions when the aeroplane is about 2000 ft
or higher above the surface.
The selected ditching heading should
make it possible to land the aeroplane
parallel to a swell – or, when surface wind
velocity is very strong, to land the aeroplane on the back side of a swell. Regardless of the direction of swell movement,
the back side of a swell is the side that is
away from the observer.
The size of consecutive swells can vary
considerably, but swells more than 25 ft
high from crest to trough are not common. In the likely event that more than
one swell system exits, sea conditions can
become confusing.
A formidable secondary swell system
may necessitate a heading down swell and
partially downwind.
The flight crew should also determine
the direction and velocity of the surface
winds. Swell movement will provide no
clue to this.
Clues to wind direction and wind speed
can be found by observation of whitecaps,
streaks of foam and spray on the water.
Generally primary swells can be observed from as high as 5000 ft and secondary swells can be observed from at
and below 2000 ft.
Wind speed
Appearance of sea
Effect on ditching
0-6 kt
Glassy calm to small ripples
Height very difficult to judge above
glassy surface. Ditch parallel to swell
7-10 kt
Small waves; few if any white caps
Ditch parallel to swell
11-21 kt
Larger waves with many white caps
Use headwind component but still
ditch along general line of swell
22-33 kt
Medium to large waves, some foam
crests, numerous white caps
Ditch into wind on crest or
downslope of swell
34 kt and
above
Large waves, streaks of foam, wave
crests forming spindrift
Ditch into wind on crest or
downslope of swell. Avoid at all costs
ditching into face of rising swell
Note: The effects on ditching mentioned in the table are appropriate for light aeroplanes only.
30
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
quickly but in an orderly and organised
manner. This is best achieved if all the
passengers and crew have been comprehensively briefed during the descent
phase prior to impact so that everyone
knows what they have to do.
Survival: You have survived the impact now to leave the aeroplane before it
sinks.
You should be well strapped in, if possible using upper body restraint. Even in
this situation our head and legs are not
well restrained and are prone to damage with obvious results. Consideration
should be given to protecting the head
and legs by adopting the crash position.
Restraining head and leg movement during impact should also be considered.
If you have not been wearing your life
jacket make sure you collect it before you
leave and put it on as soon as possible. Do
not inflate it inside the aeroplane; it will
almost certainly seriously impede your
exit. Collect and deploy life rafts if you
have them. Collect all signalling equipment and survival gear you have.
At night it will be advisable to have the
cabin lights on.
If you have any influence on where you
are going to ditch consider making ease
of rescue an issue. Thus if possible ditch
near a benign shoreline if you can’t land
on solid earth. Ditching near a treacherous shoreline on the other hand should
be avoided. Seek out shipping if any are
within range and try to ensure that they
see you. Ditch in the front hemisphere of
the ship though not directly inline with
its track!
Strap in tightly, protect head and legs
to the best of your ability. Use pillows,
blanket rolls or soft baggage as devices
to restrain excessive and violent movement of your extremities. If you intend to
use a life raft it will be advisable to consider your footwear. Soft shoes and ones
with rubber or other soft soles and heels
should be satisfactory but high heel shoes
and ones with hard and angular soles and
heels should be discarded. If you are likely to have to swim discard your shoes.
Crew should not count on the aeroplane
staying afloat. When the aeroplane begins to take on water, it will sink rapidly,
and occupants will not be able to evacuate with water gushing through the emergency exits. Most ditching checklists for
COVER STORY
The aeroplane could
continue floating for
hours or days. On the
other hand, it could
sink in seconds.
passenger carrying aeroplanes do not include specific crew duties for evacuation,
and it is up to the crew members to have a
pre-arranged plan.
There may be some difficult decisions to
be made about trying to help passengers
who are injured severely or are otherwise
physically incapable of evacuating. Crew
members may have to deal with passengers exhibiting behaviours that could
hinder or prevent others from evacuating.
Note that the aeroplane likely will have
weathercocked into the wind, and the
wind will blow any life rafts safely away
from the aeroplane.
Survivors should resist the impulse to
return to a still-floating aeroplane to try
again to assist someone left behind or to
retrieve supplies or personal belongings.
The aeroplane could continue floating
for hours or days. On the other hand, it
could sink in seconds.
Rod Bencke is CASA flying operations inspector. The Flight Safety Foundation (FSF)
is an international membership organisation dedicated to the continuous improvement of aviation safety.
Flight Safety Foundation
Aeroplane flight crew ditching checklist
(operations with cabin crew)
Fly the aeroplane.
Preliminary
Notify air traffic control of the nature of the emergency and intentions to ditch.
Select transponder code 7700.
Activate emergency locator transmitter (ELT) (unless ELT signal interferes with
radio communication).
Change course toward nearest land or vessel.
Preparation
Notify cabin crew/passengers of the emergency and intentions to ditch and
provide an estimate of time until water contact.
Select “Seat Belts/No Smoking” light.
Deactivate landing-gear-warning system and terrain awareness and warning
system (TAWS)/ground-proximity warning system (GPWS) to prevent
unnecessary warnings (unless TAWS/GPWS altitude callouts will be used during
approach).
Reduce fuel to minimum required for approach/landing.
Approach (at/below 2,000 feet)
Set radio altimeter to signal 50 feet (if radio altimeter does not provide altitude
callouts); set barometric altimeter to indicated radio altitude or to TAWS/GPWS
altitude callout.
Evaluate sea conditions; plan to land parallel to swell or, if drift exceeds 10
degrees into wind on back side of swell.
Depressurize cabin and ensure that main air valves and dump valves are closed.
Close engine/auxiliary power unit bleed valves.
Landing light as required.
Landing gear lever “UP.”
Flaps/slats per flight crew operating manual (FCOM) (typically, “Full”).
Ensure ELT is activated.
Material sourced from CAAP-253-1(0) and
the FSF publication, “Waterproof Flight Operations”. CAAP-253-1(0) is available at www.
casa.gov.au/avreg/rules/caap.htm. The FSF’s
award wining educational pack, “Waterproof
Flight Operations”, is available on CD and in
print. Copies of the CD are available to FSF
members for US$29 (plus shipping and handling) and to non members for US$69 (plus
shipping and handling). Copies of the print edition are available to members for US$160 (plus
shipping and handling) and to non members for
US$240 (plus shipping and handling). Orders
can be placed on the FSF website, www.flightsafety.org using a secure server and credit card,
or with the FSF membership services coordinator at +1 (703) 739 6700, extension 102, or by
email at wahdan@flightsafety.org.
Before ditching
Airspeed per FCOM (typically, slowest speed at which control can be maintained).
Command/signal “brace”
Move throttle levers to “CUTOFF” or “STOP” position just before touchdown.
Pitch attitude per FCOM (typically, slightly higher than normal landing attitude).
Pilot flying: both hands on control yoke.
After ditching
Announce on radio frequency in use that aeroplane has been ditched and
evacuation has begun.
Ensure that cabin is depressurised, command evacuation, secure flight deck and
leave lights on.
Evacuate flight deck and deploy life rafts.
Note: This information, which focuses on transport category turbine aeroplanes with flight attendants aboard
during overwater operations, was assembled for discussion of ditching procedures and is not intended to supersede operators’ or manufacturers’ requirements or recommended procedures.
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
31
COVER STORY
Well-trained cabin
crew can improve
the chances
of passengers
surviving a
ditching during
overwater
operations.
O
n May 2, 1970, 23 people were
killed and 40 people survived
the ditching of a DC-9 near
the Virgin Islands. The pilots
had spent too long circling their destination, St Maarten Airport, because of poor
weather, and did not have enough fuel to
reach their alternate, St Croix.
Once the captain realised the aircraft
wasn’t going to reach the airport, he
notified the purser that the aircraft was
low on fuel and to prepare for ditching.
Unfortunately the purser did not understand this would be the only warning and
assumed the pilots would give further
instructions before the aircraft hit the
water. The cabin attendants helped some
passengers into their lifejackets and demonstrated how they should be worn, but
other passengers were unable to remove
lifejackets from under their seats or put
them on properly.
The navigator came into the cabin to
help the purser get the life raft out of its
storage area and while they were still preparing for ditching, the aircraft crashed
into the water. Several passengers and
cabin crew were standing and others did
not have their seatbelts fastened. Some
passengers did not even realise that the
aircraft was making a crash landing,
thinking they were on the over-water approach to St Croix.
Ninety minutes after the ditching, the
US Coast Guard began to rescue the survivors, an operation that was completed
one hour later.
The NTSB report found that better crew
coordination before the ditching could
32
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
Critical findings: An investigation report
on the ditching of a DC-9 near the Virgin
Islands found that better coordination
could have saved more lives. The NTSB
report recommended improved warnings,
propoer briefings, standardised seatbelts
and more accessible stowage of life
jackets for emergencies.
have saved more lives. It recommended
improved warnings, proper briefings,
standardised seatbelts and more accessible stowage of life jackets for emergencies.
The St Croix accident is just one of several airliner ditchings where cabin crew
were a vital part of emergency preparations. The problems in this case came
from lack of communication between the
flight crew and cabin crew, and lack of
communication between cabin crew and
some of the passengers.
Better briefings: Civil Aviation Advisory Publication 253-2 (0) published in
August 2004, provides information on
Australian legislative requirements for
passenger safety information.
It notes that if passengers are not properly briefed on emergency procedures,
they can hinder an evacuation.
“An informed, knowledgeable person
has a much better chance of surviving
any life or injury-threatening situation
which could occur during passenger carrying operations in civil aviation,” the
CAAP says.
“Therefore, CASA requires a passenger
information system that includes, as a
minimum, oral or audio visual briefings
together with pictorial and other visual
safety information [such as] safety briefing cards and aircraft placards.”
Cabin crew must conduct pre-flight oral
briefings that can be seen and understood
by all passengers, with the following information:
• Smoking is prohibited on board the
aircraft
• How the seatbelts work and when they
must be fastened
• Location of the emergency exits
• How to use the oxygen mask
• The type, location and use of floatation
devices
• The importance of securely stowing
hand luggage
• The location of special survival
equipment, if carried.
Mobility-impaired people and their assistants must receive an individual, tailored emergency briefing that includes
information about which emergency exit
Photo: Tom Keating
BRACE FOR IMPACT
COVER STORY
to use, when to move to the exit and the
best way of helping the person to prevent
pain and injury.
Small jet operations can also benefit
from cabin crew expertise during ditching emergencies. While some business jet
operators prefer not to carry a flight attendant, a 1993 survey of three major US
airlines found that cabin crew provided a
shorter response time and a disciplined,
knowledge-based response to emergency
conditions.
This included quickly moving passengers in an emergency evacuation, to
increase survival chances. The airlines
noted that passengers were more likely to
jeopardise safety by actions such as opening the nearest exit without considering
the outside environment.
Nancy Claussen, a cabin safety inspector with the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) said the American aviation regulator had concluded that cabin
crew are an important factor in timely
evacuations. “[W]hen one or more flight
attendants was present in the cabin of a
transport aeroplane, emergency egress
times were significantly less than when
passengers evacuated the aircraft without
a flight attendant present,” she said.
Protection: Chief executive officer of
FACTS Training International and AirCare International, Douglas Mykol, said
FACTS recommended operators consider
where flight attendants were seated on
business and corporate jets.
“We estimate that 90 percent of US
cabin-class aircraft operators have the
flight attendant sit in the cockpit-observer jump seat for takeoff and landing,”
Mykol said. “We believe that this common practice should be avoided because
the flight attendant primarily is on board
for passenger-safety reasons. It is very
difficult for a flight attendant who is sitting in a forward-facing jump seat – facing away from the passengers – to assist
in the event of an emergency.”
Mykol noted that the aft-facing brace
position allowed flight attendants to see
the cabin and talk to passengers during
an emergency. “Most other forward-facing brace positions require the cabin
crewmember to be bent over to grab the
ankles with the head down. This position
results in the cabin crewmember not be-
ing able to see the cabin or passengers,
and any voice commands will be directed
toward the floor instead of towards the
passengers.”
By facing towards the passengers, flight
attendants are able to check that passengers are in the correct brace position, to
communicate with voice commands and
hand signals and quickly access stowed
equipment, such as torches, medical kits
and life rafts.
The brace position can be a lifesaver,
and passengers who assume the correct
position are less likely to be injured during impact.
In 1980 a 16-year-old boy, one of 16 passengers travelling in a de Havilland Canada Twin Otter, woke suddenly, looked
out of the window and saw the aircraft
was about to hit trees. He immediately
By facing toward the
passengers, flight
attendants are able to
check that passengers
are in the correct
position [for ditching].
The brace position
can be a lifesaver,
and passengers who
assume the correct
position are less likely
to be injured during
impact.
lowered his head and braced his arms
and knees against the seatback in front
of him. He suffered a fractured leg and
wrist, and a scalp wound when his seat
broke loose during impact, but he was the
only survivor.
Cabin crew usually use phrases such
as “brace”, “head down, stay down” and
“grab your ankles” to tell passengers to
assume a protective position.
The safest crash position to assume, will
depend on the aircraft seating position.
The CASA website recommends the following procedures:
• Push back into your seat
• Tighten your safety belt.
If the seatback or bulkhead in front of you
is beyond reach:
• Bend your upper body forward as far
as possible, with the chest close to the
thighs and knees
• Keep your head down as low as
possible.
• Put your arms around or behind your
legs, tucked in against your body
• Angle your lower legs behind the knee
joints
• Place your feet flat on the floor.
If the seatback or bulkhead in front of you
is within reach:
• Bend your upper body forward as far as
possible
• Put your head against the seat back or
bulkhead in front
• Place one hand on top of the other on
top of the head. Fingers should not be
interlocked
• Tuck your forearms in against each side
of the face
• Angle your lower legs behind the knee
joints
• Place your feet flat on the floor.
Passengers should know the correct
protective position for their seat allocation and pay careful attention to the
safety demo. They should always read the
passenger safety information card and if
in doubt, ask the flight attendant.
The common misconception that leaning forward and placing your head against
a stationary object is unsafe, probably
comes from motor vehicle travel. Sitting upright in an accident is approved
behaviour in a motor vehicle, however it
is unsuitable for air travel because of the
lack of shoulder harnesses and airbags in
aircraft.
Information from: “Waterproof flight operations”, Flight Safety Digest, September 2003-February 2004; “DC-9 ditches
in Atlantic Ocean”, Patrick Mondout:
www.super70s.com/Super70s/Tech/Aviation/Disasters/70-05-02(Antillean).asp;
and “Passenger Safety Information”, CAAP
253-2 (0):casa.gov.au/rules/caap.htm and
casa.gov.au/airsafe/trip/emergen.htm.
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
33
COVER STORY
KEEP OUT OF
TROUBLED WATERS
T
he pilot in command (PIC) of a single engined, general aviation light
aircraft, has just as many responsibilities as the captain of a Boeing 747, Pilatus PC-12 or a Westland SeaKing.
These responsibilities can be even
greater on the general aviation pilot, as
most light aircraft lack the sophistication of a heavy jet or military hardware.
Preparation and aviation are synonymous, and this is especially so for general aviation pilots embarking on an
over–water flight.
Any pilot embarking on an over-water
flight in a single engined aircraft, would
consider it good airmanship, when possible, to remain within gliding distance
of land. In fact, under CAR 258, the PIC
is required to do so.
CAR 258 provides that the PIC must
not fly over water unless within gliding
distance from land. The onus is on the
PIC to be aware of numerous factors,
such as the aircraft’s glide performance,
prevailing weather and the availability
of a suitable landing area to determine
the gliding distance.
There will almost certainly be situations where the PIC cannot comply with
CAR 258, but there are only two recognised exceptions under the rule:
• If arriving or departing an aerodrome
in accordance with the prescribed
terminal procedures.
For example, when departing a coastal
MBZ (such as Ballina), the PIC must
climb to 1500 ft before turning against
the circuit direction. By complying
with this procedure, the PIC may be out
of gliding range of a suitable landing
area.
• If conducting the flight in accordance
with CASA directions. These are
found in the enroute section of the
34
FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA JANUARY-FEBRUARY 2005
Aeronautical Information Publication,
and in summary, provide that the PIC:
• Must have a current meteorological
forecast.
• Must submit a flight plan (or flight
note with a responsible person).
• Must ensure each occupant wears a life
jacket unless 2000 ft above the water or
during take off and/or landing.
The PIC should ensure that the aircraft
complies with the emergency equipment
requirements for an over-water flight, as
found in the CAOs.
The relevant order for compliance is
CAO 20.11, which provides that:
• Every occupant has an accessible life
jacket.
• The life jacket must be of a type that
complies with CAO 103.13.
• The life raft must be readily accessible,
and comply with CAO 103.15.
• If required to carry a life raft, an
Emergency
Location
Transmitter
must also be carried, which must
comply with CAR 252A. If the PIC
cannot maintain continuous air to
ground communications, an Emergency
Location Transmitter must be carried.
• On any flight which requires the
carriage of a life raft, survival equipment
must also be carried, such as water and
first aid equipment.
• The PIC must be competent at using
the emergency equipment.
• The PIC must give a comprehensive
passenger brief about emergency exits,
life jackets, life rafts, survival equipment
etc. prior to any overwater portion of
the flight.
In an over-water flight, the PIC should
consider variables such as weather, suitable landing areas enroute and even differing aircraft performance due to fuel
burn.
What the regulations
say about over-water
flights for general
aviation. By Simon
Cilento
The CASA regulations/orders prescribe the minimum compliance that
is required by a PIC for an over-water
flight. There are further steps that can
be taken during an over-water flight to
make it as safe as possible.
If there is to be any hope of survival in
the event of an engine failure, it is essential that the PIC be familiar with the aircraft’s ditching procedure,. This simple,
yet crucial preparation will save lives.
If the PIC is only licensed under the
Visual Flight Rules, then they must still
comply with basic navigation airmanship duties, and obtain a visual fix at
least every 30 minutes. This needs to be
planned for.
Pre-flight planning is essential and
Airservices Australia have several publications that may assist.
For example, the Enroute Supplement
Australia (ERSA) provides information
for crossing both Bass and Torres straits.
This information takes the guesswork
out of planning for these crossings and
reassures the PIC that by following the
recommended procedures there will be a
quick response from the maritime safety
authority should an emergency occur.
Flying a single engine, general aviation
light aircraft overwater has associated
risks. CAR 258 and CAO 20.11 set out
the minimum statutory requirements
dealing specifically with over-water
flights.
However, good airmanship dictates
that being familiar with the aircraft’s
ditching procedure, taking frequent
visual fixes and consulting publications
and other pilots who have flown the
route, should also be considered.