CONTENTS
Foreward
Preface
Acknowledgements
Symbols and Abbreviations
xxi
xxiii
xxix
xxxi
1.
INTRODUCTION TO PULSE WAVEFORMS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
Functions, Signals, and Waveforms 1
Classification and Analysis of Pulse Waveforms
Passive and Active Pulse Circuits 4
Periodic Waveforms 4
Fourier Series 5
Fourier Transform 6
Laplace Transform 7
Laplace Transform Pair 8
Use of Laplace Transform 9
Transfer Function 10
Frequency Function 12
Pulse Waveforms 13
Test Your Understanding 16
2.
LINEAR WAVESHAPING CIRCUITS
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Linear Waveshaping Circuits 20
Unique Property of Sinusoidal Waveform 21
RC High-Pass Filter 22
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to
a Sinusoidal Input 24
Average Value of the High-Pass
Filter Output 26
Response of a First-Order Linear Circuit 27
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to a Step Input 28
Definition of Time Constant 30
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to a Pulse Input 32
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to a Square Wave 36
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to
a Symmetrical Square Wave 46
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to a Ramp Input 49
Response of the RC High-Pass Filter to an
Exponential Input 54
RC Differentiator 60
Criterion for Good Differentiation 61
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
1
3
19
xii
Contents
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.28
2.29
2.30
3.
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23
3.24
3.25
3.26
Op-Amp Differentiator 64
Double Differentiation 66
RC Low-Pass Filter 69
Response of the RC Low-Pass Filter to a Sinusoidal Input 71
Response of the RC Low-Pass Filter to a Step Input 72
Response of the RC Low-Pass Filter to a Pulse Input 74
Response of the RC Low-Pass Filter to a Square Wave 78
Response of the RC low-pass filter to a
symmetrical square wave 82
Response of the RC Low-Pass Filter to a Ramp Input 86
Response of the RC Low-Pass Filter to an Exponential Input 93
RC Integrator 95
Criterion for Good Integration 96
RLC Ringing Circuit 99
Uncompensated and Compensated Attenuators 105
Laplace Transform Approach to Uncompensated Attenuator 115
Test Your Understanding 117
NON-LINEAR WAVESHAPING CIRCUITS
Non-Linear Waveshaping Circuits 128
Operation of Diode Clipping Circuits 128
Positive Limiting Operation 129
Series-Diode Positive Limiting Circuit 130
Parallel-Diode Positive Limiting Circuit 133
Diode Negative Limiting Operation 139
Series-Diode Clipping Circuit 141
Parallel-Diode Clipping Circuit 143
Practical Considerations 144
Methods for Analyzing Multi-Diode Circuits 145
Method of Assumed States 146
Application of Method of Assumed States 147
Method of Break Point 156
Series-Diode Noise Clipping Circuit 160
Unbiased Noise Clipping Circuit 161
Parallel-Diode Noise Clipping Circuit 162
Double Peak Limiter with Zener Diodes 162
Transistor Clipping Circuit 163
Emitter-Coupled Transistor Clipping Circuit 164
Diode Comparator Circuit 165
Introduction to Clamping Circuits 173
Restoration of the Lost DC Component 174
Clamping a Waveform to Zero Level 175
Simple Diode Circuit that Clamps the Positive Peaks to Zero
Self-Adjusting Diode Circuit that Clamps the
Positive Peaks to Zero 178
Operation of a Practical Diode Clamping Circuit 181
127
176
Contents
3.27
3.28
3.29
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
4.23
4.24
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
Analysis of a Practical Diode Clamping Circuit 181
Practical Considerations 193
Distortion in the Clamped Waveform at the Reference Voltage
Test Your Understanding 199
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVICES
xiii
197
208
Switching Characteristics of a Diode 209
Charge-control Model of a Diode 209
Switching Times in a Diode 210
Breakdown Mechanisms in a Diode 212
Diode Linear Models 213
Switching Times in a Transistor 214
Definitions of Transistor Switching Times 218
Transistor Breakdown Voltages 218
Common-Emitter Transistor Switch 219
Transistor at Saturation 220
Temperature Variation of Saturation Values 221
Transistor at Cut-Off 221
Commutating Capacitance 222
Design of a High-Speed Transistor Switch 224
Schottky Transistor 227
Common-Emitter Switch with Inductive Load 228
Function of Damping Diodes 232
Transistor Switch with Capacitive Load 233
Collector Catching Diodes 237
JFET Switches 240
NMOS and PMOS Switches 241
MOSFET Driver: Passive Load and Active Load 243
CMOS Switch 244
Dynamic Power Dissipation in CMOS Switch 245
Test Your Understanding 247
REGENERATIVE FEEDBACK AND
MULTIVIBRATORS
Role of Feedback in Electronic Circuits 251
Closed-Loop System 251
Effect of Feedback on Amplifier Parameters 252
Loop Gain 253
Effect of Feedback on Stability 254
Stable, Unstable and Oscillatory Behaviour 255
Sinusoidal Oscillations 256
Principles of Multivibrators 257
Classification of Multivibrators 258
Test Your Understanding 261
250
xiv
Contents
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
7.
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
8.
8.1
8.2
TRANSISTOR BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
265
Classification of Multivibrators 266
Quiescent Condition of a Bistable Multivibrator 269
Fixed-Bias Transistor Bistable Multivibrator 272
Effect of Loading of Collector on Output Swing 272
Collector-Catching Diodes 274
Self-Biased Transistor Bistable Multivibrator
292
Speed-up Capacitors 292
Basic Techniques in the Triggering of Bistable Multivibrators 310
Application of Trigger Input at the Base of the OFF Transistor 312
Application of Trigger Input at the Base of the on Transistor 312
Sensitivity of a Transistor to a Trigger Input 312
Unsymmetrical Triggering of a Bistable Multivibrator 314
Using the Bistable Multivibrator as T Flip-Flop 316
Symmetrical Triggering Applying a Step at the Common
Emitters 318
Direct Connected Transistor Bistable Multivibrator 321
Test Your Understanding 323
TRANSISTOR SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUIT
327
Schmitt Trigger Circuit 328
Effect of Loop Gain on the Circuit 329
Stable Equilibrium and Unstable Equilibrium 332
Schmitt Trigger Circuit and the Conventional
Bistable Multivibrator 332
Hysteresis of the Schmitt Trigger Circuit 334
Applications of the Schmitt Trigger Circuit 335
Aanalysis of a Schmitt Trigger Circuit 336
Comments on the Stability of VUTP in Practice 338
Operating Transistor Q2 in Saturation 339
Need to keep the Hysteresis Gap VH Small 339
Calculation of VLTP of a Schmitt Trigger Circuit 340
Adjustment of VLTP and VUTP for Controlling
the Hysteresis Gap 342
Choosing Rs for proper functioning of the Circuit 357
Precautions to be Taken While Using Re1 and Re2
to Control VH 357
Test Your Understanding 358
TRANSISTOR MONOSTABLE AND ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATORS
Monostable Multivibrator
364
Triggering of the Collector-Coupled Monostable Multivibrator
363
364
Contents
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
9.
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
xv
Expression for Gate Width T with Q1 in Active Region 367
Expression for Gate Width T with Q1 in Saturation 368
Waveforms of the Collector Coupled Monostable Multivibrator 369
Overshoot @ in Base Waveform of Transistor Q2 at t = T 377
Emitter Coupled Monostable Multivibrator
379
Waveforms of the Emitter-Coupled Monostable Multivibrator 381
Expression for Gate width T 383
Collector-Coupled Transistor Astable Multivibrator 384
Voltage-to-Frequency Converter 390
Astable Multivibrator with Vertical-Edged Collector
Waveforms 391
Gated Astable Multivibrator
393
Blocked Condition in an Astable Multivibrator
393
Emitter-Coupled Astable Multivibrator
394
Advantages and Disadvantages of Emitter-Coupled Astable
Multivibrator 400
Test Your Understanding 401
VOLTAGE SWEEP CIRCUITS
405
Voltage Sweep Waveform 406
Departure from Linearity of a Voltage Sweep Waveform 407
Relationship between es, et, and ed for an Exponential
Waveform 408
Overview of Methods of Generating a Voltage
Sweep Waveform 412
Generation of a Voltage Sweep Waveform
through Exponential Charging 413
Free-Running Mode Operation 416
Triggered-Mode Operation 416
Free-Running UJT Sweep Waveform Generator 416
Free-Running UJT Circuit with Control-Lable
Sweep and Retrace Intervals 419
Triggered UJT Sweep Waveform Generator 423
Transistor Constant-Current Sweep Circuit 428
Basic Principles Common to Miller and Bootstrap Approaches 430
Miller Voltage Sweep Circuit 433
Bootstrap Voltage Sweep Circuit 439
Comparison of Miller Sweep and Bootstrap Sweep Circuits 443
Transistor Miller Voltage Sweep Circuit 444
Single Transistor Bootstrap Voltage Sweep Circuit 446
Two-transistor Bootstrap Voltage Sweep Circuit 448
Test Your Understanding 458
xvi
Contents
10.
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
11.
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
12.
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
CURRENT SWEEP CIRCUITS
463
Principle of Current Sweep Generation 464
Simple Current Sweep 464
Slope Error of the Current Sweep Waveform 466
Linearity Correction through Adjustment of Driving
Waveform 468
Complete Practical Current Sweep Generator 472
Omission of Coil Capacitance 474
Circuits for Generating an Impulse 477
Improvement of Linearity of Current Driver for Yoke 478
Linearization of Trapezoidal Voltage 479
Mechanism to Generate a Fast Retrace Current Sweep 480
Test Your Understanding 482
SYNCHRONIZATION AND FREQUENCY
DIVISION
485
Two Types of Synchronization 486
Relaxation Circuit 487
Synchronization of a Relaxation Circuit 487
Pulse Synchronization of an Astable Circuit 487
Frequency Division in the Sweep Circuits 489
Synchronization of Astable Multivibrator
490
Monostable Relaxation Circuit as Dividers 493
Phase Delay and Phase Jitters 494
Frequency Division without Phase Jitter 495
Synchronization of a Sweep Circuit with Symmetrical Signals
Test Your Understanding 497
SAMPLING GATES
Unidirectional Diode Gate 499
General Applications of Sampling Gates 501
Coincidence Gate 501
Unidirectional Diode Sampling Gate Insensitive to – V2 502
Bi-directional Diode Gates 503
Balance Conditions in a Bi-directional Diode Gate 506
Four-Diode Sampling Gate 508
Alternative form of a Four-Diode Sampling Gate 510
Six-Diode Sampling Gate 512
Transistor Sampling Gates 514
Chopper Amplifier 515
Test Your Understanding 517
499
Contents
xvii
13.
BLOCKING OSCILLATORS
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
Pulse Transformers 520
Blocking Oscillators 520
Applications of Blocking Oscillator
520
Triggered Transistor Blocking Oscillator (Base Timing) 521
Triggered Transistor Blocking Oscillator (Emitter Timing) 527
Astable Transistor Blocking Oscillator (Diode-Controlled) 533
Astable Transistor Blocking Oscillator (RC-Controlled) 540
Test Your Understanding 543
14.
NETWORK THEOREMS, TRANSIENTS, AND
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
545
Network Theorems 546
Steady-State and Transient Responses 552
Response of a First-Order Linear Circuit 553
Electrical circuit Transients 554
Initial and Final Conditions 555
Properties of Passive Components 555
RC Circuit Transients 558
RL Circuit Transients 559
Voltage and Current Sources 560
Impedance Matching 563
15.
REVIEW OF RLC CIRCUITS
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
Forced Response 567
Natural Response 567
Analysis of an RLC Circuit 567
Response of the RLC Circuit to a Step Waveform 570
Analysis of a Series RLC Circuit 576
Analogy between Electrical Circuits and Mechanical Systems
16.
OP-AMP AND IC 555 TIMER
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.5
16.6
16.7
16.8
16.9
16.10
519
Operational Amplifier 583
Characteristics of an Ideal Op-amp 584
Voltage Constraint and Current Constraint 585
Inverting and Non-Inverting Op-amp Amplifiers 585
Op-amp Non-Inverting Amplifier 587
Simple Op-Amp Applications 588
Op-amp Differentiator 591
Practical Op-amp Differentiator 592
Op-amp Integrator 593
Practical Op-amp Integrator 594
566
581
582
xviii Contents
16.11
16.12
16.13
16.14
16.15
16.16
16.17
16.18
16.19
16.20
16.21
16.22
16.23
17.
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8
17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12
17.13
17.14
17.15
18.
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
Reasons for Preferring Integrators 594
Op-Amp based Monostable Multivibrator 595
Op-Amp based Astable Multivibrator 598
Inverting Schmitt Trigger Circuit Using Op-Amp 600
IC 555 Timer 603
Monostable Multivibrator with IC 555 Timer 604
Astable Multivibrator with IC 555 Timer 607
Multivibrators Employing Negative-Resistance Devices 609
Operating Point on the Volt–Ampere Characteristic 611
Bistable Operation 616
Monostable Operation 617
Astable Operation 619
Voltage-Controlled NR Switching Circuits 620
Test Your Understanding 621
DIGITAL LOGIC AND FLIP-FLOPS
624
Analog, Digital and Binary Signals 625
Basic Boolean Operations 625
Other Boolean Identities 627
NAND and NOR as the Universal Gates 627
NAND Realization 628
NOR Realization 629
Design of a Combinational Logic Circuit 629
Design of a Full Adder 630
Sequential Logic Circuits 632
SR Latch 633
Clocked SR Flip-Flop 634
JK Flip-Flop 636
Level-Triggered and Edge Triggered Flip-Flops 637
Master-Slave JK Flip-Flop 637
Registers and Counters 638
REVIEW OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND
TRANSISTORS
Composition of Matter 642
Classification of Matter 642
Improving Conductivity of Semiconductors 644
Generation and Recombination of Hole-Electron Pairs
Controlled-Flow of Charge Carriers 645
Majority and Minority Carriers 646
Drift and Diffusion Currents 646
Semiconductor Diode Operation 647
Diode Characteristic 649
Concept of Load Line 652
644
641
Contents
18.11
18.12
18.13
xix
Bipolar Junction Transistor 652
Transistor Biasing Circuits 655
Unijunction Transistor (UJT) 658
Appendix
Index
661
664