The Development of Articles in Baba Malay
Elzbieta Thurgood
California State University, Chico
Abstract. This paper offers a synchronic analysis of nineteenth-century Baba
Malay ini and itu. On the basis of narrative stories published in the Baba Malay
newspaper Bintang Timor, the paper argues that Baba Malay used these forms
as both definite articles and as demonstratives; when ini and itu precede a
noun, they function as demonstratives, but when they follow a noun, they
function as definite articles. The evidence for the distinction between demon
stratives and definite articles is found in textual frequencies and discourse
functions of ini and itu. Nineteenth-century Baba Malay developed both a
proximal and a distal definite article, with the choice between the two definite
articles ini and itu reflecting complex discourse considerations.
1. Introduction.
The term "Baba Malays" is used to refer to the Straits-born
Chinese, who have resided either in Melaka or in Singapore for generations.
Chinese settlements in Melaka can be traced back to at least the fourteenth
century; Chinese settlements in Singapore began with the founding of the city in
1819. The early Chinese immigrants in Melaka intermarried with the local
people, adopting the local Malay culture and the Malay language, but at the
same time they preserved some of their Chinese heritage. On the basis of the
historical facts documented in the work of historians (Clammer 1983; Preedman
1962, among others) as well as nineteenth-century commentators (Vaughan
1974), it is clear that the first contacts between the Chinese and Malays gave the
former full access to Malay culture and language.
The linguistic assimilation of Chinese immigrants in Melaka resulted in the
formation of a new variety of Malay, Baba Malay. The Chinese immigrants who
settled in Melaka and later in Singapore originally spoke Min dialects—primari
ly Hokkien, but closely related Teochiu as well. Prom these dialects they shifted
to local varieties of Malay into which they introduced some Hokkien elements
(Thurgood 1998).
In the nineteenth century, there must have been a rich variety of speakers
of Baba Malay. Baba Malay was the business language used not only by the
already established Babas, but also by Malays and the newly arrived Chinese
immigrants. In 1887, Lim referred to Baba Malay as the Malay "spoken by all
nationalities in the colonies of the Straits Settlements, with the exception of the
Europeans" (l887:i). Given such a variety of speakers, it would be unexpected
for there to be a single, undifferentiated, unified variety of Baba Malay. The
variant of Baba Malay analyzed in this study represents the Baba Malay
471
Anthropological Linguistics
472
43 no. 4
2001
language before it was inundated and dramatically influenced by the arrival of
the great influx of Hokkien and other Chinese speakers at the end of the nine
teenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. It is the Baba Malay
that, at that time, had been spoken for generations by the Babas as their first
Bintang Timor 1
language.
(FYC) 'About the
The paper makes two claims about the systematic variation between the
prehead and posthead positions of the determiners ini and itu in nineteenthcentury Baba Malay. First, the nineteenth-century Baba Malay determiners
function as demonstratives when in prehead position and as definite articles
when in posthead position, that is, there are the two functions distinguished
only by syntactic position. Second, Baba Malay has, not one, but two definite
articles, one developed from the proximal demonstrative and the other from the
distal demonstrative. The evidence for each claim is both qualitative and quan
titative. The qualitative proof is that Baba Malay articles are found in contexts
that do not allow the use of demonstratives. The quantitative proof is found in
positional frequencies. The frequencies of the demonstrative use correspond to
the frequencies of demonstratives in other languages; the frequencies of the
definite article use correspond to the frequencies of articles. Further, it is shown
that the choice between the proximal article and the distal article is discourse
based, involving the interaction of the animacy hierarchy with a discourse hier
archy (cf. Chafe 1994).
The emergence of definite articles from demonstratives has also been pos
ited for a number of other languages, for example, for English (Christophersen
1939); German (Lockwood 1968); Finnish (Laury 1995); and the Romance lan
guages Vulgar Latin, Portuguese, Spanish, and Rumanian (Williams 1962;
Lathrop 1980; Faingold 1996).1 The descriptions of the development of definite
articles in Swahili (Ashton 1944) and in Montagnais (Cyr 1993) offer par
ticularly useful comparisons for the study of Baba Malay definite articles.
Swahili and Montagnais share with Baba Malay two crosslinguistically rather
rare phenomena. First, in Swahili and Montagnais, the articles and demon
stratives are distinguished only by a difference in position. The same claim will
be made for Baba Malay. Second, Montagnais, like Baba Malay, uses the same
form for both, except that the positions are reversed—the postposed determiners
function as definite articles and the preposed determiners function as demon
stratives.
1.1. Baba Malay data. The analysis of Baba Malay demonstratives is based
on the data that come from the first Baba Malay newspaper Bintang Timor
(published from 2 July 1894 to 2 July 1895). The paper was used to report
local news and news from abroad; it was used to advertise, and to tell stories. It
also included Baba Malay pantun and syair, that is, Malay-style poems, and
dondang sayang, that is, Malay-style pantuns set to music.2
The database for this study consists of four narrative stories published in
orang adekberac
fieri hal mak tit
and her stepchil
Cherita dua safa
long). Each oft!
period of two to 1
variety of Malay
variety of Malay
2. Demonstrati
language shift
originated when
of Malay. The st
the two demons
nouns (and class
(1) cit
this
ui
CL
siai
gen
'this gentlema
(2) hit
that
ui tha\
CL lad:
'that lady' (Be
In contrast, 1
itu, follow the h<
and itu was note
"they commonly i
before it, as para
'that man'" (1852
not simply obser
had the possibili
head position. O
on Malay only me
said in 1927 that
words, if any, d<
"any descriptive
or adjectival phr;
In Malay, ini
cles. These dual 1
noted that "the
often, where the?
43 no. 4
y the arrival of
nd of the ninehe Baba Malay
is as their first
2001
ELZBIETA THURGOOD
473
Bintang Timor between July and October I894. These stories are Cherita dua
orangadek beradek (CDO) "The story of two siblings' (3,094 words long), Cherita
deri hal mak tiri dengan anak tirinya (CDHMT) 'A story about a stepmother
and her stepchild' (1,766 words long), Putri yang chinta bapanya sperti garam
lefinite articles
(PYC) 'About the princess who loved her father like salt' (3,120 words long), and
Cherita dua sahabatyang baik (CDS) 'A story of two good friends' (1,674 words
long). Each of the stories was published in serial form every other day over a
period of two to three weeks. The Baba Malay used in the stories is an informal
variety of Malay whose grammatical patterns are not found in a more standard
s distinguished
variety of Malay.3
m between the
in nineteenthay determiners
tut two definite
j other from the
ative and quan-
2. Demonstratives and definite articles in the Baba Malay context of
language shift. Baba Malay system of demonstratives and definite articles
und in contexts
originated when the Chinese immigrants shifted from Hokkieii to local varieties
jroofisfoundin
of Malay. The shift to Malay required learning a new word order. In Hokkien,
je correspond to
the two demonstratives, the proximal cit and the distal hit always precede
quencies of the
nouns (and classifiers), as shown in (1) and (2).
ther, it is shown
icle is discourse
* discourse hieiris also been pos[Christophersen
le Romance lan(Williams 1962;
unent of definite
1993) offer pariefinite articles,
uistically rather
cles and demon-
j same claim will
iy, uses the same
)sed determiners
action as demon
(1) cit
this
ui
CL
sian-si
gentleman
'this gentleman'
(2) hit
that
ui
thai-thai
CL
lady
'that lady' (Bodman 1987:15)
In contrast, the two Malay demonstratives, the proximal ini and the distal
itu, follow the head noun. However, a variation in the syntactic position of ini
and itu was noted in nineteenth-century Malay by Crawfurd, who reports that
"they commonly follow the noun or pronoun, but may also be occasionally placed
before it, as parampiian ini or ini parampuan 'this woman'; laki itu or itu laki
'that man'" (1852:28).4 This observation suggests that, assuming Crawfurd was
not simply observing the variation in Baba Malay, rtineteenth-century Malay
had the possibility of prehead position, in addition to the more common posthead position. Contrary to Crawfurd's early observations, later commentators
on Malay only mention posthead position for ini and itu. Winstedt, for example,
stratives is based
r Bintang Timor
is used to report
dtotellstories.lt
style poems, and
>ries published in
said in 1927 that ini and itu follow "the word that they qualify and follow all the
words, if any, denoting its attributes" (1957:116). Similarly, Lewis said that
"any descriptive words which belong to the noun (i.e., any attributive adjective
or adjectival phrase) must come before the ini or itu" (1968:55).
In Malay, ini and itu may function as both demonstratives and definite arti
cles. These dual functions have been commented on in the literature. Crawfurd
noted that "the demonstrative pronouns, especially itu, are much used, and
often, where they would appear to us, redundant" (1852:28). He suggested that
474
ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS
43 NO. 4
2001
"they seem to be equivalent to our definite article, or to the Latin Me, turned
(3) Dahulu ada a
into an article ..." (1852:28). Almost a hundred years later, Winstedt gave a
more detailed description of mi and itu saying that the demonstrative pronoun
perampuan? j
itu means 'the, that, those' and refers to "the well-known, the distant in time
and space," and that the demonstrative pronoun ini means 'this, these' and
refers to "the particular, the near in time and space" (1957:116). In Lewis's
description of Malay, both ini and itu were marked as being "at times the
equivalent of the English definite article 'the'," when "the thing to which the
noun refers has been under discussion, or is familiar to the hearer, or ... is well
known to everybody" (1968:55-56). Here, Lewis observed that, for Malay, it is
particularly itu that may function as a definite article.
3. The qualitative proof. For a particular language, there is usually agree
ment as to what a demonstrative is and what a definite article is; occasionally,
however, there are problems of definition. These problems arise when demon
stratives do not express what is often at least assumed to be their primary
meaning—denoting spatial distance (cf. Lyons 1977:646; Pillmore 1982:48;
Anderson and Keenan 1985:259; among others). Kirsner (1979:358), for exam
ple, has shown that, in Dutch, demonstratives do not have to signal spatial dis
tance at all, but instead they may signal a relative degree of focus placed on a
referent by the speaker. As a result, in some contexts, the Dutch proximate
demonstrative signals a relatively high degree of attention placed on the refer
ent by the speaker (regardless of the spatial distance), whereas the distal de
monstrative signals a relatively low degree of attention placed on the referent.
In other contexts, however, these demonstratives do signal spatial distance.
Establishing that a particular demonstrative has actually become a definite
article has to be based on criteria that explicitly differentiate between those
usages shared by both definite articles and demonstratives and those usages
restricted just to definite articles. The criteria used in this study follow those of
Hawkins (1978, 1984, 1991), who discusses various different uses of demon
stratives and definite articles, and then collapses them into the following four:
the anaphoric use, the visible situation use, the larger situation use, and the
associative anaphoric use. The first use, the anaphoric use, does not discrimi
nate between demonstratives and articles. The second use, the visible situation
use, discriminates between demonstratives and definite articles under certain
circumstances. The remaining two, the larger situation use and the associative
anaphoric use, are restricted to definite articles; only the posthead occurrences
of ini and itu display these uses. This correlation between the syntactic position
before
be
01
woman
<
datang kapad
come
to-3SG
'In an earlier tii
the king called
In(3),anewparti(
the numeral satu'
is referred to as
anaphoric definite
Like ini, itu 1
and (5).
(4) dan atorkan s)
and arrange a
'and everything
(5) kumdian
diai
afterwards 3PL
'then they took 8
In (4), kemah 'ten
precedes the head:
rumah 'house'. In
position. A more c<
(6) dia
tengok api
3SG look
ayer
fire
sudah
water already
tetapi dia
but
ta't
3SG not
'he saw that th<
already brough
done all the wor
The anaphoric de
and the functions performed by ini and itu constitute the basis for the claim
events: the fire be
that, besides demonstratives, Baba Malay also has two definite articles.
the tables and cha
events are the refe
3.1. The anaphoric use.
Both demonstratives and definite articles display
the anaphoric use. In (3) below, the anaphoric use of ini is illustrated.
Intheanaphoi
position, but also ii
43 no. 4
.tin Me, turned
ifinstedt gave a
Elzbieta Thurgood
2001
(3) Dahulu ada aatu raja dalam sebuah negri
before
be
one
king inside
one-CL
perampuan.6 Pads suatu hari raja ini
distant in time
woman
Jus, these' and
16). In Lewis's
I "at times the
ng to which the
•er, or... is well
, for Malay, it is
one
day
yang ada
country that
xative pronoun
on
475
tujoh
anak
have seven child
panggil anak-nya tujoh
king this call
child-3SG
tujoh
seven seven
datang kapada-nya,
come
to-3SG
'In an earlier time, there was a king of a country who had seven daughters. One day
the king called his seven daughters to him,' (PYC:l-2)
In (3), a new participant, raja 'king', is first introduced as satu raja 'a king' with
the numeral satu 'one' functioning very much like an indefinite article. Then, he
is referred to as raja ini 'the king'. Ini in raja ini marks the phrase as an
s usually agree-
is; occasionally,
ge when demon-
e their primary
illmore 1982:48;
):358), for exam-
ignal spatial disbcus placed on a
)utch proximate
iced on the refer-
>as the distal de1 on the referent,
itial distance.
Decome a definite
te between those
and those usages
dy follow those of
t uses of demon-
he following four:
tion use, and the
ioes not discrirnie visible situation
:les under certain
ad the associative
thead occurrences
syntactic position
■asis for the claim
te articles.
.te articles display
istrated.
anaphoric definite NP.
like ini, itu also marks a particular referent as definite, as shown in (4)
and (5).
(4) dan atorkan smoa barang itu
didalam aatu rumah kemah
and arrange all
thing
that inside
one
CL
tent
'and everything was arranged inside a tent1 (PYC:265)
(5) kumdian
diaorang ambil satu krosi letakkan diluar kemah itu
afterwards 3PL
take
one chair put
outside tent
that
'then they took a chair and put it outside the tent' (PYC:272-73)
In (4), kemah 'tent' is marked as a new referent by the classifier phrase that
precedes the head noun and consists of the numeral satu 'one' and the classifier
rumah 'house'. In (5), kemah 'tent' is marked as definite by itu in the posthead
position. A more complicated example of anaphora is shown in (6).
(6) dia tengok api dapor-nya
sudah
menyala bilek-nya sudah
sapu,
3SG look
fire kitchen-3SG already light
room-3SG already sweep
ayer
sudah
sedia angkat, meja dan bangku smoa sudah
bersih,
water already ready lift
table and stool
all
already clean
tetapi dia ta'tahu
siapa yang sudah
bikin smoa kerja ini,
but
3SG not.know who
that already make all
work this
'he saw that the fire in his kitchen was lit,
his room was swept, the water was
already brought, the tables and chairs were all clean, but he did not know who had
done all the work,' (CDHMT: 178-81)
The anaphoric definite NP smoa kerja ini 'all the work' refers back to four
events: the fire being lit; the room being swept; the water being brought; and,
the tables and chairs being cleaned. The anaphoric use of ini signals that these
events are the referents of the NP smoa kerja ini 'all the work'.
In the anaphoric use, Baba Malay ini and itu occur not only in the posthead
position, but also in the prehead position. Compare (4M6) above with (7) below.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS
476
43 NO. 4
(7) dan dia dapat satu mimpi dia tengok ada satu hutan, daXam itu
and 3SG get
one dream 3SG look
be
one
jungle inside that
hutan ada satu orang bertapo, ini orang bertapa jikalau dia tidor
jungle be
one person hermit
this person hermit
if
3SG sleep
dua bias
two
2001
However, w
their referents a
visible, as, for ex
red to as raja ini
tahun
(11) angkau dud*
teen year
'and he had a dream in which he seemed to be in a jungle, in the jungle there was a
hermit, the hermit would sleep twelve years' (PYC:l62-64)
2SG
sit
'please sit an<
Examples (4M7) illustrate the anaphoric use of ini and itu characteristic of
But the crucial e?
definite articles and demonstratives.
the hearer is in i
with the posthea
3.2. The immediate situation use. Hawkins (1978:110-15) says that, with a
demonstrative, it is essential for the hearer to be able to see the referent; but,
with a definite article, the hearer does not have to be able to see the referent. He
observes that it is not the function of definite articles to signal visibility "even
when the referent is to be located in the immediate situation of utterance in
which it is potentially visible" (1978:114). Thus, in (8), the hearer is warned
about a dog in the immediate vicinity, but it is not necessarily visible to him.
(12) Maka bertru
then cry.ou'
selak klaml
open
mosqi
"Then the ol<
(CDO:276-7'/
(8) Don't go there, chum. The dog will biteyou. (Hawkins 1978:112)
Thus, in (12), itu
In contrast, a demonstrative in the same sentence would instruct the hearer "to
demonstratives i
such cases, ini an
identify the object itself, and thus it actually has a visibility requirement built
into it as part of its meaning" (Hawkins 1978:115).
The four Baba Malay texts examined in this study have been analyzed in
3.3. Larger sitx
noted that there
light of Hawkins's observation. Although ini and itu do not often occur in the
namely, what he1
prehead position, when they do and when this is a first mention, the referent is
use. "The larger
always visible. For example, it is clear from the story PYC that, in (9), the
various kinds, e.j
interlocutors can see the jungle that is referred to with the NP ini hutan 'this
objects" (Hawkin
jungle'. Similarly, it is clear from the story CDO that, in (10), the interlocutors
lish town has a to
can see the water referred to with the NP itu ayer 'that water'.
mentioned for th<
(9) mengapa angkau datang didalam ini hutan,
why
2SG
come
inside
this jungle
(13) Halifax is as
last year. (Ht
'Why did you come into this jungle?' (FYC:198)
(10) "jikalau angkau mandi badan bulih dapat kuat
dan segar,
if
2SG
bathe body
can
get
strong and refreshed
lekas-lah
itu
ayer
Hawkins (19'
for the associative
cles requires a lin
nanti sejok"
fast-EMPH that water later
cold
'"if you wash, you will feel strong and be refreshed, quickly before that water gets
(14) The man drovt
1978:123)
cold,"' (CDO:263-64)
Hawkins (1978:1
lead to the definii
43 no. 4
alam
itu
iside
that
siau dia
tidor
3SG sleep
angle there was a
ELZBIETA THURGOOD
2001
477
However, when ini and itu occur in posthead position, there are times when
their referents are clearly not visible. Sometimes, of course, the referents are
visible, as, for example, in (11), where both interlocutors can see the king refer
red to as raja ini 'the king'.
(11) angkau dudok tunggu
raja ini,
2SG
sit
watch.over king this
'please sit and watch over the king,' (PYC:93)
characteristic of
But the crucial examples are when the referents are not visible, as in (12), where
the hearer is in another room and thus cannot see the mosquito net referred to
with the posthead determiner itu.
jays that, with a
he referent; but,
the referent. He
I visibility "even
i of utterance in
earer is warned
risible to him.
(12) Maka bertriak-lah
then
selak klambu
open
baboo
tua itu,
cry.out-EMPH domestic old
dengan berkata, "Hai, jangan-lah
that with
say
hey
don't-EMFH
itu,"
mosquito.net that
'Then the old nurse called out, saying, "Hey, don't open the mosquito net,"'
(CDO:276-77)
Thus, in (12), itu must be an article since the referent is clearly not visible. In
such cases, ini and itu pattern like definite articles in posthead position, but like
ict the hearer "to
demonstratives in prehead position.
squirement built
3.3. Larger situation and associative anaphoric uses.
Hawkins (1978)
been analyzed in
noted that there are uses of articles that are not shared by demonstratives,
ften occur in the
namely, what he terms "the larger situation use" and "the associative anaphoric
m, the referent is
use." The larger situation use requires "a general knowledge that situations of
that, in (9), the
various kinds, e.g., weddings, villages, countries, etc., generally contain certain
fP ini hutan 'this
objects" (Hawkins 1978:119). For example, the general knowledge that an Eng
the interlocutors
lish town has a town clerk makes it possible to refer to the town clerk even when
mentioned for the first time, as in (13)(13) Halifax is a sleepy little Yorkshire town. The town clerk was involved in a scandal
last year. (Hawkins 1978:120)
Hawkins (1978) shows that referring to general knowledge is also the basis
egar,
efreshed
for the associative anaphoric use of the definite article. This use of definite arti
cles requires a linguistic referent which triggers relevant associations, as in (14).
(14) The man drove past our house in a car. The exhaust fumes were terrible. (Hawkins
fore that water gets
1978:123)
Hawkins (1978:123) observes that the first NP a car triggers associations that
lead to the definiteness of the exhaust fumes. Hawkins notes that, although it is
Anthropological Linguistics
478
43 no. 4
2001
not clear what the parameters defining the set of possible associates are, "the
Examples (16M
notion 'part-of' seems to play and important role in denning... possible associ
in which the twc
ates" (1978:123). He observes that "the trigger must conjure up a set of objects
some larger obje
which are generally known to be part of some larger object or situation" (1978:
tion, suggesting
123-24).
Baba Malay
This associative use of Baba Malay itu is illustrated in (15) and (16) below.
other nrst-menti
ically related to
(15) Tetakala sudah
when
sampai ka-iatana-nya, dia
already arrive
riaskan
dalam istana
decorate inside
to-palace-3SG
itu
suroh orang
orang-nya
3SG order person person-3SG
(20) tengok mats
dengan segala perhiasan
palace that with
all
see
decoration
'When they arrived at his palace, he ordered his/the people to decorate the inside of
the palace' (CDO:226-27)
(16) Maka
sahari
eye-d
diseblah
down.at.sidt
hari dia bermain main-lah
after.that one.day day
that in such uses
3SG play
di dalam
play-EMPH at inside
taman itu,
garden that
"Then every day he/she/it played in the garden,' (CDO:234)
'did you see
(CDS:9-11)
In (20), mata-hai
visible to the in
In (16), this associative, first-mention use of taman 'garden' occurs with the
introduced refert
determiner itu already in posthead position, suggesting that it is an article. The
Obviously, this \
larger context provided by the story makes it clear that the definiteness of
makes it possibh
taman 'garden' has been established by associating it with istana 'palace' refer
The general
(in standard Me
red to in (15).
In a similar way, but in a different story, the earlier mention of tempat tidur
cheritakan dent
'the bed' in. (17) allows the narrator to use a posthead itu when referring to a
Beginda Sultan <
nearby corner penjuru itu 'the corner' in (18).
the Sultan of Jo
mention, as in (2
. (17) angkau mesti masok tempat tidor,
you
must enter
place
sleep
(21) Dato ini n
dato this g
'you must go to bed,' (CDHMT: 19)
(18) baik juga
dia
ada berdiri ditepi
good again 3SG be
stand
penjuru itu,
at.edge corner
that
'it was good that she was standing in the corner,' (CDHMT:24)
Reference to general knowledge is also illustrated in (19), where the deter
miner ini is used to refer to kebun 'garden* on the first mention.
(19) bagaimana elok
nampaknya rumah ini, dan brapa
chantek
how
handsome see
house
this and how.much beautiful
kebun ini
dengan kolam-nya,
garden this with
pool-3SG
'how handsome the house looked, and how beautiful the garden with its pool was,'
(PYC:6l-62)
di rumahny
to house-3S
'The Dato ga
Chinese.' (D
Similarly, the re
mentioned for th
(22) Pada suaiu
on
one
'One day the 1
In (22), howeve
country' intervej
ambiguity as in ]
43 no. 4
Elzbieta Thurgood
2001
479
iciates are, "the
Examples (16)-(19) illustrate a very frequent use of Baba Malay ini and itu, one
possible associ-
in which the two determiners are used to mark a particular NP as being part of
) a set of objects
some larger object. In such uses, ini and itu always occur in the posthead posi
ituation" (1978:
tion, suggesting that posthead position is associated with definite articles.
Baba Malay determiners in posthead position are also used to refer to still
and (16) below.
other first-mention objects that are neither visible to interlocutors nor anaphor-
orang-nya
that in such uses ini and itu function as definite articles, as, for example, in (20).
ically related to a previously introduced referent. Nonetheless, it can be shown
person-3SG
(20) tengok mata-hari itu chahyanya merah lagi, tetapi dia sudah
turun
see
eye-day
that glow-3SG
red
more but
3SG already come
>rate the inside of
diseblah
kanan,
down.at.side right
'did you see the sun glowing red, but it has already set on the right side,'
taman itu,
(CDS:9-H)
garden that
In (20), mata-hari 'sun' is mentioned for the first time in the story. Although not
visible to the interlocutors, and not anaphorically related to any previously
occurs with the
s an article. The
; definiteness of
xa 'palace' referl of tempat tidur
m referring to a
introduced referent, mata-hari 'sun' is referred to with itu in posthead position.
Obviously, this use results from shared general knowledge about the sun that
makes it possible to refer to it with a definite article even on the first mention.
The general knowledge that a Malay state has a governor called a dato
(in standard Malay datuk) makes it possible for the narrator of the story Di
cheritakan dengan rengkasnya waktu kawin-nya Tuan putri anak-anda
Beginda Sultan Johore (DDR) 'A short report of the wedding of the daughter of
the Sultan of Johore' to refer to the dato with the definite article on the first
mention, as in (21).
(21) Dato ini
dato
membri satu mata-matanya menyuroh sahya pergi
this give
one
eye-eye-3SG
di
rumahnya satu towkay China
to
house-3SG
one
order
1SG
go
towkay China
'The Dato gave one of his constables an order that I was to go to the house of a
Chinese.' (DDR: 18)
where the deteri.
chantek
luch beautiful
Similarly, the raja 'king' in (22) is referred to as raja . . . itu 'the king' when
mentioned for the first time.
(22) Pada suatu hari raja didalam negri
itu datang memburu,
on
one
day king at.inside country that come
hunt
' One day the king of that country came to hunt,' (CDO:98)
In (22), however, there is the prepositional phrase didalam negri 'in the
with its pool was,'
country' intervening between raja and the determiner itu. This leads to scope
ambiguity as in Baba Malay it is not possible to say *raja didalam negri itu itu
43 no. 4
Anthropological Linguistics
480
(cf. Cumming [1991:23] about Malay). However, regardless of the reading, this
2001
tion, they fun<
use is consistent with the analysis given in this paper.
guages, NPs w
3.4. Concluding remarks.
Qualitative proof for the existence of the Baba
Malay posthead definite articles ini and itu is found in their four basic uses. In
each case, when a use differentiates between demonstratives and articles, the
demonstrative use is associated with prehead position and the article use is
associated with posthead position. Thus, demonstratives and articles are readily
differentiated on the basis of these tests and on the basis of their syntactic
Malay with its
percent (in Pn
position.
4. The quantitative proof. The quantitative proof for the existence of Baba
Malay definite articles is found in positional frequencies. The numbers given in
table 1 show the frequencies of ini and itu per full NP in the four Baba Malay
stories analyzed for this study. The frequency of ini and itu is far, far higher in
posthead position than in prehead position, as might be expected. In the four of
the Baba Malay stories analyzed here, posthead ini and itu are used with
between 32.9 percent and 40.2 percent of the NPs. In contrast, in none of the
stories does the frequency of prehead ini and itu exceed 6.8 percent. These tex
tual frequencies by themselves suggest that posthead ini and itu are articles and
prehead ini and itu are demonstratives.
TEXT
NP + ini/itu
ini/itu + HP
TOTAL NPs
CDO
38.4% (144)
39-5% (75)
3.5% (13)
3-7% (7)
100%
(375)
100%
(190)
(395)
(255)
6.8% (27)
100%
CDS
40.2% (159)
32.9% (84)
4-7% (12)
100%
Total
38.0% (462)
4-9% (59)
100% (1,215)
PYC
Languac
Baba Me
Italian
French
Cree
Swedish
Montagr
German
4.1. Other Bi
represent less
Baba Malay N
are marked as •
As shown in tt
marks primari
Table 1. Textual Frequencies of ini and itu in Two Syntactic Positions
CDHMT
Table&Frequf
Malay, Italian,
The Baba Malay textual frequencies correlate with the frequencies found in
other languages. In her study, Cyr (1993:221) compares the textual frequencies
of definite articles with the frequencies of demonstratives in such languages as
French, Italian, Cree, Swedish, Montagnais, and German. Her statistics are
based on narrative texts, short stories, and condensed versions of larger tales
(Cyr 1993:222). Cyr's frequencies for definite articles and demonstratives are
presented in table 2 and, for comparison, the textual frequencies of Baba Malay
ini and itu have been added.
The posthead frequencies of Baba Malay ini and itu correspond to the fre
quencies in other languages for definite articles; and, the prehead frequencies of
ini and itu correspond to the frequencies of demonstratives in other languages.
These numbers provide additional support for the claim that, in posthead posi
tion, Baba Malay ini and itu function as definite articles, but, in prehead posi
Table 3. Freq
Constructions
Text
PYC6
CDO
CDHMT
Iftheyrefe
first-mention :
frequencies arc
Table4.Textui
Text
CDO
PYC
CDHM
Nouns the
characters tha
1994:90) occui
43 no. 4
the reading, this
jnce of the Baba
•ur basic uses. In
and articles, the
he article use is
Elzbieta Thurgood
2001
481
tion, they function as demonstratives. Table 2 shows that, in the seven lan
guages, NPs with definite articles and demonstratives represent from over 41
percent (in French) to over 62 percent (in German) of all NPs in the data; Baba
Malay with its 42.9 percent is more like French than German.
Table 2. Frequencies in the Use of Definite Articles and Demonstratives in Baba
Malay, Italian, French, Cree, Swedish, Montagnais, and German
tides are readily
Demonstrative
>f their syntactic
4.9%
7.2%
2.9%
2.9%
3.1%
ixistence of Baba
lumbers given in
2.9%
7.2%
four Baba Malay
far, far higher in
bed. In the four of
:u are used with
st, in none of the
jrcent. These tex-
u are articles and
*b8itions
italNPb
0%
0%
0%
0%
(375)
(190)
(395)
(255)
0% (1,215)
squencies found in
jxtual frequencies
such languages as
Her statistics are
ons of larger tales
emonstratives are
:ies of Baba Malay
respond to the fre-
4.1. Other Baba Malay NPs.
In Baba Malay, the NPs with ini and itu
represent less than 50 percent of all NPs in the data, leaving the majority of
Baba Malay NPs marked in another way or unmarked. Some Baba Malay NPs
are marked as definite, not by ini or itu, but by free or bound pronominal forms.
As shown in table 3, the most common bound form is the enclitic -nya, which
marks primarily the third person as the possessor, and, of course, as definite.
Table 3. Frequencies of NPs with -nya and with Pronouns in Possessive
Constructions
TEXT
NP-nya
NP +PRONOUN
PYC6
11.6%
CDO
31.5% (118)
CDHMT
33.2%
(46)
3-3%
4.0%
(63)
1.6%
(13)
(15)
(3)
Total NPs
100% (395)
100% (375)
100% (190)
If they refer to characters of primary or secondary importance (Chafe 1994),
first-mention referential indefinite NPs occur with classifiers. The textual
frequencies are given in table 4>
Table 4. Textual Frequencies of Indefinite NPs with Classifier Constructions
Text
CDO
PYC
CDHMT
Classifier+NP
6.1% (23)
9.9% (39)
10.5% (20)
TotalNPs
100% (375)
100% (395)
100% (190)
tead frequencies of
n other languages.
Nouns that refer to props and characters of trivial importance, that is,
;, in posthead posi-
characters that are "sources of information, but trivial in the discourse" (Chafe
it, in prehead posi-
1994:90) occur unmarked, not just on their first mention, but also on the
ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS
482
43 NO. 4
subsequent mentions, a pattern that Baba Malay shares with Malay (Cumming
1991:96). Hie textual frequencies of unmarked nouns are given in table 5.
2001
This hierarchy
the proximal articl<
the narrators use t
Table 5. Textual Frequencies of Unmarked Nouns
Text
^^_
Unmarked NPb
cdo
16.5%
(62)
PYC
CDS
15.1%
10.5%
8.6%
(60)
(20)
(22)
Total
13.5% (164)
CDHMT
distal by itu. That ii
TOTAL NPs
100%
100%
(375)
(395)
other NPs. Compar
100%
(190)
(23) maka raja ini
100%
(255)
100% (1,215)
Thus, in their article use, ini and itu refer to primary and secondary charac
ters; references to props and trivial characters remain unmarked. The question
that remains to be answered is what Baba Malay does with the two definite
articles, ini and itu.
then
king this
'then the king be
(24) dan itek ini
and duck this
'and the duck sw
In (23), the subj
5. The two definite articles in Baba Malay.
Baba Malay has two definite
articles—one developed from the proximal demonstrative and the other from
the distal demonstrative. As shown in table 6, both of the articles are used with
roughly equal frequency. The question is what determines which is used where.
Table 6. The Distribution of the Two Definite Articles
Text
the subject. The re]
NP+ini
NP+ itu
Total NPs
43% (36)
48% (69)
100%
56% (42)
100% (75)
100% (159)
61% (97)
(84)
ioo% (144)
but anak perawan
Likewise, in (24) fro
as definite in diffei
subject or not. Exe
throughout the Bal
the proximal defini
distal definite articl
Table 7 present
versus nonsubjects
stories, the use of i
with nonsubjects is
tion is reversed witt
In the following sections, it is shown that the choice between the two definite
articles reflects the complex interaction of two different tendencies. The crucial
interplay is between Kuno's (1976) notion of "empathy," that is, in part, the
tendency to empathize with the subjects, and Chafe's (1994) notion of referen
tial importance.
5.1. Narrator's.empathy.
Table 7. The Use oft
Text
CDHMT
PYC
CDO
Kuno suggests that grammatical choices can be
influenced by "the speaker's attitude towards the participants of the event that
he is describing" (1976:431). He uses the term "empathy" to "characterize the
speaker's identification, in varying degrees, with a participant in an event"
(Kuno 1976:431). Kuno describes the speaker's empathy hierarchy as follows:
Surface Structure Empathy Hierarchy (revised): It is easiest for the speaker to
empathize with the referent of the subject than with the referents of other NPs
in the sentence. [Kuno 1987:211]
Table 8-The Use oft
TEXT
CDHMT
PYC
CDO
The use of itu w
jects it occurs over
itu also correlates v
43 no. 4
lalay (Cumming
i in table 5.
2001
Elzbieta Thurgood
483
This hierarchy of "empathy" can be seen in the Baba Malay distribution of
the proximal article and the distal article. Throughout the Baba Malay stories,
the narrators use the proximal definite article ini to mark high empathy with
the subject. The referents of the other NPs, in contrast, are usually marked as
NPs
(375)
(395)
(190)
(255)
1,215)
scondary charac-
:ed. The question
the two definite
distal by itu. That is, typically, the speaker is "closer" to the subject than to the
other NPs. Compare (23) and (24) below.
(23) maka raja ini
then
jnulai berchakap kepada anak perawan itu
king this begin
speak
to
child
woman
that
'then the king began speaking to the girl' (CDO:217)
(24) dan itek ini bernang-lah kolam itu.
and duck this swim-EMPH pool
that
'and the duck swam on the pond.' (CDHMT:103)
In (23), the subject raja 'king' occurs with the proximal definite article ini,
but anak perawan 'female child' occurs with the distal definite article itu.
' has two definite
Likewise, in (24) from a different story, the two NPs are grammatically marked
d the other from
as definite in different ways depending on whether the particular NP is the
les are used with
subject or not. Examples (23)-(24) illustrate a very common pattern found
ch is used where.
throughout the Baba Malay narratives: referents of subjects are marked with
the proximal definite article ini; referents of other NPs are marked with the
otalNPs
)0% (84)
D0% (144)
distal definite article itu.
Table 7 presents the statistical frequencies in the use of ini with subjects
versus nonsubjects in three Baba Malay stories. In all three of the Baba Malay
stories, the use of ini with subjects exceeds 70.6 percent, while the use of ini
30% (75)
30% (159)
with nonsubjects is under 30 percent. However, as shown in table 8, the situa
n the two definite
Table 7. The Use of ini with Subjects vs. Nonsubjects
tion is reversed with itu, which occurs predominately with nonsubjects.
ncies. The crucial
Text
Subjects
Nonsubjects
at is, in part, the
cdhmt
notion of referen-
87.5% (28)
PYC
78.5% (51)
70.7% (53)
12.5% (4)
21.5% (14)
CDO
sal choices can be
9 of the event that
"characterize the
>ant in an event"
archy as follows:
.* the speaker to
its of other NPs
29.3% (12)
Table 8. The Use of itu with Subjects vs. Nonsubjects
Text
Subjects
CDHMT
22.0% (9)
PYC
24-7% (23)
CDO
32.4% (22)
Nonsubjects
78.0% (32)
75-3% (70) .
67.6% (46)
The use of itu with subjects never passes 32.4 percent, while with nonsub
jects it occurs over 67 percent of the time. Clearly, the occurrence of ini and
itu also correlates with the distinction between subjects and nonsubjects, and
ANTHROPOLOGICAL LINGUISTICS
484
43 NO. 4
reflects what Kuno described as a tendency to empathize with the subject.
Although this tendency usually completes the animacy hierarchy, at times the
2001
Table 9. The Us<
Text
CDO
two conflict.
CDHMT
PYC
5.2. The animacy hierarchy. The animacy hierarchy can be represented as
the distinction between human, nonhuman animate, and inanimate categories
in language. In the animacy hierarchy, humans are ranked above animals, and
animals are ranked above objects (Comrie 1989):
human > nonhuman animate > inanimate
Unlike ini,
with nonhumar
table 10.
Table 10. The Ui
Text
The animacy hierarchy reflects the human point of view of the world: of primary
importance to humans are other humans, of secondary importance to humans
are animals, and of tertiary importance are objects. This hierarchy is sometimes
reflected in grammatical choices and sometimes in discourse choices.
In Baba Malay, the animacy hierarchy is reflected in the use of the two
definite articles ini and itu. Example (25) illustrates a case in which the gram
matical categories do not coincide with the animacy hierarchy.
(25) dan pintu itu pun terbuka lalu rusa ini masok dan pintu itu
and door that also open
then deer this enter and door that
CDO
CDHMT
PYC
5.3.Theinflue
definite article!
(1994) notion 0
characters of p
tance, with cer
example, consic
tertutop kembali.
close
return
' and the door opened, the deer entered, and the door closed again.' (CDO: 152-53)
(26) dia-orang
3SG-person
'they both li:
Here, the first and the third clauses have the inanimate noun pintu 'door' as
their subjects; the second clause has the animate noun rusa 'deer' as its subject.
Notice that it is only the animate subject rusa 'deer' that is marked by ini; the
inanimate pintu, even though in the subject position, is marked by itu.
In (23)-(24), the grammatical category predicts the choice between the pro
ximal article ini and the distal article itu. Example (25) shows that the gram
matical category may not determine the choice if it conflicts with the animacy
hierarchy. Note that the animacy hierarchy, even more directly than the gram
matical category, reflects Kuno's (1976) empathy. In (25), where the animacy
considerations override the grammatical category, it is the most empathized
referent that is marked with im.
The statistical frequencies presented in table 6 show that the definite article
ini is used primarily to refer to human referents. In all three Baba Malay
stories, ini is used with human referents more than 84.5 percent of the time,
while the use of ini never exceeds 15-4 percent.
The expression
her child who 1
expression diathough it is in
occurs with the
characters in t
taken from ano1
nonsubject posi
'hermit*.
(27) orang her
person hen
'the hermit'.
In(26H27),th<
in (28) below,
hierarchy are 0
43 no. 4
with the subject,
2001
ElzbietaThurgood
485
Table 9. The Use of ini with Human Referents
Text
rchy, at times the
Human
NONHUMAN
100% (75)
87.5% (28)
84.6% (55)
cdo
CDHMT
PYC
0%
(0)
12.5% (4)
15.4% (10)
be represented as
nimate categories
bove animals, and
Unlike ini, the use of itu correlates neither with human referents nor
with nonhuman referents, as shown by the statistical frequencies presented in
table 10.
Table 10. The Use of itu with Human and Nonhuman Referents
Text
i world: of primary
trtance to humans
irchy is sometimes
CDO
CDHMT
PYC
Human
Nonhuman
50.0% (34)
41.5% (17)
50.5% (47)
50.0% (34)
59.0% (24)
49-5% (46)
choices.
he use of the two
n which the gramy-
The choice between the two
definite articles also interacts with a discourse hierarchy reflected in Chafe's
(1994) notion of referential importance. Chafe (1994) distinguishes between
n pintu itu
d door
5.3. The influence of the discourse hierarchy.
that
iin.' (CDO: 152-53)
characters of primary importance, secondary importance, and trivial impor
tance, with certain props, of course, falling outside of the classification. For
example, consider (26) below.
(26) dia-orang berdua itu angkat-lah permesuri ini
3SG-person both
that lift-EMPH
queen
this
'they both lifted the queen' (CDO:265)
>un pintu 'door' as
deer' as its subject,
marked by ini; the
•ced by itu.
:e between the pro)ws that the gram3 with the animacy
ctly than the gramsvhere the animacy
3 most empathized
,the definite article
three Baba Malay
>ercent of the time,
The expression dia-orang berdua 'both of them' refers to the stepmother and
her child who are characters of secondary importance. As a consequence, the
expression dia-orang berdua 'both of them' co-occurs with the distal itu, even
though it is in a subject position. In contrast, the noun permesuri 'queen' cooccurs with the proximal article ini, because the queen is one of the two major
characters in the story and, thus, of primary importance. Similarly, in (27),
taken from another story, the raja 'king' is followed by ini, even though it is in a
nonsubject position, because the king is more important than the orang bertapa
'hermit*.
(27) orang bertapa itu
person hermit
banyaklah
suka dengan raja ini,
that many-EMPH like
with
king this
'the hermit liked the king very much,' (FYC:196)
In (26)-(27), the influence of the grammatical category was overridden, whereas
in (28) below, the effects of both the grammatical category and the animacy
hierarchy are overridden.
"*Hj«r
anthropological Linguistics
486
(28) maka raja itu
then
sudah
tengok
king that already look
rusa ini
datang
deer
come
this
43 no. 4
'Then the king saw the deer come/ (CDO:191)
Here, the raja, is markedby the distal article itu, while rusa 'deer' is marked by
the proximal article ini. The ignoring of the grammatical category and of the
animacy hierarchy is imposed by the discourse importance of the rusa 'the deer',
2001
Abbreviations
person; 3 = third ;
singular.
1. Frajzyngier
demonstratives (d
definite markers d
example, verbs of s
2. Vaughan s;
which is of more importance in the story than the raja.
clever in extempor
themselves and the
6. Conclusion.
Malay of the nineteenth century. Using narrative stories published in the Baba
and tomtoms" (19
tells how when he
Baba from Malacc
Malay newspaper Bintang Timor as a database, the paper has argued that ini
peting in the comp
This study has examined ini and itu in the literary Baba
and itu function both as definite articles and as demonstratives. When ini and
itu precede nouns, they function as demonstratives; when they follow nouns,
they function as definite articles. Further, the Baba Malay system of definite
articles is particularly interesting because it distinguishes between a proximal
definite article ini and a distal definite article itu, a choice determined by the
interaction of grammatical and discourse considerations.
Baba Malay developed its system of articles in the course of language shift,
when Hokkien speakers shifted to Malay. The findings of this study suggest that
the system of nineteenth-century Baba Malay determiners reflects a com
promise between the distributional patterns found in Malay and in Hokkien.
The statistically more common Baba Malay pattern head + article comes from
Malay, while the statistically less common pattern demonstrative + head comes
489).
3. Although be;
widespread the syn
varieties of Malay
(Rafferty 1982), an
4. The Malays
5.TheBabaM:
6. Not included
main character of 1
used very much lil
son 1959:1101) ma
7. See, howeve:
modern Baba Mais
from Hokkien, which itself has demonstratives in that position.
The Malay-like Baba language analyzed in this study was later influenced
by two events: a large influx of new Chinese immigrants, and the growth of
Singapore and other British controlled towns. From a linguistic point of view,
the first event brought an enormous number of new speakers of not just
Hokkien, but of other Chinese languages as well. The second event resulted both
in Baba Malay, not the Malay of the Malays, becoming the dominant language of
the Straits Settlements, and in English, not Malay, being the most important
second language of the region. Thus, it would be interesting to examine modern
Baba Malay7 texts to see in what ways its determiner system resembles the
system of the nineteenth century and in what ways it has changed.
Notes
Acknowledgments. I would like to thank Mohamed Risham Fauzi and Solakhia
Januari for assisting with text translation. I am indebted to Graham Thurgood, George
Grace, and Roderick Jacobs for helpful comments and discussions. I am grateful to
Barbara Anday a for generous assistance with the historical aspects of this paper, and to
Benjamin Ts'ou for his information about the Min dialects. Thanks are also due to Hein
Stemhauer and to an anonymous referee for their thoughtful comments. All errors, of
course, remain mine.
Anderson, Stephen
1985
Deixii
matic
Camb
Ashton, E. O.
1944
Swak
Bodman, Nicholas
1987
Spoke
Chafe, Wallace
1994
Discoscious
Press
Christophersen, Ps
1939
The 4
Einar
Clammer, John
1983
The&
Capit
Whea
Collins, J.T.
1980
Ambo:
danP
43 no. 4
ELZBIETA THURGOOD
2001
487
Abbreviations. The abbreviations used in the glosses are as follows: 2 = second
person; 3 = third person; CL = classifier; EMFH = emphatic particle; PL = plural; SG =
singular.
deer' is marked by
ategory and of the
he rusa 'the deer',
the literary Baba
)iished in the Baba
las argued that ini
ives. When ini and
they follow nouns,
system of definite
►etween a proximal
determined by the
e of language shift,
study suggest that
srs reflects a com-
ay and in Hokkien.
article comes from
1. Frajzyngier (1996) challenges the assumption that definite articles develop from
demonstratives (cf. Greenberg 1978). On the basis of Chadic languages, he argues that
definite markers do not have to derive from deictic markers, but may originate from, for
example, verbs of saying (see Frajzyngier [1996] for discussion).
2. Vaughan says that "the Malacca Babas are exceedingly musical and are very
clever in extemporizing words to their tunes, and will for several hours at a time amuse
themselves and their guests by singing their pantuns, and lagus, accompanied by fiddles
and tomtoms" (1974:39). Vaughan's reports are confirmed by Munshi Abdullah, "who
tells how when he was accompanying his master from Johor on a voyage in 1871, four
Baba from Malacca were brought in to entertain the company in the evening by com
peting in the competition of pantun and songs with an old blind Malay" (Salmon 1987:
489).
3- Although beyond the scope of this work, it might be interesting to investigate how
widespread the syntactic patterns found in Baba Malay have been among other regional
varieties of Malay, which include Kelantan Peranakan Hokkien (Teo 1993), Chindo
(Rafferty 1982), and Ambonese Malay (Collins 1980; Dix Grimes 1991,1994).
4. The Malay spelling is the original orthography used by Crawfurd (1852).
5.The Baba Malay spelling is the original orthography used in Bintang Timor.
6. Not included here are the fifty occurrences of the term si Putri used to refer to the
main character of the story, the princess. The term si Putri in this Baba Malay story is
used very much like in Malay (cf. Marsden 1973:156), with "a titular prefix" si (Wilkin
son 1959:1101) marking a title-like use of the noun putri 'princess'.
7. See, however, Pakir (1986) andlim (1988) for their analyses of different aspects of
modern Baba Malay.
rative + head comes
References
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ras later influenced
Anderson, Stephen R., and Edward L. Keenan
event resulted both
Deixis. In Language Typology and Syntactic Description. Vol. 3: Gram
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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ashton, E. O.
1944
Swahili Grammar. London: Longmans, Green, and Company.
iminant language of
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uistic point of view,
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1985
1987
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1994
nanged.
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