December 18, 2012
Mike Carter
2
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Reliability Cost
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Backup Power Options
◦ Generators
◦ Uninterruptible Power Supplies
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3
Equipment and
Personnel Protection

Codes and Standards

Generator Tips
Source: NOAA
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Quantify
◦ Financial impact of power reliability
 Duration of events
 Frequency of occurrence
 Timing of when events occur
 Amount of advance notice that a facility receives
Source: Stock.xchng
4
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Cost of downtime
◦ Business segment
 IT industry average of $5,600 per minute or $340,000
per hour (Ponemon Institute study)
5
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Cost of downtime
◦ Employee productivity
◦ System restoration cost
◦ Lost sales opportunity cost
◦ Lost customer and damaged
reputation cost
6
Redundancy
Generator
UPS
Power Conditioning
Surge Protection Devices
Good System Design
Wiring and Grounding
Source: Liebert Corporation
7
$ Cost
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Backup Generators
◦ Capital costs
Capital Costs, $/kW
Diesel
Natural
Gas
Microturbine
Fuel
Cell
$150$250
$200$300
$1,000
$3,000$4,000
◦ Installation costs
 Roughly 50% of the purchase cost, and can approach $10,000 for a
100 kW unit
 Does not change drastically with size, so there is no penalty for
oversizing
◦ Maintenance costs
 $500 to $1,000 per year
 Includes an oil change and tune up every 1,500 hours
 Diesels considered most mechanically reliable
8
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Backup Generator Fuel Use
◦ Operating cost of $0.10 to $0.30/kWh range
 Be sure to include electric demand charges for comparison
◦ Diesel costs 2X more than natural gas
Generator Estimated Fuel Use (75% load)
Standby Rated kW
Fuel
Diesel
Natural Gas
Units
200 kW
500 kW
1,500 kW
Gallons/hr
11
27
85
CCF/hr
18
43
123
Source: Detroit Diesel & Caterpillar
9
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Backup Generator Fuel Sources
◦ Natural Gas Advantages:
 Lowest cost fuel
 Unlimited fuel source—refueling not necessary
 Cleaner burning
 Available during power outages
 No storage facilities required
◦ Natural Gas Disadvantages:
 Efficiency decreases 15% to 25% at half-load conditions
 May be unavailable during natural disasters
(earthquake, hurricane, and so on)
 Fuel system plumbing increases installation costs
10
Source: DOE ARPA
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Backup Generator Fuel Sources
◦ Diesel Advantages:
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Efficiency curve for diesel engines is comparatively flat
Easily obtained
Onsite fuel delivery available
Portable
◦ Diesel Disadvantages:
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11
12- to 18-month shelf life
Installing large storage tanks increases costs
May not be available during power outages
Wet stacking
Harder to start in cold weather
NOx and particulate matter emissions
Source: Sandia Nat’l Lab
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Backup Generator Fuel Sources
◦ Propane Advantages:
 Long shelf life
 Clean burning
 Easily stored in both large tanks or in
Source: State of Nebraska
smaller, 5 to 10 gallon cylinders
 Obtainable during a power outage—gas stations may be
unable to pump fuel during an area-wide outage
◦ Propane Disadvantages:
 Pressurized cylinder of flammable gas
 Fuel system is more complicated—increased
possibility of failure
 Larger tanks are not aesthetically pleasing (unsightly)
12
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Backup Generator Fuel Sources
◦ Gasoline Advantages:
 Common fuel source—easily obtained
 Increases portability of smaller generators
 Cost effective for infrequent usage
◦ Gasoline Disadvantages:
 Highly flammable
 Short shelf life (approximately
12 months)
 Storing large quantities is hazardous
 May not be available during power outages
13
Source: Stock.xchng
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Generator Codes and Standards
◦ ANSI/IEEE Standard 446, Emergency and Standby
Power Systems
◦ NFPA 70 National Electrical Code,
Articles 700, 701, 702, 708
◦ NFPA 99 Health Care Facilities
◦ NFPA 101 Life Safety Code
◦ NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and Standby
Power Systems
◦ UL 1008 Automatic Transfer Switches
14
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Emergency vs Standby Generators
◦ Emergency system (NEC Article 700)
 Responds to power failure
 Legally required
Sources: Stock Exchange
 Intended to supply, distribute, and control power and
illumination essential for safety to human life
• Help you leave the building
◦ Standby power system
 Legally required standby system (NEC Article 701)
 Optional standby system (NEC Article 702)
 Critical operations power systems (NEC Article 708)
15
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Emergency Generator
◦ 10 second response
◦ No diversity demand factors (100% fault current)
◦ Separate wiring circuits
◦ Overcurrent protection selective coordination
◦ Ground fault alarms
◦ Acceptance/operational testing required under
maximum anticipated load
◦ Minimum 2-hour fuel supply
◦ Automatic transfer switch (ATS) required
16
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Environmental Rules - Emergency System Operating Restrictions
in New Jersey
◦ New Jersey air emission regulations are generally tighter than national
standards
◦ Can operate only
 During the performance of normal testing and maintenance procedures
(however, testing and maintenance cannot occur on days when NJDEP
forecasts air quality anywhere in NJ to be “unhealthy for sensitive groups,”
“unhealthy,” or “very unhealthy”);
 During a power outage or the primary source of mechanical or thermal energy
fails because of an emergency; or
 When there is a voltage reduction issued by PJM and posted on the PJM
internet website under the “emergency procedures” menu.
◦ Must provide emergency power exclusively for use at the
facility where it is located
◦ Cannot operate as a Demand Response resource in PJM
◦ Owners/operators should contact NJDEP regarding
permitting guidance
17
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Standby Power System
◦ Response time
 60 seconds for legally required
 No requirement for optional standby
 “Time required” for COPS
◦ Demand factors allowed
◦ Combined circuits
Source: NREL
◦ Acceptance/operational testing required under load
18
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Standby Power System
◦ Ground fault response
 Alarm for legally required
 Protection for optional standby and COPS
◦ Minimum fuel supply
 2 hours for legally required
 No requirement for optional standby
 72 hours for COPS
◦ Manual transfer switch acceptable for
optional standby
 Automatic transfer switch for COPS
19
Source: Tut Wanders, Creative
Commons
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Commercial Building with COPS
Emergency
20
Legally
Required
Optional
COPS
Source: TLC Engineering for Architecture
Legally
Required
Standby
Optional
Standby
COPS
2-hour
2-hour
Any
72-hour
10 seconds
60 seconds
Any
Time required
None – full load
None – full load
Allowed
None – full
load
Full
Full
None
Full
Testing
Acceptance/
Operational
Max Load
Acceptance/
Operational
Under Load
None
Commissioning
Under Load
Circuits
Isolated
Can combine
Any
Can combine
Fault Response
Alarm
Protection
Protection
Protection
Transfer Switch
Automatic
Auto/Manual
Any
Automatic
Requirement Emergency
Minimum Fuel
Start Time
Demand Factor
Selective
Coordination
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UPS Systems
◦ Three types
 Online or true UPS (double conversion)
 Offline UPS (standby battery and inverter)
 Hybrid or line-interactive or direct ferroresonant transformer UPS
◦ Energy Storage (≈50% of system cost)
 Lead Acid Batteries
 Flywheels
 Ultra-capacitors
◦ UPS cost
 $300 to $2,000 per KVA
• 5 KVA for doctor’s office is $1,500 to $2,000
• 10-20 kW for retail chain is $15,000 to $20,000
• 1 MW for data center is $400,000 plus $200,000 installation
 Flywheel is 50% more
22
Source: LBNL

UPS Suppliers
◦ Big Three
 APC/Schneider
 Liebert/Emerson
 Powerware/Eaton
◦ Others include Emerson/Chloride/ONEAC, Mitsubishi,
and General Electric

Energy Efficiency of UPS
◦ Depends on load
◦ Redundant systems reduce
load on each UPS
◦ Rightsizing can reduce power
costs 75% over 10 years
23
Avg. Load
UPS Efficiency
100%
93%-97%
30%
89%
10%
50%

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
◦ Online UPS (double conversion or true online)



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Continuously powers the load
No switchover time
Best power conditioning
Best waveform
Delta converter more efficient than double conversion
Delta Conversion
Utility
Utility
Delta
Converter
Inverter
DC
DC
AC
AC
Battery
Delta Conversion
24
Utility
Load
Load
Charger
Inverter
DC
DC
AC
AC
Battery
Standard Operation
Load
Charger
Inverter
DC
DC
AC
AC
Battery
Power Interruption

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
◦ Offline UPS (standby)




Only supplies power when power is interrupted
Switchover time can be a problem
Square nature of sine wave can cause problems
Only conditions power during interruption
Utility
Utility
Load
Load
Charger
Inverter
DC
DC
AC
AC
Battery
Standard Operation
25
Charger
Inverter
DC
DC
AC
AC
Battery
Power Interruption
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Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
◦ Hybrid or line-interactive UPS
 Supplies additional power during sags
 Provides some power conditioning
◦ Hybrid direct ferroresonant transformer
 UPS supports voltage regulation of ferroresonant transformer
 Maintains output briefly when a total outage occurs
 Can be unstable with PF-corrected power supply loads
Utility
Load
Inverter
DC
AC
Battery
Line-interactive Standard Operation
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Utility
Load
Charger
Inverter
DC
DC
AC
AC
Battery
Ferroresonant Transformer

Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
◦ Is your UPS Uninterruptible?
◦ Does your UPS provide power conditioning?
◦ Does your UPS provide electrical isolation?
◦ What is your UPSs output waveform?
◦ Does your UPS have a maintenance bypass?
◦ How does your UPS detect a bad battery?
◦ Is it modular to easily increase capacity?
 One blade server will replace 20 tower servers and use half
the space but consume 3 to 5 times as much power
Source: Liebert Corporation/Emerson Network Power
27

Automatic Transfer Switches
from
Utility
from
Utility
◦ Open-transition break before-make switching
to
Load
s
 Lowest cost
 Most reliable
 Requires one-half to three seconds decay interval
from
Generator
Set
◦ Fast closed-transition make before-break switching
To
Loads
from
Generator
Set
 Paralleling of both sources (<100 milliseconds) during the transfer period
 Requires splitting the loads into small portions and controlling transfer
sequence
 Frequency transients will be imposed on the system
• May be just as disruptive (or worse) as a short total interruption
◦ Soft closed-transition make before-break switching
 Synchronizes and then gradually transfers the facility loads
 Typical disturbances in voltage and frequency are eliminated
28
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Automatic Transfer Switches (Open-Transition)
Power
Fails
ATS Start
Command
Generator
Set Starts
Generator Set
ATS
Ready to
Disconnects
Load
Utility
ATS Connects
Load to
Generator Set
System
Running
on
Generator
Power
Time Delay
Start
Facility
Powered
by Utility
Generator Set Cranks
Generator Set
Time Delay
Accelerates
Transfer
Time (Seconds)
0
1
2
from
Generator Set
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4
5
6
7
8
9
from Utility
from Utility
to Loads
3
to Loads
to Loads
from
Generator Set
10
Time (Sec)
from Utility
to Loads
To Loads
from
Generator Set

Automatic Transfer Switches (Open-Transition)
Normal
Power
Returns
System
Running
on
Generator
Power
Time (Minutes)
ATS Disconnects
Generator Set
Generator Set
Remove Start
Command
ATS Connects
Load to Utility
Generator
Set Stops
Time Delay Retransfer
Time Delay Stop
Generator Set Cooldown
0
Adjustable: 0-30 minutes
Adj.: 0-30 minutes
Facility
Powered
by Utility
Adjustable: 0-10 minutes
from Utility
from Utility
from Utility
2
to Loads
to Loads
To Loads
To Loads
1
from
Generator Set
30
from
Generator Set
from
Generator Set
To Loads

Generator Compatibility with UPS
◦ UPS feeds non-linear harmonics to generators
 Power pulsations upon load changes
 Overheating
 Bypass not available alarms from the UPS
◦ Possible Solutions
 Oversize the generator (2 to 5X UPS rating)
 Add linear loads to generator (even a load bank)
 Increase generator insulation from class F to class H
 Specify lowest temperature rise alternator, typically 105ºC rise over a 40ºC
ambient
 Specify a generator set reactance/impedance of 15% or less.
 Specify high-speed automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) that provide pulse-width
modulated output
 Use permanent magnet generator (PMG) supported excitation system to
separately power the AVR
31

NFPA 110, Standard for Emergency and
Standby Power Systems
◦ Run 30 minutes monthly (Section 8.4.2)
 Minimum exhaust gas temperatures as
recommended by the manufacturer
 30% minimum load, or
 Available load and annual 2 hour test
◦ Three classifications of generators
 Type
 Class
 Level
32
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NFPA 110 Emergency Power System Types
◦ Type refers to the maximum time that an emergency power
system can remain unpowered after a failure of the normal
source
33
Type
Power restoration time
U
Basically Uninterruptible (UPS
Systems)
10
10 seconds
60
60 seconds
120
120 seconds
M
Manual stationary or non-automatic
No time limit

NFPA 110 Emergency Power System Classes
◦ Class refers to the minimum time, in hours, for which the system is
designed to operate at its rated load without being refueled or recharged
 Fuel storage shall be 133% of rating
• Class 48 would have 64 hours of fuel storage
34
Class
Power restoration time
0.083
0.083 hour (5 minutes)
0.25
0.25 hour (15 minutes)
2
2 hours
6
6 hours
48
48 hours
X
Other time, in hours, as required by the
application, code, or user
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NFPA 110 Emergency Power System Levels
◦ The Level of an emergency power system refers to the level of
equipment installation, performance, and maintenance
requirements
◦ Example: Level 1, Type 10, Class 48
 Critical to life, 10 second start, 48 hours of operation
35
Level
When Installed
1
When failure of the equipment to perform could result
in loss of human life or serious injuries
2
When failure of the equipment to perform is less
critical to human life and safety and where
the authority having jurisdiction shall permit a higher
degree of flexibility than that provided by
a level 1 system

Hospitals and Other Healthcare
◦ Service requirements
 Three levels of criticality are used to define the different
tolerances for power interruptions in a hospital setting
Continuity of
service
requirements
Max. duration
for power cut &
switch to backup
Minimum endurance
of back-up power
source
1
Permanent power
supply
< 0.5 seconds
3 hours
2
Brief interruption
< 15 seconds
24 hours
3
Long interruption
< 3 minutes
24 hours
Criticality
Level
Source: Schneider Electric
36
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Hospitals and Other Healthcare
◦ Joint Commission for Accreditation for
Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO)
 Research and critical care functions
are load-intensive systems
 Redundancy essential
• Requires backup generators regardless
of how many feeders are available
Source: www.sxc.hu
• At least one generator must always be available as a
backup for N+1 redundancy
• Generators must be tested for a minimum of
four (4) continuous hours at least once every
36 months (EC.02.05.07)
37
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Generator Nomenclature by Manufacturers
◦ Standby
 Typically less than 100 hours of use per year
 Variable load of 60% or less
 Up to 80% of rated capacity for peak demand
 Up to 100% of rated capacity for emergency operation
◦ Prime
 Variable load 60% to 70%
 Up to 100% of rated capacity typically less than 20% of time
◦ Continuous
 Up to 100% of rated capacity for an unlimited amount of time
38

Backup Generators—National Electrical Code (NEC)
◦ Article 695—Fire Pumps (stationary pumps for fire protection)
◦ Article 700—Emergency Systems
 Article 700.27—Overcurrent Protection (Selective) Coordination
◦ Article 701—Legally Required Standby Systems (health care, and so on)
 Article 701.18—Overcurrent Protection (Selective) Coordination
◦ Article 702—Optional Standby Systems (permanent and portable)
 Article 702.6—Transfer Equipment (now allows parallel operation)
 Article 702.9—Wiring Optional Standby Systems (allows sharing)
 Article 702.10—Portable Generator Grounding (non-separately derived
bonding)
◦ Article 705—Interconnected Electric Power Production Sources
(in parallel with a primary source)
 Article 705.22—Disconnect Device (marked as may be energized from both
sides)
 Article 705.40—Loss of Primary Source (islanding protection and phase
synching)
39
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Backup Generators—National Electrical Code (NEC)
◦ Article 708—Critical Operations Power Systems
 Article 708.54—Overcurrent Protection (Selective) Coordination
◦ Article 445—Generators
 Article 445.13—Ampacity of Conductors
• Requires 115% overcurrent protection
• Neutral conductor sizing per Article 220.22—Feeder or Service
Neutral Load
 Article 445.18—Disconnecting Means Required for Generators
• Switch or circuit breaker required unless engine can be easily
stopped and generator not in parallel with another generator or
source
40

Sizing Backup Generators
◦ Consult a generator specialist
◦ Should be sized to run at full load operation in the
60% to 80% range of the generator capacity
◦ Factor in inrush current during motor starting
Source: Stock.xchng
41

Tips for Buying a Used Generator
◦ Check the hours, age, and history of the generator set.
◦ Consider the generator manufacturer's history
and reputation
◦ Check the seller's current level of knowledge on
maintaining and repairing diesel engines, power units,
transfer switches, and generator ends
◦ Check all mechanical components for wear or fatigue.
◦ The bearings and bushings should all be replaced,
regardless of their function or condition
◦ Integrity check wiring and welds
◦ Request a load test
◦ Insist on a guarantee or limited warranty for a period
of one to three months after your purchase
◦ Ensure compliance with New Jersey air emission regulations
Source: Diesel Service & Supply, Inc. (Brighton, CO)
42

Top Nine Reasons Generators Fail to Start
1. Battery failure
2. Low coolant levels
3. Low coolant temperature alarms
4. Oil, fuel, or coolant leaks
5. Controls not in auto
6. Air in the fuel system
7. Ran out of fuel
8. High fuel level alarm
9. Breaker trip
Source: Darren Dembski of Peterson Power Systems
43
Source: LLNL
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Equipment Incentives
◦ www.njcleanenergy.com
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Electric chillers
Gas cooling
Electric unitary HVAC
Ground source heat pumps
Gas heating
Variable frequency drives
Gas water heating
Motors
Lighting
Refrigeration
Other
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Equipment Incentives
◦ www.njcleanenergy.com
45

Contact Information:
◦ Email:
 LargeCustomerSupport@pseg.com
◦ Phone:
 1-855-249-7734
◦ Websites:
 http://www.pseg.com/business/small_large_business/index.jsp
 http://www.njcleanenergy.com/
46