Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 1
Index
Sl. No.
Paper Title
Author
Page No.
01
Higher Education Accreditation:
International Trends and Practices
Dr Neeru Rathee
&
Ms Chetna Jathol
04-19
02
Inclusion of Para Teachers in
Elementary Education: The
Wrong Solution for the Teachers
Shortage in India
Mr. Sudhansu
Sekhar Patra
20-31
03
Educational Process Outsourcing:
Empowering Institutions to
improve quality of Higher
Education
Dr.Ritu Tripathi
Chakravarty
32-43
04
Measurement of Errors and
Misconceptions: Interviews and
Open-ended Tests, MultipleChoice Tests, Two-tier Tests and
Three-Tier Test
Dr. Ritu Bala
44-60
05
Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics at Elementary Level
Dr. J. D. Singh
61-71
06
Indigenous Knowledge in
Education for Sustainable
Development
Subhankar Ghosh
72-87
07
“Effectiveness of Selected electures Related to Research
Methodology and Statistics in
Terms of Achievement of
Students in Research
Methodology and Statistics and
Their Reaction Towards electures.”
Sultan Mudasir
&
S.K. Tyagi
88-100
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 2
08
Analysis of Selected Secondary
Biological Science Websites for
Content, Instructional Strategies
and Assessment
Dr. Joy E.
Stewart
&
Dr. David Devraj
Kumar
101-128
09
Right to Education (RTE) :
Present , Past & Future
129-144
10
Peer Learning: Achieving the
Goal of Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation
Jitendra Singh
Goyal
&
Suneeta
Chaudhari
Dr.Sunita Singh
145-158
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 3
Paper-1
Higher Education Accreditation:
International Trends and Practices
Dr. Neeru Rathee
Ms. Chetna Jathol
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 4
Higher Education Accreditation: International Trends and
Practices
Dr. Neeru Rathee1
Ms. Chetna Jathol2
Abstract
Higher education provides opportunities for lifelong learning, allowing
people to upgrade their knowledge and skills from time to time based on the
societal needs. Quality higher education has now been found to be important to
national development. For maintaining quality in higher education different
countries have adopted different quality assurance systems. Quality assurance is
the systematic review of educational programmes to ensure that acceptable
standards of education, scholarship and infrastructure are being maintained.
Accreditation is an international practice for quality assurance. Different systems
of educational atmosphere and accreditation systems persist around the world. In
India National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), an autonomous
body established by University Grants Commission (UGC) is responsible to assess
and accredit institutions of higher education in the country. Main purpose of NAAC
is to make quality the defining element of higher education in India through a
combination of self and external quality evaluation, promotion and sustenance
initiatives. In the same way most of the countries have developed their internal or
external accreditation systems to ensure quality of higher education. In this paper
1
Assistant
Professor,
Department
of
Education,
Maharshi
Dayanand
University,
Rohtak,
e-mail:
neerurathee@yahoo.com, Mobile: 9467220055
2
Assistant Professor, Rawal College of Education, Village Zakopur, Faridabad, e-mail: chetnabajwa@yahoo.co.in,
Mobile: 9810909998
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 5
we will have a look at the practice of accreditation of higher education in different
countries of the world.
Keywords:
Quality assurance, Evaluation, Assessment, Accreditation, Accountability
Introduction:
Education is an important investment in building human capital that is a
driver for technological innovation and economic growth. It is only through
improving the educational status of a society that the multi-faceted development of
its people can be ensured. Rapid developments in technology and communication
are forcing changes within educational systems across the world. Higher education
has an important role in deciding the quality of human resources in a country. It is
the backbone of any society. It provides people already in employment with skills
to negotiate rapidly evolving career requirements. It prepares all to be responsible
citizens who value a democratic and pluralistic society. Thus, the nation creates an
intellectual repository of human capital to meet the country’s needs and shapes its
future. Indeed, higher education is the principal site at which our national goals,
developmental priorities and civic values can be examined and refined. Scientific
and technological advancement and economic growth of a country are as dependent
on the higher education system as they are on the working class. Development of
indigenous technology and capabilities in agriculture, food security and other
industrial areas are possible because of our world class higher education
infrastructure.
Just as the online learning revolution is taking off, hurtling into the infinite
cloud, the world of higher education is struggling to better measure
learning. Therefore, quality in higher education today has become a prime concern
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 6
of the countries all over the world. Higher education presents challenges to quality
assurance that were unimaginable just a few decades. A significant impetus for the
interest in quality assurance measures has been the great change in the higher
education. At the Dakar Framework for Action, 2000 where the Millennium
Development Goals were laid out, it was emphasised that quality was ‘at the heart
of education’. The expanded definition of quality set out the desirable
characteristics of learners (healthy, motivated students), processes (competent
teachers using active pedagogies), content (relevant curricula) and systems (good
governance and equitable resource allocation). The quality debate in higher
education has, for a decade, attempted to engage with the apparent incompatibility,
in practice, of accountability function of external quality monitoring and the hopedfor improvement function (Vroeijenstijn, 1995; Middlehurst & Woodhouse, 1995).
The British Standard Institution (BSI) defines quality as “the totality of
features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy
stated or implied needs” (BSI, 1991). Quality in higher education means the
educational process is such that it ensures students achieve their goals and thereby
satisfies the needs of the society and help in national development. Different
countries have evolved quality assurance models for their higher education systems
as necessitated by their unique national contexts. A variety of accreditation
practices are followed all over the world for better higher education practices.
According to North-American definition, accreditation assures the educational
community, the general public, and other agencies or organizations that an
institution or programme (a) has clearly defined and educationally appropriate
objectives, (b) maintains conditions under which their achievement can reasonably
be expected, (c) is in fact accomplishing them substantially, and (d) can be
expected to continue to do so (Chernay, 1990).
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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According to National Assessment and Accreditation Council of India,
accreditation is “certification of assessment given by NAAC which is valid for a
stated period of time and the recognition accorded to an institution that meets
standards or satisfies criteria laid down by a competent agency”. Thus we may say
that accreditation involves a set of procedures designed to gather evidence to
enable a decision to be made about whether the institution or programme should be
granted accredited status. The onus is on the applicants to ‘prove’ their suitability;
that they fulfill minimum criteria. The purpose of the standards and guidelines is to
provide a source of assistance and guidance to higher education institutions and
quality assurance agencies to develop their own quality assurance systems in a
common frame of reference to enable consistency of operational mechanisms and
improve the procedures for mutual/multilateral recognition of qualifications
(ENQA, 2005). The present paper focus on accreditation processes which are being
followed for ensuring quality of higher education in different countries of the
world. Countries have been selected randomly for this purpose.
Chile:
CNA, Comisión Nacional de Acreditación (the National Accreditation
Commission), manages accreditation, establishes accreditation criteria, implements
institutional accreditation, authorizes accreditation agencies and provides public
information. The President of CNA is a renowned scholar or professor designated
by the President of the Republic. CNA is formed of fourteen more people,
including well-known and experienced academicians and professors coming from
different types of higher education institutions, the Head of the Higher Education
Division, students’ representatives and the Executive Secretary, who has voice but
no vote. The mandate of most of these members lasts for four years. Accreditation
Agencies (AAs) are private and for-profit organizations which conduct programme
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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accreditation. They have to be authorised by the CNA in order to operate at specific
knowledge areas and academic levels.
Since 2006 higher education institutions in Chile have had the choice of
entering a process to seek institutional accreditation. CNA is responsible for
institutional accreditation and its mission in relation to it is to publicly certify the
quality of an institution and its ability to manage its quality and standards. Since it
is a voluntary process, institutions willing to be accredited have to make a formal
request to CNA to agree on the accreditation calendar and areas to be accredited.
After that, the institution has to elaborate a self-evaluation report, pointing out
institution’s strengths and weaknesses. An external evaluation is conducted by
expert peer reviewers, who are responsible for producing a report to be delivered to
the CNA. With these reports and the institution’s feedback, the CNA has to decide
on the accreditation period to be awarded to the institution. The accreditation
period can be of a minimum of one and a maximum of seven years. In practice, the
CNA uses four grades:
1. Insufficient (No accreditation)
2. Satisfactory (3 years)
3. Appropriate (5 years)
4. Optimal (7 years)
Germany:
The structure of the German accreditation system consists of two levels:
Accreditation Council and Accreditation Agencies. Accreditation Council defines
standards, procedures, and criteria for the accreditation. The Council also accredits
individual accreditation agencies, which perform the accreditation in higher
education institutions. There are altogether six accreditation agencies in Germany,
specialized either by geographical regions or by disciplines. The accreditation
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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procedure is carried out in three steps. In the first step the higher education
institution sends an application for accreditation to an agency. The agency then
estimates the costs for the accreditation and proposes the schedule for the
accreditation. As the second step, the agency puts together an audit team,
nominates peer reviewers, and organizes an on-site visit. As the final step, the team
prepares an accreditation report and submits recommendations to the responsible
accreditation commission in the agency. The commission makes the final decision
about the accreditation, which can be either ‘yes’, ‘no’, or ‘conditional yes’. The
accreditation system has established a comprehensive, external quality assessment
system for teaching and learning in Germany.
Israel:
Council for Higher Education (CHE) is the statutory body responsible for all
Higher Education matters including procedures for the accreditation of institutions
of Higher Education. The CHE established a system for assessing and assuring
quality at institutions of higher education in Israel. In order to implement this
decision, the CHE established the Quality Assessment Unit in 2004 which
functions as an integral part of the CHE. The CHE decided that at the initial stage,
quality assessment and assurance in the higher education system in Israel would be
carried out at the study programme level. At a second stage, the Council will carry
out quality assessment at the institutional level, while using the experience
accumulated during the quality assessment of study programmes.
An institution wishing to offer an academic programme and to award an
academic degree (whether it is an accredited institution or has yet to be accredited)
submits its request to the Secretariat of the Council. The Secretariat makes a
number of preliminary checks, including an examination of the body which runs
the Institution (in the case of a request to open an institution of higher education).
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 10
The request is also examined by the Division for Planning and Information and the
Budgeting Division. These divisions examine the request from the point of view of
planning and budgeting, which includes an examination of the economic strength
of the institution and an examination of the economic effects that adding a new
programme will have on the general economic health of the institution. On
completion of the examinations, the request is forwarded to the Planning and
Budgeting Committee (PBC) for discussion. The request is discussed by the PBC
and its opinion is then submitted to the plenum of the CHE. Only if the Council
finds that the request has merit does it receive authorization. Occasionally, the
Council appoints a subcommittee comprised of experts in the relevant fields to
examine the request in terms of the criteria determined by the rules of the CHE and
its fundamental principles. A recommendation by the committee of experts is
submitted to the CHE; along with the opinion of the PBC and, on the basis of these,
the Council makes its decision.
Japan:
There are two primary accrediting bodies operating in Japan at present: the
National Institution for Academic Degrees (NIAD) which is governmental and
which accredits public universities; and the Japan University Accreditation
Association (JUAA) which is non-governmental and which accredits public,
national and private universities. 30 persons make up the Committee for University
Evaluation of NIAD, composed of approximately 24 academicians and 4 members
of industry, one representative of secondary education and one international
representative. The JUAA carries out its decision-making process through a Board
of Trustees, elected by the Board of Councilors, which is comprised of a
representative of each formal member of the association. JUAA uses over 200
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 11
academicians and members of the public to carry out external reviews of the
member institutions.
The applicant-university conducts a self-study based on the evaluation items
specified by JUAA and submits a Self-study Report. The University Accreditation
Committee reviews this Report. The Committee sends evaluators to each applicantuniversity. Taking the results of this site visit into consideration, the Committee
drafts the accreditation results and forwards it to the applicant-university for
opinions. After hearing the opinions of the applicant-university, the Committee
formulates the final results of the accreditation, which will be notified to the
applicant-university, the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology, and disclosed to the general public. The accredited university submits
a Progress Report concerning issues identified within 3 years after the accreditation
evaluation. JUAA reviews the status of improvements and provides feedback to
each university.
Netherlands:
Nederlands-Vlaamse Accreditatie Organisatie NVAO is the Accreditation
Organisation of the Netherlands. NVAO was established by international treaty
between the governments of The Netherlands and Flanders, the Flemish
Community of Belgium. NVAO has been given the legal competence for quality
assurance and accreditation of higher education in both countries. NVAO's
accreditation procedure consists of three consecutive steps: the self evaluation, the
external assessment and the accreditation.
The first step in the accreditation procedure is the self evaluation. The
institution and/or the programme are responsible for carrying out a self-evaluation
of the programme(s) concerned. This process is concluded with a self-evaluation
report. The self-evaluation report contains a description and evaluation of the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 12
programme. The institution sends the self-evaluation report to a quality assessment
agency. The second step in the accreditation procedure is the external assessment.
An assessment panel is responsible for the external assessment of the programme.
The composition of the assessment panel should be in line with NVAO
requirements. The assessment panel assesses the quality of the self-evaluation
(including the methodology used to realise it) and whether the programme fulfils
the criteria of the NVAO's assessment framework. The external assessment focuses
on learning outcomes. The panel writes down their findings, considerations and
conclusions in their assessment report. The third step in the accreditation
framework is accreditation itself. NVAO evaluates the assessment report, the
overall conclusions expressed in it, the panel composition and the methodology
used. Subsequently, NVAO takes an accreditation decision and lays down its
findings in an accreditation report. Finally, the panel's assessment report and
NVAO's accreditation report (including the accreditation decision) are published by
NVAO.
If the accreditation decision is positive, the programme is accredited. This
means that the programme is included in the relevant official register. This
registration means that the degree awarded by the programme is recognised by the
national authorities. Additionally, accredited programmes can receive public
funding and the students enrolled in these programmes can receive student support
(e.g. grants). However, public funding and student support are normally not
available for programmes offered by private institutions. If the accreditation
decision is negative, the programme looses accreditation. This means the
programme is deleted from the relevant official register and can no longer award
recognised degrees.
Nigeria:
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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Accreditation of degree and other academic programmes is done by Nigerian
University Commission (NUC). The first in the history of accreditation of
programmes in Nigerian Universities was conducted in 1990 shortly after the
minimum academic standards were developed for all programmes existing in
Nigerian Universities at that time. When a programme is due for accreditation, the
NUC gives at least three months notice to the concerned university of an
accreditation visit to the particular programme, discipline or sub-discipline. At the
time of the notice a Self-Study form is sent to the university for completion. The
university is expected to complete and return twelve copies of the form in respect
of each programme, discipline or sub-discipline to be accredited.
On receipt of the completed form, the NUC constitutes an Ad-Hoc
Accreditation Panel which consists of a Chairman and four other persons from the
academics, professional associations and regulatory boards or councils. With the
panel in place, a coordination meeting is held to induct new members and refresh
former ones, regarding the accreditation process mechanisms. Usually a full day
event, this exercise begins with presentations on the philosophical and procedural
framework for accreditation and continues with sessions where the assessment
instruments are discussed. Step-by-step, accreditors are taken through each of the
assessment instrument items. The meaning of each item, the minimum standard to
be measured and the scoring procedure are explained in detail. At the end of the
coordination meeting, the panels leave for their accreditation sites.
At the accreditation site, the panel meets with the Vice-Chancellor, and then
with the Dean of faculty, Head of Department and staff of programme to be
evaluated. After the introductory meeting, the panel settles down to work for two
days on assessing programme content, facilities, delivery and evaluation modes.
Interviews are held with students and sample lectures and practicals are observed.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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Each member of the panel scores the performance of the programme during the
two-day period. At the end of the visit, the panel writes its report, which is
discussed with the programme staff and the Vice-Chancellor. The report must be
commented on and signed by the Vice-Chancellor, or his or her representative.
Finally, the report, together with a quantitative assessment of the programme and
recommendations regarding accreditation status achieved, are sent to the NUC. The
accreditation status awarded to a programme may be Full, Interim or Denied,
depending on the total score.
Poland:
Pañstwowa Komisja Akredytacyjna (PKA) is the Polish State Accreditation
Committee and was established in 2002. PKA is the only Polish statutory body
entrusted with the responsibility of evaluating the quality of higher education. Its
opinions and resolutions have a legally binding effect. All Bachelor and Master's
programmes offered by all, both public and non-public, higher education
institutions in Poland, have to be accredited. PKA publishes all its assessment
results. Additionally, a report on the overall assessment of a given field of study is
published after having finished a full cycle of assessment of programmes in this
field of study.
PKA identifies fields of study and higher education institutions to be
assessed in a given calendar year. A higher education institution submits the self
evaluation report to the PKA within six weeks from the date of being notified about
the assessment procedure by the PKA. For every degree programme to be assessed,
the PKA appoints an evaluation panel. The panel includes outstanding specialists in
the given field of study (at least 3 members). The evaluation panel analyses the
self-evaluation report and prepares the list of issues, which should be explained
during the site visit. The higher education institution gets a notification about the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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date of a site visit as well as provides the higher education institution with a
framework plan no later than two weeks before its beginning. The evaluation panel
conducts a site visit within maximum 8 weeks from the date of the receipt of the
self evaluation report. The evaluation panel, after reading the self-evaluation report
and upon completion of a site visit prepares within six weeks, a report including an
assessment of the fulfillment of, stipulated in legal regulations, requirements,
concerning the provisions of higher education, having influence on the quality of
provided education and opinion about the quality of education.
The report of the evaluation panel is sent to the assessed higher education
institution which within three weeks of the date of the receipt of this report may
present its position with the respect to the content of the report. The chair of
evaluation panel presents the reports and the comments submitted by a higher
education institution to PKA. The proposal for the resolution concerning the
assessment including its justification is then presented. The resolution which
comprises the following: a) assessment of the fulfillment of, stipulated in legal
regulations, requirements concerning the provision of higher education, b) quality
assessment of education, c) justification. The resolution is presented to the
institution and the Minister of Science and Higher Education. A higher education
institution has the right to appeal against a resolution adopted by the PKA within
30 days of receiving the resolution. The result of the quality assessment of
education, after the validation of the resolution, is published on the internet site of
the Committee. PKA organises the follow-up on recommendation comprised in the
evaluation report.
If the accreditation decision is positive, the programme is accredited. This
means that the programme and the degree awarded is legally recognised. The
programme can obtain public funding and if the outcome of the accreditation
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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procedure is a judgement that the programme is outstanding, additional public
funds are available. If the accreditation decision is negative, the programme cannot
legally be offered. This means that either the enrolment for a given field of study is
suspended or the right to offer a given field of study is revoked. Additionally, there
are consequences on public funding.
South Africa:
In terms of the regulatory framework, all higher education programmes in
South Africa must be accredited by the Higher Education Quality Committee
(HEQC) before a public or private higher education institution may offer such a
programme. To be accredited, a programme must be a full qualification complying
with the rules and regulations stipulated by the South African Qualifications
Authority (SAQA). Any public or private higher education institution wanting to
offer a new programme must submit an application for accreditation of the
programme through the HEQC-online accreditation system. Once a completed
application is received, it is screened for completeness and a preliminary analysis is
undertaken to verify that the information that it contains is sufficiently
comprehensive to enable a full programme evaluation. Where an application is
incomplete, it is returned to the institution. An evaluation panel is constituted, or
one or more evaluators are appointed. Panelists and evaluators are academic peers
from the field related to the programme for evaluation. The evaluation panel or the
evaluator(s) produce a report using the evaluation criteria and make a
recommendation regarding the accreditation of the programme. Three possible
recommendations can be made:

provisional accreditation (no conditions)

provisional accreditation with conditions

no accreditation
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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The report, and a recommendation from the HEQC secretariat, is submitted to
the Accreditation Committee which makes a final recommendation. The
recommendation and any conditions set by the Committee are sent to the higher
education institution that submitted the application. Copies of the report are
forwarded to the Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) and to
SAQA. In cases where provisional accreditation with conditions is recommended,
institutions are given a timeframe to address the conditions set. At the end of this
period, a report on the conditions must be submitted to the HEQC. The report is
submitted to a panel of peers to evaluate if the conditions were met. A site visit
may be conducted to gather additional information pertinent to the programme or
institution. The panel produces a report on its evaluation and submits it to the
HEQC. This report is tabled at the Accreditation Committee. The outcome of the
evaluation is communicated to the institution. In cases where the conditions have
not been met, provisional accreditation may be withdrawn.
Conclusion:
Higher education plays a vital role in the development of any nation.
Therefore, there is a premium on both quantity and quality of higher
education. Different countries have evolved quality assurance models for their
higher education systems as necessitated by their unique national contexts.
Nevertheless, in all activities related to quality assurance across the world, there
lies a common unifying thread that laces together the basic concepts. Accreditation
is an important step towards assurance of quality higher education. Accreditation is
a formal, published statement regarding the quality of an institution or a
programme, following a cyclical evaluation based on agreed standards. (CRE,
2001). It is meant to ensure that educational institutions and study programs will be
held accountable for providing quality education. This is achieved through a
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 18
constant process of review and evaluation by experts in the field of higher
education. There are variations in practice of accreditation of higher education from
one country to another, and even standard terms may carry different nuances of
meaning. But with the increasing competition, technological revolution and global
movement of students, every country wants to raise standard of its higher education
so that they can match up with the global needs of quality higher education.
References:
 CRE (2001) Towards accreditation schemes for higher education in Europe?
The Association of European Universities.
 Middlehurst, R. & Woodhouse, D. (1995) Coherent systems for external
quality assurance, Quality in Higher Education. 1(3), pp. 257–68.
 Vroeijenstijn, A.I. (1995) Improvement and Accountability, Navigating
Between Scylla and Charybdis: Guide for external quality assessment in
higher education. London, Jessica Kingsley.
 BSI (1991) Quality Vocabulary Part 2: Quality Concepts and Related
Definitions.London:BSI.
 Chernay, G. (1990) Accreditation and the Role of the Council on Postsecondary Accreditation.Washington, D.C.: COPA, Quoted in Frazer (1992).
 ENQA, European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education
(2005) Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in European Higher
Education Area. Helsinki: The Association.
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Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 19
Paper-2
Inclusion of Para Teachers in Elementary
Education: The Wrong Solution for the Teachers
Shortage in India
Mr. Sudhansu Sekhar Patra
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 20
Inclusion of Para Teachers in Elementary Education:
The Wrong Solution for the Teachers Shortage in India
3
Mr. Sudhansu Sekhar Patra
Abstract
With the implementation of certain flagship programmes for providing
universal access to elementary education, there has been multifold increase of
student enrollments and provision of schools. To cater to the growing demand of
schooling there has been increase of teacher requirement at schools. States across
India have instituted a wide range of initiatives to recruit new teachers in contract
mode as a stop gap initiative. Many a times the teachers are less paid and without a
teaching certificate to teach students. It is evident that shortfall of teachers
certainly forcing school systems to take flexible standards for teacher supply as an
immediate solution to the bigger problem. The paper argues the contractual
recruitment unfortunately will not solve the teacher shortages that the schools face,
rather it has created inequality and a bigger source of demotivation among teacher
community. Different job profile for equal work has created multiple bottlenecks in
quality outcome.
Key Words:
Teacher shortage, Equality of Education, Teacher demand and supply
Introduction:
It has been the goal of education system in India to provide quality basic
education to every child and provision of basic education has been a cherished
dream for all Indians. The great leaders of Indian freedom movement realised the
3
Project Officer, AEP, KVS HQ, 18, Institutional Area, New Delhi-110016, E mail: psudhansu@gmail.com
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 21
fundamental role of education for national development. As a consequence
provision of education facility was a major concern of the Government of India
after independence. The States and Union Territories of India have been giving
increased attention to education as a factor vital to national progress and security
(NPE, 1986). Since then several attempts in terms of policies, programmes and
schemes were made by State as well as the National Government to fulfill the goal
of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE).Research in the late 1990s and
early 2000s has lent credence to the long held belief that good teachers make a
great difference to their students’ academic achievement (Govinda & Varghese,
1992, IIEP, 2007). Moreover the quality of a nation’s schools is directly linked to
the quality of its teachers. Therefore, teachers are central to both the coverage and
quality of education. Shortage of teachers and the inability to provide teachers in
particular locations are major constraints to expansion of educational institutions.
Teachers play a pivotal role in determining the quality of educational outcomes,
and efforts to improve educational quality focus heavily on improving the capacity
and management of teachers. In the present juncture of globalisation, the ongoing
economic and social changes demands quality school education for all children
(OECD, 2005). The demand for quality schooling and quality teachers are
becoming more multifaceted and challenging. It is also widely recognised that the
availability of well qualified and trained teachers in adequate number is the key to
education development (Kothari, 1970). As the most significant resource in the
school, teachers are central to school improvement efforts, improving the efficiency
and equity of schooling depends largely on ensuring that competent people work as
teachers and impart high quality of teaching and all students have access to it.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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The Context:
In India, teachers are the largest group of working personnel in the public
service and consume the largest percentage in the education budget. Studies reveal
that teachers’ salaries in India, account for nearly 95% of the state level allocation
to education (Varghese and Tilak, 1991). To address the mandate of UEE and
financial shortfall in the educational sector, states across India are trying to use the
availability of teaching staff as its maximum and deploying the teachers in several
ad-hoc manners to fulfill the shortage of teacher corresponding to mass expansion
of students and schools (PROBE, 1999).It was clear with the analysis of the UEE
policy documents available that, the state government found difficulty to finance
the planned expansion of enrollment from public resources. New strategies for
lowering the cost of teaching force have recently been adopted; as a result contract
teachers/ Para-teachers have come to an existence as a stop-gap initiative (Ram,
2000). Considering the limitations of budget in elementary education, it was the
biggest challenge to optimise the provision of teachers, particularly in distributing
and utilising the existing staff in a more efficient way. Certain efforts have already
been made with a view to match the demand and supply of teachers in an efficient
way across the states (Biswal, 2003). The present paper analyses the effect of
engaging contract teachers for fulfilling the demand of teacher and its effects on
state policy and the educational outcome.
Research Methodology:
1. Data Sources
The study adopted a mixed method approach, both qualitative and
quantitative. To have an in-depth analysis the state of Odisha was selected, as it has
the experience of District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) and other recently implemented policies. In this study analysis is
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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based on primary and secondary data collected from various sources. The study
focused on four sample blocks in the state of Odisha, data was captured of 112
teachers from all the categories i.e. Regular Teachers, Para Teachers (Shiksha
Sahayak) and Community Teachers (Gana Shikshak). Besides these, Headmasters
of 57 elementary schools participated in the data collection process. Almost equal
percent of male and female participated in the data collection process.Data analysis
involved an iterative process. All of the interviews were summarised and each
observation of all participants in this study and detailed analytic notes were
prepared. Researcher conducted extensive analyses of the individual teachers and
then conducted cross-case analysis looking for both commonalities and differences
among the teachers with regard to responses of state and district policies.
Findings:
A. Recruitment of Teachers:
The main factors determining teacher demand in any particular school year
are the size of the school-age population, average class size, teaching load of
teachers, enrolment and retention rates, required learning time for students, policies
pertaining to curriculum, state education policy vision over educational
programmes. In Odisha, the demand for teachers is determined to a great extent by
the size of the school age population. The qualifications requirements set for
teachers are determined in the educational code in the state. Vacant teaching posts
and other jobs are advertised in the regional and local newspapers. Selection for
positions or posts is based on written application and documents presented by
applicants. Even distribution of qualified teachers throughout the state remains a
challenge. Factors relating to teachers’ pay system and career advancement
opportunities play a significant role when trying to find ways of addressing issues
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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concerning teaching staff. However, the State is yet to develop an education policy
instead of the present quick fixes by the circulars and orders.
1) Recruitment of Regular Teachers:
The recruitment and condition of service of the teachers are supposed to be
controlled by the Odisha Elementary Education (method of recruitment and
conditions of service of teachers and officers) Rules 1997, but there is very little
scope of it being applied in practice. The rule made provisions for five cadres
among the teachers and officers working in the elementary education sector of the
state.It was stipulated that vacancies in the posts of teachers of level- V, i.e. the
posts of Assistant Teachers in the Primary and Upper Primary Schools would be
filled up by the way of direct recruitment advertisements the vacancies in the rest
of the cadres would be filled up by promotion from the immediate lower cadre.
Among the other conditions a person of 18-32 years of age having minimum
educational qualification shall be considered eligible for recruitment to the post of
Assistant Teacher in the Level –V cadre. It was further stipulated in the rule to
conduct examination for the fresh recruitment for which the government would
determine from time to time the syllabus and plan of examination. But since 1997,
not a single fresh recruitment has been made as per the provisions of the rule and
fresh recruitment is becoming a dying cadre.
2) Engagement of Para Teachers/ Shiksha Sahayak (SS):
In the year 2000, the government decided to introduce the scheme of Para
teachers entitled Shiksha Sahayak (SS) to meet the increasing demands for filling
up large number of vacant posts of teachers caused due to non-recruitment of
teachers for long period and vacancy created due to increasing enrollment and
opening of new schools. Accordingly SS were engaged on one year contract basis
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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by the Zilla Parishad (ZP) with a consolidated monthly honorarium of Rs. 1500/-.
The SS were expected to be responsible to ensure regular attendance and increase
retention by acting as a link between the schools to which s/he would be
attached and the concerned community. Further SSS were called upon to assist the
headmaster in imparting education, implying that teaching was not to be the
primary job requirement.The selection was merely based on career marks and 30%
reservation to the B. Ed. categories. Further the contract was renewed each year
after submitting a positive certificate from the community. In course of time several
modifications like within block transfer, enhancement of monthly honorarium and
control of SSSs by the Village Education Committee (VEC) were incorporated in
to the scheme. Recently the scheme has been modified and the SSSs have been
renamed as Shiksha Sahayak (SS). While conditions for recruitment remaining
more or less unaltered, the main assurance given was on regularisation of their
services. After serving as SS continuously for 3 years on contract basis with a
positive certificate from the concerned VECs, one shall be engaged as a junior
teacher by the respective Zilla Parishad on contract basis with consolidated
remuneration of Rs 3500/- per month. After satisfactory completion of 3 years of
continuous and satisfactory engagement, a junior teacher shall be eligible for
appointment as a regular teacher by the Zilla Parishad. Service conditions of junior
teacher and regular primary school teacher are yet to be formulated by the
government. This effectively blocks the direct recruitment of regular teachers in
elementary schools. In brief a SS after 6 years of continuous and satisfactory
contractual engagement is assured of a regular teacher’s job.
3) Gana Shikshak (GS):
The Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) was launched in the state as a part
of SSA from 2001-02 for mainstreaming the drop outs and never enrolled children
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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in the most remote areas where a school could be established by the state norm of
population and distance. With the up gradation of viable EGS centers to primary
schools and abolishing the unviable center as per governments’ decision, the
Education Volunteers (EVs) engaged by the respective community in the centers
were disengaged. In order to rehabilitate these disengaged education volunteers of
the EGS centers a new scheme has been introduced in the state. Under this scheme
the disengaged EVs were rehabilitated as Gana Shikshak (GS) under SSA with a
monthly consolidated remuneration of Rs. 2000/- , those who have minimum
qualification as that of a SS or Rs 1750/- (for those who are untrained). The
conditions of their engagement are similar to Shiksha Sahayak.
B. Teacher salaries for Multi cadre of Teachers:
There is a clear link between the status of teachers and their working
conditions, particularly their salaries and employment profiles. One of the guiding
principles stated in the NPE 1986, recommendation is that working conditions
should be such that they will enable teachers to concentrate on their professional
tasks, and promote effective learning by students. In particular, salaries should
provide teachers with the means to ensure a reasonable standard of living and to
invest in further professional development. They should also reflect the importance
of the teaching function and to take into account the qualification and experience
required by teachers together with the responsibility they carry. Moreover they
should compare positively with salaries paid in other occupations requiring similar
qualifications.
Table 1: Status and Remuneration of Teachers:
Teacher Cadre
Average
Status
Full time/
Salary(monthly)
Tenure
Part time
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Assistant
Regular
Teacher
Rs. 8,200/- to Rs Secure tenure
17,450/-
Para
Teacher/
Contract
Teacher(SS)
Gana Shikshak
Rs. 3,000/- to Rs.
4,500/-
Secure
tenure
after 6 years of
contract teacher
All
full time
All
clear policy
teachers
full time
Rs. 1,750/- to Rs. Yet to form a All
3,000/-
teachers
teachers
full time
Source: Data analysis of the sample
In Odisha a cadre of teachers were recruited and managed by Department of
Elementary Education (DEE) and another group of teachers were recruited and
engaged by the local authorities (Zilla Parishad) at the district level. Even though
the minimum qualifications of both the groups of teachers are as per the State Govt.
prescription, in reality the locally engaged teachers were paid 5 to 6 times less
salary that of a regular teacher. The interpretation of data highlighted the 48.2%
cases, which is almost half of the teaching force, are not paid in scales. Again
51.8% cases get a salary with scale and having all kind of govt. facilities like HRA,
medical, leave and other facilities. The difference in pay structure and payment
being in a salary scale creates chaos in the school academic environment. Instances
are there the teachers being misbehaved by the concerned Headmasters, the Village
Education Committee and the district/ block level Educational Administrators.
Among these consolidated paid salary teaching groups there are also variance of
salary ranging from Rs. 1500/- to Rs. 4500/-. Being half of the teaching labor force
and paid in a fixed amount created humiliation among many at the school level.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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However, the regular teachers are being paid salary as per scale ranging from Rs.
8,200/- to Rs. 17,450/- in gross as per their scale and seniority.
Conclusion:
The integration of Para teachers into the pool of regular teachers had
immediately benefitted the elementary education system in terms of compensating
decreased number of teachers. However, providing a meager salary and recruiting
less qualified candidates are always under controversy.As teachers preferred to be
placed in the schools located in the urban areas, which results in nepotism, redtapism and invite middle man corruption at the District Education Offices. The
political interference in teacher placement is also rampant. Even though the
temporary nature of employment positively addresses the issue of teacher
shortages, but it deteriorates teacher motivation and creates teacher inequality.
Effective teachers are central in delivering quality education and good teaching
thrives only in a favorable environment. Therefore, it is an education system which
is crucial for teacher motivation. Management of whole education system affects
teacher morale as most decisions that affect teachers are made outside the school,
with minimal direct involvement of teachers. The quality of the teaching workforce
is a major consideration in any nation’s aspiration to achieve an educational system
of high quality. As a result, there is an imperative to improve teachers’ self-image
and their importance as role models for students. It is time to build stronger links
between schools and the communities to enhance the status of teaching. To make
teaching an attractive career choice, both financial and flexible working conditions
needs to be provided to expand the potential supply pool of teachers and attract
people in to teaching. Similarly there is a need to provide well-structured and
resourced induction programme for new teachers. Further initial teacher education
programme needs to be broadened so that individuals obtain skills and
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 29
qualifications to excel in the profession and also create opportunity to share their
expertise and experience more systematically. None of the factors mentioned above
can alone make a difference. Quality teacher training, infrastructure, teaching
resources and effective teacher management mechanism must go hand in hand to
get the desired result in schools. Inclusion of para teachers must be a well
throughout out process otherwise the immediate quick fixes of teacher supply will
be proved to be wrong.
References:
 Biswal, K. (2005). Education for all in India: teacher and resource
management in the context of decentralisation, Implementing education for
all: teacher and resource management in the context of decentralisation.
UNESCO, Paris
 Dash, U.N. and Mohanty, M.M. (2006). Education Watch Orissa: Citizens
Report on Quality Elementary Education Processes and Perspectives.
CYSD, Bhubaneswar
 Dayaram, (2000).Para teachers in primary education: a status report.
Ed.CIL, New Delhi
 Duthilleul, Y., (2005). Lessons learnt in the use of contract teachers:
synthesis report. IIEP, UNESCO. Available at www.unesco.org/iiep
(retrieved on 19 August 2008)
 Government of India (1968).Report of Kothari Commission 1964-68. New
Delhi, Ministry of Human Resource Development.
 Government of India (1992).National Policy on education 1986, Programme
of Action 1992. New Delhi, Ministry of Human Resource Development
 Govinda, R. and Josephine, Y. (2004).Para teachers in India: A Review.
IIEP, UNESCO, downloaded from www.unesco.org/iiep on 16th July 2008
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 Mehta, A.C.(2006,2007,2008). Elementary Education in India: Where do we
stand? District report cards, Vol-II, NUEPA, New Delhi
 MHRD, (2009).Teacher Development and Management: Discussions and
suggestions for policy and practice emerging from an international
conference on Teacher development and Management.Ministry of HRD.
 National Commission on Teachers, (1983-85).The Teacher and the Society.
Retrieved from http://www.teindia.nic.in/Files/TE-Vikram/The_Teacher_and
_Society _Report of_ National_Commission_on_Teachers.pdf
 OECD, (2005).Teacher Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining
Effective Teachers. Paris: OECD
 Probe Team (1999). Public Report on basic education in India. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
 Tyagi, R.S. and Mahapatra, P.C. (2000).Educational Administration in
Orissa Structures, processes and Future Prospect. NIEPA, Vikas Publishing
House Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi
 Varghese, N.V., &Tilak J.B.G. (1991).The Financing of Education in India,
IIEP, UNESCO, Paris
 World Bank (1997). Primary Education in India. Allied publishers Limited,
New Delhi
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Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Paper-3
Educational Process Outsourcing: Empowering
Institutions to improve quality of Higher
Education
Dr.Ritu Tripathi Chakravarty
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Educational Process Outsourcing: Empowering Institutions
to improve quality of Higher Education
Dr.Ritu Tripathi Chakravarty4
Abstract
The real issue in higher education is, if and how institutions are adequately
contending with their own course structures. The purpose of the study is to explore
whether education process can be outsourced, if yes, what are the areas that can be
outsourced? What are the benefits and limitations of outsourcing? Is outsourcing
used as an effective management tool in education institutions? And does the
higher education community see outsourcing as a way to reduce cost and/or
improve quality? The researcher felt that just like business process outsource,
education could also be outsourced and some evidence have also been studied. The
rationale behind the study is to develop the concept of educational process
outsourcing and to find out what are the areas which will come under outsourcing
of education. And also to see whether identified areas are feasible. Researcher
wants to answer all those questions which includes what will be advantages and
limitations of outsourcing, the feasibility and above the all what implications will it
have on the quality of education and the education system if at all the EPO is
adopted by the educational institutions. This Qualitative research makes an attempt
to identify these key educational outsourcing activities together with the risk
involved and issues that the institutions typically face in carrying out these
activities and how it might manage the results. The findings are encouraging.
There are number of processes in education which have the potential of being
4
Sr.Lecturer, Amity Institute of Education, Amity University, Lucknow Campus, Lucknow, e-mail:
rituchakravarty@gmail.com, rtchakravarty@amity.edu
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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outsourced resulting in the improvement in quality and delivery of education
through reduction in costs and thus enabling the institution to concentrate on its
core competency, i.e. teaching.
Introduction:
In India the higher education system is complex and diverse. Following are
the features of present higher education system in India:

Highly bureaucratized system with multiple controls and regulations
exercised by Central and State Governments, statutory bodies (UGC, AICTE
and others), university administration and local management.

System is heavily subsidized by the Government. Up to 90per cent of the
operating costs are paid for by the state. The efficiency of fund utilization is
very poor due to internal rigidities.

Salary and compensation for teaching staff is poor and, therefore, higher
education institutions are unable to attract and retain qualified and trained
teachers.. In a recent move UGC has tried to compensate the pay and
promotion prospects of college teachers by increasing promotional grades
thereby reducing more stagnation and frustration amongst college teachers
by introducing the Sixth pay commission but still lot more is required to be
done

Most institutions offer outdated programmes with inflexible structures.

Infrastructural facilities range from inadequate to dismal. Classrooms are
often unattractive and laboratories inadequately stocked, leading to poor
teaching. It is estimated that barely 20per cent of the institutions have the
basic minimum laboratory equipment.

Steady electric power supply is not available and computerization, wherever
it exists, is generally dependent on poor communication lines.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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World Bank Report No. 20416-IN: Scientific and Technical Manpower
Development in India August 30 2000 has identified the following issues related
to the higher education in India:
a) Over-centralization and lack of autonomy and accountability
b) Resource constraints and wastage
c) Poor quality and relevance in many institutions
d) Difficulties in retention of Science and Technology personnel in
education
e) Poor technology and infrastructure support
f) Limited access and regional disparity.
Except for the IITs and IIMs, the educational institutions are subjected to the
control of several organizations at the state and the central government levels. In certain
instances the educational institutions and their student bodies have come under the
influence of politics. In such cases politics instead of merit has often influenced
admissions to these institutions. This has had significant impact in the quality of
education at many institutions.
This scenario presents many challenges before higher educational institutions
besides teaching, such as,

reduce and control operating cost

improve the institution focus

gain access to world class capabilities

free internal resources for other purposes

gain access to resources that are not available internally

handle functions that are difficult to manage or are out of control

make capital funds available
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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In order to meet these challenges the concept of outsourcing in education could be
used which means that educators can stick to their core competency i.e. teaching
and research and outsource every other activity to people who are expert in their
areas and thus there seems a possibility that BPO being a very commercial concept
could be integrated with education which is known for its non-commercial nature.
The idea is just to use the benefits of outsourcing to better the competency of the
institution to cater quality education, which will contribute to the holistic development
of the student.
What is Outsourcing?
The Webster's Universal Dictionary meaning of "Outsourcing" is: "A
company or person that provides information; to find a supplier or service, to
identify a source". It is very important to be clear about what is meant by
outsourcing. Outsourcing essentially refers to how things are done rather than what
is done. It describes how for example educational services are obtained; not what
the services are.
Very simply outsourcing can be defined as a process in which a company
delegates some of its in-house operations/processes to a third party. Thus
outsourcing is a contracting transaction through which one company purchases
services from another while keeping ownership and ultimate responsibility for the
underlying processes. The clients inform their provider what they want and how
they want the work performed. So the client can authorize the provider to operate
as well as redesign basic processes in order to ensure even greater cost and
efficiency benefits.
Although the above definition of outsourcing may seem very similar to
contracting, it is to be said that contracting and outsourcing are in no way related.
Generally in contracting the ownership or control of the operation or process being
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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contracted is with the parent company, whereas in outsourcing the control of the
process is with the third party instead of the parent company. So in other words,
outsourcing can be defined as phenomena in which a company delegates a part of
its in-house operations to a third party with the third party gaining full control over
that operation/process.
EPO: The Concept
In theory, any product, service, facility, or function is a candidate for
outsourcing. Everyone knows about the familiar auxiliary services like catering
service, bookstore sales, or building and grounds management that have been
outsourced successfully on many campuses. In the last 10 years, deregulated
utilities like the purchasing of student telephone services and natural gas have also
been outsourced to external suppliers. Even teaching has not been exempt, though
it is sometimes hard to recognize "outsourcing" here when we see it. If someone
else can do the job better than you – both in quality and cost – let them do it.
Embracing outsourcing doesn't mean that someone will be selling out to market
forces, compromising academic values, or firing all your people.
Replicating the concept of BPO in the education sector, the educational
institutions can outsource much of the non-core activities to achieve cost reduction,
improvement in quality of service and product and enhancement of competency.
This systematic arrangement of transfer of service to outside providers in an
educational institution can be termed as Educational Process Outsourcing or EPO.
Thus, EPO is a strategy wherein some of the selected non-core and core functions
of an educational institution are outsourced to an outside service provider to
achieve cost gains and efficiency improvements.
This paper discusses outsourcing as one solution to the higher education cost
crisis and teacher dissatisfaction crisis. It is not presented as the solution; rather, it
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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is put forth as an attractive strategy that presents minimal financial and
programmatic risk. To explore the basic policy considerations associated with
outsourcing, this paper briefly discusses why institutions consider outsourcing; the
current use and trends among institutions implementing outsourcing as a
management strategy; the challenges associated with outsourcing and approaches
for institutions to use in considering outsourcing.
Feasibility of Education Process Outsourcing (EPO):
In order to check the feasibility of EPO it is very important to know the
answer of the following questions

What is the scope of outsourcing in higher education in India?

What may be reasons to outsource? What will be the benefits?

Which functions can be outsourced? What may be the problems and issues?

What may be the process and extent of outsourcing?

What will be the client-vendor relationship?

What is the future of outsourcing in higher education in India?
The Scope of Outsourcing in Higher Education:
It emerged overwhelmingly from the study that most of the higher education
institutions are facing resource crisis – be it financial resource or human resource.
While they have very less time and money to carry out their non-core activities, at
the same time they are also confronting lack of talent and expertise. In view of this
almost all of them feel that outsourcing is the only viable option to tide over this
crisis. It will not only provide them with expertise and ensure efficiency and quality
but will also spare them enough time and money to concrete and develop their core
activity, thus making a holistic impact on its service, quality, growth and
sustainability.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Why Institutions Should Consider Outsourcing?
Institutions cite a number of reasons for outsourcing, including the need to
reduce costs and capital investments, accommodate staffing limitations, enhance
service quality, achieve access to technology and expertise not otherwise available,
better manage periodic service demands, facilitate organizational change, and
generate revenue. Others cite budget pressures, competition from other institutions
and “greater public emphasis on accountability.” Institutions of higher education
may achieve the same benefits through outsourcing as private sector companies
achieve in the business sector. Four of the principal benefits are the following:

Reduction in costs

Access to Superior Technology and Services

Reallocation of capital resources

Reduced burden of non-core activity on teachers

Reduced long-term employment-related costs
Possible approaches in exploring and implementing outsourcing
A number of authors have offered advice on how to explore and implement
outsourcing in higher education. Several of the most commonly suggested
approaches include the following:
1. Develop a clear set of goals and objectives:
This goal is especially important because outsourcing may produce a variety
of benefits, some of which may be of marginal interest to particular institutions.
Outsourcing also raises a number of practical and philosophical issues. Both the
advantages and disadvantages should be reviewed as concise sets of goals and
objectives are developed.
2. Review options with stakeholders and secure buy-in:
Outsourcing can have a major impact on key parts of the institution’s
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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community—including staff, students and faculty. To protect the community’s
diverse interests, the institution should consult with stakeholders to develop
outsourcing plans that will be supported as widely as possible. Although
consultation is important in the process, the authors note that one of the key
obstacles to outsourcing in any environment is the self-interest of current
stakeholders who may not see the broader implications for the institution.
3. Develop a process for selecting an appropriate vendor:
Much of the risk in outsourcing is tied to the possibility that the contractor
will not perform as promised. To minimize this risk, the institution should
thoroughly review the capabilities and records of potential vendors, the third-party
service regulations and other rules and regulations with which they might not be
fully familiar. Contracts should include appropriate options for termination if
performance criteria are not met.
4. Ensure appropriate oversight of vendor after contracting:
Loss of expertise and control are the two concerns most often cited about
outsourcing. Appropriate monitoring of the contractor can minimize these risks.
Client-Vendor Relationship in EPO:
According to Nor Aziati Abdul Hamid and Rajeev Suberamany when a
decision is made to outsource, both the client and vendor were usually eager to
quickly get the relationship underway. Nonetheless, some circumstances like
changes in business direction, changes in economic situation and the introduction
of new technologies throughout the outsourcing period may cause difficulties in
managing the contractual relationships. Consequently, outsourcing contracts will
need to be properly outlined to address any disputes which may arise. Authors
argue that detailed contracts have high rates of success and there is also need to
continuously anticipate future needs into the contract.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Given below are some of the determinants of a model client-vendor relationship
from a client’s perspective:

Mutual understanding and trust

Communication of quality and regularity

Commitment, reliability and dependability

Compatibility and Flexibility

Forbearance

Knowledge and technology sharing

Collaborative participation

Management support
The Advantages and Disadvantages of EPO:
Outsourcing the non core activities in education gives more time to
concentrate on the core educational processes which are teaching and research. It
gives access to professional, expert and high quality services. Institutions
experience increased efficiency and productivity in non –core educational
processes. Outsourcing can give the institution a competitive advantage as it will be
able to increase productivity in all the areas of its activity. There are some
disadvantages as well.
At times, it may be more cost-effective to conduct a particular education
process, rather than outsourcing it. While outsourcing services such as payroll
processing services and tax preparation services, the outsourcing provider will be
able to see the institution’s confidential information and hence there is a threat to
security and confidentiality in outsourcing. When an institution begins to
outsource, it might find it difficult to manage the vendor/provider when compared
to managing processes within the organization. Outsourcing, though cost-effective,
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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might have hidden costs, such as the legal costs incurred while signing a contract
between companies.
Conclusion:
What emerges out of this are that, outsourcing of non-core functions in
educational process has various aspects and has varying impacts on the
organization. While on one hand it helps to reduce costs, increase efficiency and
quality and also helps to reduce the burden of non-core activities on the teachers
and helps them to concentrate on the core activity, on the other hand it has certain
drawbacks such as dilution of control, security threat and hidden costs. Still the
advantages outweigh the advantages and the organizations may take steps to ensure
that the outsourcing arrangement is beneficial for the organization.
Before entering into any form of outsourcing arrangement, organizations should
make sure that they have all the alternatives covered. Scenario planning can help
here, playing “what if” scenarios to see what might happen in the future and thus
provide for any contingency. This sort of planning is important for both
organizations and vendors. Thorough analysis of the organizations and vendors
relationship must be done in order to create a model which addresses the issues on
both sides of the picture and keeps the interests of the students and the teachers
above anything else.
Institutions should consider outsourcing as one response to calls for reduced
costs. The option has the advantage of being well tested by most institutions in
areas peripheral to the teaching and research missions of the institutions.
Outsourcing can minimize both financial and performance risk by using
experienced, financially stable providers. Perhaps outsourcing’s biggest side
benefit is its transparency; it need only minimally change campus life for students
and faculty.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Outsourcing of non-mission-critical functions—and even some that are
closer to the “core values” of academic institutions—is “an idea whose time has
come”. Like for-profit institutions, colleges and universities stand to reap
significant cost savings over a relatively short period of time.
References:
 Agron, Joe (1999). “Take It or Leave It”, American School & University,
September
 Judi Brown and Joellen Fletcher documented the 1995 decision of General
Electric Company to outsource its headquarters information service in a 1997
paper, “Outsourcing.”
 The Outsourcing Institute. “Survey of Current and Potential Outsourcing
End-Users.”
 “Stakeholders” should be differentiated from decision makers, which may
include divisions and departments within the university as well as the board
of directors. See Phipps, Ronald and Jamie Merisotis (2004)
 IT/IS Outsourcing Relationship Factors in Higher Education Institution:
Behavioral Dimensions from Client Perspectives; World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology; 2009
*******************************************************************
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Paper-4
Measurement of Errors and Misconceptions:
Interviews and Open-ended Tests, MultipleChoice Tests, Two-tier Tests and Three-Tier Test
Dr. Ritu Bala
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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Measurement of Errors and Misconceptions: Interviews and
Open-ended Tests, Multiple-Choice Tests, Two-tier Tests
and Three-Tier Test
Dr. Ritu Bala5
Abstract
The diagnostic tests intend to discover specific deficiencies in learning.
Although, diagnostic tests are very helpful in identifying the misconceptions of the
students but their effectiveness is doubted as students do not justify their answers.
To overcome this problem two-tier tests were used. However, the researchers also
found that two-tier tests also overestimate the proportions of the misconceptions, as
the students are not asked for their confidence about their answers. They regard all
errors as misconceptions. Gap in knowledge cannot be discriminated by two-tier
tests. So a third-tier is required to be sure that whether a wrong answer for the first
two tiers is a misconception or a mistake due to lack of knowledge. In this paper,
we shall compare variety of methods: Interviews and Open-ended Tests, MultipleChoice Tests, Two-tier Tests and Three-Tier Test to identify students’
misconceptions through the lens of review of literature. The three-tier test has the
ability to assess errors committed by students and to differentiate misconceptions
from false negatives and lack of knowledge as the sources of errors.
Keywords:
Measurement of Errors and Misconceptions, Interviews and Open-ended
Tests, Multiple-Choice Tests, Two-tier Tests, Three-Tier Test, Errors and
Misconceptions, Errors, Misconceptions, Measurement.
5
M.A. (Maths.), NET, Ph.D. (Education), PGDHE, e-mail: ritu_bala11@yahoo.com
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Introduction:
The researches seem to show that the first step in diffusing errors and
misconceptions is to detect them. When the misconception studies started to appear
in the literature, science educators have focused on developing valid and reliable
methods to identify them. Therefore, they proposed variety of methods to identify
students’ misconceptions such as various types of interviews, word associations,
open-ended questions, multiple-choice tests, multiple-choice tests with explanation,
and two-tiered multiple-choice tests (Al-Rubayea, 1996). In this paper, we shall
compare variety of methods: Interviews and Open-ended Tests, Multiple-Choice
Tests, Two-tier Tests and Three-Tier Test to identify students’ misconceptions
through the lens of review of literature.
Interviews and Open-ended Tests:
Osborne and Gilbert (1980) reported a technique to explore students’ views
of the world. The technique is a kind of interview; the interview-about-instances. In
this kind of interview, the investigator presents some cards on which familiar
situations are depicted for the interviewee. The cards may or may not include
instances of a concept and the students are asked to think about if there is an
instance of concept on the card, thereby eliciting the student conceptions. The
researchers also presented advantages and limitations of the interview-aboutinstances.
Advantages can be listed as:
• It is applicable over a wide range of age
• It is enjoyable for interviewer and interviewee
• It has advantages over written answers in terms of flexibility and depth of the
investigation
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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• Classifying instances is more pertinent and penetrating than asking for a
definition
• It is concerned with the students’ view rather than merely examining if the
students have the correct scientific view.
And some limitations can be listed as:
• There is the problem of choosing a limited but adequate set of instances.
• The order of instances may influence student responses
• Interviews, transcriptions and analysis of transcripts are time consuming
• There are the difficulties associated with interviews and the analysis of the
interview data, e.g. difficult to report succinctly.
Although, researchers gain more information by depth of probing and
flexibility of questioning by interviews (Beichner, 1994), they require a large
amount of time to interview with a large number of students (Chen et al., 2002) to
get greater generalization (Beichner, 1994). Moreover, these methods also require
additional training of researchers (Treagust and Haslam, as cited in Chen et al.,
2002). Also, although open-ended questionnaires give students more time to think
and write about their ideas, interpretation and analyzing the results of the openended questionnaires are difficult and time consuming (Al-Rubayea, 1996).
Multiple-Choice Tests:
Multiple-choice tests have been found an effective way of identifying the
misconceptions of the students by researchers. Bar (as cited in Al-Rubayea, 1996)
states that multiple-choice tests are more effective than oral or written open-ended
essays in detecting students’ misconceptions. Tamir (1990) suggests that when
multiple-choice tests are used wisely, they are excellent to identify student
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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conceptions, including misconceptions despite of great amount of criticism. Some
characteristics of multiple-choice tests are presented as follow:
• Multiple-choice tests permit coverage of a wide range of topics in a
relatively short time.
• They can be used to measure different levels of learning.
• They are objective in terms of scoring and therefore more reliable.
• They are easily and quickly scored and lend themselves to machine scoring.
• They avoid unjustified penalties to students who know their subject matter
but are poor writers.
• They are suitable for item analysis by which various attributes can be
determined, such as which items on a test are too easy, which were too hard,
which are ambiguous, etc. (Hedges, 1966; Wesman, 1971, as cited in Tamir,
1990).
Beichner (1994) suggested a model for developing and analyzing a
diagnostic test in uncovering student difficulties. He initially mentions about
interviews and multiple-choice tests. Interviews are very useful in probing the
answers of students to the researcher’s questions. However, they need too much
time for conducting on large numbers of students and analyzing them. At that point,
multiple-choice tests are very useful, because they can be easily administered to
large numbers of students and analyzed, thus we can generalize our results.
Beichner (1994) suggested the combination of interviews and multiple-choice tests.
It is beneficial to focus on the process of test development suggested by
Beichner (1994):
1. Formulate a list of specific objectives after recognizing the need for the test.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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2. Carry out a pilot study for the last version of the list of specific objectives.
(Objectives which nearly all students succeed in must be removed, because
the aim of the test is to uncover students’ difficulties, not their achievement.)
3. Ask open-ended questions of a group of students to determine the most
frequently appearing mistakes.
4. Write three items for each objective to produce the test by using the mistakes
found in the open-ended questions as distracters. (Items may be selected
from some outside sources, such as textbooks, question banks, etc.)
5. To modify several of the questions, administer the test to 100-150 students.
6. To establish the content validity, distribute the revised test to some educators
and professors. Then, ask them to complete the tests, comment on the
appropriateness of the objectives, criticize the items, and match items to
objectives.
7. Administer the test to a sample whose size is enough.
8. Conduct an instructional activity to the sample of students.
9. Again administer the test to the sample after a little modification.
10. Calculate the Pearson product-moment correlation to examine if the two test
versions are similar (parallel forms). Steps 7, 8, 9, 10 indicate equivalentforms method.
11. Calculate a paired sample t-test to look for if the difference between mean
scores of pre-and post-test is significant. A significantly increase in the mean
scores is the evidence of validity.
Beichner (1994) administered the test to 524 students after constructing his
valid and reliable test to uncover student difficulties. Analysis from this data
revealed that the test was certainly useful for diagnostic purposes and should be
helpful as a research tool.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Multiple-choice tests have many advantages. They can be scored
immediately and objectively. Teacher can administer them easily and they are
applicable to large number of students (Al-Rubayea, 1996). Moreover, multiplechoice tests were better liked by the students than other measures and could give
diagnostic information. Scott (as cited in Marx, 1988) pointed out nine appropriate
reasons for using of multiple-choice tests:
•
They provide greater variety of questions.
•
They can be qualitative questions regarding physics principles.
•
Choosing between alternatives and having a general understanding are much
more like real life.
•
Options act like hints.
•
The teachers can ask subtle points with them.
•
Multiple-choice items are next best thing to essay type questions.
•
The teachers can ask for a quick numerical calculation and make them worth
a point.
•
More material can be covered.
•
They are good for review.
There are also some points of criticism of the multiple-choice tests.
According to Rollnick and Mahooana (1999) the disadvantage of multiple-choice
tests is that questions do not provide deep enough inside into the students’ ideas on
the topic and students very often give correct answers for wrong reasons.
According to Stiggins (as cited in Cataloglu, 2002) multiple-choice tests direct the
students’ attention on information in isolation by testing one element at a time.
Therefore, the larger context and structure of relationships between and among the
elements get lost. According to Bork (as cited in Marx, 1988) multiple-choice tests
should never be used. He expressed five reasons to support his assertion:
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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•
Multiple choice items encourage guessing.
•
The items are not from real life situations.
•
They are not friendly for students because, students see them in somewhat a
derogatory fashion, connected with the fact that guessing is involved.
•
He stated that ‘There is no real use for them. For example, we hardly ever
use multiple-choice in the computer based quizzes’.
•
Writing good items is too difficult.
He had seen A-grade students did B-grade in the multiple choice exams and
vice-versa. He attributed this to careless wording of stems and questions based on
weak examples. Sandin (as cited in Marx, 1988) added two more reasons for why
multiple-choice tests are not effective:
•
Students may have extracted the right answer by a fortuitous combination of
errors.
•
Multiple-choice tests heavily depend on reading comprehension skills.
According to Al-Rubeyya (1996) when researchers used them to identify the
students’ misconceptions, researchers became worried about memorization of the
students to select the correct answer. As it is seen, multiple-choice tests are easily
applicable and their results can be analyzed quickly and easily. The problem is their
effectiveness. To overcome this problem (Al-Rubayea, 1996) recommended that
students should justify their answers. As a result, researchers extended the multiplechoice tests into several tiers, two or three tiers.
Two-tier Tests:
Two-tier tests include, in addition to selecting correct answer among the
distracters, multiple reasons or justifications from which the students choose their
reason for their response. Treagust (as cited in Odom and Barrow, 1995) described
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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the item format of the two-tier multiple choice tests as the first tier consisting of a
content question with two, three, or four choices. The second-tier consists of four
possible reasons for the first part with three of them alternative reasons and one
desired reason. The second-tier can also include a blank that students can write a
reason for the first tier when they can not see their reasons among the alternatives
of the second-tier (Griffard and Wandersee, 2001).
Development process of two-tier tests
Developing reliable and valid conceptual diagnostic tests is a struggling
process and requires great efforts (Zeilik, 1997). The development process of a
two-tier test was defined by Treagust in three main phases (as cited in Odom and
Barrow, 1995):
Phase 1:
1. The content boundaries were defined with a list of prepositional knowledge
statements.
2. Content validity of prepositional knowledge statements was determined.
Phase 2:
3. Students’ misconceptions were identified by interviews.
4. Multiple-choice questions with free response reasons were constructed and
administered.
Phase 3:
5. Final test questions were constructed based on multiple-choice questions
with free response reasons.
6. The final test questions were revised and a pilot study was conducted.
7. Final content and face validity of each test item were determined with the
assistance of a specification grid.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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8. The final version of the test was administered.
Some two-tier diagnostic tests (Tan et al. 2002) were developed based on
this process in different fields of science education. Most of the development of
two-tier diagnostic tests includes both interviews and open-ended questionnaires or
multiple-choice tests to identify the misconceptions of the students which will be
used for distracters of the two-tier test. Including interview method gives a chance
to researcher to probe the students’ mind deeper and ask the questions with more
flexibility. On the other hand, including open-ended or multiple-choice tests gives a
chance to the researcher to deal with more subjects to generalize the results
(Beichner, 1994).
Tsai and Chou (2002) stated that ‘since, two-tier test is in multiple-choice
format, it is much easier for teachers to score or interpret students’ responses. In
this way, even with numerous students, a teacher can efficiently diagnose their
alternative conceptions.’ According to Zeilik (1997) teachers can use these
diagnostic tests for formative and summative assessments over semesters. If
teachers use them as a formative test, they will understand their students’ cognitive
states, preconceptions and misconceptions prior to instruction. Therefore, they can
take some precautions for misconceptions which can possibly obstruct the lecture.
For example, they can tutor the students in their weak areas individually or assign
the students into heterogeneous cooperative learning teams. If teachers use the
diagnostic tests for summative assessment, they will see positive or negative impact
of their instruction method which can serve feedback for later on instructions.
However, it is important to say that results of the diagnostic tests cannot be used for
assigning the grades of the students. Because, the main purpose of the tests is to
diagnose not to assess achievement of the students. However, it is important to say
that results of the diagnostic tests cannot be used for assigning the grades of the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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students. Because, the main purpose of the tests is to diagnose not to assess
achievement of the students.
Criticism of the two-tier tests:
Although, diagnostic tests are very helpful for teachers to identify the
misconceptions of the students, some researchers criticize them. According to
Yarroch (as cited in Griffard and Wandersee, 2001), forced choice instruments like
two-tier tests give clues to the students to select correct answers that they would not
have had in interviews and open-ended questions. Griffard and Wandersee (2001)
investigated the effectiveness of a two-tier instrument developed by Haslam and
Treagust in 1987 about photosynthesis. The test was given to the students and
wanted them to think aloud while they were answering the items. They found that,
using unnecessarily wording to distract students caused them to make mistakes. It
is not certain that whether these mistakes were due to misconceptions that students
had or unnecessarily wording of the test. Moreover, these unnecessarily wording
can cause to create a new misconception in students’ mind. They also stated that
‘students considered the second-tier as a distinct multiple-choice item and finalized
their choice on the basis of whether it logically followed from their response to the
first tier. Therefore, two-tier test seemed to measure the students’ test-taking skills
rather than the extant knowledge’. Moreover, the feelings of the students are very
important. Students take these types of tests with different amounts of sincerity,
anxiety, persistence and meticulousness that can confound the test results. They
also criticized the two tier test about the estimating the proportions of the
misconceptions. According to them, two-tier tests overestimate the proportions of
the misconceptions because gap in knowledge cannot be discriminated by two-tier
tests. Therefore a third-tier is necessary to be sure that whether a wrong answer for
the first two-tier is a misconception or a mistake due to lack of knowledge.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Three-tier Tests:
Three-tier tests are very similar to the two-tier tests. In three-tier tests, an
item has one additional tier which asks students confidence about the answer of the
former two-tiers (Cataloglu, 2002). Pesman 2005; Turker 2005 and Ozlem 2007
developed three-tier test to assess the misconceptions of the high school students.
Eryilmaz and Surmeli (2002) developed a three-tier test to assess the
misconceptions of the high school students about heat and temperature. According
to them, all misconceptions are errors, but not all errors are misconceptions. Some
errors may stem from lack of knowledge. If a student explains his/her error as a
true with reasons and says his/her confidence, it is acceptable that this student has
misconception. In two-tier tests and multiple-choice tests, the students are not
asked about their confidence about their answers. They regard all errors as
misconceptions. So three-tier tests are required to remove this problem. These types
of tests have one more tier in which the students are asked about their confidence
about the first two tiers. The first tier is a normal multiple choice test, the secondtier is again a multiple choice test with one correct reason and some alternative
reasons, and the third-tier asks the student if he/she is sure for the responses in the
first two tiers. If a student gives the desired responses for the first two tiers and
chooses “Yes, I am sure” for the last tier, then the response is regarded as the
correct answer. In their study, they compared the proportions of the misconceptions
that the students had with respect to the tiers of the items. They found the students
had misconceptions with an average 46% for the first tiers of the items, with an
average 27% for the first two-tier of the items and with an average 18% for all
three tiers of the items. From these results the researchers concluded that one tier
and two-tier tests overestimated the proportions of the misconceptions. For the onetier tests, it is accepted all wrong answers are misconceptions. However, some of
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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the wrong answers may be false negatives which are incorrect answers by mistake
in spite of correct reasons in the second-tier and some may be due to randomly
given answers by chance because related reasons of the incorrect answers were not
chosen on the second tiers. Therefore, 19% (subtracting 27% from 46%) indicated
incorrect answers by mistake or chance. The researchers also found that two tiers
tests also overestimated the proportions of the misconceptions. Because as
mentioned above, it is required if a student has a misconception he/she should say
his/her confidence. In two-tier tests the students are not asked whether they are
confident about for their responses. The researchers found that 9% of the students
were not confident for the answers of the first two-tiers even if their answers
indicated the misconceptions. They explained that those students gave incorrect
answers due to lack of knowledge. To sum up, the researchers concluded that threetier tests assess the misconceptions of the students more validly than one-tier and
two tier tests. The scoring pattern in these tests was as under:
1. Only First Tier Score: It was obtained by using each student’s choice
selections indicating misconceptions and student answers for only the first tier
of items on the test. Total misconceptions assessed by each student and also
the percentage of misconceptions assessed for each item according to only the
first tiers were calculated.
2. Only First Two Tier Score: It was obtained by using each student’s choice
selections indicating misconceptions and student answers for only the first two
tiers of items on the test. Total misconceptions assessed by each student and
also the percentage of misconceptions assessed for each item according to only
the first two tiers were calculated.
3. All the Three Tier Score: It was obtained by using each student’s choice
selections indicating misconceptions and student answers for all three tiers of
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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items on the test. Total misconceptions assessed by each student and also the
percentage of misconceptions assessed for each item according to the all three
tiers were calculated.
4. Only Third Tier Score: It was obtained by using each student’s answers for
only the third tier of items on test. Total scores for each student namely
confidence scores of each student was calculated and also the percentage of
confidence according to only third tier for each item were calculated.
In this type of the test, the percentage of misconceptions decreases as the tier
of the test increases. The difference (decrease) in the percentage of the
misconceptions in one tier and two-tier test gives false negatives (the wrong
answers given by students who give right reasons) and the difference (decrease) in
the percentage of the misconceptions in two tier- test and three-tier test attributes to
lack of knowledge because the misconceptions cannot be accepted unless the
student shows his confidence in the third tier. Therefore, it can be stated that after
the identification of errors and prior to the identification of misconceptions: false
negatives and lack of knowledge may emerge in between.
Conclusion:
The diagnostic tests intend to discover specific deficiencies in learning.
Although, diagnostic tests are very helpful in identifying the misconceptions of the
students but their effectiveness is doubted as students do not justify their answers.
To overcome this problem two-tier tests were used (Odom et al., 1995; Cataloglu,
2002 and Tan et al. 2002). The researchers also found that two-tier tests also
overestimate the proportions of the misconceptions. In two-tier tests, the students
are not asked for their confidence about their answers. They regard all errors as
misconceptions. Gap in knowledge cannot be discriminated by two-tier tests. So a
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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third-tier is required that asks the students to show their confidence about the
answers given in the first two tiers. Third-tier is necessary to be sure that whether a
wrong answer for the first two tiers is a misconception or a mistake due to lack of
knowledge (Eryilmaz and Surmeli 2002; Pesman 2005; Turker 2005 and Ozlem
2007). The three-tier test has the ability to assess students’ performance in the
subject, errors committed by students in the test (wrong answers in the first tier)
and to differentiate misconceptions from false negatives and lack of knowledge as
the sources of errors.
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 Turker, Fatma (2005). Developing a Three-Tier Test to Assess High School
Students’ Misconceptions Concerning Force and Motion , Ph.D. Thesis,
Department of Secondary Science and Mathematics Education, Middle East
Technical
University,
Turkey.
(On
line).
http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12606828/index.pdf. As visited on Jan. 1,
2006.
 Zeilik, M. (1997). Conceptual Diagnostic Tests. (On line). http://www.flagu
ide.org/extra/download/cat/diagnostic/diagnost. As visited on Sept. 02, 2007.
*******************************************************************
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 60
Paper-5
Teaching and Learning of Mathematics at
Elementary Level
Dr. J. D. Singh
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 61
Teaching and Learning of Mathematics at Elementary Level
Dr. J. D. Singh6
Abstract
The main aim of education is to develop harmonious personality of
learner. In all modern human societies the young are prepared for their future
roles through educational process. Mathematics in the real sense is a science of
space and quantity that helps in solving the problems of life needing numeration
and calculation. It provides opportunities for the intellectual gymnastic of the
man’s inherent powers. Teaching of Mathematics essentially helps the students in
acquiring essential mathematics knowledge, skills, interests and attitudes. It is
necessary for and helpful in the realisation of the practical or utilitarian
value, disciplinary value and cultural value. Mathematics education trains students
to make and use measurements and includes the study of computer programming,
algebra, statistics, geometry and calculus. However the mathematics in schools
largely does not cater to aims and objectives of mathematics education as specified
by many educational commissions and committee. Students mostly prepare
themselves for passing examinations. It is said that teachers, parents and policies
are concerned with relatively Low achievement of students in mathematics and
causes of such poor performance. This article is an attempt to analyze various
issues and problems relating to elementary teaching and learning of mathematics.
Key words:
Teaching, Learning of Mathematics, Elementary Level
6
Asst. Professor, G.V. (PG) College of Education (CTE), Sangaria-335 063 (Raj.) Mobile:09414577875,
e-mail: drjdsingh@gmail.com
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 62
Introduction:
Today's mathematics teachers are experiencing major changes not only in the
mathematics content they teach, but also in the way they teach. Now teachers are
called on to teach new, more challenging mathematics to a very diverse audience
using active learning approaches designed to develop understanding. It is clear that
we live in an ever increasingly scientific and technological world. Hence, changing
demands from society and the continual development in the field of technology
have led to a radical change in the aims and objectives of school mathematics since
beginning of 21st century in India. Mathematics is a subject that strikes fear in the
heart of many. This fear is so pervasive that schools teach courses in how to
overcome math anxiety. Mathematics traditionally is taught using memorization as
the primary means of learning math techniques. In some time, it was found that
most children do not able to cover their mathematics learning/ teaching problems,
and after some time anxiety, fear, lack of confidence and hopelessness may develop
in them. So, these problems of Mathematics begin from entry level of primary
school. What are the most important current problems and challenges pertaining to
the teaching and learning of mathematics at the lower elementary level? What
issues impact the mathematics learning experiences of students? How should these
problems, challenges, issues and dilemmas be treated? So, there is a vast need to
engage with deeper issues of teaching and learning of mathematics at elementary
level.
Purpose of Teaching and Learning of Mathematics at Elementary
Level:
The place of mathematics as a subject in the school curriculum in India has
always been valued and the need for improvement in its content and pedagogy has
been emphasized by various commissions on education constituted by the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 63
Government of India. The main goal of mathematics education in schools is the
mathematisation of the child’s thinking. The National Policy on Education 1986
went further: Mathematics should be visualized as the vehicle to train a child to
think, reason, analyze and to articulate logically. Apart from being a specific
subject, it should be treated as a concomitant to any subject involving analysis and
reasoning.
Kapur (1997) in the Fifth Survey of Education Research (1988-92) had
pointed out that “the main object of mathematics education research is to be of help
in improvement of classroom learning and teaching. It is therefore natural that a
large number of studies should be concerned with different aspects of this
problem”. The National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE)
2000 and NCF-2005 document echoes aims to develop mathematical reasoning in
the students at elementary level. It is important that how the use of appropriate
technology can bring about a shift from content of mathematics to the processes of
learning mathematics such as estimation, approximation, visualization, reasoning
and problem solving. Clarity of thought and pursuing assumptions to logical
conclusions is central to the mathematical enterprise.
Issues and challenges in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics:
Learning mathematics is a challenge for many students. A sense of fear and
failure regarding mathematics among a majority of children is prevailing.
Elementary school students need to become fluent with the basic operations and
computations, and they also need to understand why these procedures are valid and
what concepts they represent. It is not enough to focus just on computational and
procedural skills because students’ ability to reason mathematically depends on a
deep understanding of central mathematical concepts. In the Indian context,
questions of meaning, symbols, classroom environment, technology and access to
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 64
quality education are very important, given the diversity that exist across the
country, in terms of physical and human resources and culture and context of
people. There are lot of problems and challenges in the teaching and learning of
mathematics at elementary level.
1. The majority of teachers have very heavy classroom teaching loads.
Virtually all teachers teach all periods every day. Moreover, teachers
commonly have three to four different class preparations each day.
2. The majority of teachers commonly have weak backgrounds in the subject
matter of mathematics. Teachers and students commonly express a fear of or
anxiety about mathematics.
3. Creative thinking in mathematics education is really a challenging problem.
4. Learning mathematics forms an integral part of a child’s education. Yet, it is
also the subject, which has traditionally been perceived as difficult. The
primary reason for this state of mathematics learning today is the significant
gap between content and pedagogy.
5. One of the burning issues that throws challenges on mathematics educators
today is the concern of enticing young minds towards mathematics and later
on prepare them to get into the emerging fields of mathematics. We teachers
are trying to overcome this mentality at our level best but it is difficult to
teach each and every topic connecting with the real-world situations.
6. Catering to needs of variety of learners is indeed the biggest challenge. A
classroom is a blend of all types of students. A teacher has to maintain a
balance to keep up all working. Latest technology is nice but overdependency on calculators and other machines at elementary level is also a
big issue.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 65
7. To reduce "Maths Phobia" among students is the greatest challenge for
mathematics Teachers. It is generally believed that mathematics is dry and
abstract subject.
8. A great percentage of teachers have extra-curricular responsibilities after
normal school hours.
9. Many students think that little mathematical knowledge is sufficient to enter
into different careers. So, they don't know the wide applications of it.
10. Shortage of mathematics teachers, lack of funding, large class sizes, poor
school environment and signifying application of mathematics to real world
are current problems in India.
11. One of the major challenges that India faces in developing mathematics
education as a research area is the lack of systemic support from higher
institutions and govt. They have not been able to provide the space and
support for establishing traditions of content specific and subject specific
research with sound theoretical frameworks and well designed empirical
studies.
The above issues should be seen more as challenges than anything else and
they need to be tackled. There is no doubt that the expectations for positive change
in mathematics instruction and for improvement in learners’ achievement in
mathematics are of top priority.
Factors
Responsible
for
Poor
Achievement
or
Failure
in
Mathematics:
Exploratory studies tried to understand the factors responsible for poor
achievement or failure in mathematics. The design of these studies generally
included the use of standardized scales/ tests followed by statistical analysis to find
possible correlates/ factors. The following factors were foundEducation India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 66
1. Lack of pre-requisites;
2. Difficulties with understanding the language;
3. Difficulties due to certain kinds of teaching;
4. Mathematization of verbal problems and the interpretation of solutions;
5. Socio-economic factors and
6. Intelligence, attitude, study habits, reasoning power, spatial visualization.
Suggestions for Improving Teaching and Learning of Mathematics:
Significant progress has been made over the past decade in understanding
mathematics knowledge in the people. In a large country as ours and the few
research studies that have been conducted so far, elementary mathematics has been
the most researched area. Groups or individuals have engaged with the crucial areas
of elementary mathematics, both in designing intervention studies as well as
conducting exploratory studies in order to understand different aspects of teaching
and learning of mathematics.
1.
In view of the complicated and challenging nature of the teaching, learning
and application of Mathematics, the development of knowledge and skills
should preferably take place within a flexible, safe and non-prescriptive
environment.
2.
To meet this challenge mathematics teachers need the support and
encouragement of school leaders at all levels. The National curriculum
Framework gives suggestions of how to introduce topics in different ways to
make lessons more appealing to the students and every lesson has its mental
starter, the main topic. It enhances their motivation level and keep the working
with higher spirits than developing a fear.
3.
The teaching and learning environment should give learners the opportunity to
give free expression to originality of thought and enable them to approach
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 67
further studies and training purposefully and with dedication and selfconfidence.
4.
Changing modes of assessment should adopt to examine students’
mathematisation abilities rather than procedural knowledge.
5.
Teachers and students should enrich with a variety of mathematical resources.
Maths teachers should have to develop ways of using locally available
resources and introduced local maths-related activities into their classrooms.
6.
Maths teachers should have to adapt mathematics to their own cultural
contexts and to the tasks and problems in their own communities.
7.
Teachers should adopt different strategies and methods like chalk/talk, using
multimedia, web, hands on etc. according to individual needs of learners
which help in inculcating interest in the subject.
8.
Puzzles may develop students’ thinking skills. Teacher should create a
pleasant physical environment. For example, display students’ work and
teaching resources and create a ‘puzzle corner’.
9.
Over dependency on technology is a challenge for Math teachers especially at
primary level. So, children should not use calculators.
10.
Teacher should teach particular topic with the related examples in real life
situations which enable the students to understand the real need of learning. It
that may diffuse fear of learning, hatred etc.
11.
Teacher should use a variety of assessment methods to determine learners’
understanding of mathematics.
12.
One way to improve teacher’s own teaching is to try new methods and
activities in the classroom and then think about how well the activity improved
students’ learning.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 68
13.
The teacher of mathematics should create a learning environment that fosters
the development of each learner’s mathematical power by providing a context
that encourages the development of the mathematical skills and proficiency.
14.
Teaching interventions should protect the right of all learners to participate in
learning activities.
15.
Teachers should be open and responsive to feedback from learners about the
ways they enable or constrain their learning.
16.
Teachers should enable learners to respect and value each other point of view.
17.
Teachers should demonstrate a respect for standards of reasoning and
evidence.
Conclusions:
This knowledge and experience is a potential that can be utilised and drawn
upon in teaching and learning. The change in our schools is a process, and not an
event. How successful we are implementing the new directions in the teaching and
learning of mathematics depends on how we address the process of change.
Mathematics is a way of organising our experience of the world. It enriches our
understanding and enables us to communicate and make sense of our experiences.
Mathematics cannot be enjoyed unless a student doesn't know the essence of
learning it. We are at a historic juncture when we wish to guarantee education for
all. It is therefore a historic imperative to offer our children the very highest quality
of mathematics education possible. Improvement in teaching and learning of
mathematics requires a major public information campaign, strong leadership from
teachers, parents, professionals, and politicians, and strong public support. It is
important to recognise that the mathematics education plays a crucial role in
teaching /learning at school level.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 69
References:
 What Works Clearinghouse (2004a). Curriculum-based interventions for
improving K-12 mathematics achievement–middle school. Downloaded
from<http://www.whatworks.ed.gov/>, July 2, 2012.
 Asija, H. (2011). Developing Project and Inquiry Based Learning in
Mathematics at the Secondary School. Presentation made at the National
Initiative on Mathematics Education – Northern Region Conference, Delhi.
 Buch, M. B., Joshi, J. N., National Council of Educational Research and
Training. (1991). Fourth survey of educational research (1983-88).New
Delhi: NCERT.
 Chilakammari, V. (2001).Cognitive acceleration in mathematics education.
In S. C. Agarkar, V. D. Lale (Eds.) Proceedings of the CASTME-UNESCOHBCSE International Conference. Goa, India: HBCSE.
 Fullan, M. G. (1991). The New Meaning of Educational Change. New York:
Teachers College Press.
 Ghosh, J. B. (2011). Technology in Mathematics Education. Presentation
made at the National Initiative on Mathematics Education – Northern Region
Conference, Delhi.
 Kapur, J. N. (1997). Mathematics Education. In National Council of
Educational Research and Training (Eds.) Fifth survey of educational
research (1988-92), Trend Reports (Vol. 1). New Delhi: NCERT.
 Kothari, D. S. (1966) (Chairman). Report of the Education Commission
1964-66. Government of India, New Delhi.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 70
 Kathuria, R. (2011). Curriculum and Pedagogy at Middle and Secondary
School Level. Presentation made at the National Initiative on Mathematics
Education – Northern Region Conference, Delhi.
 National Council for Educational Research and Training. (2005). National
Curriculum Framework. Delhi: NCERT publications.
*******************************************************************
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 71
Paper-6
Indigenous Knowledge in Education for
Sustainable Development
Subhankar Ghosh
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 72
Indigenous Knowledge in Education for Sustainable
Development
Subhankar Ghosh7
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the knowledge used by local people to make
a living in a particular environment. It evolves in situation & is dynamic &
creative, constantly growing & adapting to meet new conditions. The term
'indigenous knowledge' sometimes refers to the knowledge possessed by the
original inhabitants of an area, while the term 'local knowledge' is a broader
term which refers to the knowledge of any people who have lived in an area for
a long period of time. IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because of native
notions that whatever indigenous people do is naturally in harmony with the
environment. There is historical & contemporary evidence that indigenous
peoples have also committed environmental 'sins' through over-grazing, overhunting, or over-cultivation of the land. It is misleading to think of IK as always
being 'good,' 'right' or 'sustainable'. Indigenous knowledge can also be eroded
by wider economic & social forces. Pressure on indigenous peoples to integrate
with larger societies is often great, & as they become more integrated, the
social structures which generate indigenous knowledge & practices can break
down. Consequently, indigenous beliefs, values, customs, know-how & practices
may be altered & the resulting knowledge base incomplete. Sometimes mistaken
beliefs, faulty experimentation, or inaccurate information can be dangerous &
7
Research
Scholar,
Department
of
Education,
Visva-Bharati,
Santiniketan-731235,
e-mail:
sghosh.edu.vb@gmail.com
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 73
may even be a barrier to improving the well-being of indigenous people.
However, researchers need to be careful when making such judgments. This
article tries to analyses the concept of sustainability with particular reference to
education & indigenous knowledge system.
Keywords:
Indigenous Knowledge, Education, Education for Sustainable Development
“Indigenous Knowledge is an Integral Part of the Culture and History of a Local
Community. We Need to Learn from Local Communities to Enrich the Development
Process”
J.D. Wolfensolm, World Bank, 2000
Introduction:
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) is considered as the social capital of the poor. It
is their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide
for shelter & to achieve control of their own lives. Most of the IK disappears due to
the intrusion of foreign technologies & development concepts that promise shortterm gains or solutions to problems without being capable of sustaining them. The
tragedy of the disappearance of this knowledge system is most obvious to those
who have developed it & make a living through it. But the implication for others
can be detrimental as well, when skills, technologies, artifacts, problem solving
strategies & expertise are lost. Human societies all across the globe have developed
rich sets of experiences & explanations relating to the environments they live in.
Now days these ‘other knowledge systems’ are often referred to as traditional
knowledge or indigenous or local knowledge. Education can only be encompassing
the sophisticated collections of information, understandings & interpretations that
guide human societies around the globe in their innumerable interactions for the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 74
Sustainable Development (SD). But the question comes to what extent indigenous
knowledge has been taken into consideration for sustainability in the various syllabi
& curricula in India?
What is Indigenous Knowledge?
The increasing attention of IK is receiving by the academia & the
development institution has not yet led to a unanimous perception of the concept of
indigenous knowledge. Warren (1991) & Flavier (1995) typically define that, IK is
the local knowledge – knowledge that is unique to a given culture or society. IK
contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by the universities,
research institutions & private firms. It is the basis for local-level decision making
in education, natural-resource management, & a host of other activities in rural
communities. Basically IK is the information base for a society, which facilitates
communication & decision-making. The indigenous information systems are in
dynamic, which are repeatedly influenced by internal creativity & experimentation
as well as by contact with external systems. When the term is used in the field of
education to designate this concept, it includes indigenous technical knowledge,
traditional knowledge, rural & local knowledge of the village peoples. IK can be
defined as "A body of knowledge built up by a group of people through generations
of living in close contact with nature" (Johnson, 1992). Generally speaking, such
knowledge evolves in the local environment, so that it is specifically adapted to the
requirements of local people & conditions. Moreover education makes it also
creative & experimental, constantly incorporating outside influences & inside
innovations to meet new conditions. Society peoples usually have a mistake to
think of IK as 'old-fashioned,' 'backwards,' 'static' or 'unchanging.'
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 75
Aspects of IK:
While IK research originally emphasized indigenous technical knowledge of
the environment, it is now accepted that the concept of IK goes beyond this narrow
interpretation. IK is now considered to be cultural knowledge in its broadest sense,
including all of the social, political, economic & spiritual aspects of a local way of
life. In contrast, Ellen and Harris (1996) have provided following ten
characteristics of IK that are very comprehensive & conclusive:
1. IK is local. It is rooted to a particular place & set of experiences, &
generated by people living in those places. The result of this is that
transferring the IK to other place runs the risk of dis-locating it.
2. IK orally-transmitted, or transmitted through imitation & demonstration. The
consequence is that writing it down changes some of its fundamental
properties. Writing, of course, also makes it more portable & permanent,
reinforcing the dislocation.
3. IK is the consequence of practical engagement in everyday life, & is
constantly reinforce by experience, trial & error. This experience is
characteristically the product of many generations of intelligent reasoning, a
since its failure has immediate consequences for the lives of its practitioner
its success is very often a good measure of Darwinian fitness. It is tested in
the rigorous laboratory of survival.
4. To some extent, its moral character hinders the kind of organization
necessary for the development of true theoretical knowledge.
5. Repetition is an essential characteristic of tradition, even when new
knowledge is added. Repetition aids retention & reinforces the ideas.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 76
6. Tradition could be considered as ‘a fluid & transforming agent with no real
end’ when applied to knowledge & its central concept is negotiation. IK is,
therefore, constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced,
discovered as well as lost; though it is often represented as being somehow
static.
7. IK is characteristically shared to a much greater degree than other forms of
knowledge. Therefore, it is sometimes called `people’s science’. However,
its distribution is still segmentary & socially clustered. It is usually
asymmetrically distributed within a population, by gender & age &
preserved through distribution in the memories of different individuals.
Specialists may exist by virtue of experience.
8. Although IK may be focused on particular individuals & may achieve a
degree of coherence in rituals & other symbolic constructs, its distribution is
always fragmentary. Generally it does not exist in its totality in any one place
or individual. It is devolved in the practices & interactions in which people
they engage.
9. Despite claims for the existence of culture-wide (indeed universal) abstract
classifications of knowledge based on non-functional criteria; where IK is at
its densest & directly applicable its organization is essentially functional.
10. IK is characteristically situated within broader cultural traditions; separating
the technical from the nontechnical, the rational from the non-rational is
problematic.
Essentialities of IK:
Local society peoples are closely related IK, as well as in the system of
education its quiet imperative for the researchers to carrying out their research
projects. Incorporating IK can contribute to local empowerment & development,
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 77
increasing self-sufficiency & strengthening self-determination (Thrupp, 1989).
Local capacity-building is a crucial aspect of SD & the development specialists
should design approaches which support & strengthen appropriate IK &
institutions. Some of the following important thrust of IK which have relevance to
conservation & SD:
 Locally Appropriate: IK represents a way of life that has evolved with the
local environment, so it is specifically adapted to the requirements of local
conditions.
 Restraint in Resource Exploitation: Production is for subsistence needs
only; only what is needed for immediate survival is taken from the
environment.
 Diversified Production Systems: There is no overexploitation of a single
resource; risk is often spread out by utilizing a number of subsistence
strategies.
 Respect for Nature: A 'conservation ethic' often exists. The land is
considered sacred, humans are dependent on nature for survival, & all
species are interconnected.
 Flexible: IK is able to adapt a new condition & incorporate outside
knowledge.
 Social Responsibility: There are strong family & community ties, & with
them feelings of obligation & responsibility to preserve the land for future
generations.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 78
Diversified
Production
Systems
Respect for
Nature
Restraint in
Resource
Exploitation
Locally
Appropriate
Flexible
IK
Social
Responsibility
Fig-1: Important Thrust of IK for Conservation & SD
Indigenous methodologies tend to approach cultural protocols, values &
behaviors as an integral part of methodology. They are ‘factors’ to be built in to
research explicitly, to be thought about reflexively, & to be disseminated back to
the people in culturally appropriate ways & in a language that can be understood.
This does not preclude writing for academic publications but is simply part of an
ethical & respectful approach.
IK and Education:
Learning goes on throughout the life cycle, from infancy & early childhood
to old age. Indigenous people see education as a process that begins before birth &
continues long after formal education is over. Learning at one stage has
implications for subsequent stages. An adult who has not had the opportunity to
develop fully may have to address growth needs later in life. As individuals mature
& perhaps attain the status of elder. They are able to transmit to younger
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 79
generations knowledge & wisdom acquired through a lifetime of learning. Lifelong
learning & learning aimed to balance all dimensions of the person are interlinked.
At each stage of life, learning should develop the whole human being. In traditional
education, the individual is viewed as a whole person with intellectual, spiritual,
emotional & physical dimensions. Each of these aspects must be addressed in the
learning process. Holistic education is the term used to describe the kind of
education traditionally used by indigenous peoples. Such education is organized to
develop all aspects of the individual.
Levels of Indigenous Development Process:
Planners & implementers need to decide which path to follow. Rational
conclusions are based on determining whether IK would contribute to solve
existing problems & achieving the intended objectives. In most cases, a careful
consolidation of indigenous & foreign knowledge would be most promising,
leaving the choice, the rate & the degree of adoption & adaptation to the clients.
Foreign knowledge does not necessarily mean modern technology; it includes also
indigenous practices; developed & applied, under similar conditions elsewhere.
These techniques are then likely to be adopted faster & applied more successfully.
To foster such a sound understanding of IK is needed. Three levels of the
development process are mostly relevant with IK:
 Local Community: It is, obviously, most important for the local community
in which the bearers of such knowledge live & produce.
 Development Agents: Development agents (Governments, NGOs, Donors,
Local leaders, & Private sector initiatives) need to recognize it, value it &
appreciate it in their interaction with the local communities. Before
incorporating it in their approaches, they need to understand it & critically
validate it against the usefulness for their intended objectives.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 80
 Global Knowledge: Lastly, IK forms a part of it. It has a value & relevance
in itself. It can be preserved, transferred, or adopted & adapted elsewhere.
Local Community
Development
Agents
Global knowledge
Fig-2: Levels of IK Developmental Process
Education & International Development:
Empowering students through education is crucial in raising children to be
active citizens in a democratic society. For developing countries it is essential that
they develop independently thinking & self-motivated citizens. Developing
countries need citizens who have developed the ability to think for themselves &
solve problems creatively, rather than submissively taking orders from above.
Education is not necessarily only as a means to economic gain but also enables
empowerment, happiness, independence & fearlessness through cultivating
understanding & the ability to think critically. Education in developing countries
tends to overly trust on memorization & other rote learning techniques. Learning is
so often geared towards national & university exams. This trend is not exclusive to
the developing world & unfortunately in many ways it seems to us that, we are
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 81
actually going backwards in education. Teaching to the test does not foster creative
thinking, cooperation & development of one’s own ideas. According to Ira Shor
(1992), children begin life as motivated learners, not passive beings but year by
year their dynamic learning erodes in passive classrooms not organized around
their cultural backgrounds, conditions or interests. This type of learning reflects
the culture of dominance & submission of colonialism. The real fact is many
developing countries are characterized by centuries of foreign domination, racism
& strict gender roles; which need to be addressed by education.
IK & Sustainable Development:
IK is the local knowledge that is unique to a culture or society. Other names
for it include: ‘local knowledge’, ‘folk knowledge’, ‘people’s knowledge’,
‘traditional wisdom’ or ‘traditional science’. This knowledge is passed from
generation to generation, usually by word of mouth & cultural rituals, & has been
the basis for health care, education, conservation & the wide range of other
activities that sustain societies in many parts of the world. Indigenous people have
a broad knowledge of how to live sustainably. However, formal education systems
have disrupted the practical everyday life aspects of IK & ways of learning,
replacing them with abstract knowledge & academic ways of learning. Today, there
is a grave risk that much IK is being lost & along with it, valuable knowledge about
ways of living sustainably. This illustrates ways that IK may be integrated into
education & thereby, brings the benefits of helping to ‘sustain’ IK & societies to
all. It is also encourages teachers & students to gain enhanced respect for local
culture, its wisdom & ethics. Also provides a ways of teaching & learning with
locally relevant knowledge & skills. IK & practices are greatly varies between
countries & regions. Traditional knowledge in SD integrates local & IK. It focuses
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 82
on the needs of traditional knowledge holders, both men & women, including both
elders & youth.
Indigenous Rights:
Indigenous people are the original inhabitants of a particular geographic
location, who have a culture & belief system distinct from the international system
of knowledge (i.e. Tribal, Native, First, or Aboriginal people of an area).
Indigenous peoples are largely spread across the world, at a rough estimate, some
300 million. Indigenous or aboriginal peoples are so-called because they were
living on their lands before settlers came from elsewhere; they are the descendants.
These & most other indigenous peoples have retained social, cultural, economical
& political characteristics which are clearly distinct from those of the other
segments of the national populations. Throughout human history, whenever
dominant neighboring peoples have expanded their territories or settlers from far
away have acquired new lands by force, the cultures & livelihoods - even the
existence of indigenous peoples have been endangered. The threats to indigenous
peoples' cultures & lands, to their status & other legal rights as distinct groups & as
citizens, do not always take the same forms as in previous times. Although some
groups have been relatively successful, in most part of the world indigenous
peoples are actively seeking recognition of their identities & ways of life.
Revive of IK:
With the rapid environmental, social, economic & political changes
occurring in many areas inhabited by indigenous people comes in the danger, that
the IK they possess will be overwhelmed & lost forever. Now a days Younger
generations are acquiring different values & lifestyles related to this. As a result of
exposure global & national influences & traditional communication networks are
breaking down. Mostly the elders, who have the knowledge about IK, are dying
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 83
without passing their knowledge on to children. Some many cases, the actual
existence of indigenous people themselves is threatened by the modern civilized
society people or by neglected very badly. Though it’s a very difficult task to
retained those things, there after the researchers, investigators, & the visitors can
assist in preserving IK through previous records & use of IK, documents of IK so
that both the scientific & local community have access to it & can utilize it in the
formulation of SD plans. Some of the other followings are to revive the IK:
 Raise Awareness in the Community about the Value of IK: Record & share
IK success stories in songs, plays, story-telling, videos & other traditional or
modern means of communication. Encourage people to take pride in their
knowledge.
 Help Communities Record & Document their Local Practices: Get local
people involved in recording their IK by training them as researchers &
providing means of documentation (computers, video equipment, etc.).
 Make IK Available: Disseminate IK back to the community through
newsletters, videos, books & other media.
 Observe Intellectual Property Rights: Need to have agreements so that IK is
not misused & benefits return to the community from which it originates.
Prime Concern of IK:
Global knowledge has originated from indigenous people, for instance in
medicine & veterinary medicine with their intimate understanding of their
environments. IK is developed & adapted continuously to gradually changing
environments & passed down from generation to generation & closely interwoven
with people’s cultural values. IK is also the social capital of the poor, their main
asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter or
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 84
to achieve control of their own lives. Today, many IK systems are at risk of
becoming extinct because of rapidly changing natural environments & fast pacing
economic, political, & cultural changes on a global scale. Practices vanish, as they
become inappropriate for new challenges or because they adapt too slowly.
However, many practices disappear only because of the intrusion of foreign
technologies or development concepts that promise short-term gains or solutions to
problems without being capable of sustaining them. The tragedy of the impending
disappearance of IK is most obvious to those who have developed it & make a
living through it. But the implication for others can be detrimental as well, when
skills, technologies, artifacts, problem solving strategies and expertise are lost. IK
is part of the lives of the rural poor; their livelihood depends almost entirely on
specific skills & knowledge essential for their survival. Accordingly, for the
development process, IK is of particular relevance for the agriculture, veterinary
medicine, Use & management of natural resources, Primary Health Care (PHC),
preventive medicine & psychosocial care, Community development, Poverty
alleviation sectors. IK is not yet fully utilized in the development process.
Conventional approaches imply that development processes always require
technology transfers from locations that are perceived as more advanced. This has
led often to overlooking the potential in local experiences & practices.
Conclusion:
“There is growing interest at national & international levels in the role that
IK plays in participatory approaches to development. Research is generating more
& more data showing the relevance of IK for sustainable development”
(Slikkerveer et al ibid.). Basically, in India, there is a lot to do when the issue of
IKS including with the various domains like sociology & culture anthropology,
education, agriculture & economics, medicine, science & technology, international
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 85
development studies. It has many positive aspects & can contribute to local
empowerment & provide valuable input for alternative natural resource
management strategies. However, IK also has its limitations, & researchers should
not make the mistake of romanticizing it & believing that whatever indigenous
people do is right or sustainable. Hence, we are faced today with the challenge of
not only industrialization, liberalization & urbanization but also to make sure that
fresh air & clean water are not available to our people. This is only possible by
active participation of both the government & the people in resource conservation
& management. It also requires political will, education, & a change in the mindset
of the people at large. Finally as an Indian citizen it’s our moral responsibility that
not only to protect, preserve & promote Indian cultural heritage & traditional
knowledge, but also to lead the world in environment conservation through SD of
the ages.
References:
 Ellen, R., & Harris, H., (1996). Concepts of Indigenous Environmental
Knowledge in Scientific and Development Studies Literature – A Critical
Assessment. Canterbury: East-West Environmental Linkages Network
workshop.
 Flavier, J.M. (1995). The Regional Program for the Promotion of Indigenous
Knowledge in Asia. London: Intermediate Technology Publications.
 Johnson, M. (1992). Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge, Dene
Cultural Institute, California.
 Slikkerveer, L.J., Warren, D.M., & D. Brokensha. (1993). The Cultural
Dimension of Development: Indigenous Knowledge Systems. London:
Intermediate Technology Publications.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 86
 Shor, Ira. (1992). Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social
Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
 Thrupp, L.A. (1989). Building Legitimacy of Indigenous Knowledge:
Empowerment for Third World People or "Scientised Packages" to be sold to
Development Agencies? UK: University of Sussex.
 Warren, D.M. (1991). Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural
Development, Washington D.C.: World Bank.
 http://www.unesco.org/education/
 http://www.education.nic
********************************************************************
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 87
Paper-7
“Effectiveness of Selected e-lectures Related to
Research Methodology and Statistics in Terms of
Achievement of Students in Research
Methodology and Statistics and Their Reaction
Towards e-lectures.”
Sultan Mudasir
S.K. Tyagi
Ms. Shikha chantia
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 88
“Effectiveness of Selected e-lectures Related to Research
Methodology and Statistics in Terms of Achievement of
Students in Research Methodology and Statistics and Their
Reaction Towards e-lectures.”
Sultan Mudasir8
S.K. Tyagi 9
Abstract
The study was conducted on M .Ed, M.Phil. and Ph.D. course work students
studying in School of Education, D.A.V.V, Indore (M.P) for the academic year
2012-13. The objective was to study the effectiveness of e-lectures in Research
Methodology and Statistics in terms of reactions towards e-lectures in Research
Methodology and Statistics of the experimental group.The present study was Quasiexperimental in nature, designed on the lines of Non-equivalent Control Group
Design by Campbell and Stanley. The sample comprised of 91 students, out of
which 24 M.Ed students and 9 M.Phil students constituted the experimental group
while as 58 Ph.D. course work students constituted the control group. Reaction
towards e-lectures on Research Methodology and Statistics was assessed with the
help of Reaction Towards e-lectures on Research Methodology and Statistics Scale
developed by the researcher. The finding of the study was that the Students treated
with e-lectures on Research Methodology and Statistics showed significantly
favorable reaction towards e-lecture on Research Methodology and Statistics.
8
9
Research Scholar, School of education, DAVV Indore.
Professor & Head, School of education, DAVV Indore.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Introduction:
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become one of the
basic building blocks of modern society. Many countries now regard understanding
information and communication technology and mastering the basic skills and
concepts of ICT as part of the core of education, along with reading, writing and
numeracy.
From various perspectives, learning with new media raises many hopes and
expectations. Different solution for learning with new media have been developed
e.g., web-based learning, video conference systems, social network software. Nowa-days many educational institutions offer e-lectures to their students. An e-lecture
can be defined as a media based lecture including an audio or video recording,
synchronized slides, table of contents and optional complementary information
(e.g., external links). An e-lecture can be presented with all relevant learning
materials in one integrated learning environment.
Researchers have been conducted abroad as well as in India related to the
effectiveness of Educational Television Programmes by Das, S (2005), Gurtu
(2001), Goel, Das and Joshi (2000), Kewalra (2000), Mallick(1995), Sahoo (1994),
Kapadia (1992), Sarangi (1992), Singh ((1991), and Joshi(1987). Similarly,
efffectiveness of Computerized Programmes has been studied by
Ujjainwala
(2012) and Kumari (2008). Shinde (2002) Singh (2001) and Sood (1994) and
Effectiveness of Video Instructional Material by Patel (2011), Gupta ((2008),
Shinde (2007), Shukla (2003), Vekeria (2002), Ajmera (2002), Reddy and Ramar
(2001), Lal (1996), Idayany (1991), James (1988), and Yadav (1988)
All the above researches, found Computer Based Teaching Approach to be
superior to traditional approach in terms of achievement. Only one research namely
Clark, 2003 has indicated contrary results.Also, from the above evidences, it is
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 90
clear that researches have been conducted on B.Ed students, Secondary School
students, and High School students but no research has been conducted on M.Ed
students especially in Research Methodology and Statistics except Shinde (2007).
Furthermore, none of the research was based on e-lectures. So, the researcher finds
it suitable to select a problem on Research Methodology and Statistics based on electures.
Considering the number of students present in the classroom, it becomes
almost impossible for the lecturer to ensure that every student is attentive. In fact,
in such as huge class interaction with the students also becomes a great issue. Also
owing to reason beyond control of a student like getting indisposed, discharging
social obligations, students have to sometimes miss classes. A student who misses
even a portion of the lecture is therefore at a great loss. This is because he misses
the vital link in the lecture and therefore fails to understand the subject in its
entirety. It is here the e-lectures play a crucial role. If e-lectures are available to the
students then the students can play the lecture as and when needed and also
repeatedly till such time that he understands the subject. This in turn will help him
to understand the missing link. The e-lecture has another important utility. The
students can replay the lecture particularly during the examination time and that
actually helps him to revise the subject.
Other utility of e-lecture is it helps the students to get the latest development
in the particular subject. While that hardcopy of the lecture will serve only few
students because so long a student is using the hardcopy; other students will have to
wait till the person has completed his reference. But, if it is a e-lecture, then the
students can store it in his computer and use it as and when he feels the necessity. It
is for these reasons now most of the colleges have started e-lectures so that vast
majority of the students can make use of it.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 91
Researchers have shown that multimedia lectures turn out to be more
effective than conventional chalk and talk lectures because of use of more than one
media for communication, animation, flow diagrams and illustrations. Internet
affords a multitude of information on every subject. Similarly, there is virtually a
sea of teaching-learning materials in the form of e-lectures on internet. It is quite
difficult task and time consuming too for learners to view all these lectures and
select most appropriate and effective ones in terms of understanding of the
concepts prescribed in the syllabus. Hence, there is a need to filter the available
lectures and arrive at a usable and effective lecture gallery relevant to the student’s
syllabus. The e-lecture can be divided into sections and displayed in a table of
content. A user can select or repeat a specific topic of the presentation according to
their individual motivation, interest or prior knowledge.
Keeping in mind, the development of information and communication
technology, the findings of the researches, significance and a broad usage of electures, a researcher finds it worthwhile to select the present topic.
Objective:
The objective of the study was:
To study the effectiveness of e-lectures in Research Methodology and Statistics in
terms of reactions towards e-lectures in Research Methodology and Statistics of the
experimental group.
Sample:
The study was conducted on M .Ed, M.Phil, and Ph.D course work students
studying in the same institution, namely, School of Education, D.A.V.V, Indore
(M.P) for the academic year 2012-13. There were two groups. One of them was
experimental group and the other control group. The subjects of M.Ed and M.Phil
constituted the experimental group and the subjects of Ph.D. course work
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 92
constituted the control group. The sample comprised of 91 students, out of which
24 M.Ed students and 9 M.Phil students constituted the experimental group while
as 58 Ph.D. course work students constituted the control group. Both males and
females were the part of the study. The medium of instruction was English/Hindi.
The details of the sample are given in table 1.1 below:
Table 1.1: Treatment Wise and Gender Wise distribution of Sample
Treatment
Class
Male
Female
No of Students
14
19
33
Course 23
35
58
37
54
91
Experimental/ M.Ed/M.Phil
e-lecture
Group
Control
Ph.D
Group
work
Total
Research Design:
The present study was Quasi- experimental in nature. The study was
designed on the lines of non-equivalent control group design by Campbell and
Stanley. The layout of the design is as follows (Symbolic representation):
O
X
O
-------------------O
O
Where X denotes the treatment, O before X denotes the pre-test and O after X it
denotes the post test. The dotted line means the two groups were not made
equivalent before experimentation.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 93
Tool:
Reaction Towards e-lectures in Research Methodology and Statistics
Scale (RTELRMS):
For fulfillment of this objective a Likert type Scale was developed by the
researcher. The aspects of the e-lectures were put in the form of statements to
which the students were expected to express their reactions by ticking on a
response category. The Likert scale comprised of 20 statements and the statements
were both positive as well as negative. The type of statement along with item
number is given in the table 3.7 which is given below:
Table 3.7: Type of Statement with Number of Statements and Item
Number
Type of statement
Number of Statements Item Number
Positive
12
1,4,5,7,9,10,11,13,15,16,18,20
Negative
8
2,3,6,8,12,14,17,19
The aspects covered were language, content organization, presentation, pause,
voice clarity, pronunciation, articulation, intonation, modulation, pitch, volume,
time, interest, illustrations, force of explanation and utility etc. Now aspect wise
number of statements and number of items are given in table 3.8 below:
Table 3.8: Aspect Wise Number of Statements and Number of Items
S.NO. Aspect
Number of Item
Statements
Number
1
Language
1
1
2
Speed
1
3
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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3
Level
2
2,8
4
Voice clarity
1
16
5
Presentation
2
4,11
6
Demonstration
1
5
7
Content organization
3
7,17,18
8
Explanation
1
12
9
Synchronization
1
6
10
Knowledge
3
9,10,20
11
Time
1
14
12
Interest
1
19
13
Pronunciation
1
15
14
Content coverage
1
13
Against each statement a five point scale was given. The five points were Strongly
Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D) and strongly Disagree (D S).
The students were requested to read each statement carefully and put a tick mark
(√) 0n one of the given five alternatives which represented their Reaction Towards
e-lectures in Research Methodology and Statistics. If one strongly Agrees with the
aspect given in the statement, tick mark ( ) was to be put on SA. In case one only
Agrees with the statement, tick mark (
) was to be put on A. one may be
Undecided about his/her reaction towards the aspect expressed in the statement.
Under such condition, tick mark ( ) was to be put on U. it is possible that one may
Disagree with the aspect given in the statement. If so, tick mark ( ) was to be put
on D. lastly, one may Strongly Disagree with aspect reflected in the statement. If
so, tick mark was to be put on SD. Like this, out of the given five alternatives tick
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 95
mark ( ) was to be put on only one alternative for each statement. In case of
positive statements, Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (U), Disagree (D)
and strongly Disagree (DS) were assigned weightages of 5, 4, 3, and 1 respectively
while for negative statements it was 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 respectively. Thus, total score
ranged from 20 to 100.
Data Analysis:
The data were analyzed by computing Mean, Standard Deviation and
Coefficient of Variation.
Result and Discussion:
Reaction towards e-lectures on Research Methodology and Statistics was
assessed with the help of Reaction Towards e-lectures on Research Methodology
and Statistics Scale developed by the researcher. It contained 20 statements, out of
which 8 were negative and 12 were positive. Five point rating scale was given
against each statement. Thus, the score could range from 20-100. The data related
to this were analyzed by computing the Mean, Standard Deviation and Co-efficient
of Variation. The results are given in table 1.6 as shown below.
Table 4.8: Mean, Standard Deviation and Co-efficient of Variation
Values of Student’s Reactions Towards e-lectures in Research
Methodology and Statistics:
Group
N
Mean
S.D
C.V
Experimental 33
75.36
12.47
16.55
Group
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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From the above table 4.6, the mean score of Reaction Towards e-lectures on
Research Methodology and Statistics is 75.36. It reflects or indicates that students
of M.Ed and M.Phil programme had a favorable Reaction Towards e-lectures on
Research Methodology and Statistics. Further the Co-efficient of variation is
16.55% which is relatively small. It indicates that all students of M.Ed and M.Phil
programme had a favorable Reaction Towards e-lectures on Research Methodology
and Statistics. This finding is supported by James (2008), Shinde (2007), Kumari
(2008), and Yadav (1998), who found favorable reactions towards teaching through
video films. The finding implies that the students liked the technique and wanted
their teachers to adopt this technique for improving their content understanding.
The preferable reason behind it may be that they felt free while watching e-lectures
in Research Methodology and Statistics as there was a tension free atmosphere in
the classroom. This made them to like the technique to a great extent. The various
segments of e-lectures in Research Methodology and Statistics towards which
reaction of students were taken are: language, content organization, pause, volume,
voice clarity, presentation, force of explanation etc. Respondents reacted favorable
towards e-lectures in Research Methodology and Statistics which is significant.
Normally, people express their favorable reaction towards an object whenever they
feel that the object is of some use to them, it is of some interest to them, it helps
them to attain some goals, and it provides challenge to an individual etc. The other
reason for positive reaction towards e-lectures in Research Methodology and
Statistics was that it helped in making the teachings effective, interesting and
lively. They all approved that it helped them in the development of cognitive,
affective as well as psychomotor skill. Conclusively, it can be said that the reason
behind the positive reaction may be that the students found a very simple and yet a
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 97
novel way of improving their content comprehension and concept clarity to a great
extent.
References:
 Atul, G (2001): A study of Effectiveness of UGC Educational Television
Programmes in Terms of Achievement and Reaction of B.Ed students,
Unpublished M.Ed, Dissertation, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Buch, M.B. (EB): Third Survey of Research in Education National Council
for Education Research and Training, New Delhi, 1978-1983.
 Chandan, G(2008):Effectiveness of Video Instructional Material for teaching
Social Values amongst Undergraduate Students, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis,
D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Das, S (2005): A Study of Effectiveness of Educational Television (ETV) in
Teaching of Mathematics in Schools of Delhi, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,
(Edu.), Visva-Bharti.
 Jaiswal, K. (1991): A study of Higher Education Science Educational
Television Programmes in terms of their Contents, Presentation, Students,
Reaction and Effectiveness, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 James, (1988): Effectiveness of Video Instructional Material on Advance
Organiser Model in terms of Reaction Towards technical aspects of
developed video cassette,Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Kumari, A (2008): Effectiveness of Computer Based Interactive Learning
Material on Science in terms of Achievement and Higher Mental Abilities in
Science at 9thClass, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Mallik,P (1995): Evaluation of Educational Television Programmes for
Oriya Primary School Children in terms of Presentation, Achievement With
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 98
and Without Talk-back, School Achievement and Attitude towards
Educational Television, Unpublished Ph.D thesis, D.A.V.V,Indore.
 Nagar, N (1988): Effectiveness of Computers in Teaching Mathematics in
School, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, University of Delhi.
 Patel, S (2011): Effectiveness of Video Instructional Material on Counseling
in Terms of Achievement and Reaction of B.Ed Students, M.Ed Dissertation,
D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Sahoo,
N
(1994): Effectiveness
of Countrywide
Classroom ETV
Programmes in Social Sciences With and Without Talk-back and through
Simulated Interaction Mode, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Sarangi, D (1992): A Study of the IGNOU ETV Programmes in Terms of
Their Effectiveness through Direct Simulated Talk-back and Interactive
Modes, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Shinde, J (2002): Effectiveness of Multimedia CAI Package with Reference
to Levels of Interactivity and Learning Style, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis
(Edu.), SNDT Women’s University.
 Shinde, L (2007): Effectiveness of Video Instructional Material on Research
Methodology and Statistics in Terms of Achievement and Reaction towards
Video Instructional Material on Research Methodology and Statistics,
Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Singh, B.B (1991): Effectiveness of UGC Countrywide Classroom
Programmes of Models of Teaching With and Without Talk-back and
Through Interactive Mode, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, D.A.V.V,
Indore.
 Singh, R.D (1992): Effectiveness of Teaching Mathematics through
Computer Assisted Instruction and Conventional Method of Instruction on
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Cognitive and Non-cognitive variables, Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Guru
Ghasidas University, Bilaspur.
 Singh, R.P. (2001): The Effect of Total Television Teaching and Computer
Assisted Instruction on Achievement in Mathematics at the Secondary Level,
Unpublished, Ph.D. Thesis (Edu.), Punjab University.
 Sood (1994): The Effectiveness of Computer Aided Instruction on
Achievement in Science In Relation To Classroom Environment and Study
Habits at the School Stage, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis (Edu.), Punjab
University.
 Ujjainwala, A (2012): Development and Effectiveness of Computerized
Branched Programmed Learning Material for Class 9th Students on Selected
Topics on Chemistry in Terms of Achievement and Reaction, Unpublished
M.Ed Dissertation, D.A.V.V, Indore.
 Yadav, (1988): Development of Video cassette Instructional Material on
Inquiry Training Model, Unpublished M.Phil Dissertation, D.A.V.V., Indore.
 Yadav, S (2012): Effectiveness of Video Film on Educational Clinic in
Terms Achievement and Reaction of B.Ed Students Unpublished M.Ed
Dissertation, D.A.V.V, Indore.
Web links:
 www.coursera.org
 www.khanacademy.com
 www.youtube.com
*******************************************************************
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 100
Paper-8
Analysis of Selected Secondary Biological Science
Websites for Content, Instructional Strategies and
Assessment
Dr. Joy E. Stewart
Dr. David Devraj Kumar
Dr. P. V. Thomas
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 101
Analysis of Selected Secondary Biological Science Websites
for Content, Instructional Strategies and Assessment
Dr. Joy E. Stewart10
Dr. David Devraj Kumar11
Dr. P. V. Thomas12
Abstract
This paper presents an analysis of content, instructional strategies and
assessment aspects of selected websites (N=100) in Grade 12 biological science.
An instrument developed based on the National Science Education Standards
(NSES) for Grade 12 Life Science and criteria derived from the Web-Based Inquiry
(WBI) for Learning Science instrument (Bodzin, 2005) and other pertinent
published educational literature was utilized for the analysis. Frequencies of
agreement and disagreement of the content of each selected website with criteria
included in the data collection instrument were used for alignment determination of
the content of each website with the instrument items.
Major findings of the
analysis indicated that 3 out of 4 of the analyzed content attributes, 12 out of 13 of
the instructional strategies, and all the assessment methods of the researched
biological science websites were less than 85% aligned with the instrument items
(Figure 1). Only 13.75% of the analyzed websites had collective biology content,
instructional strategies, and assessment methods attributes that were 85% or more
10
Department of Science, Willis Holcombe Center, Broward College, 111 East Las Olas Blvd, Fort
Lauderdale, FL 33301
11
College of Education, Education and Science Building, Florida Atlantic University, 3200 College
Avenue, Davie, FL 33314
12
Mar Ivanios College, Bethany Hills,Trivandrum 695001, Kerala,India
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 102
aligned with the items. Recommendations are made with implications for science
education reform.
Key words:
Biological Science; World Wide Web; Analysis; Content, Instruction;
Assessment
Introduction:
The World Wide Web (Web) is an amazing educational resource that is
easily accessible to many groups of educators and learners. It hosts a plethora of
websites that provide learners with a rich range of learning materials for active
learning environment that supports science education (Emmert-Streib, Dehmer, &
Lyardet, 2013; Nikolaos, Nikolaos, Avouris, Dimitracopoulou, & Daskalaki, 2001;
Kumar, 2010).
The Web displays various ways of storing and structuring
information that is provided for Internet users (Nikolaos et al., 2001). Reality is that
multiple representations of educational material such as text, graphics, sound,
animation, and digital video are supported by websites (Emmert-Streib, Dehmer, &
Lyardet, 2013; Alessi & Trollip, 2001). The Web has the potential to provide
learners with a wide range of opportunities for learning. Of particular importance
for biological science education, is the extensive array of biology websites that are
hosted by the Web (Emmert-Streib, Dehmer, & Lyardet, 2013). The perception
among educators is that websites are out-of-class learning modalities that provide
consistent educational messages in flexible environments (Reis, Riley, Lokman, &
Baer, 2000; Wall & Cox, 2000). A notion exists that websites can be used to foster
collaborative efforts, create scaffolds, allow reflection, and allow students to focus
on the depth rather than the breadth of a learning situation (Wong, 2013; Allen,
2013; Hung, 2001; Winnips & McLoughlin, 2001).
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Websites facilitate web-based instruction that utilizes the resources of the
Internet to create a context in which learning is supported and fostered (Daugherty
& Funke, 1998). Web-based instruction facilitates active, student-centered learning.
In addition, it occurs in a multi-dimensional learning environment that promotes
learning that is not limited by time or space boundaries (Allen, 2013; Lin, Liu, &
Yuan, 2008). Indications are that any student who has access to a computer with an
Internet connection can use global information and resources on websites to
enhance learning. The plethora of science websites provides diverse instructional
resources that have the potential to enhance meaningful learning (Nikolaos et al.,
2001).
Statement of the Problem and Questions:
Many students in the United States rely on science websites for education.
However, usage of websites for educational purposes is a major cause of concern
among educators (Leonard, 2001; Mashhadi & Han, 1996; Kumar & Libidinsky,
2000). The vast majority of information on the Internet is not subject to peer review
or academic regulation (Wilkinson, Harries, Thelwall, & Price, 2003).
Most
websites are created for either scholarly (Wilkinson et al., 2003) or amateur
reasons. This implies that the vast majority of the content of biological websites in
the United States may not be aligned with the NSES though generally, science
education websites may be regarded as formal or informal learning environments.
In this context the study explored answers to the question: are the biological
sciences websites appropriate for Grade 12 content, instructional strategies and
assessment methods?
Method:
The study employed a quantitative research design. The sample of this study
consisted of 100 biological science websites that were selected in March 2009 via
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AltaVista, Google, Lycos, and Yahoo search engines (n = 100). Each website was
deemed appropriate for Grade 12 biological science education and included content
from at least one of the major biological science themes of Cell Structure and
Function, Matter and Energy Transformations, Molecular Basis of Heredity, and
Natural Selection and Evolution. A definite protocol was employed as each search
engine performed four separate searches to ensure that the website sample
represented all the major biological science themes. Google was the first search
engine utilized in each case. The search key terms “biological science websites,
activities, national science education standards, grade 12” were used in various
combinations
with
“cell
structure
and
function,”
“matter
and
energy
transformations,” “ molecular basis of heredity’” and “natural selection and
evolution.” For details see Stewart (2010).
Instrumentation:
The instrument for data collection was custom developed using criteria based
on the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996), Web-based Inquiry for
Learning Science instrument (Bodzin, 2005) and other pertinent information from
the literature. The instrument asked 21 questions that were categorized into three
areas: i) biology content, ii) instructional strategies, and iii) assessment methods
A. Biology Content:
(1) Are goals, objectives, or desired learning outcomes carefully defined
(Bruner,
1977; Gagne, 1987)?
(2) Does the content exist within a contextual framework that allows learners
to
develop understandings about the nature, philosophy, history, and/or
relevance of
science (Moore & Huber, 2001)?
(3) Is the content appropriately sequenced to foster acquisition of
fundamental
biological science knowledge that emphasizes major scientific
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ideas which will
contribute to development of a strong conceptual framework in
students (Bruner, 1977; Bybee, 2002;)?
(4) Does the content include historical case studies that relate to some of the
basic scientific ideas (Bybee, 2002)?
B. Instructional Strategies:
(1) Is an inquiry-based instructional model employed for allowing learners to
engage, explore, explain, extend, and/or evaluate (Olson & Loucks-Horsley,
2000)?
(2) Do instructional strategies foster a constructivist approach to learning
(Gordon, 2008; Marlowe & Page, 2005; Windschitl, 2002)?
(3) Do instructional strategies promote development of higher-order thinking
skills that enable learners to use facts, figures, and/or formulas within the
context
of considering
large conceptual issues (Kumar, 2010; Clark &
Gorski, 2001)?
(4) Do instructional strategies promote real-world problem solving and/or
applications (Bybee, 2002; Kumar & Altschuld, 2004)?
(5) Are learners engaged by scientifically oriented questions (Kumar &
Morris,
2005; Bodzin, 2005; NRC, 2000)?
(6) Are learners prompted to formulate their own questions or hypotheses
that
can be
tested (Bodzin, 2005; NRC, 2000)?
(7) Do instructional strategies foster development of abilities and/or
understanding of how to design and conduct scientific investigations (Olson
&
Loucks-Horsley, 2000)
(8) Are learners encouraged to use evidence for drawing conclusions
(Bodzin,
2005; NRC, 2000)?
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(9) Are learners encouraged to evaluate their conclusions in light of
alternative conclusions (NRC, 2000)?
(10) Are opportunities provided for development of the cognitive skills
associated
with the formulation of scientific explanations (Olson & Loucks-
Horsley, 2000)?
(11) Do instructional strategies promote development of abilities and/or
understanding of how to use technology and/or mathematics (Olson &
Loucks-
Horsley, 2000)?
(12) Are illustrative examples provided for allowing learners to construct
new knowledge that facilitates understanding of facts and/or ideas in the context
of a
conceptual framework (Bruner, 1977; Bybee, 2002; Gagne, 1987)?
(13) Is emphasis placed on allowing students to apply and extend science
learning
to their daily lives (Pratt, 1998)?
C. Assessment Method:
(1) Are prompts provided for learners to demonstrate understanding of facts
and/or ideas in the context of a conceptual framework (Bybee, 2002; Linn &
Hsi, 2000)?
(2) Are opportunities provided for learners to communicate and justify their
proposed explanations of events (Bodzin, 2005; NRC, 2000)?
(3) Are learners required to use evidence for drawing and reporting
conclusions (Bodzin, 2005; NRC, 2000)?
(4) Are learners required to evaluate their conclusions in light of alternative
conclusions (2005; NRC, 2000)?
Instrument Reliability:
In a pilot study two trained raters/biological science educators independently
analyzed and manually coded the content of 20% (n=20) of the total number of
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selected websites that were investigated during the entire research (N=100).
Pearson’s correlation for overall instrument reliability was 0.885. Interrater χ²
values were significant (p < 0.05) for 90% of the items included in the data
collection instrument. One item was deleted from the instrument and three items
were modified in order to make their meaning more explicit (Figure 1).
Data Collection and Analysis:
The instrument with items shown in Figure 1 was used for data collection. A
χ² test was performed to determine the overall significant difference of data
alignment with an expected 85% alignment with the instrument items A(1) through
c(4). Additional χ² tests were performed to determine the significant difference of
data alignment for each analyzed item and for each of the 3 analyzed categories.
The level of significance for each χ² test was set at 0.05.
Results:
Categorical and overall χ² results for biological science website content,
instructional strategies, and assessment methods as well as the relevant percentage
yes and no responses are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Categorical and Overall Percentage Yes/No Responses and χ² Results
for Indicators of Website Alignment with Instrument Items A(1) through C(4)
Item Category
% Yes
% No
χ² Values df p
Responses Responses based on
Values
yes/no
responses
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A. Biology content
69.38
30.63
61.27 1
0.001*
B.
44.52
55.48
1336.66 1
0.001*
25.31
74.69
894.14 1
0.001*
45.60
54.40
2045.96 1
0.001*
Instructional
strategies
C.
Assessment
methods
Overall
Note. * p < 0.05 (2-tailed); The minimum acceptable “yes” response is 85%
In Table 1, the 69.38 % “yes” response was computed by expressing 222 (the
observed number of “yes” biology content responses) as a percentage of 320 (the
total possible number of content “yes” responses). The 44.52 % yes response was
computed by expressing 463 (the observed number of instructional strategies “yes”
responses) as a percentage of 1040 (the total possible number of number of
instructional strategies “yes” responses). The 25.31 % “yes” response was
computed by expressing 81(the observed number of assessment methods “yes”
responses) as a percentage of 320 (the total possible number of “yes” assessment
methods responses). The overall % “yes” response of 45.60 shown in Table 1 was
obtained because 766 (the sum of observed responses for content, instructional
strategies, and assessment methods) was expressed as a percentage of 1680, which
represents the total possible “yes” responses that could be obtained. The %“no”
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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responses for each category shown in Table 1 were computed by subtracting each
% “yes” response from 100.
In Table 1, data for all the analyzed categories showed a significant
difference of alignment with the indicators. Specifically, all the % “yes” responses
were less than the threshold 85%. So, the results of the χ² tests shown in Table 1
indicate significant non-alignment of each analyzed category with the Items A(1)
through C(4). For content, χ² = 61.27, df = 1, p < 0.05. For instructional strategies,
χ²= 1336.66, df = 1, p < 0.05. For assessment methods, χ² = 894.14, df = 1, p <
0.05. The overall data for the combined analyzed categories also showed a
significant difference of alignment with indicators. (χ² = 2045.96, df = 1, p < 0.05).
χ² values and the number of “yes” and “no” responses to each question in the
content category (A1-A4) of the data collection instrument are presented in Table
2.
Table 2: χ² Results and the Number of Yes/No Responses for Indicators of
Alignment of Website Content Items A(1-4)
Yes
Indicators
A(1).
objectives,
learning
No
χ²
p
Responses Responses Values df Values
Are
goals,
or
desired 33
47
120.10 1
0.001*
outcomes
carefully defined?
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A(2). Does the content
exist within a contextual
framework
learners
that
to
allows
develop 67
13
0.10 1
0.75
0
14.12 1
0.001*
38
66.27 1
0.001*
understandings about the
nature,
philosophy,
history, and/or relevance
of science?
A(3).
Is
the
appropriately
content
sequenced
to foster acquisition of
fundamental
biological 80
science knowledge that
will
contribute
to
development of a strong
conceptual framework in
students?
A(4). Does the content
include
historical
case 42
studies that relate to some
of the basic scientific
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ideas?
Note. * p < 0.05 (2-tailed); The minimum acceptable # of “yes” responses is 68
(85%)
In Table 2, data obtained for items A(1) and A(4) showed significant
difference of non-alignment with the items (p < 0.05). With reference to item A(1)
only 33 of 80 websites are in alignment. So, most of the analyzed websites are not
in alignment with the mandate for goals, objectives, or desired learning outcomes
to be carefully defined. The “yes” response to item A(4) indicates that only 42 of
80 websites are in alignment. Therefore, 47.5% of the analyzed websites are not in
alignment with the mandate for inclusion of historical case studies that relate to
some of the basic scientific ideas.
The “yes” response to item A(3) shown in Table 2 indicates that all 80 of the
analyzed websites were significantly aligned for inclusion of content that was
appropriately sequenced to foster acquisition of fundamental biological science
knowledge. Unlike the other items for analysis of website content that were
included in Table 1, item A(2): “Does the content exist within a contextual
framework that allows learners to develop understandings about the nature,
philosophy, history, and/or relevance of science?” yielded data that showed no
significant difference in alignment (χ² = 0.10, df = 1, p > 0.05). However, the “yes”
response for item A(2) indicates that 83.75% of analyzed websites are aligned. The
p value of 0.75 for this item indicated no significant difference in alignment. So,
Table 2 showed that data for 3 out of the 4 items in the content category had
significant difference of alignment with the content indicators (p < 0.05).
However, only item A(3) was significantly aligned. Items A(1) and A(4) were
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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significantly non-aligned. Item A(2) generated data that was not significantly
different from the expected 85% acceptable level of alignment.
The instructional strategies items (B1-B13) were significantly non-aligned
with the relevant indicator. χ² values and the number of “yes” and “no” responses
to each question in the instructional strategies category of the data collection
instrument are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Number of Yes/No Responses and χ² Results for Indicators of
Alignment of Website Instructional Strategies B(1-13)
Yes
Indicators
No
χ²
p
responses Responses Values df Values
B(1). Is an inquiry-based
instructional
model 50
employed
for
allowing
learners
to
engage,
30
31.76
1
0.001*
25
16.57
1
0.001*
explore, explain, extend,
and/or evaluate?
B(2).
Do
strategies
instructional
foster
a 55
constructivist approach to
learning?
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B(3).
Do
instructional
strategies
promote
development of higherorder thinking skills that 43
37
61.27
1
0.001*
34
50.86
1
0.001*
50
30
31.76
1
0.001*
their own questions or 11
69
318.53 1
0.001*
enable
learners to use
facts,
figures,
formulas
context
and/or
within
of
the
considering
large conceptual issues?
B(4).
Do
instructional
strategies promote real- 46
world
problem
solving
and/or applications?
B(5).
Are
learners
engaged by scientifically
oriented questions?
B(6).
prompted
Are
learners
to
formulate
hypotheses that can be
tested?
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B(7).
Do
instructional
strategies
foster
development of abilities
and/or understanding of
how to design and conduct 18
62
245.10 1
0.001*
56
189.80 1
0.001*
71
341.27 1
0.001*
56
189.80 1
0.001*
scientific investigations?
B(8).
Are
learners
encouraged
evidence
to
for
use
drawing 24
conclusions?
B(9).
Are
encouraged
learners
to
evaluate
their conclusions in lght of
alternative conclusions?
9
B(10). Are opportunities
provided for development
of the cognitive skills
associated
with
the
formulation of scientific 24
explanations?
B(11).
Do
instructional
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strategies
promote
development of abilities
and/or understanding of
how to use technology 13
67
296.57 1
0.001*
and/or mathematics?
B(12).
Are
examples
illustrative
provided
to
enhance understanding of
facts and/or ideas in the 76
4
6.27 1
0.01*
36
56.47 1
0.001*
context of a conceptual
framework?
B(13). Is emphasis placed
on allowing students to
apply and extend science
learning to their daily 44
lives?
Note. * p < 0.05 (2-tailed)
The minimum acceptable # of “yes” responses is
68 (85%)
Data obtained for all items in Table 3 showed a significant difference of
alignment with indicators of alignment to the instrument Items B(1) through B(13).
However, the data generated by all items except item B(12) were significantly nonaligned with the related indicators instructional strategies. The “yes” response for
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this item indicates that 95% of analyzed websites are significantly aligned with the
mandate for provision of illustrative examples that enhance understanding of facts
and/or ideas in the context of a conceptual framework.
Data for item B(12): “Are illustrative examples provided to enhance
understanding of facts and/or ideas in the context of a conceptual framework?”
showed a significant difference in alignment with relevant indicators (χ² = 6.27, df
= 1, p < 0.05). This is the only item in this category that generated data that were
significantly aligned with the related instructional strategies indicator.
In Table 4, data for all items showed a significant difference of alignment
with the assessment methods indicators. However, all the items in this category
generated data that were significantly non-aligned with the relevant indicators.
Table 4: Number of Yes/No Responses and χ² Results for Indicators of
Alignment of Website for Assessment Methods (C1-C4)
Yes
Indicators
C(1).
Are
No
χ²
p
Responses Responses Values df Values
prompts
provided for learners to
demonstrate
understanding
and/or
ideas
of
in
facts 45
35
51.86
1
0.001*
the
context of a conceptual
framework?
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C(2). Are opportunities
provided for learners to
communicate and justify
their
proposed 16
64
265.10 1
0.001*
66
285.88 1
0.001*
74
376.86 1
0.001*
explanations of events?
C(3).
Are
learners
required to use evidence
for drawing and reporting 14
conclusions?
C(4).
Are
learners
required to evaluate their
conclusions in light of 6
alternative conclusions?
Note. * p < 0.05 (2-tailed)
The minimum acceptable # of yes responses is 68
(85%)
The overall results of the analysis indicated that a significant difference of (p
< 0.05) between the overall actual and expected frequencies of alignment of
biology content, instructional strategies, and assessment methods for 82.5% of
analyzed websites with indicators of alignment with the biology content,
instructional strategies and assessment methods items. It is important to note that
only 11 out of 80 analyzed websites had at least 85% of their attributes in
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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alignment with the items. Hence, 86.25% of the analyzed websites had less than the
threshold 85% alignment with most items used for analyzing the websites.
Discussion:
The findings of this study indicate that there is an overall significance
difference (p<0.05) between the actual and expected frequencies of alignment of
biology content, instructional strategies, and assessment methods of the Grade 12
biological sciences websites analyzed. In addition, the findings indicate that there
is a significant difference between the actual and expected 85% frequencies of
alignment of analyzed categories (biology content, instructional strategies, and
assessment methods) of the sampled websites with website indicators (p < 0.05).
One specific finding of this study is that the content, instructional strategies and
assessment methods of 82.5 % of the analyzed biology websites are significantly
non-aligned with the instrument items.
The major finding of this study is that there is significant non-alignment of
the websites analyzed with the biology content, instructional strategies, and
assessment methods of the analysis instrument (Figure 1). The specific implication
of this finding is that websites which comply at least 85% have several exemplary
features. It is highly likely that these websites will emphasize a broad view of
science content, student-centered instruction, a wide range of assessment
procedures, student thinking, application of science knowledge and understanding,
and learning for career awareness as well as exploration.
This research revealed that the analyzed biological science websites, which
were significantly aligned with the analysis items (A1 through C4) had sharply
contrasting attributes to those of websites that were not significantly aligned with
the standards. One important implication of this finding is that science websites,
which are not in compliance, may hinder rather than enhance the science
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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educational process. So, it is unfortunate that the major finding of this study is that
the content, instructional strategies, and assessment methods of the analyzed
websites are significantly non-aligned with the content, instructional strategies and
assessment methods.
The fact that the content, instructional strategies and assessment methods of
the analyzed biological science websites are significantly non-aligned with the
analysis items is unsatisfactory and supports the consensus among educators that
the content of educational websites needs to be revised (Leonard, 2001; Mashhadi
& Han, 1996; Wilkinson et al., 2003). This finding implies that Web resourcebased learners need knowledge of how to quickly and accurately evaluate the
attributes of websites that they utilize. The finding also implies that it is the role of
teachers, coaches, or some other able educator to ensure that students know how to
select and utilize websites that have many attributes aligned with established
standards.
It is also important to realize that alignment of the content, instructional
strategies and assessment methods of biological science websites with established
standards and benchmarks is a major facet of the science educational reform
process. Thus, educators need to be aware that biological websites with attributes
alignments to standards (e.g., National Science Education Standards) have the
potential to promote equitable, student-centered, web-based science education.
Inherent in the standards is the notion of excellence in science education for
all students. This notion implies that all students irrespective of their age, sex,
culture, ethnicity, disabilities, or other differences should have access to web-based
resources and equivalent learning opportunities to achieve scientific literacy. A
specific implication of the notion is that science website designers need to
implement inclusion policies that foster equitable web-based science education for
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Page 120
all students. The onus is on teachers and other website designers to comply with the
NSES in order to fulfill mandates that foster inclusive biological science education.
Conclusions and Implications:
Several conclusions can be drawn based on the findings of this study.
(1)
The analyzed biological science websites have large quantities of their
content that is significantly less than 85% aligned with the relevant indicators. (2)
The instructional strategies employed on the analyzed biological science websites
are significantly less than 85% aligned with the relevant indicators. (3) The
assessment methods utilized on the analyzed biological science websites are
significantly less than 85% aligned with the relevant indicators. (4) Overall, 13.75
% of the analyzed biology websites are at least 85% aligned with the relevant
indicators. Thus, these websites are appropriate for promoting effective biological
science learning and science education reform. (5) Of the sampled biological
websites, 86.25% are less than 85% aligned with the relevant indicators. Therefore,
these websites have much of their content, instructional strategies and assessment
methods that are not in compliance with established standards.
Overall, the findings of this study have several implications for science
education reform. For example, the fundamental findings of the study have the
potential to enhance biology teaching and foster biology learning. From the
perspective of incorporating technology in science education, findings of the study
can stimulate development of biological science websites, initiate improvement of
website designs, promote web-assisted education, and foster scientific literacy.
The findings of this study have implications that relate to curriculum
developers, professional development facilitators, teachers, and students. Websites
with content, instructional strategies and assessment methods aligned to the
established benchmarks provide students with authentic web-based biological
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science resources. These types of resources have the potential to infuse inquiry and
other national science education mandates into biology teaching and learning.
It is important to realize that the findings of this study are not only applicable
to biological science education. On a larger scale, findings of the study can be
applied to other disciplines such as chemistry, physics, and environmental science.
Specific findings can guide curriculum development, enhance professional
development programs, and facilitate inclusion of diverse groups of science
students in high schools and colleges.
Hopefully the findings of this study will serve as a stimulus for improving
curriculum development and professional development of biology teachers in both
high schools and colleges. Improved curriculum and biology teacher development
has the ripple effect of improving biology teaching and the biological science
learning process among students. Overall, it is hoped that the findings of this study
will provide explicit information that can guide standards-based biology teaching
and learning at both the high school and college levels of the educational hierarchy.
Recommendations:
Content analyses of educational websites have the potential to reveal
findings with powerful implications for the effective use of analyzed websites.
Based on the limited evidence provided by this study, the main recommendation is
for educational researchers to conduct several rigorous content analyses of
biological science websites. The limited existing knowledge that relates to the
compliance of biological science websites with the established benchmarks (e.g.
NSES) provides additional rationale for researchers to perform future rigorous
content analyses of biological science websites.
This study needs to be replicated with other biological science website
samples that are selected by employing varied protocols. This is necessary because
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websites are ephemeral and new websites are developed frequently. There is also a
need to replicate the study by using other analytical categories that are appropriate
for the specific goals and scope of the research. The three categories of standards
analyzed in this study are interrelated and they enhanced the research process.
However, it is important to realize that other groups of categories exist for use
during future research endeavors.
Future content analyses of biological science websites should utilize a
modified and improved data collection instrument. The infusion of additional
indicators of alignment with established standards into the data collection
instrument is one way of improving the instrument. Though the established
standards such as the NSES serve as mandates for elementary, middle school as
well as high school science teaching and learning. However the standards do not
provide
teachers
with
explicit
recommendations
or
options
for
their
implementation. Therefore, an additional recommendation is for science website
content analyses to be done for each level of the educational hierarchy. This is an
extremely important recommendation because website content analyses have
implications for the implementation of the respective standards at all educational
levels. Also, these types of content analyses can have implications for systemic
science education improvement.
A final recommendation is for trained educators to conduct qualitative as
well as quantitative evaluations of biological science websites and other web-based
science curricular resources. The implication her is that evaluators will require
science website designers to comply with the appropriate standards. It is important
for evaluators to recognize that educational websites are not subject to regulation.
Yet, they are extensively utilized by students and teachers as reform tools at all
levels of the American educational system.
In The Need for Comprehensive
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 123
Evaluation in Science Education, Kumar and Altschuld (2003) posited the
significance of evaluation as an integral part of science education reform. They
argued in favor of evaluation of science websites because they serve pivotal roles in
attempting to reform American science education. The reality is that efficient
evaluation of all science education reform methods is absolutely essential for the
promotion of excellence in science teaching and learning at all levels of the
educational hierarchy.
It is hoped that the findings of this study and the recommendations for future
research will serve as stimuli for the conduction of numerous other content
analyses of science websites. On a larger scale, it is hoped that content analyses of
science websites will contribute tangibly to K–12 science education reform. This
type of systemic reform incorporating elementary, middle, and high school science
should result in improvement of the overall quality of college level science
education.
Acknowledgements:
Thanks to Dr. J. Dan Morris, Florida Atlantic University for statistical consultation.
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*******************************************************************
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 128
Paper-9
Right to Education (RTE): Present, Past &
Future
Jitendra Singh Goyal
Suneeta Chaudhari
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 129
Right to Education (RTE): Present, Past & Future
Jitendra Singh Goyal13
Suneeta Chaudhari14
Abstract
The Right to Education Act (RTE) which came into being on April 01, 2010
was a landmark in the Indian history. Under this Act every child in the age-group
of 6-14 years will have the right to quality elementary education. RTE provides a
ripe platform to reach the marginalized group of children like child laborers,
migrant children, children from slums, or those who have a “disadvantage, owing
to social, cultural, economic, linguistic, gender or such other factors”. For the first
time in the history of India, children will be guaranteed their right to eight years
elementary education by the state with the help of families and communities.
Keywords:
Education, children, Economic.
“India’s future will be strong and prosperous only if we nurture our children and
young people with the right education.”
Dr. Manmohan Singh
Introduction:
Education means to ‘educare’ or to uplift or to bring up. In other words
education is the harmonious development of all the human faculties. Therefore, it is
a natural right, intrinsic right and inevitable right of individual. Then why do we
talk about right to education? It is because; this thought is confused among well
educated people and those, who are in need, found to be deprived off. Another
13
Junior Research Fellow, Department of Education, University of Lucknow, Lucknow. e-mail
jitendrago@gmail.com
14
1/66, Khera Muhal, Lakhana , Post- Lakhana District- Etawah (U.P.) 206127
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 130
strong reason behind this discussion is the narrow thinking of caretakers of the
society. A well educated lot could be bright future of any society or nation but
same time they become conscious of their rights and often become hurdles in the
way of narrow thinking group. Rules and regulations are framed in ideal state but
are hardly implemented to the expectation level. According to ‘Right to Education
Act’ enforced from 01 April 2010, every child in the age group of 6 to 14 years will
be provided 8 years of elementary education.
It is seen that the traditional education in India is getting outdated. The
number of students dropping out of school is getting higher, especially in poverty
stricken areas; students are forced to leave schools due to their parents’ poor
economic condition and to work to help their parents make both ends meet. This
leads to growing number of child laborers. The majority of children living in
remote areas are unable to enjoy schooling as the curricula are not designed on the
basis of flexibility and tend to be content heavy. Research shows that many
children who experience learning difficulties become frustrated when they are not
effectively supported in a classroom and eventually drop out. With respect to the
rights of children, whatever prevents children from education is teachers’ social
and professional responsibility. Efforts should be made by every teacher to reach
out to all children in the community as part of their responsibility as adults and
citizens. Teaching has to be made more interesting, appealing and motivating to
attract drop outs. Thus there is a desperate need to create a strategy and make a
breakthrough in implementing RTE the goal of which is to promote weaker section
of society with differences being respected and valued. Reports show that children
attend school at the primary level but soon drop out or are pushed out due to
uninteresting teaching methodology and an assessment system that labels them as
poor achievers. When the 'education for all' movement talks about ‘all children’
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 131
this means being cognizant of the needs of all children in the classroom – not only
those who seem to adjust themselves to the usual tradition of teaching and learning.
To ensure that all children irrespective of their class, caste, religion or gender have
access to quality education, it is important to implement child friendly education.
The child centered education will be able to attract more learners and teach
students effectively. It focuses on the whole child and emphasizes both cognitive
and emotional development of the young learners. Child centered education under
RTE is an approach to education focusing on the needs of the special students,
rather than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and
administrators.
“The right of children to free and compulsory Education Act, 2009 has become a
reality and also that the Act has provisions which have been welcomed by
teachers”
Kapil Sibal
In a child friendly classroom the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than an
instructor. A teacher who knows what children want to achieve and how children
get there, is more important than a teacher who is an all ‘knowing sage.’ The
teacher while daily interacting with the children should keep in mind that he is
supporting all children in their growth and development covering all domains be it
social, emotional, physical, linguistic and intellectual. The teacher must realize that
every child is unique and special individual. So their ideas, preferences, learning
styles and interests should be kept in mind while implementing instructional
practices. The children should be actively involved in the teaching learning process.
The skillful educator will develop a keen awareness of each child’s learning needs
and choose appropriate, relevant and purposeful teaching methods to support
learning. By having a child centered approach in the classroom, enables the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 132
children to stay focused and reach their goals. It develops their confidence and
improves their self esteem. Above all child centered pedagogy is now part of
educational legislation. In this way millions of children will benefit from the RTE
Act ensuring quality education with equity. It is estimated that there are about 8.1
million dropout children in India. The challenge now is to ensure that each one of
these 8.1 million children is not only enrolled in elementary schools but completes
at least eight years of child centered education. RTE Act would be considered a
success if mainstream schools develop a positive attitude towards the educational
needs of economically disadvantaged group of children and increase access through
simple adaptations. Studies have shown that child centered education produces
significant social and emotional developments. The RTE Act 2009 legislates that
academic authority while laying down curriculum and evaluation procedure shall
take into consideration “learning through activities, discovery and exploration in a
child friendly and child centered manner.” The curriculum should be framed such
that it nurtures children’s original thinking, connects the learning of literature to
children’s individual needs and gives children diverse experiences. The child
friendly curriculum should focus on children’s inner lives by focusing on
developing their problem solving skills and stimulating their intellect and
imagination.
Objectives of RTE Act:
1. The development of human personality and individual talent, a sense of dignity
and self – worth, the mental and physical ability.
2. To instill a respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
3. To enable people to participate effectively in a free society.
4. To promote understanding, tolerance, friendship among all groups, and maintain
peace.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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5. To promote gender equality and respect for the environment.
However, these objectives are undoubtedly the least enforceable: it is much
easier to check Whether or not primary education is free and available to all, than
to check whether or not education has achieved its objective of the development of
a sense of dignity, individual talent or to enable people to participate effectively in
a free society.
Historical Perspectives:
Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative
effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical
sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its
accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.
“I beg to place the following resolution before the council for its
consideration……… the state should accept in this country the same responsibility
in regard to mass education that the government of most civilized countries are
already discharging. The well being of millions upon millions of children who are
waiting to be brought under the influence of education depend on it…..” The above
words are a part of the resolution which Gopal Krishna Gokhale used to move the
Imperial Legislative Council on 18th March 1910 for seeking provision of “Free
and compulsory Primary Education” in India. This initiative was not implemented;
lack of resources and enforcement being the chief reasons.
Mahatma Gandhi, the father of our nation, was forced to give a stirring call
for universal education in 1937, as the situation worsened over the years. His plea
for adequate finances for universal education was met with a response that if at all,
the way out was to utilize revenues from liquor sales. He expressed quite plainly
that, “The cruelest irony of the new reform lies in the fact that we are left with
nothing but liquor revenue to fall back upon in order to give education to our
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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children.” He solved what he called the ‘Educational Puzzle’ by proposing self
funded education, which came to be known as ‘Nai Talim’ later.
In more recent times on 26th August, 2009 “The Right of Children to Free
and Compulsory Education Act, 2009” was passed. It was extended to the whole of
India except the state of Jammu and Kashmir. According to the latest survey of the
National Sample Survey office (NSSO) in June 2008, the literary rate among the
population with age 7 and above was 72% whereas the adult population (15 and
above) has a literary rate of 66%.
Although this was a great improvement, the level is well below the average
literacy rate of 84%. Scientists estimated that it would take until 2060 for India to
achieve universal literacy at the current rate of progress. The 2001 census,
however, indicated a 1991 – 2001 decadal literacy growth of 12.63%, which is the
fastest ever on record.
At the time of Independence, India inherited an educational system which
was not only quantitatively small but was also characterized by striking gender and
regional disparities. Only one child out of three had been enrolled in primary
school. Thus challenge was to provide elementary education to all its children
within a stipulated period of time. Accordingly, universal education for all children
in the 6-14 age groups became a constitutional provision by Article 45 of the
Constitution. Special care of the economic and educational interests of the under
privileged sections of the population also became a constitutional obligation. But
these constitutional provisions still remain unfulfilled. Government's commitment
to ensure elementary education for all children aged 6-14 years was later seen in its
ambitious programme named 'Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan'.
Free and compulsory elementary education was made a fundamental right
under Article 21A of the Constitution in December 2002 by the 86th Amendment.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 135
In bringing this into action, the 'Right of Children to Free and Compulsory
Education Bill' was drafted in 2005. This was revised and became an Act in August
2009,
but
was
enforced
on
1st
April
2010.
The Right to Education Act will benefit about one crore out-of- school
children and a large number of drop-out children. As per an estimate, out of 22
crore children in the 6-14 years age group in the country, 4.6 percent children have
no enrolment in any school.
Tracing the development of the Act:
Period
Event
Phase
1910-47
1910: Resolution moved by Gopal Krishna Gokhale Acceptance of
in the Imperial Legislative Council seeking Free and importance
Compulsory Primary Education.
1937:
Mahatma
Gandhi
makes
of elementary
a
plea
for education
universalization
of education.
1944: Sargent Plan to achieve universal elementary
education by 1984.
1947-86
1947: Constituent assembly explores avenues to Significant
achieve universal elementary education.
planning
1950: Directive Principles of State Policy (Article but
45) directs state to endeavor to provide free and insignificant
compulsory education to all children until 14 years of achievements
age within a period of 10 years.
1968: Due to insignificant achievements, National
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 136
Policy on Education urges serious efforts toward
provision of free and compulsory education.
1986: National Policy on Education resolves to
provide all children free and compulsory education
up to 14 years by 1995.
1986-
1992: India becomes signatory to the UN Convention Public pressure
2009
on Rights of the Child, which requires states to and
recognize the right of the child to education.
political
will yields the
1993: Supreme Court in the case “J.P. Unnikrishnan game changing
and others vs State of Andhra Pradesh and others” Act
asks state to honor the command of Article 45 of
Constitution.
2002: Public pressure generated after Unnikrishnan
case
spurs
successive
governments
to
make
education a fundamental right. 86th Amendment
2002 makes elementary education a fundamental
right.
2003: The Free and Compulsory Education For
Children Bill, 2003 (NDA government).
2004: The Free and Compulsory Education For
Children Bill, 2004 (NDA government).
2005: The Right to Education Bill, 2005 (June)
(CABE Bill) (UPA I government).
2005: The Right to Education Bill, 2005 (August)
(UPA I government).
2006: Central legislation discarded. States advised to
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 137
make their own Bills based on The Model Right to
Education Bill, 2006 (UPA I government).
2008-09: Central legislation gets revised. President
gives
assent to The Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory
Education Act. The act to come in effect from April
2010.
Right to Education Act, 2009:
What is the act about?
 Every child between the ages of 6 to 14 years has the right to free and
compulsory education. This is stated as per the 86the Constitution
Amendment Act added Article 21A. The right to education act seeks to give
effect to this amendment
 The government schools shall provide free education to all the children and
the schools will be managed by school management committees (SMC).
Private schools shall admit at least 25% of the children in their schools
without any fee.
 The National Commission for Elementary Education shall be constituted to
monitor all aspects of elementary education including quality.
Salient features of Right to Education Act, 2009:
The salient features of the Right of Children for Free and Compulsory
Education act are:
 Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the six to 14 age
group;
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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 Non child shall be held back, expelled, or required to pass a board
examination until completion of elementary education;
 A child above six year of age has not been admitted in any school or though
admitted, could not complete his or her elementary education, then, he or she
shall be admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age; provided that where
a child is directly admitted in a class appropriate to his or her age, then, he or
she shall, in order to be at par with others, have a right to receive special
training, in such manner, and within such time-limits, as may be prescribed:
Provided further that a child so admitted to elementary education shall be
entitled to free education till completion of elementary education even after
fourteen years.
 Proof of age for admission: For the Purposes of admission to elementary
education. The age of child shall be determined on the basis of the birth
certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of the Births. Deaths and
Marriages Registration Act, 1856 or on the basis of such other document, as
may be prescribed. No child shall be denied admission in a school for lack of
age proof.
 A child who completes elementary education shall be awarded a certificate;
 Calls for a fixed student-teacher ratio;
 Will apply to all of India except Jammu and Kashmir;
 Provides for 25 percent reservation for economically disadvantaged
communities in admission to Class one in all private schools;
 Mandates improvement in quality of education;
 School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or
else will lose job;
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 139
 School infrastructure (where there is problem) to be improved in three years,
else recognition cancelled;
 Financial burden will be shared between state and central government.
Provisions for School according to RTE Act:
Present scenario in elementary Education:
Table-2 : All India (rural) : School Meeting selected RTE Norms 2010-2012
% School Meeting the following RTE Norms
2010
2011
2012
Pupil-teacher
Pupil-teacher ratio
38.9
40.8
42.8
and
Classroom teacher -teacher ratio
76.2
74.3
73.7
Classroom
teacher
norms
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 140
Building
Drinking
Office/Store/Office cum store
74.1
74.1
73.5
Playground
62.0
62.8
61.1
Boundary wall/fencing
51.0
53.9
54.7
No facility for drinking water
17.0
16.7
16.6
Facility but no drinking water available
10.3
9.9
10.4
Drinking water available
72.7
73.5
73.0
No toilet facility
11.0
12.2
8.4
Facility but no toilet useable
41.8
38.9
35.1
Toilet usable
47.2
49.0
56.5
% School with no separate provisions 31.2
22.7
21.3
water
Toilet
for girls toilets
% School with no separate girls toilets
and :
Girls toilet
Library
Toilet locked
18.7
15.0
14.1
Toilet not useable
17.2
18.7
16.4
Toilet useable
32.9
43.7
48.2
No library
37.4
28.7
23.9
Library but no books being used by 24.7
29.1
32.2
42.2
43.9
83.7
84.4
children on day of visit
Library books being used by children 37.9
on day of visit
Kitchen shed for cooking mid day meal
82.1
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 141
Mid day meal Mid day meal served in school on day of 84.6
87.5
87.1
visit
Source : ASER Report 2012
What the authors have seen during their observation of various schools is that
even after passing of more than three years after the enforcement of the Act still Poor presence of students in the school.
 Ignorance among teachers and guardians about the provisions of the Act.
 Pathetic condition of training regarding RTE.
 Acute shortage of teachers.
 Malaise of absence of teachers from the schools.
 No atmosphere of quality teaching and meaningful teaching-learning
process.
 Callousness of concerned authorities.
 Negative attitude of teachers.
 Bad effect of no detention policy.
 Absence of even basic amenities.
 Improper distribution of books, uniforms and other things.
 Bad condition of mid-day meal scheme.
 Absence of mechanism and facilities regarding children with disabilities.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
Page 142
Conclusion:
Free and compulsory elementary education for all children in the age group
of 6-14 has at long last become a legal reality with the Right of Children to Free
and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 (RTE), being made enforceable from April,
2010. What could have been easily done 60 years ago with massive support from a
newly liberated nation and a brand new Constitution has been enacted with much
fanfare but little preparation. For implementation, the RTE depends predominantly
on the States, many of which are not in a comfortable position, financially and
administratively. Anyway better late than never. The Act is expected immediately
to benefit about 9-2 million children in the age group of 6-14 who have never been
to school or have dropped out for various reasons. The Statement of objects and
reasons of the Act explains: “The crucial role of universal elementary education for
strengthening the social fabric of democracy through provision of equal
opportunities to all has been accepted since inception of our Republic. The
Directive Principles of State Policy enumerated in our Constitution has laid down
that the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children up to the
age of 14 years. Over the years there has been significant spatial and numerical
expansion of elementary schools in the country, yet the goal of universal
elementary education continues to elude us. The number of children, particularly
children from disadvantage groups and weaker sections, who drop out of school
before completing elementary education, remains very large. Moreover, the quality
of learning achievement is not always entirely satisfactory even in the case of
children, who complete elementary education”. Finally they need school of joy, not
hate.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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References:
 Agrawal, S.C. & vishal. RIGHT TO EDUCATION ACT, 2009: SOME
REFLECTIONS. Kanpur : C.S.J.M. University.
 Kumar, Dr.Rajiv.Right to Education Act : Challenges & Remedies. Aligarh:
S.V.College.
 Mukerji,S. N.( 1966) ‘History of Education in India: Modern Period’ Baroda
: Acharya Book Depot.
 Naik, J. P. (1975). ‘Equality, Quality and Quantity, The Elusive Triangle in
Indian Education’.New Delhi : Allied Publisher.
 Sarvapalli, Ram.(2012). Right to Education : Role of private sector.
 Sahay, Vikram. RIGHT OF CHILDREN TO FREE AND COMPULSORY
EDUCATION ACT, 2009. New Delhi : Ministry of HRD, Govt. Of India.
 Singh, Dharam veer. (2010). RTE and Child Centered Education.
CENBOSEC. Quarterly Bulletin of the Central Board of
Secondary
Education. Vol.49, No.4, October - December 2010.
 Sudha, T. (2010) Education : Privilege and Right. CENBOSEC. Quarterly
Bulletin of the Central Board of Secondary Education. Vol.49, No.4, October
- December 2010.
 www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/W/16/0W160401.htm
 www.education.nic.in/cd50years/g/52/4U/524U0101.htm
 www.education.nic.in/ssa/ssa_1.asp
 www.indg.in/primary-education/policiesandschemes/the-national-policy-onchildren-1974
 http://www.asercentre.org/?p=143
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Paper-10
Peer Learning: Achieving the Goal of Continuous
and Comprehensive Evaluation
Dr.Sunita Singh
Miss Meenakshi Singh
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
ISSN 2278- 2435, Vol. 2, Issue- 3, August 2013.
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Peer Learning: Achieving the Goal of Continuous and Comprehensive
Evaluation
Dr.Sunita Singh15
Miss Meenakshi Singh16
Introduction:
Education aims at making children capable of becoming responsible,
productive and useful members of a society. Knowledge, skills and attitudes are
built through learning experiences and opportunities created for learners in school.
It is in the classroom that learners can analyze and evaluate their experiences, learn
to doubt, to question, to investigate and to think independently. The aim of
education simultaneously reflects the current needs and aspirations of a society as
well as its lasting values and human ideals. At any given time and place they can be
called the contemporary and contextual articulations of broad and lasting human
aspirations and values. An understanding of learners, educational aims, the nature
of knowledge, and the nature of the school as a social space can help us arrive at
principles to guide classroom practices. Conceptual development is thus a
continuous process of deepening and enriching connections and acquiring new
layers of meaning. Alongside is the development of theories that children have
about the natural and social worlds, including themselves in relation to others,
which provide them with explanations for why things are the way they are and the
relationship between cause and effect.
15
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Education (K), B.H.U. Varansi (UP) – 221005, Mobile : 09415522193, e-mail :
sunitasingh.bhu@gmail.com
16
Primary Teacher, Ghazipur
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In recent years, there has been a growing concern for improving the quality
of achievement of all learners at elementary and secondary level. But this aim to
improve learners’ quality and to universalize the elementary education are not
being realized totally due to traditional teaching – approach and traditional
evaluation system which are conventional and narrow in their scope. The
summative evaluation system has dominated the entire educational process at
school level in the country and created enormous problem leading to lowering
down the standard of education in past few decades. The evaluation procedure at
primary stage has been equally affected by the process of examination which paved
the way for the introduction of non-detention policy at primary level.
Consequently, the change was introduced through examination reform with a view
to bring about qualitative improvement in education. It is a very well known fact
that the evaluation practices carried out in schools aim to measure only knowledge
and understanding outcomes of the learners, neglecting the skills and higher mental
abilities. One of the major goals of school education is all round development of
the child. The National Policy on Education (1986) and the Programme of Action
(1992) followed by the National Curriculum Framework of School Education
(1986, 2000 and 2005) reiterated the need for developing the personal and social
qualities among learners. They stressed the point that the evaluation should be
comprehensive in nature, wherein all learning experiences pertaining to scholastic,
co-scholastic, personal and social qualities are assessed.
The comprehensive evaluation necessitates the summative assessment of
cognitive abilities as well as the assessment of health habits, work habits,
cleanliness, cooperation and other social and personal qualities through simple and
manageable means of tools. This evaluation system is characterized by multiple
tools and technique to capture the level of all round development of students along
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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with their pace and development. The frequency of class test, unit test and terminal
test can make the evaluation regular. The test may be followed by diagnosis of the
hard spots of learner and remedial interventions to correct them. Although
examinations are necessary and no educational system can be complete without
examination. The comprehensive evaluation not only helps in checking all the
standards of performance in both scholastic and co-scholastic areas, but also in
decision making regarding various aspects of teaching-learning process, promoting
the students, increasing quality, efficiency and accountability. Continuous and
comprehensive evaluation necessitates the use of multiple evaluation techniques
and tools in addition to certain conventional ones. Along with the emphasis on
introducing the Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation, the grading system
was also recommended (NPC 1986). The continuity of the evaluation can be
achieved by making evaluation as an integral part of teaching- learning process.
Some fall ill before starting of examination due to fear of examination. (Khatoon &
Parveen 2009). The objectives of Continuous and comprehensive evaluation are :
 To help in the development of cognitive, psychomotor and affective skills.
 To lay emphasis on thought process and de-emphasize memorization
 To make evaluation an integral part of teaching-learning process
 To use evaluation for improvement of students achievement and teaching –
learning strategies on the basis of regular diagnosis followed by remedial
instruction
 To use evaluation as a quality control devise to maintain desired standard of
performance
 To determine social utility, desirability or effectiveness of a programmed and
take appropriate decisions about the learner, the process of learning and the
learning environment
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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 To make the process of teaching and learning a learner-centered activity.
When we go through the objective of CCE we find that in CCE there is a space
of co-operative and collaborative learning. CCE suggests that activities are child
centered. Researchers observe that when students a lot of things learn through
observation from their peers easily. The students have an opportunity to interact
each other and share their experiences in peer learning.
What is ‘Peer Learning?
‘Peer learning’ is an instructional method which involves active learning that
present opportunities for students to formulate their own questions, discuss issues,
explain their viewpoints, and engage in cooperative learning by working in teams
on problems and projects. It is a form of cooperative learning that enhances the
value of student-student interaction and results in various advantageous learning
outcomes. ‘Peer learning’ essentially refers to students learning with and from each
other as fellow learners without any implied authority to any individual, based on
the tenet that “Students learn a great deal by explaining their ideas to others and by
participating in activities in which they can learn from their peers” (Boud, 2001).
In peer learning, students will construct their own meaning and
understanding of what they need to learn. Essentially, students will be involved in
searching for, collecting, analysing, and evaluating, integrating and applying
information to complete an assignment or solve a problem. Thus, students will
engage
themselves intellectually, emotionally and socially in
“constructive
conversation” and learn by talking and questioning each other’s views and reaching
consensus or dissent (Boud, 2001).
Students develop many practical skills from their peers including facilitation
and communication skills, professional self awareness and psychomotor skills
development. The role of a teacher changes from instructor to facilitator. Thus,
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teachers prime students by selecting discussion topics that all students are likely to
have some relevant knowledge of; they also raise questions/issues that prompt
students towards more sophisticated levels of thinking. Collaborative processes are
devised to get all group members to participate meaningfully. The theoretical basis
for ‘peer learning’ has much in common with co-operative and collaborative
learning methods. Both emphasise active engagement and participatory learning.
‘Peer learning’ involves active assistance and support among people from similar
social groupings who are not professional teachers but who help each other to learn
and learn themselves by teaching. The roles of the ‘learner’ and the ‘teacher’ may
change during the course of the learning experience as participants share their
knowledge and work on joint problem-solving tasks.
Classroom Structure for Peer learning:
Peer learning is optimised when incorporated as an integral component of a
curriculum, paying special attention to:
• Creating a conducive learning environment: Students must build mutual
respect for and trust and confidence in one another, so that they “feel free to
express opinions, test ideas, and ask for, or offer help when it is needed”
(Smith, 1983). Peer learning can be further enhanced if the “environment of
mutual help…continues over time and beyond the classroom” (Boud, 2001).
Thus, students are individually and collectively accountable for optimising
their own learning and achievements.
• Learning in small collaborative groups: Many of the key elements for
effective peer learning are often incorporated in the design of small
collaborative learning groups, and “research shows that students who engage
in collaborative learning and group study perform better academically,
persist longer, feel better about the educational experience, and have
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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enhanced self-esteem” (Landis, 2000). Furthermore, “the peer support…is
powerful psychological ballast to critical thinking efforts” (Brookfield,
1987).
Peer Learning & Grading System:
 Peer Learning and Scholastic Area
This area deals with performance in academic subjects like Language, Science,
Math and English instead of marks, grades are given based on the performance all
through the year. In peer learning children learn in a variety of ways-through
experience, making and doing things, experimentation, reading, discussion, asking,
listening, thinking and reflecting, and expressing themselves in speech or writingboth individually and with others. They require opportunities of all these kinds in
the course of their development. The academic year is divided into two sessions, in
each session; there are Formative and Summative Assessments. The school has
liberty in deciding the number of Formative assessments and their percentage by
weight, but at the end of the evaluation, the students get a grade for each subject
instead of marks.
Table 1
Subject
Aspects
Language
Reading
skills
-
Pronunciation,
Fluency, Comprehension.
Writing skills - Creative writing,
Hand writing, Grammar, Spelling,
Vocabulary.
Speaking
skill
-
Conversation,
Recitation.
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Listening skills - Comprehension,
Extra reading, Activities/Project.
Mathematics
Concept, Activity, Tables, Mental
ability.
Environmental
Environmental
sensitivity,
Science
Activity/Project, Group discussion.
Science
Concept, Activity/Project, Scientific
skills, Group discussion.
Computer
Skills, Aptitude.
Education
 Peer Learning in development of Co-scholastic Area:
Co-scholastic area deals with literary/Creative/Scientific/Aesthetic Skills,
Performing Art, Clubs, Health and Physical Education. Learning is enriched if the
two arenas interact with each other. Art and work provide opportunities for holistic
learning that is rich in tacit and aesthetic components. Such experiences are
essentially to be learnt through direct experience and integrated into life. Peer
learning gives a lot of opportunity to students for interaction with each other and
also gives the space for doing a lot of activities through which identified coscholastic areas are developed among students very easily. Teachers are expected
to grades students on their involvement with these activities during the year.
Students can sticks with areas like literary skills like debates and Declamations or
even showcase their talents in more creative fields like art, craft and drama. This
way, this part again promotes development of a child in areas other than academics.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Table 2
Subject
Aspect
Games
Enthusiasm,
Discipline,
Team
spirit,
Talent(Strength,
stamina
and speed)
Art/Craft
Interest, Creativity, Skill.
Music/Dance
Interest, Rhythm, Melody.
Personality Development
Courteousness, Confidence,
Care
of
belonging,
Neatness, Regularity and
Punctuality,
Initiative,
Spirit of service, Respect
other’s
property,
Self
control.
In the CCE grading system there will be dual formative assessment and
single summative assessment for assessment of scholastic areas. In the formative
assessment students will be given regular feedback and motivate them to actively
involve themselves in self learning. This will help to increase the student’s
performance level and confidence level. The formative Assessment is not
constrained only to the pencil paper tests. It also has various quizzes, oral testing,
projects, assignments etc. The Summative assessment in the CCE is a way of
assessment of student’s performance at the end of the teaching. The evaluation is of
pen-paper test and is carried out by the schools themselves. This will be held at the
end of each term. There will be an evaluation of Co-Scholastic areas like students
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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achievement, attitudes, creative and scientific skills, health and physical education
and many more.
How To Create and Manage Peer Groups:
Learning must be paced so that it allows learners to engage with concepts
and deepen understanding rather than remembering only to forget after
examinations. At the same time learning must provide variety and challenge, and
be interesting and engaging. Boredom is a sign that the task may have become
mechanically repetitive for the child and of little cognitive value. Before breaking
students into peer groups, a teacher must decide:
• The length of time that students need to think about a problem or issue.
• The number of students who need to be involved to create the dynamic of
that you want (research shows that groups of 3 to 5 members work best).
• The formation of a group-as an informal group for a single class or as a
formalized group or team.
• The assignment of group members: random, self-selected (by students), or
instructor-assigned. Ideally, students express preferences to the instructor
who then creates balanced groups.
• The product for which you want to hold students responsible.
• Assign group roles (particularly for informal, in-class group work) to
increase student accountability. Roles include: leader, note-taker, and
reporter (one person takes notes but another reports back to the class), and
questioner. Other roles can include: elaborator (explains-extends group
ideas), opinion-seeker (who solicits value statements from the group), and
orienteer (one who shifts the group discussion when needed).
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Strategies for Peer Learning:
To facilitate successful peer learning, teachers may choose from an array of
strategies:
• Buzz Groups: A large group of students is subdivided into smaller groups of
4–5 students to consider the issues surrounding a problem. After about 20
minutes of discussion, one member of each sub-group presents the findings
of the sub-group to the whole group.
• Affinity Groups: Groups of 4–5 students are each assigned particular tasks to
work on outside of formal contact time. At the next formal meeting with the
teacher, the sub-group, or a group representative, presents the sub-group’s
findings to the whole tutorial group.
• Solution and Critic Groups: One sub-group is assigned a discussion topic for
a tutorial and the other groups constitute ‘critics’ who observe, offer
comments and evaluate the sub-group’s presentation.
• ‘Teach-Write-Discuss’: At the end of a unit of instruction, students have to
answer short questions and justify their answers. After working on the
questions individually, students compare their answers with each other’s. A
whole-class discussion subsequently examines the array of answers that still
seem justifiable and the reasons for their validity.
• Critique sessions, role-play, debates, case studies and integrated projects are
other exciting and effective teaching strategies that stir students’ enthusiasm
and encourage peer learning. Students thus have diverse opportunities to
experience in a reasonably ‘safe’ and unconstrained context (while perhaps
being evaluated by another group and/or the teacher), reactions to complex
and ‘real’ problems they may face later in their careers.
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Expected Beneficial Outcomes Of Peer Learning:
In addition to content knowledge acquisition, peer learning, especially in small
collaborative groups, nurtures and fosters the development of:
• self-directed learning skills, and thus lays the foundation for life-long
continuing self-education;
• critical thinking and problem-solving skills;
• communication, interpersonal and teamwork skills; and
• Learning through self, peer assessment and critical reflection.
• leadership roles,
• acquire conflict-managing skills,
• discuss and clarify concepts,
• Complexities of human relationships within a given context enhance their
learning outcomes. Thus, students’ learning extends far beyond the written
word and even the given task. Peer learning also strongly motivates
learning often attributed to the fun and joy of learning in small groups. The
outcomes of peer learning ultimately depend on the design strategy, outcome
objectives of the course, facilitating skills of the teacher, and the
commitment of students and teachers.
Successful Peer Learning:
For ‘peer learning’ to be effective, the teacher must ensure that the entire
group experiences ‘positive interdependence’, face-to-face interaction, group
processing, and individual and group accountability. ‘Positive interdependence’
emphasises the importance and uniqueness of each group member’s efforts while
important cognitive activities and interpersonal dynamics are quietly at work. As
students communicate with one another, they inevitably assume leadership roles,
acquire conflict-managing skills, discuss and clarify concepts, and unravel the
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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complexities of human relationships within a given context; this process enhances
their learning outcomes. Thus, students’ learning extends far beyond the written
word and even the given task. However, peer learning may encourage the presence
of ‘freeloaders’—team members who fail to fulfil their team responsibilities, but
are awarded for assignments or presentations the same (high) grade as their more
responsible teammates. Freeloading may be minimised by using peer ratings to
assess individual performance of team members, or conducting a ‘post-test’. There
will then be two levels of accountability: the individual and the group.
Conclusion:
Peer learning is learner-centred education that transcends content knowledge
acquisition. It optimises student learning outcomes and provides a more holistic,
value-added and quality-enhancing educations that will better prepare students for
the needs of the workforce in this millennium. Team-building, spirit, more
supportive relationships, greater psychological, well-being, social competence,
communication skills, self-esteem and higher achievement and greater productivity
in terms of enhanced learning outcomes. Although peer-learning strategies are
valuable tools for educators to utilise, it is obvious that simply placing students in
groups and telling them to ‘work together’ is not going to automatically yield
results. The teacher must consciously orchestrate the learning exercise and choose
the appropriate vehicle for it. Only then will students in fact engage in peer learning
and reap the benefits. Collaborative learning confirms that students working in
small groups tend to learn more and retain more of the subject matter. Students who
are involved in ‘group work’ during class have been shown to develop a deeper
understanding of the subject matter and increased problem-solving skills. The
benefits of group work include engagement and development of team skills. We
Education India Journal: A Quarterly Refereed Journal of Dialogues on Education,
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Page 157
can conclude that if peer learning is implemented in a proper way, we can achieve
the goal of CCE in true sense.
References:
 Boud, D. (2001). ‘Introduction: Making the Move to Peer Learning’. In
Boud, D., Cohen, Ruth & Sampson, Jane (Ed.). Peer Learning in Higher
Education: Learning From & With Each Other. London: Kogan Page Ltd, 1–
17.
 Brookfield, S.D. (1987). Developing Critical Thinkers. Jossey-Bass, San
Franciso.
 Landis, R.B. (2000). ‘Academic Success Strategies’. In Studying
Engineering: A Road Map to a Rewarding Career (2nd ed.). Los Angeles:
Discovery Press.
 NCF (2005) NCERT, New Delhi.
 Smith, R.M. (1983). Learning How to Learn. U.K.: Buckingham Open
University Press.
 www.cbse.nic.in
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