ASHA 2010
THE SECRET LANGUAGE OF STORIES:
EVERYBODY HAS A STORY
Carolee Dean, M.S., CCC-SLP
www.caroleedean.com
http://spellbindersbooknews.blogspot.com
Roles and Responsibilities
of Speech-Language Pathologists With Respect to
Reading and Writing in Children and Adolescents
Ad Hoc Committee on Reading and Written Language Disorders 2001
It is the position of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)
that speech-language pathologists (SLPs) play a critical and direct role in the
development of literacy for children and adolescents with communication
disorders, including those with severe or multiple disabilities.
• The connections between spoken and written language are well established in that:
(a) spoken language provides the foundation for the development of reading and
writing;
(b) spoken and written language have a reciprocal relationship, such that
each builds on the other to result in general language and literacy competence,
starting early and continuing through childhood into adulthood;
(c) children with spoken language problems frequently have difficulty learning to read and write,
and children with reading and writing problems frequently have difficulty with spoken language;
and
(d) instruction in spoken language can result in growth in written language, and instruction in
written language can result in growth in spoken
language.
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGISTS IN
SCHOOLS: Ad Hoc Committee on the Roles and Responsibilities of the School-based
Speech-Language Pathologist Professional Issues Statement - 2007
• Symbolic and academic skills are built upon speech, language, and auditory abilities.
• Language deficits are a major component of most of reading disabilities, sometimes as its
cause and at sometimes as its consequence.
• Even when spoken language deficits are not observed, children with reading deficits
often fail to develop higher level cognitive linguistic skills.
• The knowledge and skills of SLPs in language provides the rationale for their
involvement in supporting curriculum learning as does the knowledge that language
provides the foundation for all curriculum learning.
Why Study Stories?
Story grammar can be an effective tool to teach writing skills because it represents the internal
structure of a story. It is “… a set of rules that describe how a story can be broken down into units
and how these units are related to one another.” Stein, N., & Glenn, C. (1979)..
There is a well established link between oral narratives and written narratives (Roth, 2000;
Westby, 1991). By learning a language they may use to talk about stories, students lay the
groundwork for writing about the stories they read and creating original narratives. They “… use
their knowledge of text structure as a conceptual framework for remembering, understanding, and
constructing stories of their own. (Roth, 2000, p.16).
This structure, sometimes referred to as story grammar and sometimes as story schema, enables
students to make abstract concepts more concrete and understandable so that they may compare
new concepts to old ones as they make sense of novel experiences. Adults use a variety of
metaphors to structure their understanding and schemas often function like metaphors for
students, to help them interpret their world. (Duchan, 2004).
Narratives have gained prominence in recent years in the evaluation and treatment of students
with language learning disabilities. There are several reasons for this (Hoffman, 2009):
1) Story-telling provides a framework for therapists to evaluate oral language and discourse
beyond the level of the single utterance. It also shows how well a student is able to organize
ideas and follow the structure of a story schema.
2) The topics and content of books provide a meaningful context to address a wide variety of
language skills including vocabulary, sentence structure, phonemic awareness, pragmatic
language, reading fluency, and self-regulation.
3) Stories provide a reason to communicate and a structure for the conversation. The ability to
engage students in tasks that have meaning for them may be more much more important than the
frequency with which material is presented.
SLPs are being called on increasingly to help design and implement preventative reading
programs in Response to Intervention (RTI) models from preschool upward in both the general
education and special education tiers. (Justice, 2006). An increased understanding of story
structure helps equip ancillary staff to support educators in this endeavor.
DIFFERENT APPROACHES
Though experts from a variety of disciplines agree that story grammar is important, different
types of professionals have different approaches for teaching story grammar. Let’s take a look at
some of these…
\
How SLP’s View Story Grammar (Stein & Glenn, 1979)







Setting
Initiating Events
Internal Responses
Internal Plans
Attempts
Direct Consequences
Reactions
How Reading Teachers View Story Grammar (Noden, ,1999). :
 Initiating Event
 Internal Response
 Attempts
 Outcomes
 Resolution
 Reaction
FREITAG’S PYRAMID: How English Teachers Analyze Stories (Noden, 1999).
Climax (Outcome)
Rising Action
Rising Action
Falling Action
Resolution
(Reactions)
Rising Action (Internal Response, Conflict, Attempts)
Complications, subclimaxes, turning points)
Setup (Initiating Event, Exposition)
Setting
(Opening scene, introduction of
characters
The Secret Language of Stories takes these basic story elements and expands them, making them
more concrete and visual for students. It goes beyond story grammar to make stories come alive.
THE SECRET LANGUAGE OF STORIES
Everybody Has a Story
As students grow in their ability to understand and analyze stories, the next step is to encourage
them to write stories of their own. Writing requires the synthesis and integration of multiple skills
and makes students more engaged in the learning process. “To personalize meaning, a reader
must become actively engaged in understanding and interpreting new information. Writing
encourages such personalized learning because writing requires students to use their own words
and ideas to express a new concept. By providing students with the opportunity to make personal
sense out of the information being presented, writing moves learning from a receptive, passive
phenomenon to an active, productive one.” Santa, C.M. (et al). (1988, P. 13).
Even though a student struggles with the mechanics of writing, they may still have creative ideas
that can be expressed orally. Students blossom when simple modifications are provided as a
bridge between their oral and written narratives. Even some of our best known authors and poets
have struggled with the mechanics of writing. Miner M. & Siegel, S. (1992). William Butler
Yeats: Dyslexic? Journal of Learning Disabilities. 25 (6) 372-375.
Topic Choice is key to success in writing, especially for students struggling with literacy. They
often feel they are “…disenfranchised from literacy because they think they do not have anything
to say.” (Roth, 2000; Graves, 1985). Students have a natural tendency to make up stories about
the worries, thoughts and experiences personal to them (Duchan, 2004) and they have a high
interest in stories about their own lives (Montgomery & Kahn, 2005). Allowing students to
choose their own topics helps them know that their ideas are worth writing about.
This does not mean that everything a student writes will be an autobiography. Often, though, even
fantasy stories of super heroes who fight injustice and battle their own inner demons may include
more autobiographical information than we realize. Metaphors often hold more truth than
confessions and are easier to process as the abstract is made concrete. The important thing is to
give students some degree of freedom over the topics they choose to write about.
Where should one begin in the writing process, Getting students to talk about plot and character
can provide an invaluable bridge between their ideas and their written product. If a student tries
to write as they think, many get bogged down with the encoding process and forget what they
wanted to say.
Here are a few ideas:
Mystical, Magical, Musical Magazine Places:
For this activity, cut out magazine pictures of interesting places. Look through them and pick one
that intrigues you. Write a paragraph describing the old, ordinary world where the story begins
and another paragraph describing the exciting new world that your character is about to enter.
If using this activity for a classroom, set the pictures on the floor or on a table. Instruct students to
walk around the pictures while you play music in the background. When the music stops, have
students sit down in front of a picture. It’s like musical chairs, except in this game it’s okay to
share the same picture. Students then take turns describing the interesting settings that their
pictures represent. Do this 2-3 times until students have several ideas for stories brewing. Then
have them complete the paragraph writing activity described above.
Name:
Class Period
VIDEO GAME – WORKSHEET
1. Describe the Game World (New World):
2. Explain the objective or goal of the game.
Date:
3. Describe three levels of difficulty and what the hero must do to move from one level to
the next
Level 1:
Level 2:
Level 3:
4. Climax (Final Showdown) This is the most challenging and dangerous part of the game.
Describe what happens here:
5. Reward: Does the Hero win or lose? What does he get for his efforts?
WORKING WITH THE PICTURES:
Directions: Enlarge (by about 300%) the pictures from the 12 step story analysis (found in a
separate attachment). Then cut out the descriptions below and paste them on the backs of the
corresponding pictures.
OLD WORLD: The main characters and the setting are described in detail
in this section. The old world, sometimes called the ordinary world or the
world of common day is often a boring place in comparison to the new,
magical, exciting world the hero is about to enter. If the hero stayed in the
old world there would be no rising action, no conflict and no story. He
would continue on indefinitely in his present condition.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use
CALL & RESPONSE: Something happens to alert the main character that
things are about to change. He may receive a threat, a challenge, or an
invitation. This may arrive in a variety of ways—a letter, a phone call, a
verbal confrontation. In olden times a king sent a herald with a bugle to call
everyone to the town square to make important announcements such as
letting the young men know they were being called to war, or to tell the
young ladies that there would be a ball at the palace. The main character
must then decide whether or not to accept the challenge.
Some characters readily accept the call to adventure and some are
forced to go against their will, but for most there is a temporary refusal of
the call. Characters are often reluctant at first to leave their comfortable
home and the things that are familiar to them to journey into dangerous and
unknown territory. They may be afraid, feel unprepared, or think they are
unworthy. They may hide, run away, argue, or simply refuse to accept the
challenge
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
MENTORS, GUIDES & GIFTS: Mentors may include teachers, coaches,
guides, Jedi warriors, fairy godmothers, gods or goddesses. The Mentor
offers help, advice, assistance and often a special gift such as glass slippers
or a light saber. Any character in the story (even the villain) might serve as
a temporary mentor, giving the hero advice or knowledge important to
his/her quest. The Mentor often helps the reluctant hero overcome the fear
of the adventure and get started on the journey. She may reappear at crucial
times in the story when the character seems to stall out or give up
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
CROSSING INTO THE NEW WORLD: This is the point where the main
character makes a decision to act. Often it is a mentor or guide who
encourages him embark on the journey. Sometimes this decision is made
after much soul searching and at other times he concedes reluctantly after
being forced on the journey against his will. He takes off toward the New
World by boat, plane, car, time-traveling device, or even on foot. There is
usually a specific goal or intention such as rescuing a princess, marrying a
prince, winning a tournament or stopping an evil wizard from taking over
Middle Earth, but if the hero is thrust into the new world against his will, his
goals may not be clear at first. This is a time of change and the hero may
face opposition as he sets off on his new course. Sometimes the hero stays
in the Old World, but something new arrives to change that world.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
SMALL CHALLENGES IN THE NEW WORLD: The new setting is
described and the hero meets new characters. Some of these new characters
will prove to be allies and some will be enemies. There will be trials,
obstacles and challenges. Through these challenges the hero will gain
power, strength, and information while identifying and drawing closer to his
ultimate goal. Though the main character may face difficult challenges and
obstacles at this stage of the story, they are nothing compared to the big
challenges to be faced in the latter part of the story. This stage has been
compared to an initiation where new members of a society must go through
a series of tests to prove themselves worthy of belonging in the New World.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
PROBLEMS, PRIZES & PLANS: Some stories start out with a problem
to be solved and the prize is centered around achieve some aim such as
rescuing a princess, destroying a monster or defeating a villain. Other
stories start with a Prize to be obtained such as winning a sporting event.
Problems arise when the hero attempts to achieve the prize but encounters
obstacles. Plans are made for attaining the prize. Some stories spend a lot of
time on plans and preparations while other stories may simply imply that
plans have been made. Blueprints and maps might be drawn. A game plan
may be written on the chalkboard. There may be a series of scenes showing
the hero and his allies preparing for a big event by running drills, working
out, practicing routines, or rehearsing for a play. There may be more
obstacles faced as the hero approaches the Midpoint Challenge and setbacks
may occur. On the other hand, the main character may approach the
Midpoint with little forethought and may even stumble toward danger
without realizing what he’s heading into.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
MIDPOINT CHALLENGE: GOING FOR THE PRIZE: The small
obstacles and challenges overcome up to this point are small in comparison,
but have helped prepare the hero for a bigger challenge. There is a prize at
stake which might come in the form treasure, medicine, love, information,
or simply relief at having survived this particular challenge. The prize may
represent the ultimate story goal or merely something needed to attain that
goal such as information or winning a preliminary contest or competition.
At the Midpoint the hero may attain the prize or it may elude him. If
he does get the prize he may soon lose it, he may have to fight to keep it, or
he may discover that there is something else of even greater importance still
to be won. This stage of the story may also represent an internal shift or
moment of enlightenment.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
DOWNTIME: The hero has survived the Midpoint Challenge (with or
without gaining the prize). If he has attained the prize then this will be a
time of celebration. If he has been unsuccessful, then this may be a time for
reflection and regrouping. It may appear that the story is over at this point,
but a twist will inevitably send the action off in a new direction with even
greater obstacles to come. The villain may take possession of the prize or if
a monster is destroyed, its evil minions may come after the hero. In a love
story a piece of information may be revealed that puts the relationship in
jeopardy. If a love story is secondary to an action or adventure plot, then
this is the point in the story when love usually blooms.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
CHASE & ESCAPE: At this point in the story there is often a chase scene
if the villain realizes the hero has made off with the goods. The villain may
retaliate and may even temporarily gain possession of the prize. This section
may be very brief or it may be quite long with a detailed sequence of
scenes. This stage of the story may also be characterized by the hero
chasing the villain, chasing down clues, or merely continuing to chase the
dream.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
DEATH & TRANSFORMATION: This part of the story can be compared
to a caterpillar entering into a chrysalis to go through the process of
becoming a butterfly. The prize is just within reach and yet it seems as if the
hero will fail in his quest. Whatever is most important to the hero is at stake.
This is often the point where the Mentor reappears to offer advice or
assistance. There is often an internal death and rebirth signifying a major
internal change or shift in the hero. A change of heart and a change in
thinking often characterize this stage of the story. The transformation may
occur during one intense, dramatic scene, or it may occur over a series of
smaller scenes. The intensity of the scene is not as important as the internal
shift that results. External changes that have occurred up until this point
(new clothing, stronger physical stature) will pale in comparison to the
internal character growth. Often this transformation will occur during, or
just prior to the story climax.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
CLIMAX (SHOWDOWN & THE FINAL TEST): The main character
faces his most difficult challenge and the stakes are at their highest, often
life and death. There may be a battle, shootout, duel, debate, contest, final
court testimony, or an argument where it seems that an important
relationship may come to an end. The climax of the story is point of highest
tension. This may or may not be represented by a rise in action. Whatever
transformations the main character has undergone have prepared him for
this moment. This is the final test to see if the transformation is real or only
temporary. Something might be tackled that the main character was not able
to overcome at the beginning of the story. This is the point where the
reader’s/viewer’s heart is pounding as they wonder if the hero will attain his
prize or fail.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
REWARD: This is a time to tie up loose ends and answer any remaining
questions. The hero returns with a prize that can be shared with the group
such as an elixir, a talisman, a balm, or an important victory—something
that restores peace and happiness to the land. Sometimes this “group” is
merely the main character and the reader. The Prize (love, money, medicine,
success) may be what has been sought all through the story or it may be
something different altogether. Sometimes the Prize has been lost and the
real reward is knowledge, self-awareness or simply a good story. There is
often a celebration such as a wedding, award ceremony or parade. If the
hero dies at the end of the story there is often a funeral or celebration of the
hero's life. Sometimes it is those who are left behind who learn the
important lesson if the hero has died or failed due to foolish decisions.
©2010 Carolee Dean - Permission to reproduce for school use.
REFERENCES:
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language and literacy. (pp. 380-397). New York: The Guilford Press
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Harris, K.R., Graham, S., & Mason, L. H., (2003). Self-regulated strategy development
in the classroom: Part of a balanced approach to writing instruction for students with disabilities.
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Tucson, AZ: Communication Skill Builders.
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story. Topics in Language Disorders. 29 (4), 329-343
Justice, L.M. (2006). Evidence-based practice, response to intervention, and the prevention of
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Disabilities. 25(6), 372-375.
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adolescents. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.
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success. Minneapolis, MN: Pearson Assessments Inc.
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Noden, H.R. (1999). Image Grammar: Using Grammatical Structures to Teach Writing.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
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Children’s Books That are Effective for All Ages:
DiTerlizzi, Tony (2002). The Spider and the Fly. Simon & Schuster: New York
Scieszka, Joe (1989). The True Story of the Three Little Pigs. Viking: New York.
Scieszka, Joe (1994). The Frog Prince Continued. Puffin: New York
Young Adult Novels:
Dean, Carolee (2002). Comfort. Houghton Mifflin: Boston
(2010). Take Me There. Simon Pulse: New York
(coming, 2012). No Way Out. Simon Pulse: New York
Trueman, Terry (2001, paperback). Stuck in Neutral. Harper Teen: New York.