Those of us who study sports in sociery want to
understand four things: (l) the social and cultural
contexts in which sports exisr,(2) rhe connecrions
berween those contexts and spons, (3) the social
worlds that people create as they participate
in sports, and (4) the experiencesof individuals
and groups associatedwith those social worlds.
We are motivated by combinations of curiosity,
interests in sports, and concerns about social
Iife and social issues.Most of us also want to
use what we know about sports in sociery to promote social justice, expose and challenge the
exploitive use of po*er, and empower people so
that rhel nright resistand transform oppressive
socialconditions.
fu we studv and applv knowledge aboutspors,
we use social and cultural theories. Theories
provide frameworks for asking research questions, interpreting information, and uncovering the deeper meanings and stories assoc.iated
with sports. Thev also enable us to be more infomed citizens as we appll' u,hat we learn in
our researchto the world in which we live. Becausethoseofus who stud) sponsinsocie come
from diverse acadernicbackgrounds and because
social life is cofnplex, we use multiple theories to
guide our work. The three eoals of this chapter
are to
l. Identifi and describethe theories
usedmost u ideir Losrudr spons in
societ\r
2. Explarn the wavs that theories help us
understandsportsand the sociew in
rvhich lye live.
i. Delronstrite holq theoriesinflucncc our
r i c u o I c P o r t sa r r dt h e p r a c t i c r la c r i o n .
we take in connection with sports.
WHATARETHEORIES
ANDWHY DO WENEED
THEM?
\\henever r,r'e:rskllht'our sociirlu,rlrld rs the 1r'a1,
ir is and rhen imaqine hou it might be changed.
u'c rrrc "theorizins" (hooks. l99l). Theorizing
involves a cqnbination of dcsripnon, analysis,reflution, and applicationWlen we theorize, we arent
required to use big words and cornplex sentences.
In fact, the best theories are tlose we understand
so clearly that they help us make sense of our
experiencesand the social world.
When we study sports in sociery, the best
theories are those that describe and explain aspects of social life in logical terms that are consistent with systematic observations of the social
world. Theories enable us to see things from
new anpllesand perspectives, understand more
fully the relationship bet*een spors and social
Iife, and make informed decisions about sports
and sport participation in our lives, families,
communities, and socieries.
Many people drink that theories don't have
pracrical applications, but this is not true. Most
of our decisions and actions are based on our
predictions of their possible consequences,and
those predictions are based on our "personal
rheories" about social life. Our theoriesmay be
incomplete,poorly developed,basedon limited
information, and biased to fit our needs, but we
still use drem to guide our behavior. \44ren our
theories are accurate, our predictions help us
relate more effecrively with others and control
more directlv what happensin our lives.When
people rrake decisions about sports, formulate
policies, or decide whether to fund or cut
rnonev fron'r sport prograrns, they basedecisions
on their personal theories about sports and
SOClelv-.
The theoriesdiscussedin this chapterare different from our pers^onaltheories about social
1ife.This is becausethey are basedon a combination of svstematic research and deductive
logic. Thev have beer presentedin book and
ardclesso thar others may evaluate,test,use.antl
revise them. \4rhen logic or evidence contradicts
then, theoriesare reviseclor abandoned.
People u,ho studv sports in socieq' have used
rnan\ theories to quide then as the\ ask researchquestionsand interpret reserrchlir.rdings.
Flowever'.nrostschohrlv uork o*er the p,rsthrlf
centuryhast
offive major
. Funcdona
. Conflict d
. Critical th
. Feminisrr
. Interactior
AJthoughr
tween thesef
at which twc
overlap.This
to theideasol
velopnew exJ
Therefore,th
what we knor
Eachofthe
terprovidesa c
ing the relatic
This w.ill be h
(l) a brief ove
of the ideasarl
by the theory
can be usedas
about sporu i
overvieu of th
Thble2.1 pr
andhow it hell
The mblecon
It mar' look cc
through the ch
ful referencep1
tant, ir will h(
sirnilarides
and
FUNCTIONAT
SPORTSPRES
Funmionalist
tl
that socieh'is
latedpartsheic
'Fip-urarionlt
tireon
s p o r t si n E u r < r p ci.s
l -errr inrl (,enrcr rr
-
.i3
ral'tsit. rcllccize, rve,tren't
ex Sentences
e understaud
sctrse or our
eq', the best
d explain asthrt 2lreconof the social
things fiom
,tstand more
ts lncl social
ibout sPOrts
'es, fcmilies,
s don't have
)t t!ue. Ilost
lsed on our
lUences,and
,rr "personal
lncs Inav De
d on lirnited
eeds,but we
r. !trlten our
ons helP us
and conuol
Iives. \\rtren
s, tbrmuiate
und or cut
rse decisions
sports and
rpter aredifJbout socill
on a combid deductive
r book md
:est,use,:lnd
: contradicts
'ned.
ry haveused
hev ask re:ch findings.
ccnnrn,hrrsbeenbasedon oneor a coubinarion
oI live major theories:l
r
.
.
.
.
Functionalisttieory
Conflict theory
Critical theorv
Feminisrrheorv
Interacrionisttheorv
Although there are imponant differencesberweenthese6vetheories.thereare manypoints
at rvhich rwo or more of them convergeand
peoplereadandrespond
overlap.This is because
ro rhe ideasofothers asthev do researchanddevelop new explanadonsof societyand sociallife.
Therefbre, theoriesare entergingexplanat:,ons
of
what we know about socialworlds at this time,
in *ris chapEachof*re fivetheoriesdiscussed
rerprovidesa differentperspective
for understanding the relationshipbeween spors and society.
This will be highlighted through the tbllowing:
(l) a brief overviewof eachtheory (2) examples
of the ideasand researchthat havebeeninspired
by the theory (3) explanations
of how the *reory
can be usedaswe takeactionsand makepolicies
about sports ir our everydaylives, and (4) an
overviewof the major weaklessesof the theory
Gble 2.1 providesa summaryof eachtleory
and how it helpsus understandsportsin society.
The table containsa large amount of material.
It may look confusingat first, but, as you read
through the chapter,you will find it to be a usehrl referenceguide to eachtheory Most important, it will help you identilz and understand
similaritiesand differencesbetweentie theories.
IUNCTIONATISTTHEORY:
SPORTSPRESERVETHE
STATUSQUO
Functionalisttheory is basedon the assumption
that socieryis an organizedsystemof intenelared pans held together by sharedyaluesard
'l-igurationalrheorv widely usedto gurderesearchon
;n rh. '\'r:-^
sponsin Europe,is erplairedand discusse.l
establishedsocial arrangernentsthar mlintain
the svstem in a state of balanceor equiiibrium.
The rnost important socialarrtngementsare social insdrutions such as the familv, educarion, the
economy, the media, politics, religion, Ieisure,
and sport. If these social institutions are organized around a core set of values,functionaliss
assumethat a sociew will operare smoothhr ind
etEcientlv. When sociologists use functionalist
theory to explain how l sociew. communirv,
school, family, sport team, or other social svstem
works, thev study the ways that elch part in the
system contributes to the system'soverall operation. For example, if Canadian sociew is the
system being sndied, a person using functionalist theory wants to know how the Canadian
family, economy, government, edi.rcationals_vstem, media, religion, and sport are relared to one
another and how they work together in contributing to the smooth operation of the sociew
as a whole. Ar analvsis based on functionllism
focuses on the ways that each of these social
instirurions helps the larger social sysrem ro
operate efficiendl'.
According to firnctionalist theory social systems operate ef6ciendy when they are organized
to do four things: (l) socialize people so that
they learn and accept important cultural values,
(2) promote social connections between people
so that they can cooperate with one anot}ler,
(3) mouvate people to achieve socially approved
goals through socially accepted means, and
(4) protect the overall system from disruptive
outside influences. Funcrionalists assumethat, if
tiese four "system needs" are sadsfied, social
order will be maintaired and everyone will benefit.
The first column in table 2.1 (pp. 3.t-35) summarizes functionalist theory
Functionalist
Theoryand Research
on Sport
Functionalist
theoryIeadspeopleto askresearch
questions about the ways that sport contributes
tn
r|.-
^----:-
'
Table2.1
Using socialtheoriesto study sports in society:a sunrmaryand comparison
Function.rlistTheory
Conflic(Theory
FeministTheory
I nteractionist Theory
Social order is negotiared
through struggles over
ideologl', reprcscnmtion,
and porver
Social life is tull of diversity,
complexities, and
contradictions,
Socialorder is based
primarily on the values,
experiences,
and inrerests
ofmen with power.
Sociallife and socialorder is
genderedand basedon
patriarchalideas.
Social order is created by
people as they interact
with each other.
Social life is grounded in
social relationships and
tie meanings Biven to
social reality.
Ilou, is culruralitleology
produced,reproduced,
and transfornred?
lVhat are the conflictsand
prohlemsthrt nffect the
livesof thosewho lack
powerin society?
How is gender ideology
produced, reproduced,
and transformed?
How do dominant forms of
gender relations privilege
men over women and
some men over others?
How are meenings, identities,
and culture creared
through social inreractionl
How do people define the
reality of their own lives
and the world around
thenr?
Crilical Theory
I. ASSL]AIPTIONS AROU'I THE BASIS IOR SOCIAL ORDER IN SOCII!,TY
S o c i , r l o r r l e li s b r s e r lo n
c o n s c n s r r as n d s h a r c r l
r , r l u c s ,r ' h i c h h o l d t h c
r n t c rr c l x t e d p a r t s o f
socictr togerher
r \ l l s r c i n l s v s t e n r so p e l l t c
e l l i c i e n t l l ' s h e r e a c l rp r r t
o l t h e s y s t e ms t a l s i n
srnch rvithoth€r prrts.
S o c i a lo r t l c r i s I n s c d o n
ecorrornrcrnterestsand rhe
use oI cconorric power to
exploit l;rbor.
S o c i a lc h s s s h a p e ss o c r a l
reletionships.
II. MAIOR CONCERNS IN THE S-IUDY OF SOCIETY
l l r x r t | r t h e p : r r t so f s o c i a l
s r s t c r n sc o n t r i l r u t c t o r h e
s r r r s h c t i o no f s t s r e n r
ncctls anrlthc cfficient
oPcrition of rhc systcrrr?
Holv is econonrjc power
distributed nnd used in
society?
\\'hat rre the dynamics of
s o c i a lc h s s r e l a r i o n s ?
\44o is privilcged and
e x p l o i r e < l i nc l a s s
relatio,rs?
III. NIAIOR CONCERNS IN THE S'I'UDY OF SPORT
I I o r v r l o c ss p o r r f i t i r r t o s o c i a l t l o w c l o e ss p o r t r e f l e c tc l a s s
l i f c n n r l c o n r t i b u t et o
Hot rs sport used to
socnl stabilio and
nuint:riD the inrerests of
eflicicncvi
those uith porver and
I Iou rbcs sport p;rrticiprtiorr
'$enl$ in socicty?
i c r c h P e o P l cr n P o . t r n t
n o rr n s i n s o c i e r i , ?
How does thc profrt motive
distor t spolt and sporr
NI A'AJOR CONCLUSIONS
S r r , rr : r r a t rr a h t eq , c i r l
l | l s.ni sr u t i o n r h n r h e n e l i t s
s,cieq,,swcr,s
ASOUT'I-HE
llow aresportsgenclered
How clo people become
Ilou are porverrelnrions
'
involved in sports, beconre
activiries,and how do they
reproduce(l
and/or
defined as athletes,
in andthrough
reproduce
dominut ideas
resrsted
derive meaning fiorrr
.bour genderin societyl
sportsi
\Vhnt arc rhe strategiesfor
participation, and mike
\\trose voicesarclnrenot
trensitions out of sports
represented
in the
resistingand rransforming
into the rest oftheir li"es?
sport fo.ms thar privilege
narrativesan(l inr:rgesthat
nteD?
consritfltesl)0rts?
SPORT-SOCIETY
S p - , i <: r l o n n o f p h r s n . r t
acri!.it,
il;"::l;:il:;:::::.,
REI.{NONSHIP
S l r o l r sr r e s o c i : r l
.^^:.:::::l:1,::,
Sports are grounded in the
values and experiences of
Sporrsare forrnsofculnrre
createdthroughsocial
reflcct cl'rss
soct''tt IJow docs sPorr
Ilorv does sPolt fit inro
ro
life and cotrLtttrutc
l l o r v i s s P o r rr r s c dt o
socirl subilirY and
m r i n t i i n t h c i n t e ' e s t so l
efficicncY?
thosc .vidr Porver rnd
Llorv docs sPort ParttctPaoon
*'e.rldr ir socrerY?
i
n
t
P
o
t
u
n
r
t e a c hP e o P l c
tlocs thc Prolir nrorivc
!tow
DOrltls in soc'eLy?
drsvrrt sPort 'rnd sPort
Ilolr 'rrt Po\Yerrel'roo'1s
r epr otltrccJ lm!/or
r e s i s t e dm x n d t l r f ( ) r r g n
sPorts?
\ \ r h o s c v o i c e s ' r r e / n r en o t
rePrcsenred in thc
n a l r r t i v e s , ( l i l n r g e sl l " r t
I l o r v a f c s P o f t st s c r N e r c t '.
(lo thcl
rcri\ rties xnd lr(tN
r e p r r , x l t r creL r r n i n r n rt t l c n s
rU)ut gen(lcr nr socrc-t!i
\ V b a t r r r et h t s t r r t e g t e sl o t r e s i s t i l g ; r n r lr m n s f o r t r t t n g
s P o r ' tf t ) r n r st h t r IP r r v r t c g c
' 'i"'"'r'ii'i"
q-"'' t'""".'
L l c dn e ( l r s r r ' l r l c t c s '
t l c l i l e r : r e , r r r r ntgL t ' t t r
in(l rrr"\l'
Prr'riLiP:rti('r'
t r r r r s i L i o r rtst t t r t t t s l t t t t '
i n t , rr h e r c s ro f t l r c r rl t t '
coDs!inlle sPr)rts?
IV MAIOR CONCLUSIONSABOUT THE SPORT-SOCIETYRELATIONSHIP
Sport is a valuablesocial
instiotion drat benefits
societyaswell as
individualsin sociery
Sport is a sourceof
inspirationol borh
personrland socirl levels.
Sport is a form ofphysical
rccivityrhat is disrorred
by rheneedsofcapiral.
Sport is an opiarcthat
dislracrsatrentionaway
from dre problemsthat
affectrhosewithout
economrcpower,
Spors are social
Spor:ts.rre
f o r r t r so f c r r l t rr c
cre:rted throLrgh s<rci.rl
Spons are sires ar which
ctltlr re is produced,
reproduced, and
transform€d,
Sports :rr€ culrural prrctices
thrt repress and/or
empower people.
Sports ure grounded in thc
values irnd cxperiencesol
powerful l|ren in sociery
Sports r'eproduce male power'rnd distortcd iders rbout
rnxscrlinjty.
Sports produce genrlered
iders rlxrur physic.rliry,
senr:rliq,,.rnd the hody.
Use sporrs as sites for
challenging and
rransformil g exploitacive
and oppressive forms of
socral relations.
Increase the range rnd
diversiry ofspon
partrcrpatJonoppornrmtres.
Challenge the voices :rnd
perspectivesof those wi!h
Use sports as sires for
c h a l l e n g i n gr n d
transform;nt oppressive
fonls of gender relations.
Expose and resist
homophobir and
mlsogyny In sPorts,
Tiansfonn sports to
emphrsize p.rrtnenhrp
o v e r c o t n P e t i r i o Dr n d
A l l o w i n t l i v i t l u r r l rso s l r , r p e
sports ro 6t dreir
defiritionsor re'rliry
N4rke spr-rrrorgrlizations
nrore open nn(l
It doesnt providegurclelines
to asscssthc efitcriycn€ss
ofprrticulrr forms of
r€sistnncers stmtegies f()r
making progressive
changes rr sc,cirl worlds.
It often uses confusing
vocabularies nraking
ir drfficult to merge '
c r i n c r l i d e a sa n d
rheories.
I t t l o e s r ' t p l o v i r i eg u i d c l n r c s
ro assessrhe effi:ctiveness
o f p r r . t i c u l r r fLo n r r so f
resist:rncens strategies for
Inxkjng progressjvc
changes in socral rvorlds
I t s o n r c t r m e su s e sc o n f L r s i n g
v o c l l h L r h r i c sI n r k i n g i r
d i f l i c u l t t o n r e r g ec r i t i c a l
rdeasiJnd (hcofles,
It docsr't clcrrll' cxphir lrrr,
r t t e a n i n g i,r l e n r i o , a n r l
i n t e r r r c r i o nr r e r e l r L e dr , r
s o c i : r ls n u c n r r e sr r k l
m a t c l i , r lc o n d i r i o n si r r
S p o r t p r r t i c i p , r t i o ni s
g r o u n d e dr n t h e d e c i s i o r r '
m a d e b y p e o p l ei n
c o n n e c r i o n$ i r h r h c i r
i d e n r i t i c sr n t l
rel.rtionships.
V SOCIAT ACTION AND POLICY NPLICATIONS
Dcvelopandcrp,rndsport
progr:rmsthrr prorrrote
tr:rdirionrlv.rlues,build
the rypeofchrracrcr
vrluedin sociery,
and
contributeto socirl order
:rndstrbility.
R.riseclass consciousnessand
m a k e p e o p l ea v a r c o f
their own alienarion arcl
Eliminate rhe profit motrve
in sports thereby allowing
thenr to foster expression,
creativiry, and physical
well being.
liocus ou the crlmle .rn.l
o r g a n i z : r t i o n< - rsf p o l t s
r v h e nc o n r o l l i n g t l e r i a n t .
\,'r. MAJOR WEAXNESSES
It does not acknowledge drat
sPo.6 are socrrl
construcflons.
It overstatesrhe positive
consequencesofsport,
ft ignores that sporr serv€s
rhe needs of some peopl€
more than others.
lt ignores that sport crn be l
sire for creative and
liberaring experiences.
lt overstrres rhe influence of
economic forces in sociery.
Ir assunresthat people rvho
have economic pol'er
r l w a y s s h a p es p o r t s r o
meet their inrerests.
I t g e n e r r l l l ,r g l , r ' c s i s s r r eos l
p o r v c r r n d p o \ c r -r c l : r t i o r r .
sl)orts alld I
ale a sourcl
societies.
UsingFun
socialsolidantythrough
thatsocialorderdependson maintainrnB
theoryassumes
Functionalist
UsAVolleyball)
ofsPort (-sourcei
includingthe institution
socialinstjtutions,
establisbed
sysrems.Using functionalist theory researchers
have studied some of tie questionsand issues
that are discussed in the follot'ing chapters.
Examples iuclude the followingr
L Do sports and sport participation influence
socialand personaldeveloptnentiThis
issueis discussedin chaptersf7, 14,
and 15.
?. Do sports and sport participationfoster
the developmenrof socialbonds and
relationshipsin groups,comrnunities,and
societiesiThis issueis discussedin chapters
9 , 1 0 , 1 1 .a n d l ' 1 .
\ . D o e sl l l r r v i n gs l J , ) r tlst a \ r i t t ) ( ) ! t i \ e
impzrcton academicand occupational
lnd does it telch peopie to
success.
t i r l l , ' rtrh c r u l c ' r t ' t h . r c l r i \ cl i t l s t r c L C ( . :
in chapters4, 6, 7,
These issuesate discussed
1 0 ,a n d l . l .
1. Do sporrscontribute to personalhealth and
wellnessand the overallstrenplh and well
being of sociery?These issuesare discussed
i n c h a p t e r s . l7, . a n d 1 1 .
Fuuctionalisrtheory focuseson rhe ways that
to the slr'loothoPerationofsQsportscclr-rtIibute
cieties,communities.organizations,ind sroups.
This is why a tunctionalisrapproach is popular
amonli people interestedin pt esen'ingthe scatus
to tell the:r
quo in socien'.Thel rvant sociologJists
horv sport contributesto rhe smoorh operation
ol the social svstemsm whrch thel have been
successful,tr4anl people connecteclu,ith orlirnizcd competitilc sporrsalst,prefer functiotuLsr
theor-r lrtcrtuseir cutlth;sizcsthc' "turrctions' o1-
Popularized
are usedu,hc
decisionsab,
tiontl and k;
ist lnalysis<r
tblle\1.inq a(
tno gro\!'ur
vaiues),llnc
in high scho,
zltionai lova
vcloprngspo
(to lncreasei
and women),
(to lncreaser
of soldiers),r
build interna
Functinlrr
conclusiontl
causethel' n'l
bilin' and ort
Unired Srore
lar ltecausetl
xr tasks that
nent. and t(
rn tuthorinrionllist rhe'
sportsbuiJdt
cn. rt suPP(
Srowrh of cc
vcl(4)rnentol
estrrLrlishme
irtlrleres,rlrtl
lestlrlg lo stl
N t h l e t e sI l.t t h
thcor\ 5^Ltp])
slx)ft Pt-ogrrI
bachgrountl
tner'Nsfot-c()il
tl-lll I)\
\'()Lln!l
. , r r c . L u m(/r r n h l c v e t
sporrs ,rDrlsupPor-tsthc coDclusrortlhlr spot-ts
..rrer sourcc of rnspirrrtirlnfilr ir-rrlivirlurrls
rnrl
s()crcrics.
Life
UsingFunctionalist
Theoryin Everyday
chapters*, 6,7'
onal health and
ogth '.rndrvell ,
:s iue dlscusseo
on the wavs th;t
r operationof soions, and grouPs'
rroach is PoPular
sewing the status
ogiststo tell then.t
mooth operatron
r thev have been
ected with orga-eterfunctionaltst
he "funcnons" of
Popularizedfirrrns oi functionLrlisrtheorv ottel
rrreuseclwhen peoplern posirionsoI power rulke
about sportsrnd sport progrNlrsat niclecrsions
riorul ancllocll levels.For exurplc, rrArnctionalist rrnllysisof sportsin societl rvould supportthe
fbllorving rrctior.rs:prornotrng the clevelopment
irncl growth o[ orqrrnized '"'outh sports (to bui)d
vrrlues),fundine interscholnsticspor$ progranrs
in high schoolsJnd c,,llegesrro pronrote organizirtionallovaln lncl irttrchrrentsto schools),developine sport oppormnitiesfbr girls lnd worren
(to increasecchievementnrotivrrtionlmong girls
lnd wonren). rnclut ng sports in rnrlirrrn training
(to increlse nrilitan'preparedness
irnd the fimess
of soldiers), and sraging thc Olr.rnpic Games (to
build internruonri goodrvilland unity).
Functionalist theon generailv lerrds to the
beconclusionthat sports are popular in socier_v
causethey lnaintain the values that presen'e stabiliry rrnclorder in sociallife. For example,in the
United Statesit is assumedthat sportsare popular becausethev terch people ro f-eelcomfortable
in tasks thlt involve conpetition, goal achievemenq lnd teamwork under rhe supewision of
an authoriw figIre. Furthermore, becausefirnctionalisr theorv lerds to the conclusion that
sportsbuild the kind oI charactervaluedin sociew, it suppors policies thac recommend the
grorvth of conpetitive sport programs, the devcloprnentof corching educationprograms,the
establishrnentof training centers for top-le'el
rthletes, rnd increasedsurveilluce and drug
resring to supervise lnd control rhe acdons of
athletes.In the clse ofyouth sports, fi.rrrctionxlist
theory supports :lcrions to e,rpancldevelopnrental
sport progrrms fbr children, establishcriminal
brckgrounLJchecks und (errification requireurents fbr corrches,'.rnclbuild a sport system that
trains young people to become elite athletes.
L)vclrrll, tunctionllist theorv rnspires reselrch
rluestio[s rrbourthe wrr]'sthrlt sPortsconnibutc
ro thc devc|4rnrert of intlividurls rrrclsocicrv.rs
l u'hole.
'\llnv people lerding this book rrrc lttncrcd
to hrnctionalistthcory becausethev iike its enrp l t , t s i s , , tnl t e p o < i t i r e : r s p rest , ' l s p ( ' r l :i n s o c i e n .
Peoplein positionsofpower in sociew llso til'or
functionalist theon' becauseir is lused on rhc
irssumption thrt socieW is organizecl fbr the
etlual bcne6t of 'rll people rnd therefore should
nor be change(lin ,urv dranraticwavs. The notion thnt the svstelr operates etTectivciy in its
preseDtfbrrr is corrfbning to people with power
becauseit discourrgeschrrngesthlr might jeoprrrdizetheir priviiege and inlluence.Becrusethe
furretionrlistupproachis populrr, it is import:rnt
t o k n o r vi t s r v e r k n e s s e s .
Weaknesses
of Functionalist
Theory
Functionalist theory has three major weaknesses.
First, it doesrrot ackrowledgethar sporrsare social constructions thar take diverse tbrns as tley
irre created and defined by people interacting
rvith one another. Functionalists see spon as r
relatively stable socirrl insrirudon thrt alrvavs
serves specific functions in societies. Such an
approach overlooks the diversiry of sports, the
extent to which sporrs promot€ tie intercsts of
powerful and wealthy people,and the possibiliw
chatsports mav sornetimesproduce or reproduce
socill outcomes that actually disrupt the smooth
functioning of sociew.
Second, lirnctionalist theory leads to oversratemenG rbout the positive etl-ectsof sport in
sociery lnd ur)derstatenrents
rrbour its rregltive
effecs. For exrrmple,it docs not help us unclerstand that worren in society are disadvantaged
when spolts are orgrrnizedin ways that legitimize
the useo{phvsical power to dominate otiers. Nor
does ir help us understandhow spon tearnsin
high schools and colleges can undemrine sociri
integration rvhen starus systerns tlvor rthletes
rnd lerd ot-hersruderrtsro fcel mrr-i- 'l;.- l
:i tt
--ia,
\,- -
/ / ,,,-
*\-q's
IAIl
r:fr&s
''Yaknow I can't relateto thesekids'musicanymore,
but at least I know we ll always have spons tn
c:-!.!on:'
overlookthe iact that
FICURE2.'l Functionalists
spo(scan createdivisionsrn societvas rvellas
u n i y i n gp e o p l e
Third, functiolalist theon.is basedon the rssumption riat the needs of rll groups rvithin a
sociery are the same. This overlooks rhe existence of real differences and conflicts of interest
in society and caseswhen sports benefit some
groups more rhan others (see figure 2.1). This
limits our understanding of difference, conflict,
and the dynlnrics of chartgcin suciedes.
CONFLICTTHEORY:SPORTS
ARETOOTSOF THEWEATTHY
Conflict theory focuseson the rvaysthat sports
are shaped by economic fbrces rrnd used bv
economicallypowerful people to increasetheir
wealthand influence.It is basedon the idels of
Karl Marx and his assumptionthar evervsociew
is a systemof relationshjpsand social:rrrangements that are shapedby economicfactors.In
the caseof capitalistsocieties,
reladonships
and
socialarrangemensareorganizedaroundmone,v,
wealth,and economicpower,
Conflict theoristsassumethat all aspectsof
socialIife revolvearoundeconomicinterestsand
thar peoplewho conuol the econonryuse their
power to coerce and manipulate workers lnd
their famiiiesto acceptthe existenceofeconomic
inequalirvls |] [r]tulirl fcrrtureofsocirl lit-e.Corrtlict drcorism often lbcus their lesearch on class
relations rhltris,soci pntesscttbttrtlottc nln (t
ul:o lnt uortctrttic
po-,1;er,
ltou tlnt pauer it ued, mcl
it:lto is tl',tantaqed or tlisalcantrqed by tltc econontit
orgunizrtiott f ior'rrry,,SnLcliesof class relltions
focuson rhe cousequcnces
of socirl inequality in
all spheresof sociallif-e.
The primary go:rl of conflicr theory is similar
to the goal of functionalisr theory: ro develop c
genelrl theorv that expLains
the organization,:nd
operition of lll socreties.Conflict theory er]rphasizesthat cconomic pou'er in capit ist societies is enrrenche.l s,-,Jeeplv that progressive
changes are possible onlv if workers become
aware of the need lbr change rnd take action to
rnake urajor chlnges in the organization of the
economv. Sports, rhey nrgre, tbcus the attendou
und the emorionsoi the have-notsin sociew on
escapistspectaror events that distracr rhem from
the econornic issuesand policies *rat reproduce
their own powerlessin sociew. Therefbre, spons,
especiallymassspectatorsports,are organizedand
sponsored bv wealthv people rnd large corporarions because thev perpetuate capitalist values
and a lifeswle basedon compedtion, production,
and consumption. When people accept capitalist
valueswithout quesrion,sport becomes,rnopiare
in societv an aspectof culrure that deadenstheir
arvarenessof economic expioitation and perpetuates dre priyilege and positions of people who
control wealti and the economv.
ConflictTheoryand Research
on Sport
Conflicttheorvis oftenusedby peoplewho ask
questions and do research on the connecnon
between sports and the dvnamics of power and
priwilege in society.This reserrch will be used in
subsequent chapters rs rve discussthe tbllowing
tssues:
1. \4/try do athletes become so alienared liom
thc.irbotliesthat thev rvill risk injurv rnd
physical rvell-being to plal' sports? This issue
is discussedin chaptersf7.
)m/coaklevqe
rl life.Conch ou class
' is used.und
tbt cconotttic
ss relatiolls
nequalitvin
ry is simiier
o develoPe
'rization lncl
rheory elrritalist sociprogressive
ers becotr-re
ke rtction to
adon of the
he lttention
n sociew on
t them fiom
rt reproduce
:fore, sports,
rganizedand
rge corporaitalist values
productron'
ept capitalist
[es an oplate
ieadenstheir
and PerPetupeople who
Sport
oplewhoask
I Connectlon
rf power and
,ili be used tn
*re following
rated fiom
Ljurvand
:s?This issue
2. How are sports relatedto socioeconornic
inequaLiwin socierviThis issuers tliscusserl
in mrrnv chapters-especiallv ch'.rpters8 I l
3. What happensto sportswhen thcy becorne
comrnercialized?
This issueis discussedin
c h a p t e r sl 0 1 3 .
-1. How do wealthy ancl economicrlll' powerhrl
peopleuse sports to further their interests?
This issueis cliscussed
in chrpters 10-[ 3.
Like functionirlist theorv, conliict theorv is
basedon the assumptionthat socie$ is l social
system. However, it tbcuseson "needs of capital"
ratier than "general systernneeds."Therefore.
conflict rheorists explain that a capitalist socieff
cannot survive and growwithout exploiting workers for tle sakeofboosring financial profits. Conflict theorists also focus on rhe ways that spors
perpetuate *re unequal distribution ofpower and
economic resourcesin societies.Therefore, rhe1.
often identili the negativeconsequencesof sports
and conclude that radical changes rrre needed
in spons and sociew if fairnessand justice are to
prevail. Only when those changesare nade will
spofts become sources of erpression, creative
energy,and physicrl well-being.
Many people in countries with crpitalist
economies are not comfortable rvith the assumptions and conclusions of conflict theory Thev
say that the negative tone of conflict theory does
nor fit with rheir iders rbour sports or sociew,
and they are uneasywith conclusions that call for
radical changes in the current stmcture and
organization of sports and society. However,
conflict theory calls attention to important economic issuesin spors and to forms of inequalitv
that create colffict anJ tensions in socieryls a
whole.
Using ConflictTheoryin EverydayLife
Conflict theory tbcuseson the need to change
the organizationof spons and sociew.The goal
of these changesis to give workers, including
athletes,controloverthe conditionsoftheir work.
Problemsin societvand spors are attributedto
the llck of power posscssed
trv rvorkers.Thercfirre, conllict theoristssupport policies:utd plograms thrt requllte or climinate profit rnorives
in syrortsrrnd increirsethe control dttt ttltletes
lraveover the condirionsof their own sporrsparticiparion. Thev rlso support policies that iucrelse dre elemelt ofplrry in sporrs irnd decretse
the elernent of per:tnclebec:ruseir is rlesigned to
Senelate commercirrl profits. tr4ore plav and less
spectircle,tlrev arguc, rvould rurn sport participarion irrto rr liberrrrinulnd crlpowering experiencc
fbr the mrssesofpeople in sociew.
In tenns of specific issues, conflict theorists
titvor plavers' unions, organizltions that represent
the interesls of people in communities where
tax rnon€lr is being used to subsidize wealthv
pro-sport tearn owners, and radical changesin
the overall organization ofsports. Ideally, publlc
resourceswouldbe usedto sponsorsportsdesigned
ro promote fun, fimess, and political rwareness;
specntor sports would exist for enjolnnent in local
communities ratler tian as tools for creating
celebriry athletes and financial profis tbr a few
wealthy people.
Weaknessesof Conflict Theory
Conflict theory has three major weaknesses.
First, ir ignoresthe possibiliwthat sportsin capitalist societiesmav involveexperiences
that empowerindividualsand groups.Conflict theorists
talk about sports being organizedto lnaxlmlze
the conrrol that wealthvpeoplehaveover everyThey seespoftsas
one elsein capitalistsociedes.
activitiesthrough which athleteslearn to define
their bodies rs tools of production, becoming
alienaredfrom their bodiesin the process.This
approachdoesnot rrcknowledge
rhat sport can
take fbrms *rat could servethe interess of the
have-notsin sociery,andit deniesrhat sporrparticipationcan be a personallycreativeand liberaring experiencethat inspires people to rnake
econornicchangesthat promote equality alrd
elirninatethe vast income lnd power gapsthat
currendvexistin capitalist
societi€s.
.10
5 i ) () Rl S l \ 5 ( X , l E l \ . : l r ' r a r , r r (r , r
Second,conllict theorv rssLrul€sthat all aspects
of social Iife irre econornic'lllv determined-that
is, shrped l:r,the profit morive ancl rhe needsof
ceprtll in sociery It tbcuseson the inherenr conflict between the economic havesand have-nots,
and rssumes that rhe haves always use their
power to control ancl exploit the have-nots who
live il a state of powerlessnessand alienation.
These assumprionsle;rd conflict theorists to focus
exclusivelv on economic factors when thev studv
sports. However, mrnv sports, especially those
e m p h r s i z i n gr e c r e : r r i o a
l rn d m a s sp x n i c i p a t i o n .
'.lre not completely shaped by economic factors
or the inreresrsof werlthy peopie in sociery.
Third, conflict dreory underestimatesthe im-
ww!r.mhhe.com/coaircv9e
how their collective lives should be org'rnized.
The theonesthlt tbcusatrentionon theseissues
are critical. fcminisr, rrndinteracnonisttheories.
CRITICAL
THEORY:
SPORTS
ARESITES
WHERE
CULTURE
AND SOCIAI
AREPRODUCED
RETATIONS
AND CHANCED
Crjticrl theorv comes in a varietv of fbrms, and it
offers r uselul alternltive to funcrionalist and
conflict theories.r It is based on rhe tbllowing
three assunptions: (l) Groups and societies are
characterized bv shared ve.ltes and conflicts of
porr'rnceof gender,race,erhniciq itge, sexurliry disability,and J6dx1', sporrs has cotne
interest, (2) social lifb involves
continuousProcesses
of negotia-
time and from one situation to
often leadspeopleto overlookthe corch agail$t plaver'.
possibiligv that power and in- -p.r,'1peford,spons*riter
11998) anotheras tltere are shifts in the
powerbalancebetweengroupsof
equalidesin societyare basedon
sociery
Forms of critical theory were
peoplein
factors other *ran social class and economic
developedas people realizedthat societiesare
differences.
too messy,complex,andfluid to be describedas
Beyondthe Needsof Society
Functionalist theorv rnd conflict theory both
focus on societal needs and how sports are related to the satisfaction ofthose needs.They give
us a view of spons in society fiom the top down,
but thev don't tell us rbout sports in everydaylife
or the wals rhat people are active agents who
pardcipate in the processesthrough which sports
and sociew rre organized and changed.They ignore a view ofsociery from the bottom up-from
dre perspectivesof people who "do" spors and
give rneaning to them in their everyday lives.
They so ignore the complexities of everyday
social life and that sports and sociery are social
constructions that emerge aspeople struggle over
what is imoortant in their lives and determine
:Thrs chaprcris a basicintroducrionto usingrheories,md
and overview
the goalis coprovidea generalexplanaLion
ofthe valuablework doneb1,schohrsusingfbrms ofcrirical
rheoriescosmdysportsrn socreryI rcempt to pull rogerher
major rdeasfrorn the folJowingtheoriesand theoreticai
liameworks, asorllar:urt thuries, h'nditional,'ritrcaltheoln
(combiningideasof Marx nd FrewJ),hegmml theotl
(basedon the ideasofAnrcnio Gr^nsci), dlfinIl lttdiet (as
it focuseson culruralproduction,powerrelrtions,ideologl',
and idenucv),poierrzrnr.r/ar,(brsedon culruralstudres,
dealingwich
semiotics,and fbrmsof literrw analvsis
larglageantlrheconstru(iion
ol-power.
merning,
representarion,
and consciousness
underthe unsrable.fluid,
Iiagmenred,and oftenconrradictorycondiuonsof
posrmodernlife), lnd 4acsrfrcrTJ(combinmgfeminist
and poststructuralism).
None of these
culruralscudies
tramework is spccilicallyidenriiied.but I do highlight
issuesraisedby peopleusinerhesenpproaches.
(lIlr\Pl'tiR
rc,convcoaklev9e
be orP5anizedJn theselssues
onist theories.
IE SITES
L
rf tbrnls, 'rnd it
rctronaiist and
the foJlouing
d socienesare
,rl conllicts ot
I lif-e involves
tes oi negotii,rntl coercion
:s about values
rdon are never
3) values and
r change over
re si ation to
re shifts in the
veen grouPs of
al theory rvere
t sociedesare
re described as
ng rheories,rnd
g formsofcriticcl
)r to pull iogeuer
d thcoreticel
bdons, ideologv,
rlcuralstudies'
alingwith
reaning,
lluid,
re unstrble,
ing feurinist
do highlight
rhes.
"svstens"md that ir is not possibleto developrr
of socirllife tharis applicaseneralexplanation
at all timesin history
ble to all societies
lnsteadof fbcusingon societyls a whole,crirical theory focuseson the diversiw,cornplexiry
socontradictions,andchangesthat characreflze
life
as
it
is
lived
and
experienced
people
by
cial
who interactwith one anotherandsm:ggleover
how to organizetheir lives together.Although
critical theory comesin manv forms, it focuses
primarilv on che ibllowing topics:(1) the prothroughwhich cultureis produced,reprocesses
duced,and changed,(2) the waysthat powerand
social inequalitiesare involved in processesof
culrural production,reproduction,and change,
and (3) the ideologiesthat people use as they
makesenseof rheworld,form identities,
interacr
with others,andtranstbrmthe conditionsoftheir
lives.
Peopleusing functionalistand conflict theoriesoften saythat "sport is a reflecrionofsociery,"
but critical theoristsexplain rhat in addition to
reflectingsociery,sportsare siteswhere culture
andsocialorganizationareproduced,reproduced,
andchanged.This makessporu muchmore than
merereflecrionsofsocieryThis issueis discussed
in the box "Spors Are More Than Reflectionsof
Society."
Unlike functionaliss or conflict *reoriss,
critical theoristsrealizerhat thereare manyyantagepoinrs from which to studyand understand
social life and thar dre relationship between
spons and socieryis alwayssubject to change.
Therefore, they studysportsin comection with
changesin (1) the organizationof government,
education,the media, religion, the family, and
other spheresof social life, (2) culrural definitions of masculinityandfemininity,race,ethnicity, age, sexuality,and physical(dis)ability,and
(3) the visionsthat peoplehaveaboutwhat sports
could andshouldbe in sociery.
Critical theory also encouragesacdon and
political involvement.It has been developedby
scholarsdedicatedto identifing issuesand
problemsfor the sakeof eliminadngoppression
1: L\utq.\otir/ nrLarn:
,ll
and seekingjusdcerrndequity in sociallife. Crrtical theorv is r valuabletool when idencifuing
and srudving specific social probleurs. People
who use ir assumerhilt social rellrionships are
grounded in politicrl strugglesover how social
life should be definedand organized.Thev srudv
sports to see if they lre organized to systemarically privilege some people over others. Their
gotrl is to explain how sports have corne to be
what they are and to inspire new ways to discuss,
define,organize,rnd play sports.
CriticalTheories
and Research
on Sports
Thosewho usecriticaltheoryro srudysports
generally focus on one or more of the following
lSSUeSi
l. Whoseideasaboutrhemeaningand
organizarionof sportslre usedto determine
funding priorities [or sports,who will
participatein them,how they will be covered
in the media,and how they will be usedfor
social,political,and economicpurposes?
2. How aresportsandsportexperiences
influenced
bv Lhedy.namics
o[ pouer in
sociallife, andhow do spors reproduce
panernsofprivilege in sociery?
J. How are spors relatedto people'sideas
abouteconomicsuccess
or failure,work and
ftin, physicalhealthandwell-being,gender
andserualiry raceandethniciry and physical
abiliry anddisabiliry rrndwhat is "natural" or
"deviant"in society?
4. What are the waysthat peoplestruggleover
the rneaning,purpose,andorganizationof
cnnrts ;n rhPir liwc<)
5. When do sports become siteswhere people
challenge, resist, and change prevailing ideas
and the organization of social Iife?
6. \44rat are the narrarives and images that
people use to give meaning to sports and
tieir sport experiences?
7. \44rosevoices and perspectivesare
represented in the media coverage of
sports?
rvww.mhhe.Lom/c0al(le!'re
42
Sports Are More Than Reflections of Society
When peoplestudy the social.rspeccs
of sports,chey
often saythat "sportsare reflecrionsof sociery" This
of societyIrrerepresented
is rrue irr thacmany aspecrs
in its sports.However,sportsalsoare socialconstructions rhat havean impact on relationshipsrnd social
organizationin societyasawhole.For example,sports
in the Unired Statesare orgrnizedin waysthat representourdatedideasand beliefsaboutmasculinitvand
genderrelirrions.
Therefore,rheydo not rellectthe
forms of masculinityand genderrelationsthat are increasinglyrcceptedby manypeople.At the sametime,
sporcshavebeena socialarenain which women athletes have displavedphysicalsuength arrdskills that
have long been defined as unacceptablein most
spheresof life. As a result,new ideasaboutfemininity
ard body imagehavebecomewidely acceptedin the
restof society.
The notion that sportsare more dlan a reflection
of societycan be demonstraredby shifting our atrention to anothersphereofsociallife, suchasthe famil-v.
Like sporm,familiesare reflectionsof society,but our
personalexperiencetells us that everydayfarnily life
is more chanthat. Familiesare createdby particular
groupsof peopleasdrey inreractwith one lrrother in
their own wa1s,dependingon their abilities,resourcesJ
and definitionsof familylife. Of course,the opportumties and choicesavailableto the membersof any
particularfamilynreinfluencedby factorsin the larger
sociecy,iacludinglaws,econornicconditions,governmenc policies,and culcuralbeliefsabour the actrons
and intemcrions of husbands,*ives, parens, and
children.
This means that similaritieswill exist between
familiesin the samesociety,but it doesnot meanthat
all familiesare destinedto be the sane or to be mere
reflectionsof societ_v.
Societyservesas a context in
which individualsproduce,define,andreproducespecific fanrilypractices.But real familiesareses ofrelationshipsproducedby peopleasthey determinehow
they wanc to live with one another. This is why your
family is differentfiom manyother families.At times,
families even becomesites (sociallocations)where
peopleraisequestioosaboutthe meaningrnd organizationof familvIife.
These questionsoften force people to rethinL
largerissuesrelatedto culturalvaluesand the organizationofsocietyasa whole.ln this way,whatwe do in
our farniliesbecomespart of a generalprocessofcultural production,the irnpactof which goesfar beyond
familylife. For example,between1960and 1980some
8. l\hat strategiescanbe usedto empower
peoplewho areregrrlarlyexcludedliom
the processes
throughwhich sportsare
organizedrrndplayed?
lar sports in connection with changing relationshipsin and between groups that possessdifferent
amounts of power and resources or.er time and
fiom one place to another.
Critical theorists also srudy how sports affect
the processesthrough rvhich people develop and
maintain cultural ideologies-that is, the webs
of ideas and beliefs rhat they use to explain and
give meaning to the social world and dreir experiences in it. They want to know how and when
sports become sitesfor questioning and changing
dominant ideologiesrelated to socialclass,gender,
sexualiry,race and ethniciry age, and (dis)abiliry
One of the mottos o[ critical t]reonsts rs a statement made bv C. L, R. Tames.a native of Tiinidad
One or more of theseissuesare discussed
in
eachof the fbllowing chapters.Critical theories
inspire interestingand provocadveresearchon
sportsin society.This researchis basedon the
assumptionstiat sportsare complexand sometimes internally contradictoryactivitiesand that
thereareno simpleor generalrulesfor explaining
them associalphenomena.
The intent ol research
basedon critical theories is to understandthe
structure,organization,and meaningof particu-
(ll{,\P'l l:R l: Lny.\anl
he.com/coai(leY9e
T L r o tr c
+3
ry
rse, t}|e oppornrmembers of any
.tor s iD dle Iarger
nditions, governrbout the actions
-es, pafeots, and
ill e*rsc benveel
)es nor meatl drat
nle or to be nrele
s as a conteit in
rd reProduce sPers rfe sets of relaly dercrmine how
This is why Your
imilies. At dmes'
locations) where
rning md orgnieople to rethint
:s and the orgamray, what we do in
-aI
Processot culh goes far beYond
60 and 1980 some
rnging relauonpossessdifferent
s over nlle lno
ow sPor$ affect
'ple develoPand
]rat is, the weos
3 to exPlain and
and their exPer how lnd when
ng and changing
:ial class,gender,
and (dis)abiliry.
)orists is a staternve ot l rrnlcaq
peoplein Americm flmilies askedquestionsirboutthe
rights of women within the legal structuresof rnarriageand family.Thesequestionsfostereddiscussions
chatultimately led to changesin divorcelaws.These
changesencouragedpeople to rethink other ideas
about inrimate relationships,gender,gender equity,
parent-childrelationships,childrent rights, and even
the organization and delivery of community-based
social services.In other words, farnilieshave always
been much more thaIr mere reflectionsof society.
They are the creationsof human beingsand sitesfor
producingandchangingsocialworldsand the waysof
life that constituteculture.
This meansthat humanbeingsare acdveagens in
the consmrcrionof social worlds-not jusr in rheir
immediatefamily lives but also in the larger social
settings in which they live. Through the rhings they
do in their farnilies,peoplereproduceandoccasionally
changethe culture and society of rvhich they are a
pan. So it is with spors and all dre peopleassociated
with spons. Peopleconstructspors as they interact
with eachother, No voice comesout of the sky and
sa1s,"I am socieryand sportsshallreflectmy image,"
Socialconditionsclearly influencethe structureand
dlnamics of sports,but within the parametersset by
those conditions,people can changespor:tsor keep
thernasthey are.It is evenpossiblefor peopleto create and de6nesportsin waysthat differ Fom or even
de$' dominantideasandnorrnslnd, in tle process,to
tum sporLsinto activitiesthar connadict the culrure
andsocietyofwhich they are a parr.
This wayof thinkingrboursportsin socieryrecognizesthat spons can haveboth positi.'eand negative
effecr on participanrs,rhat peopledeline and create
spons in many different ways, and that sports are
involved in reproducingand changingculture, This
makesspors imponancina sociologicalsense.Instead
of being mirrors that simply reflect qociety,they are
the actual"socialandculturalstufP'our ofwhich sociery and culture come to be whacrhey are. Whel we
understandthis, we becomeawareof our capaciryas
agenrsof culturalproductionand socialchange.This
helpsus realizethat we are not victimsof society,nor
are we descinedto do spors asthey areportrayedin the
imagespromotedby Coca-Cola,Nike, or Budweiser.
We cancreatenew anddifferentformsofsoons. if we
thinl criticallyaboutthe conrcrtsin which we live ard
learn how to work with o*rers to chanEerLrem.Ilhat
doyou tbinh?
in the West Indies, who learnedto plav cricket
afterdre Britishcolonizedhis homeland.
James
said,"!\Aat do they know of cricket who only
cricketknow?"(Jarnes,1984,preface).Crirical
tieorists would answerthis questionby saying,
"],Veknow nothing aboutsportsifsports is all rve
know." This means rhat if we want to know
lbout andunderstandsports,we must alsoknow
about the social and culnrral contextsin which
sportsarecreated.
mainrajned.
andchanged.
involve exploitation and oppression. Critical theorists emphasize that changes in sports depend
on more tian simplv shifting dre control ofsporls
to the pardcipants themselves,becausernany of
those participan$ accept sporrs as they are and
know linle about spon forms that have different
meanings, purposes, and organizational srrucrures. Therefore, critical theorists emphasize the
need for multiple and diverseforms ofsport participation in sociefi This, they clain.r,would increase participation, diversify che stories told
about sports, and idd to the voices represented
in those stories. .A.sa result, sports *'ould become
more humaneand democratic,and lesssubjectto
the exclusive control of any particular category
UsingCritical Theoryin EverydayLife
Critical theoryis basedon a desireto understand,
confront,and transtbrmaspectsofsociallife rhat
social
thatsportscan be sitesior transiotming
Criticaltheorycallsattentionto the possibility
cultufal
life.ln a rareformof activismasan athlete,WNBA playerLrsaLesliesuppotted
LegalDefenseFundin the 1990s
when sheendorsedEARTHJUSTICE
tfansiormation
to stopusingthisad becauseit was
However,the NBA told Leslieand EARTHJUSTICE
to usesportima8esto sellproductsand promotecorporate
"political" lt is permissrble
logos,but rt is not permissible
to promoteideasthatmiShtchallen8ethe statusquo.
Lsourcer
Provided
bv EARTHjUSTICE)
44
CIJ:\PTF.Rl: L.;itsSoLnl1l)Mrnt
ofpeople.This is excitingor threltenirg, depending on one's willingnessto view rrntl experience
sports in new and different w:rys.
of CriticalTheory
Weaknesses
r gs o c i a l
rral
as
rte
There are nvo general weaknesses lssociaced
with most forms of critical theory
First, rnost critical theorv does not provide
clear guidelines for cletermining when sports
reproduce culture ,rnd social organization lnd
when *rey becorne sites for resisting and transforming them. AJthough research has identified
casesrvhen sports were believed to be sites fbr
resistance,critic::l theorisrs don't outline the
criteria rhey use to determine when resistance
occurs and the conditions under rvhich it is most
likely to create enduring changes in sports and
the organization of social life. This is partly
becausemost critical theolists lbcus on specific
problems and don't think in tenns of changing
social systems as much as creating the processes through which previouslv underrepresenred people can participate in social life. Thev
explain that all knowiedge is siruation speci{ic;
therefore, tiere is no single wav to explain or
solve all social problerns. This is a useful approach when dealing with a parricular problem,
but it does not provide guidelines for determining when oppositionalactionsare most effective
and when the\r are mosr likely to produce
changesthat go bevond particular situations and
problems.
Second, because critical theory emphasizes
the need for actions rhat disrupt current fbrms
ofsocial organization, there is a tendency among
those who use it to see vaiue in all actions that
violate prevailing norms or oppose prevailing
ideas;this is especiallvtrue rvhen critical theorists
srudy the actions of narginalized or powerless
people in sociery Howeyet prevailing norms
are not alwavsunfair or oppressive,and the interestsof margrnalized or powerless people are not
alu'ays based on concems :rbout fairness and
iustice. It is imporrant to respect the voices and
c r e i r t i v ep o t e n c i uol l - p e ( , p i Eq h u : r r e r r r i l r g i n a l ized or oppressed,but it is nor politicallv u'isero
r l s s u r ) cf h r t c l r r d i s r u p t i l eJ c t i o n so l , r i l p . , ' p l e
.....rtrJ qroups h,rle equal vllue uhen il co2eJ'td
nrking progressivechangesin social Life.Criticrtteria needed
to identify thc characterisricsof effecdve fbrms
of resistance.Theretbre, cheycannot lssessthe
value of chanee-producing strategies fiorn one
siruation to the next.
Third, some critical theoriesuse vocabularies
that rre confusing and make it difGcult to merge
different critical ideas into rheoredcal hameworks that expandour knowledgeofthe straregies
that, under certain conditions, are rnost likelv to
produceprogressivechange.
FEMINIST
THEORY:
SPORTS
ARE
CENDERED
ACTIVITIES
Feminist theory is based on the assumpdon rhat
lc.rowledge about social Iife requires an understanding of gender and gender rel:rrions.Ir has
grorvn out of a general dissatisf-actionwith intellectual uadidons that base knowledge on the
values, experiences,lnd insighs of uren artd do
not trke seriously the values, experiences, lnd
insights of women. Feminist theory explains the
ways that women have been wstemadcallv devalued and oppressed in manv societies, and they
emphasize that gender equiw is a prerequisite
for social development and progress.
Many scholars in the sociologv of spon use
critical feminist theory as thev srudv issues of
power and the dlnarnics of gender relations in
social lif-e.r Cridcal feminists focus on issuesof
power and seek to explain the origin and consequences of gender relations, especially those
r'fhere ',rremanv fornrs of terninist theorv, including liberrl,
rodic.rl, gynocenrric, socialist,\hcrisr, bhcx, .rno
posrmodern. rmong others. Flowever. critical ieminist
rheor,vlbclsing on issuesofideolog', power, .rnd chrnge is
most comrnonly used in the sociology ofsport tod:rr:
.16
)P()itl S l\ S(X)lft\:
l J t l k rt n l L i " r t \ N b
Theory
CriticalFeminist
and Research
on Sports
"Feministssay that spoftsare organizedaroundan
ideologythatemphasizesdomination,conquest,
andmalesuDeioritv.lsn't thatridiculous?!"
FICURE2.2 Refusing
to acknowledge
the
contributions
of feministtheoriesleadspeopleto
overiookimportantand sometrmes
obviousaspects
or sporrs.
that privilege men over women and some men
over otlrer rnen (see figure 2.2). Thev study the
rvavsthat gender ideology (thrrtis, ideasand beliefs
rbout mascul.inityand femininity) is produced, reproduced, resisted, and changed in and tluough
the everyday experiences of men and women.
'
Critical feminist research has shown that
sports are gcnderedactiuitier, tn that their meaning, purpose, and organizacion are grounded
in the values and experiences of men and celebrate attributes associatedwith dominant forms
of masculinity in society (Birrell, 2000; Burstyn,
1999). Therefore, in the world of sports, a
person is defined as "qualified" as an atllete, a
coach, or an adminisrator if he or she is tough,
rsgressive, and emotionally fbcused on competitive success.If a person is kind. caring, supportive, and emotionally responsive to others, he
or she is qualified only to be a cheerleader,a volunteer worker lbr the booster club, or an assrstant in marketing and public relations. These
l,rtter qualities, often associatedwith femininity
lnd werkness, are not valued in most sport
orgxruzflnons.
Critical f-eminist theorv emphasizesrhe need to
critique rurd trrnsfbrrn the crrlrure ud organization ofsports, so rh:rt they represent rhe perspecrivesand experiences
ofwomen asrvell asmen in
sociew. Criticirl fer nisrs argue thar ideological
and organizationll changeslre needed befbre
ticre can be rue gcnder etluiry in spors or socien
as a whole.
Studies brrsedon criricirl feminist theorv generallv focus on one or urore of the following
researchquestions(seeBirrell, 2000):
1. In what ways have girls and women been
excluded from or discouraged from
participating in sports, and how can gender
'
equity be achievedwithout promoting
spons that jeopardize the health and
physical well-being of girls and wornen
who play sportsl
2. How are sports involved in producing and
maintaining ideas about what it means to
be a man in sociewand tbrms of gender
relations that privilege tough and aggressive
rnen over everyone eisei
J. How are wornen and men represenredrn
media coverageofspors, lnd how do those
representations reproduce or resist dorninant
---,.t..;.t-^l^-,;
.1. \,\4rat strategieseffectively resist or
challenge the male-centered gender ideology
that is promoted and reproduced through
most comperidve sports?
5. How rre spons and spt,rt parricipation
involved in the production of gendered ideas
about physicaliry sexuality,and the body?
When critical feminisa do research, they
often focus on whetler spor6 are sites for chalIenging and ransforming oppressive forms of
gender relations, including expressionsof sex.ism
and homophobia. For manv critical feminists, the
goal is to change the meaning, purpose,and organization ofspors so that caring for and competing
(il l,\l'l li.ii li i ),1\,\o.nl l'/,&116
ultl others is nr:re irrportanr thrn clominating
others (Duquin, 2000).
lnd competing agnra.r't
.es rhe nced to
: '.lDdorglnlzlllt the PersPecwell '.lsmen in
hat ideological
needed belbre
ipons or soclet\i
'ist theorv gen' the fbllorvtng
)00):
rmen been
hom
w can gender
omotlng
ith and
d women
'oducing rnd
it meansto
i of gender
and lggresslve
)resentedln
I how do those
resist dominant
slst or
gender ideologY
rced through
'trcrpaflon
I genderedideas
nd the bodY?
, research, tle-v
rre sites for chairessive forms of
'essionsof sexrsm
ical ferninists,the
urpose,and orgabr and cornPenng
Theory
UsingCriticalFeminist
in Evervdav
Life
17
thev have lleen slow to the<trizerhesc connections. Furthennore, rhere is an urgent need fbr
nrore reselrch on thc sport-relirteclexpeliences
of women of dill-crentrrges.abilities, religions
(for exarnple,Muslim women), lnd nationrrlities
(Hargreaves,2 000; lValseth rnd Frrsdng.2003).
Criticrlfeministtheoryhashad,r maiorimprct
on the sociologyof sport.It hasincreased
our
understanding
of sportsasa part of culture,and
issues
in sporrs.
mrdeusrwareol-gender-relared
For example,criticalfeministsfocuson questions
such as these:\4try do many men around the
world continuecoresisteffors to promote gender equity in sports?Why do somewornenfear
beingcalledlesbians
if thev becomesrrongand
oowerful athletes?Whv are some men'slocker
iooms fulI of homophobia,gay-bashing;okes,
andcommentsthat demeanwomen?Why aren't
peoplemore concemedaboutthe 40,000young
men who incur seriouskneeiniuriesevervyear
as they play football? Why do church-going
mothersand fatherstake their children to football garnesandcheerfor youngmen chargedand
sometimes convicted of physical and sexual
assault?Wtrv do many peopleassumethat men
who plav spors must be heterosexual?
Why has
there never been an openly gay, active male
athlete featured on the cover of Sportsllhcn'atefr
high schoolandcollege
\d/hyaresomanywomen's
teamscalled"Lady this" and "Lady that"?These
questions,
inspiredby criticalfeministtheorydeal
with issuesthataffectour liveseveryday.In fact,if
we do not havethoughtfrrlanswersto *resequestions,we reallydon't know much aboutsportsin
sociery
Weaknesses
of Critical
FeministTheory
Critical feminist theory has some of the same
weaknesses
of critical tleory Although critical
feministshavebecomeincreasinglyawareof the
connectionsbetweengenderandother categories
of experiencerelatedto age,race and ethniciry,
social class,disability,religon, and nationality,
INTERACTIONIST
THEORY:
SPORTS
AREGIVENMEANINC
ASPEOPTE
INTERACT
WITHONEANOTHER
Interactionist theorv fbcuseson issuesrelated to
meaning, identity, social relationships, and subcultures in sports. It is based on che idea that
humrrn beings, as thev interact with one another,
give meanings to themselves, others, and the
w o r l d a r o u n dr h e m .a n d u s er h o s em e a n i n g sa sa
basis for making decisions and taking action in
tieir everydav lives.
According to interactionist theory we humans
do not passivelyrespond to the world around us.
Instead, we actively make decisionsabout our actions aswe consider their potendal consequences
for us, the people around us, and the social world
in which we live. Culture and sociery according
to hteractionists, are produced aspatternsemerge
in our actions and relationshipswith other's.
According to interactionist theory our ability
to reflect on our actions and relationships with
others enablesus to develop identity-that is, a
snse of who ue at'e and bmu ue are connectedto the
:ocial uarld.Idenrides are key factors as people interact with one another and consu'ucttheir social
worlds. They are the foundation for self-direction
and self-controlin our lives.Idendriesare never
formed once and for all rime; rhey change over
time asour actionsand relationshipschange,aswe
meel new people,lnd as we facenew siruadons.
Researchbasedon interactionist theory helps
us understand how people define and give meaning to themselves, their actions, and the world
around them, It also helps us understand human
beings as choice makers and creators of identiries and relarionships.Inreractionisrsgenerally do
]B
i
I
in clepth reselrch that invoh'esobsen'arionsoi
ud intervrewswirh people vho rrreuembers of
particul:u !troups or identifiable culrures. The
goal of this research is to understand sociirl
worlcls trom che rnsrcle-through the perspec
tires of the people rvho create, naintain, :rnd
change them. Unlike functionalistsand conflict
theorists,interacrionistsviervculrure lnd sociery
fiom the bottorn up rather than the top dorvn.
Theoryand Research
Interactionist
on Sports
i
Inrerlctioniscrheory is often useclin researchon
the experiences of athletes lnd the rvrvs thlt
athletesdefinerrndmake senseoftheir sport participrtiou. \ eomrntrngo:rl ,'f irtterrctionist rcsearch is ro reconstruct and clescribethe lealio
rhat existsin the minds ofathletes,coaches,speccators,and others involved in sports.
Tl.re data collection nedrods used in this researchis desigred to gather information about the
u,avsthat people define rrndgive mealring to their
e;'periencesas they form jdenrities and interact
u,iti othcrs. Those who use interactionist rheorvro irudy spons lbcuson rie tbllou ing issues:
l . \ \ 4 r r r ' . r r et h e s u c i a lp r o c c s s crsh r o u g h
rvhich people becomeinvolved in sportsi
l. Horv do peoplecome to define tiernselves
and bc idenriliedby others rrsathletes?
J. How do people give meanirg to and derive
rneaning fiom their sport experience?
1. What happenswhen adrletesrerire and mrke
the transition into the rest of therr livesi
5. !\4rat are the characteristicsofsport cultures,
how are they created, and horv do thel'
influence people! lives on and off *re lield?
One or more of these issuesare discussedin lll
chapters. This is becauseinteractionist research
provides vivid descriprions of sports experiences
and the social worlds in which they occur.
Theoryin Everyday
Life
UsingInteractionist
Interactionist theon- fbcuses on the meanings
and interaction associatedrvith sports and sport
, v w \ ! . t n n h c , ( ( ) m c/ o n k l c , y 9 e
ptrticiparion. It enrphrsizesrhe courplexicvof
hrunanrction rrnclthc neeclto urclerstlnd lctron
in ternrsofhol'pcople cleEnesiruationslnd give
nclning to thcir experiencesirs thev inrcract
with orhers. Interacnoniscsgenerallv recommend
changes thrt represer)t the perspecrivesrnd
identiuesof thosewho piav sports.ln manv cases,
lhrs rvoui,l inrulre lesrrucnrrirrgspr.-rrt
ur-gurrizJtions\o rhlt prrrtic:pants.rleeivcn oppolrunities to raise questionsend discussissucsrclated
to the merning, purposelnd orgarrizarionof the
sporrs thev play Therefbre, interactionists would
support changesthat rnake lthletes more responsibie fbr oreanizingrnd controllirg thcir sports.
In the caseofyouth sports,fbr example,interacdonistsrvoulclsupporr organizacionalchanges
that would give voung peoplc opportunities to
creategamesand phvsicalchlllenges that would
more closelv reliect their needs rnd interesrs,
rather dran the needsand intcrestsofadults. Interactionists rvould clution puenrs and coaches
;rbout problems that occur when vounq people
developsport-relatedidentitiesand relationships
to the exclusion of other idenrides and relationshipsand to the poinr that burnout is likelrr
In rhc caseol elite sports, interrctionists rvould
support changes that discourage lthletes from
defining pain and i:rjury irs nonnil parts of the
sport experience.Becausethe useofperformanceenhancing substancesis connected with issues
of identic and the norms that exist in sport cultures,interacdonistswould argue that the use of
these substrnces can be conrrolled only if there
are changes in the uorms irnd culture of sports;
ideltitving substanceusers as "bad apples" and
punishing them as individuals will not change
the culture in rvhich arhletes lerrrn to sacrifice
their bodies fbr the sake ol the teum and their
sPort.
Weaknesses
Theory
of Interactionist
Interactionist theorv has inspired nanv inlbrmative snrdiesof meaning,identiry interaction,and
culrurcs in sporr. However. it has two prirnaw
weakaesses.First, it tbcusesour attention almost
r il l \P'l IrR l: l ,ru ., rt.tt
c(n11Ple\rr\.ol
erJ[i]Lrdlctloll
tions iin(l qive
thcy rnter'.rct
.rq t ,
)
1\'I eCOnIlllell(L
specti\ es lnL[
In ntltnv c'.rses,
sPort or-glrllelr opPoftunl
issr.resrel'lted
rization of thc
u ould
:nr,rnisrs
i lI0fe r'esPor1Lqmell SPoItS.
'xirrnple.intertionll chmqes
rporrunrtiesto
qes t.hrt would
ind lnte!ests.
s of rdults. Ints rnd coacLres
voung people
d r:cl:rtionships
s ud relationrt is likel\r
crionistsrvould
athletes fiotr.t
'rl palts of the
f perlbmrmceecl rvith issues
st in sport culth';rt the use of
d only if there
Iture of sports;
'.rd rpples" rr.rd
'ill not change
rln to srtcrilice
te.rLl 'lnd their
reory
manvintbruanteractlon,'Jnd
irs t\r'o Pnmlrv
ttention irlmost
g""];r;,:';.";1;rtf
]#".
il"ffi:il?ilr
##tffi
jr:r*[i:fr,j
#"1""'f#
:,*iii!
r9
t v w w , n r h h e , e o mc/ o n | ( l e y 9 e
i{J
Lang-uageBarriers
We're Not Handicapped;WeJust Can't Hear
Len Gonzalesis deaf.But more importrnt, he is head
football coachat the California Schoolfor the Deaf
at Riverside(CSDR). When his team cappedits 9-l
seasonby winning the 2004 charnpionshipof che
SanJoaquin High School League,a reporter asked
Gonzalesrvhatother tenmsthoughtwhen cheylost to
CSDR. Gonzalesexplailedtiat "teamshateto ioseto
us becausethey think we're a handicappedteam.But
We jusccan't hear" (in Reilly,
we're not handicapped.
2004,p. la4).
CoachGonzalesis sensiriveto the barrierscreated
referto physwhenpeopleusedreword bandicappedto
icalandmentalimpairmentsanddisabilities.CleardeEnitionsof thesewords are necessarv
to understand
andevaluatetheoriesof disability.
An irnpairment e.rrrr uhen a perconhat a phyical,
sauory,or iatellem,ulnndition that potentiallylimix full
patticipationin socialand/orphyncalenairmmerti. Many
peoplehaveimpairmentsand,aswe get older,impairmentsgenerallyincreasein numberandseverity.This
is part of normal, everydaylif'e,Nole of us is physically or menrallyperfect,and we regularlymakeperto limit the impact of impairmenrs
sonaladjusunencs
on our [ves. If we are lucky,rve haveaccessto technologies thac make adjustmentsmore effective.For
example,I weareyeglasses
that "correct" my impaired
vision. If I were a world-classarcher I could be a
member of the U.S. Archery Team, despitemy impairrnent.I would faceno barriersas long as I rvas
allowed to wear eyeglasses;
therefore,I would not
havea disabilityArr impairmenc becomes a disability only uhen
accommodations
in socialorphysiulconte,xx
arcnotar cannot
bemaden allow thefull participationofpeopleuith frnr
tiznallinitations.This meansthat disabilidesare crepresent
spaces,,rnd
acriviries
atedwhenrelarionships.
barriersthat limit the opportunitiesandexperiences
of
people with particular impairments.FoF example,
prior to the late-1990s,
if my leg wasamputaced
below
the kneeand I wore a prostheticleg and foot, I could
norhavebeena memberof the U.S.PowerliftingTeam
becausethe InternacionalPowerlifting Federation
rulesstatedthar "Lifters without wo real feet cannot
competein regr.rlar
contests."This rule createda barrier makingme disabled.Howeveqafter the rule was
andmy prosthetic
changed,dre barrierwaseLirninated
exclusivelvon relationships and definitions ofrelliw rvithout erplaining the wavs that lnteracnon
rnd tle ct nstrucrion ot- merning in sports ure
inlluenced bv social organizadon, power, and
rnaterialconditions in sociew Therefbre, interacrionist reseirrch often ignores power dvnamics
,rnd inequaliw in connection with sports and
sporr experiences.
Second, inreraccionisttheory does not provide critical visions of the wavs that spors and
society could and should be organized. HoweveS
many people who use interactionist theory now
combine thern with critical and critical f-eminist
theories to provide a basis for developing such
visions (Coakley and Donnellv, 1999).
ISTHERE
A BEST
THEORETICAL
APPROACH
TO USEWHEN
STUDYINCSPORTS?
Eachtheorydiscussed
in this chapterhasrnade
me iwrre t-rfquestionslnd issuesrharare important to me, to the people with whom I work and
plav, and in the social worlds in which I live. In
most of mv research,I've used combinarionsof
interanionitt, o'itical, and,feminist theoriesbecarse
I've wanced to view sports fiom the inside, fiom
the perspectives of those who nake decisions
to play or not to play and who integrate sport
participation into their lives in various wavs. As
I view soorts from the inside. I also want to be
( i 1 | \ l r I l f l l ) : t ' i t r q. ; u u i t l t u t t
Lhhe.LUm/roJAicv re
lve rrccessto tech_
rore effective. For
'
rect rn\' irlPaired
:her I could be a
n, desPrte Lnv lmj rs long is I was
iore, I woulcl not
abiliry onlY aDea
,xtr ttl-ctlot ol ctlnllat
oJpeoPleit irh fnciislbiltriesere creI lcdvitles Presena
ot
end experiences
L$. FoI e(arnPle,
r .lmPutated below
; and fbot, I could
Powerjitcing'Ibrm
ilirnq !-ecleratron
'o re.rlteet crnuot
-ule createdI blr:rfter the rule was
irnd m,v Prosthenc
\L
rapter hls lrNde
thecare imPorhonrIuorkirnd
which I live. In
lrnbinations ol
tDrorlcsbeciruse
the insiclc, frorr
nrake dccisions
intcqratc sPort
'irrious \!'avs As
llso rvatlt ro be
leg and foot no longer made me clisabledas a porverlifter Thisshows that disabilicvorten h'rslessco do wi*r
impairmenc,rnd abiliw dran with soci.rl,environmental,
atitudinal, and legal hctors (Brittarn, 2004; IJrrgreaves,
2000; Higgins, 1992; Morris, 1996; Olivea 1996).
Therefore, a person may be (dis)abled in one co[cext
but not in another (Friedman et al., 2004). Only rvhen
there are barriers that exclude or lirnit people with
impairments do disabilities exist.
People become handicapped uherz othett lef.ne
tbem as nfaior and "anble" due to perteiaednnpah'me7tts.For example, when opposing plavers defined
the football texm fiom CSDR as handicrpped, thev
hated losing to them becauseit rrerrnt that thev lost to
players who rhey defrred as inferior and unable.
These three deiinicions are baseclort critical and
interacrionist theories. They loc. te handicaps and
disabiliries in the social processes through rvhich
(a) environmens are organized to meet the needs of
temporarily able-bodied people, (b) norms (mles) are
created tlat disad"antage peopJe with impairments,
and (c) people leam to equate particular impairments
with inferiority and inabiliry
(Jther cleiinitrons, based on ruedicrl and psvcholoqical theory explaiu drsabiliry rs e characreristic of
individuals. Medical-psychologicrl theories locate
disability in the ph1'sicaland cognitive "rbnornalitres"
of individu.rls and they lead to interentions enphasizing personal coping strategies and assistive technologies. Cririerl intemctionisr dleories, on the othe.
hand, locare disrrbiliw in socirl rnd cuin:ral barders
thrr Iirrritparticipation:thel le:rdro intervenrionsernphasizing the eliminrtion of culrurrrl, organizationll,
legal, lncl environmencal barliers.
Both lpproaches are needed, but people roo often
overlook the leed to elirninate barriers. Coping strategies and assiscive
rcchloiogies are crucial fbrindividuals,
but climinating barriers makes disabiliry less relevanc
for encirecategoriesofpeople (DePaurq 1997).Leslie
Litde, a sailor with muscular dystroph-v, helps us
understand what dris rneanswlren she says,"Every day
is a nerv adventure rvhen I'm sarJing. . . Plus, I'm not
disabled when I'm on the wacer" (wwumdausa.orgl
publications/Quest/qS2water.cfin). The gorrl thelefore is to create social and phvsicel worlds that are like
being on rhe water fbr Leslie Little.
aware of the social,economic,political. ucl historical factors that influence accessto sporr prrrticipadon xnd rie decisions thar people Inake
about sport participarion. Criticrl rnd criticai
feminist theories have rlso helped me think
about very practical issues.such irs ho$ ro \ ote
on proposalsto hlnd nerv parks or rrnelv statlinrn
for a professionalfbotb:rll team,Thev've helpecl
me assesspolicies rehted to sport progralns
for at-risk yourh and to etaluate candidrtesfbr
coaching jobs irt nl! univcrsit\'..l,lore recentlv
this combinationof dreorieshas grridedrruch of
mv thinking aboutsportsfbr p€ople\\'itli rlisabilities, rs is shol n in the box "Breaking Barrters"
o n P P .5 0 - j l .
-\ldrougli I lrave nor usedJ)nctiontrlit tl:cor1,
tnd tolflttt tbentl, il't n'ty research, I have used
them to intbrm mv general unclerstandingof
sports in societv.For example.huctionalist theo4'helps me understandhow other peoplethink
.rbout sports in societt',even though it does not
heip me identifu the sociirlissuesirnclcontroversiesconnccte(l u,ith sports in rn1'comrnulrit\.' rrncl
in the sport orgirnizations in rvhich I rvork with
corcl.res irn(l aclministrrtors. Conilict theon'
alertsme to issuesr:elatedto sociri cllss and econornic exploitaLion d,sI D,seLliticnl thearie-rto help
me unclerstlnclrhe drmamicsof power in sports
ind socien; the rvavs that porver is relrrtedto
gerdcr, rrce, ethniciry', disabiliq', and ser-ualit]';