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ENVIR 215, EARTH, AIR, WATER: THE HUMAN CONTEXT
www.ocean.washington.edu/courses/envir215
REVIEW OF COURSE ACTIVITIES
P.B.Rhines
6 ii 2004
This course has been taught for the past two years as a core course in Program on the
Environment, primarily for non-scientists, but using basic tools of science to illuminate the Earth’s
air and water resources. The intensive use of laboratory experiments for teaching allows nonscientists to encounter problems as experiences, and to develop manual skills (‘hands-on, brain-on’
we like to say). Seeing natural phenomena in a controlled setting can be aesthetically rewarding as
well. Calculations of a simple nature have to be made, and these arise with motivation from the
experiments, lectures and text.
The course is nominally set up for 32 students in two sections of 16. In 2002 we ended up
with 27 after some dropouts (due in part to the mistaken identification of this as a ‘Population and
Health’ course), and in 2003 with 28 students. One section is dedicated to the Honors Program.
The format had two lectures per week and two 2-hour labs per week, for each section. The colecturers (William Wilcock and Peter Rhines in 2002, Fritz Stahr and Peter Rhines in 2003), lab
engineer (Eric Lindahl) and TA (Dan Hayes in 2002, Ryan McCabe in 2003) were fully occupied
with the process of leading the students into experiments, and helping them with much
experimental detail. The 10 contact hours per week for the instructors was a significant load.
Each student carried out 6 lab experiments (roughly 1 ½ weeks on each), working with a
partner, (these were written up extensively in ongoing lab-books), built a solar box cooker, wrote 3
essays, did stand-up presentations for some of the labs, read the text and frequent hand-outs, and
took 3 quizzes.
In all there were 23 separate experiments, and each student was asked to look over the
shoulder of the people doing other experiments, and also write up short descriptions in their lab
books. In this way they experienced a broad range of physics, chemistry and a little biology of the
environment. The 23 experiments were divided into three 3-week units, Energy, Water and Air and
are detailed in the Appendix.
‘Energy’ was chosen first because we felt that it is both an underlying concept and a
practical necessity. Most of our environmental science originates with the sun’s energy, and
learning to do energy calculations starting there, leads naturally to heat engines, atmospheric and
oceanic circulation, machines, power generation, fossil fuel and global warming. Thus energy is a
very useful unifying thread. It also helps in learning basic quantitative ideas like fluxes and
concentrations (students are not always quick to disentangle ‘power’ from ‘energy’).
Lectures were complementary to labs and text; they involved both scientific ideas and
techniques and also deeper roots of environmental science. For example, James Lovelock’s Gaia
hypothesis was introduced, compared with Darwinian evolution, then leading into modern global
change/global warming. Thus we talked about ‘deep time’ as well as ‘shallow time’.
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Every attempt was made to relate the various elements of the course. Relating to Gaia we
had a biological microcosm in the lab. Essays were assigned with a few choices of topic, and
tended to be environmental case studies applying ideas from lectures, text and labs (for example,
assess the energy usage profile of Tanzania, and the prospect for significant use of solar cookers
there).
Among the experiments (described in detail below) were some relating to technology (a
working hydrogen fuel cell, reverse osmosis cell to desalinate water, a Stirling cycle heat engine),
some basic physics (optics, waves, heat diffusion and convection, transformation of energy from
chemical to heat to mechanical, or in our water flume, from electrical to mechanical, cloud
chamber, sediment movement and shaping of riverbeds and beaches), some relating to atmosphere
and ocean structure (tornadoes, hurricanes, weather, overturning circulations, circulations in ocean
estuaries) and some relating directly to environmental pollution (experimental pollution inversion
in a stratified atmosphere, observations of sub-micron particles in air). We had an instrumented
biosphere, a closed system with growing algae and goldfish, with continuous monitoring of oxygen
levels, and a sub-experiment using methylene blue to visualize on the uptake of oxygen by a water
surface.
Much detailed material is available on the class webpage,
http://www.ocean.washington.edu/courses/envir215
but let me give one example of our approach. The solar box cookers were built from cardboard,
aluminum foil and glass plates. Lab study of optics with a laser, prisms, lenses and mirrors had
already introduced students to the idea of concentrating energy. A spectrometer was used to
examine the solar spectrum in detail, and talk about absorption, black-body radiation and reradiation of infrared wavelengths. We had a precise radiometer to measure the sun’s output, and an
‘artificial sun’ in the lab for cloudy days. The cookers worked moderately well in the faint March
Seattle sun, yet we also had an impressive parabolic mirror which, when pointed at the sun, could
easily make a 2x4 piece of wood burst into flame. It was quite social outside there with all these
devices (see web-site for photos).
This work leads to a serious consideration of the natural constraints on energy generation,
with essay and lecture material on 3d world opportunities for its application. Nandita Hazarika,
who has visited Craig Zumbrunnen this year from India, has described her experiences in trying to
apply solar cooking there. In some areas it is rejected for social/historical reasons (‘the food
doesn’t taste the same as with a charcoal fire’) yet in other areas that may be an advantage (in Tibet
it is successful, as the food no longer tastes of yak dung!).
Finally, solar cooking leads to discussion of global warming. The cooker is a greenhouse,
and the atmosphere is a greenhouse. We complete the discussion with the important gases
blanketing the Earth, that trap infrared radiation from its sun-warmed surface. The sun is the
‘mother’ of all our energy on Earth (or most of it), and we take this concentrated, high-quality
energy and degrade it to more dilute forms; how silly it is to take solar energy, concentrate it as
fossil fuel, burn it to make electricity and then use the electricity in resistance heating to warm a
cold house, while wasting most of it on the way and leaving trails of pollutants! To add insult to
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injury there is likely a cold refrigerator inside the warm house, and inside the refrigerator a butter
warmer!
The class also incorporated some ‘basic skills’ (sessions in the COFS library on internet
searching for environmental sciences), tours of the School of Oceanography’s 276’ research vessel
R/V Thompson, and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics lab, working with laboratory instruments and
building things, and work with computational skills (powers of ten, estimating fluxes and storages,
power and energy).
FUTURE
We who taught the course had tremendous fun, in part because many of the experiments
excite us and are quite beautiful to look at. The students seemed to react positively, even though
most were non-science majors. The course could be shifted toward more lecturing and less lab
time if we come up against a problem of financial support for instructors. Indeed, some students
this year asked for more lectures to balance the labs.
Lab experiments ‘scale’ well, allowing them to contribute in a variety of ways to
undergraduate teaching: we (in the GFD Lab) can (and do) provide demonstrations for large
classes, brief hands-on experiments for moderate-size classes, and extensive, almost research-level
experiences for small classes. The lab and field resources in Oceanography are very extensive, and
could be brought to bear on the fundamental problem of undergraduates at UW: engaging them in
active, creative, individualistic instruction rather than restricting them to large lectures.
Good TA support could provide for a modest increase in enrollment. The first time round
with this course required an extreme amount of instructor input during experiments. Many of the 23
experiments were new to us as well as to the students! Now that these have been defined, a lab
manual can readily be produced that should help make the students more independent. We are
absolutely opposed to falling into the cookbook-lab syndrome however. The realities of instructor
skill and time turn most undergraduate science labs into a sleep-inducing experience: following
instructions ‘until one sees the brown residue in the test-tube and can go home’.
APPENDIX: Menu of Experiments: Energy, Water and Air
Students worked in pairs, spending about 1 ½ weeks on each of 6 experiments; in a addition
each pair built and tested a solar box cooker. Emphasis was on the origin of almost all useful forms
of energy in the sun, the several forms of energy and transformations between them, mechanisms
that concentrate and store energy, and the contrast between rich, concentrated energy and poor,
degraded forms and intensities of energy.
ENERGY:
• E1 solar spectrum
A spectrometer splits the sun’s light into colors, with black aborption
lines due to atmospheric gases and water vapor; idea of black-body radiation
which describes stellar emission so well. Observing the spectrum and looking
at scientific observations taken at the ground and above the atmosphere shows
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the absorption, and trapping of energy by greenhouse gases. Applications: forms of
energy, sensing radiant heat, reflection and absorption of solar energy (ultraviolet,
visible, infrared), relationship of light to electromagnetic radiation.
E2 optics of prisms, lenses and mirrors
Tracing rays from a low-power laser, learning about focusing and
refraction, focusing, and splitting of wavelengths (colors) by
a prism; diffraction patterns (the rainbow seen as light reflects from a CD).
Applications to solar cookers, power generation, measurement of particles
in the atmosphere. ‘Seeing’ the wavelength of light in the laboratory.
E3 energy in a flowing river
The large racetrack flume is accelerated by a bank of propellers; the electrical power
is measured and the rate of kinetic energy increase of the flume is calculated, giving
both a feel for conversion of energy from one form to another, and a direct
calculation of frictional heating (loss of mechanical energy). Applications to
hydropower (most energy transformations can run either way!). Learning the
difference between ‘power’ and ‘energy’. Application: hydropower in the northwest.
E4 a working heat engine
Using a glass sphere with a squeezy rubber bulb attached, show that compressing a
gas raises its temperature, decompressing it lowers the temperature. Introduce the
idea of mechanical work as force exerted times distance moved. Build this idea
into a heat engine (Stirling cycle) in which a candle heats a volume of air, the air is
allowed to expand and do mechanical work, the air is then cooled and compressed.
Show the work done on a pressure-volume diagram. Estimate the efficiency (useful
work done relative to heat flow through the system). Application: the closely related
‘work cycle’ of an internal combustion engine: diesel vs. spark-plug ignited. The
enormous effect of intercombustion engines on the environment.
E5 transformation of chemical energy into heat
Burn a candle sitting on a sensitive scale. Record the rate of weight loss. Meanwhile
use the heat to warm a soda can of water. Calculate the energy content (joules per
kg.) of the candlewax and compare with look-up values (~ like oil) . Application:
energy content of various fossil fuels.
E6 convection and diffusion of heat
A heated metal bar shows the movement of heat by conduction (diffusion), and the
temperature wave is followed as it moves down the bar. Water heated at the top
develops a similar temperature wave, as the heat moves downward. Yet water
heated from below transports heat much more efficiently upward. Applications:
fluid motion carries heat very efficiently, and this is the basis for atmospheric and
oceanic circulation, as well as mechanical devices. Applications: conduction of heat
vs. convection in natural systems; interacting conduction and convection: blowing
on your soup to cool it.
E7 fuel cell
We are almost at the point where wind and solar power can generate an important
fraction of our energy. Yet a ‘battery’ is needed so that we can store this energy and
use it to fuel machines and cars. Hydrogen gas produced by electrolysis (splitting
water apart) can be produce electricity in the reverse reaction. Using electrodes in a
weakly conducting water solution we can run this reaction both ways, and
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demonstrate the hydrogen fuel cell which is a key to our energy future. Discussion
of ‘decarbonizing’ energy sources. Applications: potential energy/pollution savings
for automobiles.
• E8 solar pond
Trap radiant energy in a salty pool beneath fresh water, and organize the distribution
of salinity so as to maximize temperature of trapped hot layer. Relate to ideas of
convection and conduction. Applications in Middle East power generation.
•• Common Project solar cookers
The entire class built solar box cookers, to explore the effectiveness of direct,
focused solar energy. Principles of optics, energy conservation and calculation, and
careful measurements of solar radiation accompanied this. An artificial sun was
made with flood lamps for indoor work. Outdoor trials included solar observations
(including spectrometry), and use of a true parabolic mirror to demonstrate extreme
concentration of sunlight that is possible. Some food was cooked too, and a good
time was had by all. Applications: 3d world use of fuel wood can effectively be
replaced by solar cooking in many tropical and sub-tropical countries..yet not at all
times, and not without social acceptance.
There are many interactions between experiments; for example the heat content of
candlewax or a candy-bar is roughly 40 million Joules per kg, yet the kinetic energy of the river
flowing at 1 meter per sec. is ½ Joule per kg, showing the richness of chemical- and heat energy
compared with mechanical energy (yet almost paradoxically Grand Coulee dam generates a huge
7600 megawatts of electricity which is 1/500 of the entire US energy usage). We try to develop
facility in making basic calculations: global energy production is about 4x1020 Joules per year, or
1.3 x1013 watts; this averages about 2000 watts for each of 6 billion Earthlings (with Americans
consuming ¼ of this, each averaging about 11 kilowatts!) A good daily diet of 2500 kilocalories
represents 10 million Joules of energy per day, or about 120 watts of power, yet our useful work
output cannot exceed about 15% of this. With all this fossil fuel each American has about 75
‘energy slaves’, the fuel equivalent of that many human slaves to do their bidding. A convincing
demonstration of some of these relationships was set up, with a bicycle powered generator lighting
a 100-watt bulb, the work load being very large, and changing greatly with its brightness (a highefficiency fluorescent bulb showed its worth here). While photovoltaics were not emphasized we
built ‘world’s simplest electric motor’ which is a coil of wire attached to a solar photovoltaic cell
with the sun shining on it. The coil hangs on the tip of a ballpoint pen which acts as a low-friction
bearing, and a permanent magnet is placed nearby. No commutator is needed, and the motor rotates
at high speed as the sun-generated electromagnetism interacts with the permanent magnet.
WATER:
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W1 waves on water
Waves are generated by wind and flow, and are involved in the flows of rivers and
streams (where they can ‘stand still). This experiment involves finding the relation
between frequency and wavelength, looking at the velocity of the fluid beneath the
waves, seeing the great difference between waves in shallow water and in deep
water, watching the increase in amplitude of the motion and refraction (as with
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light) when waves approach a shore. Particle movement in the water is studied
using digital photography, and movement of sand grains observed. Applications:
beaches built and modified by waves; deadly tropical cyclones in Bangladesh
(where the ocean surge causes most of the damage).
• W2 ocean estuaries and tides
Estuaries are formed where rivers spill into the sea. They are often regions of great
biological productivity, with biological food chain active from microscopic plankton
to large sea creatures and birds. At one end the ocean provides salty, dense water
rich with nutrients; at the other, the river water is very buoyant and floats out over
the salt water. What totally changes the circulation is the tides: these mix up the
river water and lead to an ‘overturning circulation’ (seaward at the top, landward at
the bottom) which far exceeds the simple river inflow. This overturning ventilates
the estuary with oxygen and nutrients; yet it can fail (and become ‘anoxic’ or out of
oxygen, killing the fish and animals) depending on the amounts of river flow and
tidal mixing. Estuaries can easily become polluted or over-stimulated with nutrients
from land. In this experiment we want to explore the overturning circulation, its
dependence on tides and riverflow and other mixing. There may be ridges on the
seafloor that are involved, and layering of the density is important to examine.
Applications: what is the sensitivity of an estuaries ‘health’ (cleanliness, nutrient
supply) to river flow rates and tidal mixing. Learn about invasive species that take
over estuaries and the effects of global climate change on them. Find a schematic
map of Puget Sound’s circulation and topography.
• W3 circulation of the global ocean and climate change
At a much larger scale than an ocean estuary, we find some similar events: the entire
global ocean has a circulation that involves sinking at high latitude, and rising
elsewhere. This kind of circulation, sometimes known as a ‘conveyor belt’, brings
nutrients to the sea surface where in the sunlight they make very active growth.
Phytoplankton..the ‘grass of the seas’ grows there and leads to a whole spectrum of
animal life. A fundamental property is the ‘layering’ of the ocean, with dense (cold
or salty) waters at the bottom and buoyant (warm or fresh) waters at the top. It is
very difficult to move vertically against this density difference.
In the experiment we want to observe the form of the ocean circulation when
at the surface the water is made dense or less dense … by cooling and heating or by
‘rainfall’ and evaporation. Use floating ice to drive the circulation, and later with
more control, heating, cooling, rainfall and evaporation. Applications: demonstrate
that both heat and salt are crucial to controlling the ocean’s density and hence the
layering of the oceans. Find the parts of the world where upwelling of deep water
can overcome this stable layering and supply nutrients for major ecosystems. Show
how global warming may slow down the ocean circulation.
• W4 river flow and sediment erosion
Working in the flume determine the minimum fluid velocity for sediment motion the flow meter will not work (for long) in sediment-rich water so you will have to
time ping-pong balls. Observe how individual grains move. Why do ripples
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(analogous to sand dunes on land) form – try leveling out a section of sand and see
what happens. Study the patterns and rates of erosion around a pebble, a post, a
curve (remove the baffles at one end of the flume, a spur or any object that interests
you. Use time lapse video so study waves in the river bed and creation of meanders,
bars and erosion behind bridge pilings. Applications: effect of flood control on river
sediment transport and sediment outflow into Gulf of Mexico from Mississippi
River. Natural history of meandering rivers. River flooding and its effects on
farming and urban growth.
• W5 evaporation, irrigation and salinization
Using Petrie dishes and the sensitive Mettler AE163 scale measure the rates of
evaporation from moist soil (watching its weight decrease with time). How do the
rates of evaporation compare for a water layer (a lake), a water-saturated sand and a
wet unsaturated sand. What are the effects of wind, sun (heat lamp), and humidity
(close the door on the scales or place the Petrie dishes beneath an inverted fish tank?
Use a wet and dry bulb thermometers and psychrometric tables to measure
humidity. What are the effects of placing dissolved salt in the water? How is salt
concentrated near the surface if the water is salty? Applications: document the
salinization of farm fields in irrigated, dry regions of the American West. What
remediation is possible, and how expensive is it?
• W6 ground water flow – aquifers and pollution
Ground water is a critical component of freshwater supplies. In many regions
ground water is being withdrawn at unsustainable rates. In others groundwater is
damaged by pollution that can be very difficult to remediate. Here we study the
basic mechanism of groundwater flow through a porous soil, observing it through
the glass sides of the experimental tank. A coastline is added with sloping shore,
where the salty ocean water intrudes and puts well water at risk. Time lapse video
shows the movement of dyes through with the ground water: some move freely
while other ‘pollutants’ adsorb onto sand grains and soil, sticking in place. A
vertical column filled with sand and water is used to relate the velocity of
groundwater flow to the pressure driving it. Applications: review the history of the
Ogallala aquifer in the central US, and its imminent destruction by center-pivot
irrigation. Note the very slow flow rate and ancient glacial origin. Compare
salinization effects of irrigation (exp. W5).
• W7 desalination
Using samples of dialysis tube, cap short lengths of plastic tubing. Fill with salt and
sugar solutions and place in a beaker of water to measure osmotic flow – wait
between class periods. Are the rise heights consistent with calculated osmotic
pressures? Use the calorimetric apparatus (a glass bulb with an electrical heater, a
thermometer and a stir plate) to measure the latent heat of melting and vaporization
and the heat capacity of liquid water. Is desalination by boiling more energy
efficient than by reverse-osmosis? Applications: cost and efficiency of desalinating
ocean water; current costs per liter; compare with evaporation and freezing methods.
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AIR:
• A1. Weather, heat transport, climate on a rotating planet
Using a rotating platform, create a model of the atmosphere's circulation, driven (as
it is driven) by temperature differences between pole and equator). Jet streams,
convection, westerly winds will appear. Measure temperature field and velocities.
Note that the circulation about the cold North Pole is simple, with symmetrical rings
of east-west winds if the planet’s rotation is very slow. At higher rotation the pattern
exhibits ‘weather’, cells of high and low pressure, whirling storms. Underlying all
this is always the need to carry heat from tropics to poles in a subtle ‘overturning
circulation’, or Hadley cell. Applications: Global climate change, global warming,
history of weather forecasting; satellite images of weather and circulation.
• A2. Strong storms: hurricanes and tornadoes
Make tornadoes with a fluid sink and hurricanes with heating plus rotation of the
'planet'. Study their size and intensity, and flow patterns within them (can
tornadoes really lift trucks off the ground?). Note the sensitivity of their size to
the planets rotation. Make a ‘bath-tub’ tornado in a tall plexiglass cylinder with
continuously inflowing water and outflow at the bottom. Use dyes to trace the flow
and pingpong balls to observe the speed of spin of the tornado. Applications:
cyclones (hurricanes) in Bangladesh; why is that low-land country so vulnerable? ,
This is monsoon country, the annual rainy period stimulated by heating of the
continent in summer (the rising air draws in low-level moist air from the sea, a
roaring wind called the Somali Jet from the southwest of India, perhaps also up the
Bay of Bengal). The monsoon rains have been strong in recent years, leading to
many weeks of flooding. There is the chance that global warming may cause
tropical cyclones to be stronger/more frequent though this is very uncertain. Use
maps in this discussion, e.g. the cyclone tracks. Why do most tornadoes in the world
occur in the central US? What is their history? What sort of weather produces
them? Can they lift cows and trucks into the air?
• A3. Particles in the atmosphere and the lungs: dust, smoke, raindrops
Measure the falling velocity of spheres in fluids (air, water, syrup) to learn how
quickly particles settle out of the atmosphere. Compare experiment with formula
from theory for ‘Stokes flow’ falling spheres. See also A7 . Applications: submicron sized particles in air, health effect, inner lung. Geography of particles,
'Loess' or white soils from China raining out in Seattle, satellite survey of smoke and
forest fires, vertical distribution of particles after a volcanic eruption. See A7
• A4. Stratified pollution layers/inversions driven by 'smokestack' source
Make a turbulent plume entering a fluid; observe it create an 'inversion' where the
air density changes abruptly, and a stratification (layering of density). Measure the
dilution of trace chemicals (dye or salt) in the plume (when it is a pollutant source).
View with light sheet, perhaps measure pollution level with radiometer. Spray water
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droplets and see how rain can cleanse the air, possibly due to electric charges on the
droplets. Applications: trapping of pollution by a density inversion above a city; air
quality of LA, Denver, Seattle. What added factors make pollutant levels worse?
Add chemical reaction, estimate photochemical effects (making smog). See A7 too
What is the effect of mountains on urban air quality, it will help .What observations
are there to describe the downwind development of a pollutant plume? How does its
dilution develop in a variety of weather regimes (strong/weak wind;
summer/winter..). Compare its horizontal and vertical spreading rates.
• A5a Ice crystal growth, freezing of water
The temperature of the atmosphere decreases rapidly with height above ground.
Water vapor forms ice crystals there rather than rain drops. Above -40C temperature
there has to be a dust particle or other nucleus for the ice to form on. Using a cold
chamber cooled by dry ice, capture ice crystals on a soap bubble and watch them
grow; find the dependence on temperature. There are relatively few because only
one particle in 108 (100 million) is the right shape and size. On a thin layer of water
observe freezing using polarized light. Ice crystal growth on a needle can also be
observed. Applications: where are ice crystals found and what is their importance to
clouds and weather, and to the chemical balances high in the atmosphere? Where are
freezing levels geographically and by season? One could look at the distribution of
snow and ice on Earth, and its relation to people and societies. Only after flying
from Australia to Germany did I fully realize how little snow and ice there is on
Earth. It is rare. Cold-adapted human societies (Inuit in Greenland and Canada
especially) have lived successfully for many thousands of years (until the past 50
years), quite happily enduring the severe cold. Their hunting-based lives are only
now becoming ‘modern’. In more temperate areas, for example Colorado, snow is
important in retaining water through the summer; the water supply for Boulder CO
is the Arapaho Glacier. Yet glaciers are receding throughout the world, due to
global warming.
• A5b Cloud chamber
A companion to A5a is a classic experiment known as the cloud chamber, originally
invented by CTR Wilson in 1894, to make a miniature rainstorm. Dry ice is used
cool the bottom of a glass cylinder. A moistened cloth is at the top, producing water
vapor. As the vapor encounters the colder temperatures below, it condenses into fine
water droplets, observed with a sheet of light. Condensation into droplets requires a
dust particle because ‘too-small’ droplets have ‘too much’ surface energy to form.
But Wilson noticed something amazing: white trails zipping through the experiment,
which are the tracks of single atomic particles. These may be single electrons (light,
curvy tracked β particles), helium nuclei (heavy, straighter tracked α particles, or 2
protons plus 2 neutrons). Seeing a single atomic particle in the laboratory, like
‘seeing’ the wavelength of light, is a remarkable ability that we have. This
demonstration thus tells us about rain, and dust, and atoms.
• A6. A biological microcosm, and oxygen production and uptake by the ocean.
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Oxygen moves from the atmosphere dissolves in the ocean and lakes; it is
augmented by floating plant life which can make the oxygen levels very high. It is
consumed by decaying (oxidizing) plant and animal life and animal respiration. In
an estuary or lake, an excess of nutrients (perhaps from farms or sewage) can
supercharge the biological growth, which then makes much decay.
Following this oxygen levels can fall almost to zero in layers beneath the water
surface. Using an electronic oxygen probe observe the oxygen levels in water in
various biological states. Using methylene blue as an indicator in an alkalineglucose solution you can see oxygen entering water from the air above: what
features of the fluid flow control this process, and how do the oxygen plumes mix in
the fluid. Applications: oxygen balance and its relation to biological activity. Gaia,
the living planet (compare Earth with Venus and Mars, dead planets with CO2
atmospheres). . The deep questions about how oxygen came to be on Earth are
complex. So think more simply about the forms and distribution of oxygen storage
(besides the atmosphere), and something about its movement through the system. It
is rumored that the oceans may have been anoxic (no oxygen) for some periods
(Cretaceous warm period) of the distant past, as we find small bodies of water can
be anoxic today. Or, pick a single estuary and read about its oxygen distribution,
sources of nutrients, problems of its ‘health’. Chesapeake Bay is one, and the
estuaries in Georgia are others. Another area would be to investigate what has been
learned by ‘microcosm’ experiments and how one scrubs the air to keep it oxygen
rich and CO poor (say, on a submarine). The Biosphere in Arizona is an experiment
in making a ‘big’ microcosm, a community of humans and plants totally isolated (air
and all) from the world… which failed
• A7. A layered atmosphere: inversions, waves, diurnal cycle of pollution
We can use carbon dioxide as a laboratory gas…not so much a pollutant. It is denser
than air, and can be produced from evaporating dry ice. A layer of it will be visible
if moisture from the air is condensed by its coldness. We also can inject some candle
smoke which is our ‘pollutant’. The smoke can be lit with a laser or a light sheet
from the slide projector. Notice the fall-out rate of smoke particles which can be
very slow (visit experiment A4). The rising sun both produces pollutants through
‘photochemical’ effects, and also affects the air density: this can be explored using a
heat lamp. A laser beam is scattered by the smoke particles, and can be used to find
their size. A white light appears colored…like smog. Applications: review
diffraction and the way we can easily measure the wavelength of light in the lab;
look on the web for information about particle sizes in air pollutants (lately, diesel
fumes in Seattle and blowing dust in eastern Washington). Look at the daily air
cycle in a city like Los Angeles, where there is confinement by mountains and hot
sun. Describe the evolution of specific air pollutants (including fine particles) in an
urban setting, and its variation with weather and seasons.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It was a very long haul (more than 2 years) establishing this course. We realize that we run
against the grain of a large university experiencing a budget deficit. Our future will never be
certain, but we are here now, and open for business. Much of the equipment used in the course was
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borrowed from research-supported programs in the GFD lab and I am grateful for past support of
NSF and ONR in providing this. My co-PIsWilliam Wilcock, Fritz Stahr, TAs and lab
engineer/instructor Eric Lindahl all put enormous effort into teaching. Craig Zumbrunnen and John
Palka are to be thanked for their initialencouragement. The students are to be thanked for effort,
enthusiasm and insight: I hope they will remember the course with an artistic eye as well as a
commitment to deeper understanding of their fragile (yet paradoxically robust) world.
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Brief course description:
Earth, Air, Water: the Human Context
ENVIR 215 Spring 2002, Winter 2003, Spring 2004
www.ocean.washington.edu/courses/envir215
P.B. Rhines
Purpose of the Course:
In this hands-on course you will study the way our physical environment works and
works with us. The context is a survey of 20th Century environmental change: air,
water, earth and their inhabitants. Aimed at non-science majors, the format allows
you to experience classical science "taken outdoors." This course will broaden your
perspective on environmental issues and help you make informed choices as an
active member of society.
Prerequisites:
There are no formal prerequisites. Students with a mix of backgrounds tend to do
quite well with this format. An active interest about the natural world and human
relationships with it is important.
Course Description:
The course will utilize lecture, reading, discussion, presentations, and lab
experiments while focusing on three primary units: Energy, Air, Water. Additional
topics, of which most fall into one or more of the primary units include
transportation, food supplies, pollution, climate, land surface processes, global
sustainability and others. Each unit will include readings from the text, which is
basically historical. Lecture periods will develop the 'science core', and extend into
ideas of the Earth system that border on philosophy. Evolution of life and evolution
of our planet form the backdrop for our study of the current environment. During lab
periods there will be a group of experiments for each topic. You will work with a
partner carrying out about 6 distinct experiments during the term; meanwhile you
will see what other 'teams' are doing with their experiments (which will differ from
yours). You will present your experiment to your section at the end of each unit. Also
there will be quizzes at the end of each of the three units. Each of the three units will
have an also have an essay project that will require research outside of the text.
Course Objectives:
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Familiarize yourself with environmental issues from scientific and historical points of view,
stressing the changes seen in the past century
Learn scientific ideas that show how the Earth system works and help in assessing
environmental problem areas (the many 'hot spots' that threaten ecosystems and humans).
Energy, starting with the sun itself, and moving to the circulation of oceans and atmosphere
and hence the creation of our Earth environment, is a focus of the course.
Learn to explore ideas in the laboratory, both observing and building experiments, and
understanding the great and small of the environment: problems as big as the Earth and as
small as one molecule will be explored. Develop skill in observing, photographing and
measuring, as well as in designing experiments to answer specific questions about the
environment.
Develop group problem-solving skills ('a railway tank car filled with sulfuric acid has
overturned near a small town on a river: you are called in to decide what to do...')
Improve oral and written communication skills
Develop a collection of experiment-, library- computer- and web-searching skills relating to
the environment
Course Requirements:
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You are expected to attend lecture and lab periods and to be an active participant (inquiryand experiment based science requires your presence!)
Reading: from the text and handouts as assigned and as needed for your research essays.
Lab projects: ideas, set-up procedures, measurement procedures and recording, analysis,
and conclusions, finding sources of information. Each student, with one lab partner, will
choose from a list of experiments and work on two such experiments during each of the
three units. In addition to these 6 experiments every pair will build and test a solar box
cooker and study the experiments carried out by others.
A key requirement is in keeping a complete account of your experiments and lecture notes
in a bound lab-book, which will be read and graded frequently during the course of the term
Essays: for each unit, you will choose from a list of topics provided. There will be a rough
draft due date, and a final due date. The essays will require reading outside of the text.
Topics may include social, economic, historic, political aspects of the environment as well
as the lab experiments themselves.
Evaluation and grading:
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Participation (25%) will be evaluated by observing your contribution to in-class activities
and your oral presentations, which will follow labs and discussion groups.
Quizzes (25%) will be given at the end of each unit covering the science core, reading and
lectures.
Lab books (25%) will be collected at the end of each unit. Guidelines will be provided for
successful lab books, but will contain an extensive diary on lab projects (procedures, tables,
sources). We urge you to write rough records of your experiments in your books, plus a
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summary and analysis afterward. Include notes from your observation of other
experiments.
Essays (25%) will take you from the science in the lab to the analysis of real-world
situations. Using library and web resources, rather specific environmental questions will be
addressed. Length will be approximately 5 pages (1.5 line spacing).
There is no final exam, and the class will not meet during exam week.
The course will be graded on a curve (i.e., competitively). The mean will be set ~3.0. We
will post the class mean and standard deviation of grades for each essay and quiz.
Textbooks:
Something New Under the Sun: an Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century
World, by J.R. McNeill, W.W. Norton Co., NY, 2000.
Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, by Paul Hawkins, Amory
Lovins, L. Hunter Lovins; Rocky Mountain Institute, Colorado, 2003.
Reading assignments:
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Week #1: McNeill, Preface and Prologue (through pp. 20) and Chapter 10
Week #2: Amory Lovins, Natural Capitalism, Chapter 1 (linked here) and/or radio talk on
KUOW (linked here)
Week #3: Bjorn Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist, B. Lomborg, Chapter 11 on
Energy. Visit his website, and an anti-Lomborg site.
Weeks #4 & 5: McNeill Chapters 3 and 4 (Air); Lovins' Chapter 12 (Climate).
Weeks #6 & 7: Lomborg, Chap 15 on Air pollution
Weeks #8 - 10: McNeill Chapters 5 and 6 (Water); Lovins' Chapter 11 (Aqueous Solutions)
Lectures 2003: (note that all these files are available on the website as Acrobat pdf files unless
otherwise specified)
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Energy lectures: notes for all of Peter's talks
Energy lectures: outline & graphic from Fritz' lecture 1/21, Energy & Transport; link to
where people live through Earth at night image, (and other great images of this "Blue
Marble" courtesy of NASA)
Energy lectures: outline & graphics from Fritz lecture 1/23 - World energy supply, demand,
conversions, usage
Energy lectures: outline & graphics from Fritz lecture 1/30 - Hydrogen fuel cells and
tranportation implications; link to great fuel-cell animation and other info (like a complete
hydrogen vehicle program) from Schatz Energy Research Center, Humbolt State Univ, CA
Air lectures: notes #1 from Peter
Air lectures: notes #2 from Peter -- large file (3.6 Mb) or small file (2.3 Mb)
Air lectures: notes & figures #3 from Peter
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Air lectures/labs: brief review from Peter
Water lecture #1 by Fritz: a) html of slides or b) Powerpoint file
Water lecture #2 by Fritz a) outline & notes b) html of slides c) Powerpoint file
Lab materials (available on the website as PDFs):
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Energy labs: getting started
Energy labs: descriptions with tutorial on science background
Solar cookers newsletter. Link to solar cooker construction plans (click on any one to
expand).
Air labs: getting started.
Air labs: an essay about microcosms (self-contained biological systems) by Carl Sagan.
Water labs: getting started.
Water labs: science background (handed out 3/11/03 - reviewed by Fritz in lecture)
Essays assignments (available on website as PDFs):
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Energy Unit essay assignment. Rough draft due Thur Jan 23rd, complete essay due Thur
Jan 30th.
Air Unit essay assignment. Rough draft due Thur Feb 13th, complete essay due Tues Feb
25th.
Water Unit essay assignment. Rough draft due Thur Mar 6th, complete essay due Fri Mar
14th, 5 p.m.
Quizzes:
Quiz on Energy Unit. Tues. Jan 28: Includes readings in MacNeill's book, Amory Lovins
Natural Capitalism (chapter 1) and Bjorn Lomborg's Skeptical Environmentalist (chapter
11). This will be a 30 minute closed-book quiz involving basic ideas, not memorization of
numbers. To prepare, review the reading, your lecture notes and lab-books.
Quiz on Air Unit. Thur. Feb 27 (note change, see Calendar for more detail)
Quiz on Water Unit. Thur. Mar 13 (last day of class)
Guidelines for a Successful Lab Notebook:
Environment 202B, Winter 2003
Earth, Air, Water: the Human Context
Notebooks (a.k.a. lab-books) are to be kept by each person and will be evaluated as an individual
effort for 25% of your course grade. Keeping your book current is important to keep your thoughts
and experiments progressing forward. They will be collected and graded at the end of each module
(at the same time as the essays). Grading will be based on clarity of activities and thoughts,
completeness (include as much detail as you can), and organization (so we know what part we're
reading). Some sample pages from last year's class will be handed out in class with this.
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The Cover or Title Page must have the following:
Name, Course #,
Beginning date (and end date)
For each experiment, label a new section and date each page when you start write on it. Within
each experiment section should be (at least) the subsections listed below. You don't have to answer
all the questions in these subsections explicitly, but it's best if the answers are at least implicit
somewhere in your records (you should read this and your book over before you turn it in and if
these questions are not answered, add material where necessary). You may repeat subsections as
needed (maybe you discovered a new method to try, with new results) and do not be afraid to start
over if necessary, just record it all. Use pages liberally; very few will be able to fill a notebook
during the quarter.
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Introduction:
What is the issue or question? Why is it relevant to the environment? What do I know about it or what can I
hypothesize about it?
Methods:
How can I address the issue/question? What specifically will/did I do and why?
What materials are/were needed and how are/were they used? Diagram of the set-up? Details.
Results:
What happened when I did certain things? Was data generated? Tables, graphs. More details.
Conclusion:
What do the results (of all forms) tell me about the main issue/question, or related sub-questions?
How does this scale up (or down) to the real world? How does explain a part of the environment?
Further investigation:
What do various outside sources have to say about the issue/question?
Attach relevant photos, graphs, articles, etc. here and be sure to cite anything you include.
Also, somewhere in each general unit of your book (Energy, Air, Water), you need to have the
following sections:
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Others’ experiments:
Visit other lab groups' experiments (perhaps while you're waiting to start another) and find out what it's about,
how they're addressing the issue/questions and how their experiment is applicable or relevant to the real
world.
Essay development/draft notes:
Record which topic you chose and your outlines, ideas, sources used, and anything else relevant.