International Journal of Educational
Research Review
2458-9322
Volume 1 - Issue 1
January 2016
The International Journal of Educational Research Review
2016 (Volume 1 - Issue 1)
,
Copyright © 2016 - THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH REVİEW
International Journal of Education Research Review (IJERE) is peer review, open access online publication adressing the
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Contact Address:
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Published in Turkey
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The International Journal of Educational Research Review
2016 (Volume 1 - Issue 1)
Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Serhat ARSLAN, University of Sakarya, Turkey
Editors
Inst. Aydın Kiper, Sakarya University, Turkey
Associate Editors
Dr.Pedro Tadeu,Instituto Politecnico da Guarda,Portugal
Dr. John Kantor, Alliant International University, San Diego CA, USA
Dr. Carlos Reis, University of Coimbra,Portugal
Dr. Teresa Franklin, Ohio University, USA
Dr. Colleen M. Athans-Sexton, Governors State University,USA
Advisory Board
Dr. Adem Bayar, Amasya University, Turkey
Dr. Adem Peker, Atatürk University, Turkey
Dr. Ahmet Akın,Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Ahmet Eskicumalı, Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Antriman V. Orleans, Philippine Normal University
Dr. Aslıhan Kuyumcu Vardar, Düzce University, Turkey
Dr. Ayşenur Kutluca Canbulat, Akdeniz University, Turkey
Dr. Bakhtiar Shabani Varaki, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
Dr. Bekir F. Meral, Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Coşkun Erdağ,Aksaray University, Turkey
Dr. Duygu Gür Erdoğan, Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Emine Özlem Yiğit, Abant İzzet Baysal University , Turkey
Dr. Eyüp Celik, Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Fatimah Hashim, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Filiz Gültekin, Uludağ University, Turkey
Dr. Ibrahem Narongsakhet, Prince of Songkla University, Thailand
Dr. İrfan Nihan Demirel, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey
Dr. Jens Peter Christiansen,University College Lillebaelt, Denmark;
Dr. Jimwoong Song, Seoul National University, Korea
Dr. Jørgen Skaastrup,University College Lillebaelt, Denmark
Dr. Juliana Othman, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Kamil Yıldırım, Aksaray University, Turkey
Dr. Loh Sau Cheong, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Mariani Binti Md Nor, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Mehmet Ali Hamedoğlu,Sakarya University
Dr. Mehmet Kaya,Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Mehmet Küçük, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey
Dr. Meriç Kanbur Tuncel, Abant İzzet Baysal University , Turkey
Dr. Mohamad Bin Bilal Ali, University of Technology, Malaysia
Dr. Mohd Yahya Mohamed Ariffin, Islamic Science University of Malaysia
Dr. Moses Samuel, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Muhammet Sarı,Aksaray University, Turkey
Dr. Mustafa Şanal ,Giresun University, Turkey
Dr. Neslihan Arıcı Özcan, Medipol University, Turkey
Dr. Nihan Arslan, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Vakıf University,Turkey
Dr. Nik Azis Nik Pa, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Norani Mohd Salleh, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Norazah Mohd Nordin, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr. Omar Abdull Kareem, Sultan Idris University of Education, Malaysia
Dr. Onur İsbulan, Sakarya University, Turkey
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Dr. Ömer Faruk Tutkun,Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Özlem Karakış,Abant İzzet Baysal University , Turkey
Dr. Pia Pettersson, University College Lillebaelt, Denmark
Dr. Richard Kiely, the University College of St. Mark and St. John, United Kingdom
Dr. Rohaida Mohd Saat, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Savaş Karagöz, Aksaray University, Turkey
Dr. Seher Yarar Kaptan, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan University, Turkey
Dr. Seher Boyat, Ordu University, Turkey
Dr. Suphan Eksioglu,Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Syed Farid Alatas, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Dr. Tayyip Duman, Gazi University, Turkey
Dr. Tian Po Oei, University of Queensland, Australia
Dr. Uğur Doğan, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Univrsity, Turkey
Dr. Ümit Sahranç, Sakarya University, Turkey
Dr. Wan Hasmah Wan Mamat, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Dr. Yücel Gelişli, Gazi University, Turkey
Dr. Zeynep Demirtaş, Sakarya University, Turkey
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The International Journal of Educational Research Review
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Table of Contents
An Evaluation of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared to Other Models in Different
Countries
Tayyip DUMAN, Savaş KARAGÖZ
1
INVESTİGATİON OF THE RELATİONSHİPS BETWEEN LİFELONG LEARNİNG AND SOCİAL EMOTİONAL
LEARNİNG
Mehmet AKÇAALAN
14
INVESTİGATİON OF PEDAGOGİCAL FORMATİON CERTİFİCATİON PROGRAM STUDENTS’ ATTİTUDES
TOWARDS TEACHİNG PROFESSİON İN TERMS OF SOME VARİABLES
Zeynep DEMİRTAŞ,Gökçe Pınar AKSOY
21
A STUDY ON THE PSYCHOMETRİC FEATURES OF THE TURKİSH VERSİON OF THE BRİEF SENSATİON
SEEKİNG SCALE (BSSS-8) FOR YOUNG ADULTS AND THE RELATİON BETWEEN SENSATİON SEEKİNG
AND LİFE SATİSFACTİON
Eyüp ÇELİK,Mehmet Emin TURAN
29
SCALE CONSTRUCTİON: MOTİVATİON AND RELATİONSHİP SCALE İN EDUCATİON
Yunus Emre DEMİR
39
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International Journal of Educational Research Review
An Evaluation of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared to Other
Models in Different Countries
Tayyip DUMAN1, Savaş KARAGÖZ2
AR TI CL E IN FO
A BS TRA CT
Article History:
Received 02.09.2015
Received in revised form
10.10.2015
Accepted 20.11.2015
Available online 01.01.2016
Teachers and their education, as the most important elements in educational systems, have been one
of the mostly debated issues in Turkish national education system. The success of an education
system largely depends on the quality of the teachers who plan and practice teaching and learning
process. Reviewing Turkish educational history with a well-established tradition of education
reveals a rich experience in teacher training within this tradition. The main objective of this study is
to examine teacher training policies and practices from 1848 to these days in Turkey, and to compare
the Turkish teacher training system to the current teacher training models applied in different
countries. This survey research has been conducted based on the literature review. Not yet
completed, some of its recent results obtained are as follows: Teachers in Turkey were regarded as
the main agent of educational innovation, and teacher education was discussed as an issue within
educational reform. Turkey, to the present day from 1848, the date when first teacher training
institution was founded in the country, during the Republican era in particular, had many teacher
training institutions and practiced many different training models considering the socio-economic,
cultural and political conditions. In spite of some similarities to other models in different countries,
Turkish teacher training system shows originality and richness in terms of its features.
© 2016 IJERE. All rights reserved
Keywords: 1
Teacher, teacher education policy, teacher education system, teacher education model
Introduction
Teachers and their education, as the most important elements in educational systems, have been one of the
mostly debated issues in Turkish National Education System. The success of an education system largely
depends on the quality of the teachers who plan and practice teaching and learning process. On the other
hand, teacher training is a versatile and complicated problem. In the process of establishing new teacher
training systems or analyzing the current ones, the following questions should be answered: What kind of a
teacher is needed? What is the current role and the desired role of a teacher in changing and developing
societies? Which institutions should train teacher candidates? What is the intended structure, status,
duration of education and curriculum of these institutions? What are the criterions in selecting new students
to these institutions? Which procedures should be used in appointment and in-service training of teachers?
What is the role and the status of a teacher in society? Reviewing Turkish educational history with a wellestablished tradition of education reveals a rich experience in teacher training within this tradition.
Analyzing Turkish teacher training system within these questions uncovers various significant implications.
In this study, teacher training policies and practices from 1848 to these days in Turkey are examined and
Turkish teacher training system is investigated in comparison with current teacher training models applied
in different countries. This survey research has been conducted based on the literature review.
Education and Teacher Training in Pre-Republican Period
In Turkey, the problem of teacher training was evaluated within the reform movement in education before
the establishment of Republic in Tanzimat Reform Era. As it is known, Ottoman Empire inherited its
education system based on the Madrasah system from Seljuks. The Ottoman Empire improved and
1
Corresponding e-mail: karagozsavas@hotmail.com
University, 2Aksaray University
1Gazi
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An Evaluation Of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared To Other Models In Different Countries
enhanced this system in foundation and rise periods. These institutions had served for Ottoman society for a
long time. However; new institutions were needed as they didn’t adapt themselves to the current conditions.
Therefore; new institutions were established primarily in military field than in civilian field within the
westernization and modernization movements started after the first quarter of 18th century.( Koçer, 1987,s1)
These institutions were different from traditional Ottoman institutions and they were established by
imitating the western ones. The aim of military institutions was to train soldiers for the Ottoman Empire
Army in order to prevent the army from regression. On the other hand; civilian institutions aimed at
training officials for the reorganized state organization and supplying students for military academy. These
new institutions that were different from Traditional Ottoman Education Institutions were in need of new
teachers. It was impossible for this reform movement to be successful with Madrasah graduate teachers(
muallim) and professors (müderris). Therefore; in modern sense, the first Teacher Training Institution,
Darülmuallimin, was established thanks to statesmen and educators in order to train teachers for junior
high schools (Rüştiyeler) in Istanbul on the 16h of March ,1948. ( Unat, 1964, s.30). This institution followed
in 1868 by Darülmuallimin-i Sıbyan( Normal Schools for Primary School Teachers) that was established in
Istanbul in order to train teachers for primary schools (Sıbyan Mektepleri). After this development,
Darülmuallimin ( Teacher Training School for Boys)
was called Darülmuallimin-i Rüşdi.
Although
Tanzimat era Ottoman intellectuals started to establish modern institutions apart from the Madrasah system,
most of them could be established thanks to the special effort of some statesmen. As these reform
movements were sticked to a plan, they couldn’t be a government policy. Aiming to fill this gap, Maarif-i
Umumiye Nizamnamesi (General Regulations for National Education) was published in 1869. This
regulation regarded education as state’s responsibility and aimed at establishing a new education system
from primary school to university. In addition, taking the teacher demand in consideration, it followed an
appropriate path in training new teachers for the future education system. As it is mentioned above, two
Teacher Training Institutions called Darülmuallimin-i Rüşdi(Secondary School Teacher Training Institution)
and Darülmuallin-i Sıbyan ( Primary School Teacher Training Institution) were established in 1869 before the
publication of Regulations. On the other hand,
two more Teacher Training Institutions, Büyük
Darülmuallimin(Teacher Training School for Boys) and Darülmuallimat ( Teacher Training School for Girls),
were established with the publication of Regulations.( Koçer, 1975, s.7). The aim of Büyük Darülmuallimin
was to train teachers for its branches respectively rüşdiye, idadiye and sultaniye. On the other hand; the aim
of Darulmuallimat and Kız Rüştiyeleri( Secondary Schools for Girls) was to train female teachers for Sıbyan
Schools. In spite of all of these reformative attempts of regulations aforementioned decisions on training
teachers couldn’t be implemented completely and timely like some others.
Training School for Girls,
Darülmuallimat,Teacher
was the first teacher training institution established after the publication of
Regulations. This institution was established in Istanbul in 1870 with the aim of supplying female teachers
for Kız Rüştiyeleri and Sıbyan Schools that were started to be established from 1859 and had been increasing
in number day by day. Foundation of Büyük Darülmuallimin that was planned in Regulations could be
achieved after 8 years in 1877. However; only one of its branches, idadiye, was established and it was taken
under the control of the same supervisor with Darülmuallimin-i Rüşdi. It couldn’t survive so long and
closed in 1880. However; the most efficient and constant attempt on this institution was made at the
beginning of 1890 . As a result,
it was re-opened as Darülmuallimin-i Aliye in 1891. Therefore; as it was
planned in Regulations in 1869,
foundation of teacher training institutions was completed and various
teacher training institutions were founded for every educational stages. ( Duman,1999,ss.306-315). However,
unfortunately these institutions were started to be established outside Istanbul and they couldn’t be aware of
the madrasah effect. As a result of closing or frequent changes in curriculum, they couldn’t function
systematically and consistently. In spite of these disappointments, in the second half of 19th century, critical
attempts were made in teacher training within the reform movement in education and curriculum of teacher
training institutions was enriched with some courses such as teaching methods and professional teaching
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knowledge. ( Duman ve Dilaver, 1996, ss. 651-662) In Pre-Republican period, new ideas on education and
teacher training were made , discussed and even some of them were implemented in Second Constitutional
Period.In this period continued 10 years from 1908, critical attempts were made in every stage and field of
education from pre-school to university including teacher training. Significant progresses were made in
quantity and at a lesser extent in quality. Implications and suggested ideas on teacher training of this period
can be summarized as follows: critical attempts were made in order to protect teacher training institutions
from the madrasah effect and raise the quality of education. Duration of teacher training institutions was
extended to three years from two years. On the other hand; courses such as painting and handicraft were
added to the curriculum of these institutions and it was re-arranged by this way. Aiming to give teacher
candidates the opportunity to practice, a practice school was founded within the teacher training institution.
In order to handle with the quantity problem of primary school teachers, a new requirement called
Certificate of Teaching ( Ehliyetnameli Öğretmenlik) was introduced. With the foundation of
Darülmuallimin (1913) and Darülmuallimat (1915), the structure of teacher training institutions was
reorganized and new branches were established. During this process, some of the preplanned branches were
founded
in order to train primary school inspectors and
teachers for preschool, physical education,
vocational education, teacher training schools for girls’s and boys’ founded in centers ( vilayet and sancak)
but eventually none of them could survive. ( Duman, 1991, s.17) Master Teacher School , one of the
aforementioned departments, was established within Teacher Training School for Girls as it was proposed
in Regulations. However; It closed after four years of functioning. In order to train teachers and primary
school inspectors for the teacher training institutions outside Istanbul, 2 year Kısmi İhzari branches were
established within Darülmuallimin-i Aliye and Darülmuallimat-ı Aliye. However; they closed as a result of
war soon after. Establishment of training departments for physical education teachers and vocational
teachers was proposed in Regulations. However; the plan couldn’t be implemented. In the Constitituonal
Period, various Teacher Training Institutions for Girls were established other than Rüştiye and these
institutions increased the demand of female teachers. In order to train the needed teachers, (İnas
Darülfünunu) Women’s University was established within Teacher Training Schools for Girls Although
some of these implications couldn’t be achieved, on the subjects of education, teaching profession and
training teachers, critical ideas that would pave the way for the works of Republican period were made in
this period. Some of them are as follows: Education plays an important role for the future of Turkey and
Teachers are pioneers of education. Teaching profession means primarily being an educator. Being an
educator is a skill and an art. This art needs specific methods and rules. Teachers are need to be aware of
them. In order to achieve this goal, curriculum of teacher training institutions should include these methods
and rules. Sole purpose of teacher training institutions should be training teachers and they should serve for
this purpose. Separate teacher training system should be implemented for villages. The dignity of teaching
profession should be raised in order to supply high quality teachers. ( Akyüz, 2012, s. 394)
Education and Teacher Training in Republican Period
The pioneers who established Turkish Republic and reorganized social, cultural, political and economic
structures of Turkish society established a national, contemporary, secular and democratic education system.
Besides; they didn’t neglect training teachers who would raise next generations that would raise and glorify
the nation. Training teachers took an importance place within the reform movements in education. On this
subject, the attempts were made in line with national education policy and country conditions. In the first
years of Republic, especially in the Atatürk period, legal foundations of Turkish National Education System
and teaching profession were laid. On the other hand, existing teacher training instutitions were reformed
and new ones were established in line with the demand. The implications and developments in teacher
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An Evaluation Of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared To Other Models In Different Countries
training of Republican Period can be divided according to educational stages into two parts as pre-1982
post-1982. This can be summarized as follows:
Primary School Teacher Training (1923-1982)
As it is known, 80% of Turkish society who was tired and sick of wars but thanks to their determination and
belief still gained victory under the leadership of Atatürk had been living in villages. There weren’t any
schools and teachers in almost all of the villages. This situation led Republican governments to give priority
to primary education and to regard primary education as a problem of village education. Furthermore, in
order to reorganize the structure of Republican period education system , Law No.789, Maarif Teşkilatı
Kanunu [Law on the Education System] was enacted in 1926. This legislation divided primary education into
two parts as city and village institutions and teacher training institutions as First Teacher Training
Institutions and Village Teacher Training Institutions.
Making primary education widespread and
developing villages were the primary goals of education. Therefore; training primary school teachers was
the focus of teacher training. With this aim; several attempts were made in order to reform and develop the
first teacher training institutions. In addition; separate teacher training models were tried to be developed
for the villages that were totally different from cities in terms of life conditions. At the beginning of 19231924 academic year, there were twenty Teacher Training Institutions for Girls and Boys. Most of these
institutions were in need of teaching staff, student and building. Because of country conditions, teacher
training institutions couldn’t develop under the control of provincial private institutions. Therefore; they
were taken under the control of board education and government budget as well.
However; these
precautions were not enough for developing teacher training institutions. The way of increasing quality of
these institutions is to decrease them in number and bring them together in certain places. The plan was to
establish Darülmuallimin Mıntıkaları( Districts of Teacher Training Institutions). In order to achieve these
goals, Anatolia was divided into fifteen centers of teacher training institutions and the plan was put into
practice as soon as possible. According to the decisions of Heyeti İlmiye ( The Council of Science and
Education) conducted in the first years of Republic, duration of teacher training institutions was extended to
five years from four years. Critical changes were made in curriculum in order to improve professional
teaching knowledge ( Öztürk,1996,s.26) At the beginning of 1932-1933 academic year, duration of first
teacher training institutions was extended to six years and they were divided into two stages as 3+3. The
first stage of these institutions(equivalent to secondary school) were not open to enrollment for a time and
they turned into vocational high schools. However; in the following years, these institutions were opened to
enrollment for
primary school graduates. In 1970-1971 academic year, duration of teacher training
institutions was extended to four years. In addition, they increased in number and finally they reached 89 . (
Duman, 2012, s. 368) In the first years of Republic, reformative movements were made for the existing
teacher training institutions. Moreover, separate teacher training system ,dated back to the Constitutional
Period, became on the agenda for village that was totally different from city in terms of life conditions. At
the time of Mustafa Necati, Minister of Education( Maarif Vekili), who focused on village education, two 3year Village Teacher Institutions ( Köy Muallim Mektebi) were established in Kayseri Zincidere and Denizli
in 1926-1927 academic year. However; these institutions couldn’t survive for a long time. They closed
respectively in 1932 and in 1933. ( Karagöz,2005,s.10) Although these implications didn’t cover the
expectations, the plan of establishing a separate teacher training system for villages wasn’t cancelled. This
plan became on the agenda a few years later. In order to achieve this goal, Educator Courses were
established for training teachers who were acquainted with village, villages and their needs. These 6-8
month courses including culture and agriculture lessons were arranged by Board of Education (Maarif
Vekaleti ) and Ziraat Vekaleti( Board of Agriculture). Students were selected to these courses among village’s
young people who were literate, had maths knowledge and had served as a soldier. At the beginning, these
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courses had been established for trial purposes. However; after they resulted in success, Village Educator’s
Law ( Köy Eğitmenleri Kanunu) was enacted in 1937 in order to reorganize the courses and put them a legal
basis. In 1937-1938 academic year. two Village Teacher Institutions were established respectively in Izmir,
Kızılçullu and Mahmudiye, Çifteler. After the legislation of Village Institute Law in 1940, the problem of
teacher training for villages came to an end with a substantial solution. In these leading Institutions of
Turkish Education System, primary school graduate children of villagers were selected by examination and
selected students attended to hands on training in these institutions. Furthermore, these institutions train
teachers who would be a guide to villagers on agricultural, technical and health issues. Number of these
institutions reached 21 in the course of time. On account of the fact that village and city difference was over,
these institutions were assembled with Traditional First Teacher Training Institutions with the Law no 6234
in 1954.( Koçer, 1967,s.7) .The year of 1973 had critical importance both for Turkish National Education
System and for Teacher training. Turkish National Education System was reorganized as a whole in terms
of its purposes, principles, structure, foundation and functions with the National Education Basic Law (
Milli Eğitim Temel Kanunu) no 1739. On the other hand, duration of compulsory education, called “basic
education”, was extended to 8 years by dividing into two stages as 5+3. With the “National Education Basic
Law” (article 1739), it was determined that all teachers must earn higher education degrees. As a result,
duration of pre-service teaching for preschool teachers and primary school teachers was extended to high
school level from secondary school level. In 1974-1975 academic year, First Teacher Training Institutions
were renamed as “Teacher High School” and some of the First Teacher Training Institutions were turned
into two year Education Institutes in order to train teachers for the first stage of basic education. These
institutions were devolved on universities after they re-named as” Education Higher School” with the
delegated legislation no 41 in 1982( Duman,1998,ss.36-43)
Secondary School Teacher Training ( 1923-1982)
Turnining back to the beginning of Republican Period, the attempts and the progresses on secondary school
teacher training within the reform movements in education can be summarized as follows: Republican
governments gave due importance to secondary education but not as much as primary education. In this
period, they reformed secondary schools, high schools and vocational technical school that were barely 158
in total. In addition they made various attempts to construct and generalize these institutions. Like primary
education institutions, secondary education institutions were in need of building, equipment and money,
too but the most important problem was demand for teachers. In the first stage continued from the
establishment of Republic to Atatürk’s death, various teacher training institutions that have had an
important role in teacher training were established.. Although some of them closed , many of them have
been surviving until today. Attempts on general and vocational secondary schools of this period can be
summarized as follows:
General Secondary School Teacher Training
In this period, there were two significant institutions training high school and secondary school teachers.
One of them was “Higher Teacher Schools”( Yüksek Öğretmen Okulları) and the other one was “ Education
Institutes”. Like “Village Institutes” , these institutions also played an important role in the Turkish history
of teacher training. Nowadays, these two institutions are mentioned in every meeting arranged for
developing today’s teacher training system. Especially “Higher Teacher Schools” are evaluated elaborately.
These institutions that had served until mid-1970 and supplied eminent teachers for Turkish National
Education System will be analyzed in detail as follows. As it can be remembered, “Higher Teacher School”,
Darülmuallimin-i Aliyye, was established as a 2 year institution in 1891 in order to train teachers for high
schools (idadi) and higher institutions. In the following years, duration of this institution was extended to
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An Evaluation Of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared To Other Models In Different Countries
three years and they maintained their teaching activities alone or with Darülfunun (University) until the first
years of Republic. When the Republican regime took over Darülmuallin-i Aliye, the students were studying
in Darülfünun and they weren’t taking pedagogical formation courses. The institution was torn betweeen
Board of Education and Darülfunun. It was undistinguished from a hostel. Therefore; a critical decision was
made in the first and second Committee of Science Meetings( Heyeti İlmiye Toplantıları) in order to reform
these institutions. With the regulations of 1924, Board of Education reorganized the institution and renamed
it as “Higher Teacher School” . Education period of which became four years. In addition, it provided free
boarding education. The senior class stood for practice and traineeship. The students took major area courses
from the related faculties. On the other hand, they took vocational lessons at “Higher Teacher School”. In
order to get a diploma from Higher Teacher School, students had to pass written and oral exams of
vocational lessons
apart from completing Darülfunun and they also
had to completed traineeship
successfully. During those dates, a high school diploma was enough for entering Darülfunun (university).
However; students were selected for “Higher Teacher School” after they were subjected to a written and an
oral examination by a committee including instructors of Faculty of Science and Literature under the
chairmanship of director of the graduate school. The institution that was reorganized as Yüksek Öğretmen
Okulu right after the first National Education Council maintained teaching activities single-handedly until
1959.( Duman, 1991,s.160). As “Istanbul Higher Teacher School” couldn’t supply the teacher demand of high
schools and their equivalents, the authorities began searching for new sources. Students of this institution
got their undergraduate degree from universities. As this implication turned out well, two more Higher
Teacher Schools were established respectively in Ankara (1959) and in Izmir( 1964) However; these new
institutions were a bit different from Istanbul Higher Teacher School. Students of these institutions were
successful final year students of the first teacher training institutions who were selected by teacher
committee of the related school. Selected students were subjected to a State’s high school exit exam after
they studied in prep class. The ones passed both this exam and university entrance exam became students
of Higher Teacher School. After students were enrolled to the related departments in accordance with the
high school teacher demand of the Ministry, they studied major area courses in the related faculties and
pedagogical formation courses at Higher Teacher School. The school provided free boarding education.(
Gelişli, 2006,s.45). As it became a successful model in which students got their undergraduate degree from
the faculties of science and literature and selected among the eminent students of the first teacher training
institutions , Istanbul Higher Teacher School began applying the same procedures. However; after the first
teacher training institutions were transformed into Teacher High School, in other words, after they lost their
students, Higher Teacher Schools were closed down in 1978. Attempts on secondary education and teacher
training for these institutions in the first years of Republic can be summarized as follows: apart from reform
movements on Higher Teacher Schools, At the beginning of 1923-1924 academic year, Secondary Teacher
Training School for Girls’ and Secondary Teacher Training School for Boys’ within Istanbul Teacher Training
School of Boys and Girls were established. However; they were closed down one year later and students
were transferred to “Higher Teacher Schools.” In 1924-1925 academic year, Ankara Music Teacher Training
School (Ankara Musiki Muallim Mektebi) was established in order to train music teachers. Again during this
period, a “Physical Education Teacher Training School “was decided to be established in order to train
physical education teachers . However; this school got started its’ training activities as a course in 1926.
Apart from the attempts made during the first period of the Republic, the most persistent and rooted
attempt on secondary teacher training was made at the beginning of 1926-1927 academic year. A two year
college named as” Orta Muallim Mektebi”( Secondary Teacher Training School) was established just with its
literature branch in Konya. The college was transferred to Ankara one year later and new branches were
added.In addition, the duration of education was extended. Furthermore, the Institution took the name of
Gazi Muallim Mektebi ve Terbiye Enstitüsü ( Gazi Secondary Teacher Training School and Civility Institute)
In this institute, the duration of education differed depending on the departments. In 1940’s new Education
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Institutes were added with the establishment of new institutions in Balıkesir, İstanbul, Bursa and Izmir.(
Duman,2002,ss.127-132). With the generalization of secondary schools across the country, Education
Institutes increased in number. Their numbers reached 10-18 respectively in 1960’s-1970’s. The duration of
education had been three years for all departments of Education Institutes. However; in 1978-1979 academic
year, they were renamed as “Higher Teacher School” and their duration was extended to 4 years. These
Schools were renamed as “Faculty of Education” and transferred to universities in 1982. Education
Institutes, graduates of which worked as a high school teacher but actually trained secondary school
teachers were one of the significant institutions of Turkish Teacher Training History. The structure of these
institutions and the conditions led them to be eminent will be analyzed in the following lines. All of these
institutions provided boarding education in their first years. Students who were distinguished graduates of
“First Teacher Training Institute”, high school graduates or worked as a primary school teacher for a length
of time were selected with an examination. Students were subjected to two separate exams as selection
examination and entrance examination. Selection exams were written exams held in centers. On the other
hand; Entrance exams were held in institutes and they varied as written, oral or practical tests depending on
the departments. These exams tested not only knowledge and skills but also personality traits of a teacher.
Furthermore, in order to take these exams, students must be presented as candidates by teacher committees
and teachers must be presented as candidates by Directorates of National Education. The article 9 of
Education Institute Regulations of 1995 puts this matter as follows: “ During the selection process of
candidates for high schools or teacher training institutes by teacher committees or Directorates of National
Education, following items should be evaluated: the success of candidates during their secondary, high
school or vocational high school education, their temperance, patience, compassion for children, interest
levels of teaching and to others, talent of speaking, moral knowledge, national feelings, physical and
emotional health, in the event of suspending his/her education, the occupation that he/she was engaged in.(
Duman,1991,ss.163-167). In the following years, these institutions began accepting day students and even
various day schools were established. In this institutions where teaching staff were selected meticulously,
professional ideals and virtue of being a teacher were engrained in the heart of each teacher candidate.They
gave the utmost importance to Professional teaching knowledge lessons and teaching practice. Actually
most of these institutions had a “Practice School”. Especially in the years when there were limited numbers
of Institutes, they had distinguished teaching staff. In addition to lessons, social activities also took place in
the curriculum. Moreover; one of the institutions aim was to instill patriotism, nationalism and the love of
being a teacher. In this respect, following statements of Board of Education and Discipline dated 10.26.1957
numbered 236 have importance. “Teacher is the most important personnel of Education Institutes. He/She
prepares students for the world of work by considering their future career during the lesson, practices and
other educational activities. Teacher candidates have had love and excitement of being a teacher since their
first year. This love and excitement can be gained through conferences, discussions, tours and interactions
with the other institutes and secondary schools” In 1970’s, while the education institutes were increasing in
number, the quality of teachers and students couldn’t be maintained. Each government accepted students
and teaching staff in accordance with its political view. Anarchist movements of the time affected these
institutions. Duration of these institutions was extended to 4 years in 1978 and they were restructured as “
Higher Teacher School” . In order to enroll these institutions, students were subjected to a standardized test
by OSYM ( Student Selection and Examination Center). However; the problems couldn’t be resolved. As it
is mentioned above, these institutions were devolved on universities in order to have more autonomous and
academic structure.
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An Evaluation Of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared To Other Models In Different Countries
Secondary Vocational and Technical School Teacher Training
Vocational and Technical Education that hadn’t been included in the education system and education policy
of Pre-Republican Period became an important issue for Republican governments. They were primarily
included into the system in order to be re-established and developed . With this aim, International experts
were invited to Turkey. By benefiting from their knowledge, a National Vocational and Technical Education
System was tried to be established and generalized. Teacher shortage was one of the problems of these
institutions. In order to train teachers for these institutions, Students were sent to Europe and Teachers were
brought from abroad. However; they were temporary precautions. Finally, in order to train vocational
teachers for “Girls’ Institutes( Kız Enstitüleri) and Evening Girls’ Art School (Akşam Kız Sanat Okulu), “
Vocational Teacher School for Girls” (Kız Meslek Öğretmen Okulu) was established in Ankara in 1934-1935
academic year. On the other hand, in 1937-1938 academic year, , “Vocational Teacher School for Boys”
(Erkek Meslek Öğretmen Okulu) was established in Ankara in order to train vocational teachers for “Boys’
Art School” (Erkek Sanat Okulları). In 1946, in accordance with the Third National Education Council
(Üçüncü Milli Eğitim Şurası), duration of these schools were extended to four years from three years and
they were renamed as “ Technical Teacher School for Girls”(Kız Teknik Öğretmen Okulu) and “Technical
Teacher School for Boys”(Erkek Teknik Öğretmen Okulu). In accordance with the
Seventh National
Education Council (7.Milli Eğitim Şurası), these institutions were renamed as “Technical Higher Teacher
School for Girls” (Kız Teknik Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu) and “Technical Higher Teacher School for Boys”
(Erkek Teknik Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu) in 1962. A new institution was established in mid-1950. In 19551956 academic year, 3 year “ Commerce Teacher School (Ticaret Öğretmen Okulu) was established in order
to train vocational teachers for “Commerce High Schools”. In 1962, duration of this school was extended to
four years and it was renamed as” Commerce and Tourism Higher Teacher School”( Ticaret ve Turizm
Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu).( Duman, 1991,s.75) These teacher training schools were subjected to Ministry of
National Education and they were all boarding schools. Students’ of these institutions were selected with an
examination. Graduates of Girls’ Institutes( Girls’ Vocational School) were selected for “ Technical Higher
Teacher School for Girls”(Kız Teknik Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu). Graduates of
Art Institute(Industrial
Vocational High School) were selected for “ Technical Higher Teacher School for Boys” (Erkek Teknik
Yüksek Öğretmen Okulu). Graduates of Commerce High School were selected for “Commerce and Tourism
Higher Teacher School”. Students must be presented as candidates in order to take the selection exam. The
procedures were the same with the Education Institutes. As these institutions were separate, they didn’t
end up like “Education Institutes”. They maintained their educational activities successfully by teaching
field and vocational knowledge, instilling love of being a teacher with its’ distinguished teaching staff and
distinguished students until they were subjected to universities. In 1982, “Technical Higher Teacher School
for Girls” was restructured as “Faculty of Vocational Education”(Mesleki Eğitim Fakültesi )and subjected to
Gazi University. On the other hand, “Commerce and Tourism Higher Teacher School” was included in the
same faculty with the name of “Department of Commerce and Tourism Education” (Ticaret ve Turizm
Eğitimi Bölümü). At the same date, “ Higher Teacher Schools for Boys” were renamed as “Technical Higher
Teacher School” and reached two after one more was established in Istanbul. Then, they were restructured
with the name of “Faculty of Technical Education”( Teknik Eğitim Fakültesi )and subjected to the related
faculties.
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Developments and Problems occurred After Teacher Training Instutitions were devolved on
Universities.(1982-2015)
At the beginning of 1980’s some significant decisions were made and performed in Turkish higher education
system and teacher education. In 1981, In accordance with the new Higher Education Law( No. 2547)
principles related to the organization, functioning, duties, authority, and responsibilities of all higher
education institutions and their governing bodies except institutions of higher education of the Turkish
Armed Forces and Security Organization that differed in establishment, structure and functioning were
established in connection with education, research, publication, teaching staff, students and other personnel
of institutions of higher education. In 1982, with the acceptance of the law no 41 Decree Law, all higher
education institutions of Ministry of National Education conducting teacher education was left to the
universities. In this way the matter of teacher training has been retrieved a new constitution, status and
functioning. With this new system, Education Institutes, which had trained teachers for primary schools,
were renamed Education Higher Schools, Higher Teacher Training Schools, which had trained teachers for
general and vocational secondary schools, were renamed Faculty of Education, Girls’ Technical Higher
Teacher Training Schools, Commerce-Tourism Higher Teacher Training Schools and Industrial Arts Higher
Teacher Training Schools were renamed Faculty of Vocational Education, Technical Higher Teacher Training
Schools were renamed Faculty of Technical Education, by these new names they restructured. After teacher
education was totally left to universities, there has been various noticeable developments on this topic.
Education duration of two-year period of Education Higher Schools were extended to four year period since
1989-90 academic year. With the law no 3837 that was enacted on July the 3rd, 1992, the Education Higher
Schools were renamed Faculty of Education and duration of all teachers’ pre-service education was extended
to undergraduate level. In accordance with the above said law, Commerce-Tourism Education department
existing within the Faculty of Vocational Education was transformed to Faculty of Commerce-Tourism
Education, Technology education was transformed to Faculty of Industrial Arts Education, Girls’ Arts
Education Higher School as a department of Faculty of Vocational Education was transformed to Faculty of
General Vocational Education and lastly Konya Selcuk University Girls’ Arts Education Higher School was
transformed to Faculty of Vocational Education. In the new teacher education system, another structural
change was occurred in accordance with Higher Education Executive Board’s decision dated 11/4/1997 and
numbered 97.99.2761, which was made for performing from 1998-1999 academic year. With this decision,
faculty of education was restructured. While all teacher education departments( pre-school, primary and
secondary school teacher education) except vocational-technical education were brought together under
restructured departments at Faculty of Education, duration of secondary school teacher education for the
fields of science, math and social sciences was extended to graduate level by adding 1.5 years to 3.5. The
duration of pedagogical formation education for graduates of faculty of science and literature was
determined as 1.5 years.
Teacher Education Models and Practices in Different Countries
Present teacher education in Turkey as a selective and meticulous country in choosing students and
instructors for teacher training institutes and in training and appointing teacher candidates in the past and as
a country that has a rooted and substantial experience in teacher training is as mentioned above. So what
about the other countries? Which models are applied for teacher education in America and EU member
states? In order to evaluate teacher education in Turkey, teacher education models of these countries will be
briefly analyzed. Teacher education in these countries can be summarized as four different models.
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An Evaluation Of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared To Other Models In Different Countries
MODEL 1
Educational Field+ Professional Teaching Knowledge Lessons+ Teaching Practices (including general and
compulsory lessons)
In this model, teacher candidates take all lessons from the same institution. While for the first two years
lessons relating to educational field are mainly given, for the last years lessons are turned into professional
disciplines. Professional teaching knowledge lessons and practices are mainly given in third and fourth
years.
MODEL 2
Undergraduate education+ teaching knowledge+ Teaching Practices (including general and compulsory
lessons)
In this model, teacher candidates enroll in faculty of science and literature. They take lessons relating to their
educational field from their faculties. However, lessons relating to teaching knowledge and practices are
given in related faculties and departments in parallel with their undergraduate education.
MODEL 3
Undergraduate Education+ Teaching Knowledge and Practice
In this model, Graduates who have completed their undergraduate education in an educational field are
given teaching certificate in two or four academic terms.
MODEL 4
In this model, students enroll in Faculty of Education. In their freshman year, general compulsory lessons
are given to the students and they are also responsible for classroom observation that have certain credits
and is practiced in diverse school settings. At the beginning of the second year, Teacher candidates make
their decisions about school levels at which they aim to teach. Second term of the third year is dedicated to
teaching practices. While students take their credit courses relating to their educational fields from Faculty of
Science and Literature or other related faculties, they take teaching knowledge courses from Faculty of
Education. In the fourth year, students are given additional courses relating to their educational fields and
problems occurring in practices are discussed. Moreover, every student is assigned to deliver a written
analysis in teaching-learning field.( Duman,1995,ss.40-48). When aforesaid teacher education models of
different countries are examined in terms of key elements and key processes, it is clearly seen that these
countries are still so selective and meticulous in selecting, training, assessing students and in appointing
graduates as it was meticulously performed in Turkey before 1982.
Selecting Students
Teacher training programs are organized as teacher education programs or teacher education courses. These
programs are applied in institutions such as faculty of education, teachers college, institute of education and
higher teacher education school. These programs include major area courses, pedagogical formation lessons,
general culture lessons and teaching practices. Essential elements of these programs are course subjects,
homeworks, seminars and theses related to subjects.
Assessing Students
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Assessment begins with selecting process and it continues in training and appointing processes. In general
assessment of teacher candidates, some measures are used like graduation thesis, student counselors’ and
supervisors’ reports, self-assessment of teacher candidates, their performances of joining discussions,
observance of professional principles and norms as well as students’ success.
Appointing Graduates
Having a graduate diploma of teaching or a certificate of teaching don’t ensure appointing as a teacher
throughout the world. The appointing process starts with an announcement of vacancy .Then it continues
with the announcement of application requirements and required qualifications. Application documents are
assessed and in case of need, candidates are subjected to an interview or an exam. Moreover, candidates are
asked for additional information or documents and they are evaluated in terms of experience and reference
when required. Candidates are appointed for a period of one or two years in most of the EU member states.
Teacher candidates are evaluated in terms of their teaching performance and efforts they make to improve
themselves. Therefore; some activities have vital importance during the process like following professional
publications and events relating to field at university, assisting to and cooperating with school management,
preparing reports or giving seminars.
Evaluation of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared to Other Models in Different Countries
When Turkey’s teacher education system is subjected to a general evaluation from the establishment of the
first teacher training institute to date, it is clearly seen that teachers have been regarded as keys to reaching
the goals of educational reforms and the institutes have aimed to nurture well-educated teachers who have
the required qualifications of the new education system by taking the country’s needs into consideration.
Especially in the Republican Period, teachers were attributed the
responsibility of
raising the next
generations who would glorify and keep Turkish Republic alive. In addition, with the establishment of
Village Teacher Institutions and Village Institutes, the aim was to nurture teachers who had the required
qualifications to educate village where the most of the population lived, villagers and their children in every
respect and to play a role in society’s enlightenment and development. In the following years, various
important changes were brought in requirements to be a teacher and structure, status and curriculum of
teacher training institutes by considering changing and developing socioeconomic circumstances of the
country and contemporary pedagogy approaches. These changes had positive effects in general. Since 1982,
in Turkey, teachers have been training in 4-year faculty programmes and in master’s degree level at
university , like in America and EU member states. Before 1982, Turkey applied similar standards and
principles that are used in selecting, training, assessing and appointing students in other countries at the
present time. In Turkey, Teacher Candidates were trained in Initial Teacher Training Institutions, Village
institutes, Institutes of Education and Higher Teacher Education Institutions where students and teachers
were selected meticulously and teachers were trained and appointed by providing professional ideals and
virtue. In parallel with the developments in the World, teacher training institutions were devolved on
universities. In addition, duration of all teachers’ pre-service education was extended to undergraduate level
and duration of some secondary education teacher training programs was extended to graduate level.
Although teacher training got an academic structure and status thanks to the devolvement to universities,
Contrary to expectations and things to do, Turkish teacher education system started to concentrate largely
on number of the teachers, Instead of concentrating on qualification and professional practice of selected
instructors and students, which was performed meticulously in the previous years when turkey was in need
of more teachers. In the new system, a large number of Faculties of Education was established without
considering the teacher need of the Ministry of Education, the number and qualification of instructors and
equipment. Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education that trained teachers for secondary vocational
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An Evaluation Of Turkish Teacher Education System Compared To Other Models In Different Countries
and technical education institutions was closed. On the other hand, duration of pedagogical formation
education was reduced gradually to one year and to 3.5 month and generalized. As a result, teaching has
become a certificated profession that everyone who has a bachelor’s degree can do.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Recently, Turkey with a well-established tradition of education and rich experiences in teacher training
within this tradition have been pursuing teacher training policies that depend largely on quantity instead of
quality. While this approach affects the quality of teachers in a negative way, it also decreases the prestige of
the job as a result of growing numbers of teachers waiting for appointment and a common idea of being a
teacher with a three month course. As the education system is one of the most critical factors for the
development of a country and teachers are the most critical parts of this system, Turkey needs to review its
teacher training policies by taking lessons from past experiences. In these new teacher training policies,
Turkey is supposed to train highly qualified teachers by managing supply and demand. In addition,
implications reducing the quality need to be removed from the training process. To conclude, in selecting
new students, future demand for teachers and employment planning should be taken into consideration. In
addition, after accrediting existing Education Faculties,
students’ admission should be terminated for
under qualified faculties.
References
Akyüz, Y. (1990). Darülmuallimin’in ilk nizamnamesi (1851), önemi ve Ahmet Cevdet Paşa. Milli Eğitim,
Sayı: 95, Mart 1990, ss.3-20.
Akyüz, Y. (2012). Türk eğitim tarihi M.Ö. 1000 – M.S. 2012. (23. Baskı).Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Duman, T. (1991). Türkiye’de ortaöğretime öğretmen yetiştirme (Tarihi Gelişimi), İstanbul:
Milli Eğitim
Basımevi.
Duman, T. (1995). Öğretmen yetiştirmede modeler. Milli eğitimin temel esasları ve hedefleri açısından
öğretmenlik mesleği (Tebliğler). Ankara: Türk Yurdu. Türk Yurdu Yayınları No 20. ss.40-48.
Duman, T. (1998). Cumhuriyetimizin 75. yılında öğretmen yetiştirme sistemimiz ve sorunları. Milli Eğitim.
Sayı 139, ss.36-43.
Duman, T. (1999). Osmanlıda öğretmen yetiştirme sistemi. Osmanlı Dergisi, Cilt 5, (S. 14), ss.306-315.
Duman, T. (1999). Türkiye’de eğitim reformlari açısından öğretmen yetiştirme sorunu. Erdem. Cilt 12, (S.34),
ss. 91-107.
Duman, T. (2002). Gazi muallim mektebi ve terbiye enstitüsü.Türk Yurdu. Cilt 22, (S. 176), ss.127-132.
Duman, T. (2012). Öğretmen yetiştirme alanındaki uygulamalar ve gelişmeler, (Eğitim Bilimine Giriş Ed. Ç.
Özdemir), Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
Duman, T. H. Dilaver. (1996). İstanbul’da açılan İlk darülmuallimin kuruluş amacı müdürü ve hocalarının
nitelikleri. tayin ve maaşları”, Erdem. Cilt 9, (S. 26), ss. 651-662.
Ergün, M. (1982). Atatürk devri türk eğitimi. Ankara: A.Ü. Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Yayınları, No:35.
Ergün, M. (1996). II. Meşrutiyet devrinde eğitim hareketleri (1908-1914), Ankara: Ocak Yayınları, ss. 314-316.
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Gelişli, Y. (2006). Öğretmen yetiştirmede Ankara yüksek öğretmen okulu uygulaması. İstanbul: Milli Eğitim
Bakanlığı Yayınları: 3975.
Karagöz, S. (2005) “Kayseri Zincidere Köy Muallim Mektebi (1926 -1932)’nin Türkiye’de öğretmen yetiştirme
tarihi içindeki yeri”, Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü ( Yayımlanmamış
Yüksek Lisans Tezi).
Koçer, H.A. (1967). Türkiye’de öğretmen yetiştirme problemi (1848-1967), Ankara: Yargıçoğlu Matbaası, ss.16-20.
Koçer, H.A. (1975). “ Eğitim reformları açısından öğretmen yetiştirme problemi”, A.Ü Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, Cilt: 6, (S. 14), s.7.
Koçer, H.A. (1987). Türkiye’de modern eğitimin doğuşu. Ankara: Uzman Yayınları.
Öztürk, C. (1996). Atatürk devri öğretmen yetiştirme politikası, Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları.
Unat, F. R. (1964). Türkiye eğitim sisteminin gelişmesine tarihi bir bakış. Ankara: Milli Eğitim Basımevi.
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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International Journal of Educational Research Review
Investigation of The Relationships Between Lifelong Learning And Social
Emotional Learning
Mehmet AKCAALAN1
A RTI CL E INFO
A BST R ACT
Article History:
Received 08.10.2015
Received in revised form
20.10.2015
Accepted 30.11.2015
Available online 01.01.2016
The current research aims to investigate the relationship between lifelong
learning and social emotional learning. Study group consists of 590 university
students (390 females, 200 males) studying in different undergraduate programs
in University of Sakarya, Faculty of Education in the Fall Term of 2015.In this
research, relationships between the variables of lifelong learning and social
emotional learning were investigated. Pearson Product Moment Correlation,
Partial Correlation methods were utilized so as to investigate these relationships.
As consequence of the research, lifelong learning and social emotional learning
scores were correlating significantly. According to these results, it can be
discussed that social emotional learning which can be explained as the
behavioural reflection of social and emotional skills in a systematically and
consistent way, has a positive relationship with lifelong learning which can be
defined as all kinds of learning including formal or informal through one's life.
Results are discussed within the context of the associated literature.
© 2016 IJERE. All rights reserved
Keywords: 1
Lifelong Learning, Social Emotional Learning, Demographic Variables.
INTRODUCTION
Learning is an activity to create one's experiences and to convert the experiences into information,
skills, attitudes, beliefs, values, emotions and feelings, and a process of entegrating the conslusions of this to
one's life (Jarvis, 2004). Learning may happen in any time or place, besides being an activity as one's
conducting oneself. Learning may occur occasionally during a purposeful activity or be a planned and
intentional action (Apps, 1979; Tremlett, 1999). In today's world, new information explosions impose lifelong
learning to individuals to be up-to-date in their education or professions. Being a lifelong learner as well as
being reformist, innovative and competitive is an experience dwelled by each person from every occupation
or education level (Dunlap; 1996). All learning types of an individual so as to develop one's information,
skills and competence in terms of personal, civic, social and employment are identified as lifelong learning
(European Commission, 2002; Leone, 2013). Lifelong learning is an education concept which is quite popular
in western countries and applied by both national and international organisations. Therefore, lifelong
learning skills, attitudes and the education system itself provide a way to keep up with the speed of modern
transformation (Murphy, 1999). Social emotional learning which is investigated in terms of the relationship
with lifelong learning comprises of the systematical depelopment of the skills helps the individual to be able
to use these skills in both social and learning environment (Ragozzino ve Utne O’Brien, 2009; Brian ve
Sabina, 2013). Social and emotional learning is identified as a process of gaining necessary information,
skills, attitudes and beliefs to be able to identify and manage emotions, care about someone else, making
sensible decisions, behave ethically and responsibly, maintain positive relationships and avoid negative
behaviours (CASEL, 2003; Elias ve diğerleri, 1997). Arslan (2015) found that the relationships between social
emotional learning and educational stress were negatively associated and correlation analysis showed that
sub scales of educational stress pressure from study, workload, worry about grades, self-expectation, and
despondency related negatively associated with social emotional learning. Jarvis (2006) stated that the
Corresponding e-mail: mehmetakcaalan@gmail.com
Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education
1
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Investıgatıon of the Relatıonshıps Between Lıfelong Learnıng And Socıal Emotıonal Learnıng
expression of "lifelong learning" is widely utilized to identify the intentional activities of individuals who
have the intention of increasing one's information level, developing and updating skills and changing the
attitudes about their lifespan. Besides, lifelong learning includes adult education, independent learning,
agricultural education, business and labour force education programmes, parent education, post secondary
education, pre retirement and post retirement education, remedial education, professional education but it is
not limited to these education types (Apps, 1979). Application and development of formal and informal
educational facilities and educational activities both inside and outside of traditional educational activities
are in the scope of lifelong learning. In this context, although there is a lack of consensus about what lifelong
learning exactly represents, there is a widely appreciated reconciliation that lifelong learning includes
multible learning models wihch lasts during one's lifespan (Abukari, 2005; Bolhuis, 2003; Bryce, 2004; Candy,
2000; Deakin Crick, Broadfoot ve Claxton, 2004; Friesen ve Anderson, 2004; Hager, 2004; Livingstone, 2001;
Smith ve Spurling, 2001; Tuijnman, 2003). The context of lifelong learning may vary widely in terms of time,
place and individuals as expressed beforehand (Trudel, Callary, and Werthner, 2011). In this context, an
explanation demonstrating time and learning concept spontaneously is given in Handbook of Pulman
Principles (2002). According to Pulman (2002), lifelong learning is a cycle which starts early ages and
continues through adulthood and a process including all the stages of formal and distance education
regardless of any kind of certification. According to Sutherland, lifelong learning is explained as infinity in
learning (Rogers, 2006). Social and emotional learning structure covers the definitions of non-academic or
human skills which aim to provide individual's psychological happiness and social functions (Goleman,
1995; Trina, 1998). Social and emotional learning includes the competencies of capability in utilizing some
actions and behaviours of some social tasks and positive development processes (Haggerty, Sherrod,
Garmezy ve Rutter, 1994; Trina, 1998). Identifiying and managing feelings, self management, being
empathetic to others, management of relationships, solving interpersonal conflicts and social problems are
the skills of social and emotional learning (Trina, 1998). Social and emotional learning comprises of
systematical and consistent teaching of social and emotional learning skills to children and teenagers.
Another purpose of social and emotional learning is to promote one's goodness and avoid one's possible
health problems (Greenberg, O'Brien, Weissberg ve diğerleri, 2003; Whitcomb, 2009). Social and emotional
learning is a process that childen and adults improve necessary skills, attitudes and values to gain social and
emotional competencies (Elias ve diğerleri, 1997; Strum, 2001). According to another alternative description,
this structure is a process of getting basic competencies so as to identify and manage feelings, set and reach
positive goals, care about others' thoughts, establish and maintain positive relationships, make responsible
decisions, and maintain interpersonal relations (Durlak ve diğerleri, 2011; Young, 2014). Individual's
comprehending, managing and explaining life tasks of their social and emotional aspects means that they
can utilize skills such as learning, setting relations and solving everyday problems (Elias ve diğerleri, 1997;
Strum, 2001). According to Collaborative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL), social and
emotional learning comprises of improving social and emotional learning competencies (CASEL, 2005; Long
ve diğerleri, 2015). CASEL identified five social and emotional learning elements in terms of cognition, effect
and behaviour competencies (CASEL, 2005; Pikul, 2015):
•
Self awareness: Ability to identify definitively one's feelings, thoughts and effects of behaviours.
•
Self management: Ability to regulate effectively one's feelings, thoughts and behaviours in different
situations
•
Social awareness: Ability to take other's perspective and empathize with them so as to understand
social norms of behaviours and define family, school and community.
•
Relationship skills: Ability to set and maintain healthy and valuable relationships.
•
Responsible decision making: Ability to make constructive and respective choices in terms of personal
behaviour and social interactions.
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Mehmet AKCAALAN
METHOD
In this research, relationship between lifelong learning and social emotional learning was investigated
by the help of some statistical methods. Sampling method of this investigation is specified as " convenience
sampling" because of the fact that it is the most appropriate sampling method in terms of reaching to the
necessary participants (Büyüköztürk, Kılıç, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz ve Demirel, 2009). In 2014-2015
education term, 200 males and 390 females (590 participants) participants from different undergraduate
programs of Sakarya University Education Faculty were included in this research. Demographic features of
the participants are demonstrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Demographic Features of Participants
Variable
Number
Percent
Male
200
34.0
Female
390
65.9
18-21
472
80.0
22-25
105
17.7
26-36
13
2.2
Gender
Age
Level of Grade
1.grade
184
31.1
2.grade
240
40.6
3.grade
99
16.7
4.grade
67
11.3
Total
590
100
In this investigation, Lifelong Learning Scale (2015) which was adapted to Turkish by Arslan and
Akcaalan was used to determine the participants' lifelong learning level. Moreover, Social and Emotional
Learning Scale (2013) which was adapted to Turkish by Arslan and Akın was used to determine the
participants's social and emotional learning level. The relationship between lifelong learning and social and
emotional learning is examined in this research. SPSS 22.00 statistical package program was utilized in each
stages of the data related to the research. Pearson Product Moment Correlation method was used to
investigate the relationship between these variables.
FINDINGS
Detailed findings and comments of statistical analyses related to the relationship between lifelong
learning and social and emotional learning are presented in this part of the investigation. Relationship
between lifelong learning and social and emotional learning levels of university students and, Pearson
Product Moment Correlation analyse results to determine the magnitude and directions of the relationship
were demonstrated in Table 2.
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Investıgatıon of the Relatıonshıps Between Lıfelong Learnıng And Socıal Emotıonal Learnıng
Table 2. Corelation Analyse Results of Relationship between Lifelong Learning and Social and
Emotional Learning Levels of University Students
LLL
TD
PR
SR
1. LLL
1
2. TD
.49**
1
3. PR
.42**
.54**
1
4. SR
.46**
.60**
.56**
1
Mean
43.53
22.78
27.98
27.66
5.62
3.64
4.47
4.01
Standard
Deviation
Not: LLL= Lifelong Learning Level, TD= Task Description Level, PR= Peer
Relationship Level, SR= Self Regulation Level.
** p< .001
Table 2 demonstrates that there is significant relationship between participants' lifelong learning level
and sub dimensions of social and emotional learning level; task description, peer relationship and self
regulation. According to the Table 2, there is a positive direction relationship between lifelong learning and
task description (r= .49, p< .001), peer relationship (r= .42, p< .001) and self regulation (r= .46, p< .001).
CONCLUSION
The main problem of the research was to investigate if there is any the relationship between lifelong
learning and social and emotional learning levels of university students. It is aimed to determine the
relationship between lifelong learning and social emotional learning of individuals. There has not been any
investigation found in the related literature examining the relationship between lifelong learning and social
emotional learning. In this context, the relationship between lifelong learning and sub dimensions of social
emotional learning -task description, peer relationships and self regulation- was examined. Positive
relationship between lifelong learning and task description, peer relationships and self regulation sub
dimensions of social emotional learning in university students was determined and demonstrated in Table 2.
According to these findings, it can be claimed that lifelong learning which is taken into consideration as
formal or informal learning embracing all life of individual is in theoretically significant relationship with
social and emotional learning. Task description sub dimension is relatively in higher relationship with
lifelong learning. Therefore, development in social and emotional learning field may contribute lifelong
learning level. The current research was applied by the participation of the students who studied in Sakarya
University Educational Faculty. That the following investigations' application with the people who are in
various growth processes may be beneficial in terms of generalizability of the results. Moreover, the
relationship between lifelong learning and social emotional learning may be examined involving different
variables. Experimental and qualitative investigations of the relationship between lifelong learning and
social emotional learning may contribute seriously to understand the relation of these variables.
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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Mehmet AKCAALAN
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Mehmet AKCAALAN
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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International Journal of Educational Research Review
Investigation of Pedagogical Formation Certification Program Students’
Attitudes Towards Teaching Profession in Terms Of Some Variables
Zeynep DEMİRTAŞ1, Gökçe Pınar AKSOY2
A RTI CL E INFO
A BST R ACT
Article History:
Received 20.10.2015
Received in revised form
12.11.2015
Accepted 30.10.2015
Available online 01.01.2016
The aim of the current study is to determine the attitudes of students who have training on
pedagogical formation in order to be assigned as a teacher towards teaching profession. Within the
scope of this general aim the following question is sought an answer: Do pedagogical formation
certification program students’ attitudes towards teaching profession change significantly in terms of
(1) gender, (2) level of education (grade or graduation) (3) department (studying or graduated), (4)
faculty/ high school (studying or graduated) variables? The present study has the characteristics of
descriptive survey model. The participants include 644 students who take pedagogical formation at
2010- 2011 Academic year Spring term at Sakarya University’s Faculty of Education and who are
studying at or graduated from Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Faculty of Fine Arts, Faculty of
Theology, School of Physical Education and Sports, Health High School, and School of State
Conservatory. Attitude Scale towards Teaching Profession (ASTP), developed by Üstüner (2006), is
used as a data collection tool. In order to determine whether total scores obtained from data
collection tools differ in terms of variables or not T test, analysis of variance, Mann Whitney U Test
and Kruskal Wallis H-test are conducted. According to results, the attitudes of students, taking
pedagogical formation, towards teaching profession show significant differences in the sense of
faculty/ high school variable and do not show a significant difference with regard to gender and
level of education variables. Moreover, attitude scores of students differ in accordance with Faculty
of Arts and Sciences and Health High School and do not differ with regards to other departments in
other faculties or high schools.
© 2016 IJERE. All rights reserved
Keywords: 1
Teaching Profession, Pedagogical Formation, Attitude.
INTRODUCTION
Teaching is a specific profession responsible for educating the new generations according to the demands of the time.
The teaching profession requires perceptual qualifications such as attitudes and behaviours, besides cognitive
qualifications such as knowledge and skills. Preparation for teaching profession is assured through liberal education,
education for specific field, and pedagogic training. For prospective teachers, acquiring certain values and attitudes
related to the profession is as necessary as acquiring knowledge. Besides, for the teachers to have positive attitudes
towards the profession, it is important to for prospective teachers, who undergo training on field knowledge,
knowledge for teaching profession, and liberal education; to be conscious about sympathy for profession, sincere
attachment to the profession, internalization of the importance of the profession for the society, and continuously
educating oneself in accordance with the demands of the time (Helvacı, 2007; Celep, 2010; Çelik, 2010).
For the qualifications regarding teaching profession to be gained, and for the positive attitudes to be acquired, the
process of being prepared for teaching profession should be sufficient.
In Turkey, graduates of the faculties and academies that provide teaching education and that are
affiliated with The Council of Higher Education, are assigned as teachers since 1982. Occasionally, in order
to fulfill the need for teachers, people graduated from various institutions that provide education at associate
degree and undergraduate levels (but don’t provide education for teaching profession) have also been
assigned as teachers. Afterwards, besides faculties of education, people who graduated from faculties of arts
and science, and who received graduate education in educational sciences have also been assigned as
teachers.
Since 2010-2011 academic year, pedagogic training is began to be provided not via graduate education,
but via certificate training. According to the sentence of The Council of Higher Education with the date of
28.01.2010, the students from all faculties and departments, who fulfill necessary conditions in
undergraduate period or after graduation, have the right to be assigned as teachers regardless of the
Corresponding e-mail: zeynept@sakarya.edu.tr
Sakarya University1 , Gümüşhane University2
1
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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Investigation of Pedagogical Formation Certification Program Students’ Attitudes Towards Teaching Profession In Terms of Some Variables
faculties or departments they are educated in (YÖK, 2010). “Pedagogic Training” that takes part in the
process of preparation for teaching profession, could be defined as formation and development required for
providing education and teaching. Pedagogical formation simply includes giving pedagogy education to
people who already have taken an education in the field and this education is related to how they teach their
field (Yıldırım and Vural, 2014). Within the framework of pedagogic training, the following courses are
provided: Introduction to Teaching Profession, School Experience, Development and Learning, Planning and
Assessment in Teaching, Education Technologies and Material Development, Classroom Management,
Methods for Special Education 1 and 2, School Experience II, and Guidance. Courses included in pedagogic
training are applied as a whole; beginning in the fifth semester along four semesters (2 years) for
undergraduates, and two semesters (1 year) for those who completed undergraduate education.
Situation of the Problem
Several studies have investigated the attitudes of teachers and prospective undergraduate teachers
towards teaching profession. However, there are limited studies regarding relationships between various
variables and attitudes towards teaching profession among the students and graduates who receive
pedagogic training.
In order to meet the requirements for teaching profession, one has to have positive attitudes towards
the profession. Carrying out the teaching profession with sympathy is an important factor for being
successful in the profession. Therefore, in order to provide opportunities to develop positive attitudes
towards teaching profession, and in order to contribute to the efforts for developing and enhancing the
pedagogic training, it is important to learn about the attitudes towards teaching profession among the
students/graduates who did not prefer teacher education programs, but later took pedagogic training in
order to be assigned as teachers.
Aim of the Study
Aim of the present study is to determine attitudes towards teaching profession among the students
who receive pedagogic training in order to be assigned as teachers. Within the framework of this general
aim, answers to the following questions have been sought: Do the attitudes towards teaching profession
among the students who receive pedagogic training significantly change regarding the variables; (1) gender,
(2) level of education (grade or status for graduation), (3) department in which one has took education /
graduated from, (4) faculty/school in which one has took education / graduated from.
METHOD
The research is conducted in screening (descriptive-survey) model. Screening model aims to describe a
past or present situation as it is. The sample of the present research is constituted from the
students/graduates of Faculty of Science and Arts, Faculty of Fine Arts, Faculty of Theology, School of
Physical Education and Sports, and School of Health, who were continuing their pedagogic training
programs in Sakarya University Faculty of Education, in the academic year of 2010-2011. The participants
were selected via “cluster sampling” method. Frequency distribution of students, taking part in the present
study, in terms of variables was shown in Table 1.
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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Zeynep DEMİRTAŞ & Gökçe Pınar AKSOY
Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Students with regard to Variables
Variables
N
Female
497
Gender
Male
147
rd
3 grade
321
Level of Education
4th grade
213
Graduated
110
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
445
Faculty of Theology
69
Faculty of Fine Arts
25
Faculty/High School
School of Physical Education and
30
Sports
Health High School
30
School of State Conservatory
45
History
84
Geography
27
Sociology
96
Philosophy
17
Faculty of Arts
Turkish Philology
88
and Sciences
German Philology
34
Chemistry
17
Biology
23
Mathematics
59
Basic Islamic Sciences
37
Faculty of
Theology
Islamic History and Arts
32
Painting
13
Departments
Faculty of Fine
Arts
Traditional Turkish Handicrafts
12
School of
Physical
Education and
Sports
Health High
School
School of State
Conservatory
%
77.2
22.8
49.8
33.1
17.1
69.1
10.7
3.9
4.7
4.7
7.0
13.0
4.2
14.9
2.6
13.7
5.3
2.6
3.6
9.2
5.7
5.0
2.0
1.9
Recreation
18
2.8
Sport Management
12
1.9
Midwifery
12
1.9
Nursing
Basic Sciences
Turkish Folk Dances
Turkish Music
18
12
12
21
2.8
1.9
1.9
3.3
Material
In data collection, “Inventory for Attitudes towards Teaching Profession” (IATTP) that was developed
by Üstüner (2006) was utilized. The inventory, which revealed single factor on five-point likert type scale,
included 34 items, out of which 24 were positive and 10 were negative. Regarding the construct validity of
the inventory, it is implied that the first factor which was constituted of 34 items had factor loadings ranging
from .74 and .41 and explained 30% of the variance. The criterion validity of the inventory was .89, its
reliability coefficient was .72, and the internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) was .93.
Demographic informations of the students/graduates who received pedagogic training were obtained from 4
questions that were on the same form.
Data Analyses
For data analyses, SPSS 13.0 Statistical Package Program was used. The items of “Inventory for
Attitudes towards Teaching Profession” were scored as (5) “Totally Agree”, (4) “Mostly Agree”, (3)
“Somewhat Agree”, (2) “Partially Agree”, and (1) “Disagree”. Negative items were reversed prior to the
analyses. Analyses revealed the following descriptive information; 1.00-1.80: Disagree, 1.81-2.60: Partially
Agree, 2.61-3.40: Somewhat Agree, 3.41-4.20: Mostly Agree, 4.21-5.00: Totally agree. T-test and analyses of
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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Investigation of Pedagogical Formation Certification Program Students’ Attitudes Towards Teaching Profession In Terms of Some Variables
variance were performed in order to investigate whether the scores differed according to the variables. 0.05
was accepted as the significance level in the research.
FINDINGS
T test results of pedagogical formation certification program students’ attitudes towards teaching
profession related to gender variable was presented in Table 2.
Table 2. T test results of students’ attitudes towards teaching profession related to gender variable
Gender
N
x
sd
df
t
P
Female
Male
497
147
4.12
4.09
0.55
0.58
642
0.66
0.51
As Table 2 shows that students’ attitudes towards teaching profession do not change in accordance
with gender variable [t (642) = 0.66, p >.05].
Analysis of variance results of pedagogical formation certification program students’ attitudes towards
teaching profession in the sense of level of education can be seen in Table 3.
Table 3. Analysis of Variance Results of Students’ Attitudes towards Teaching Profession and Level of
Education
Level of
Education
N
Mean( x )
sd
3rd Grade
321
4.110
.558
4th Grade
213
4.112
.611
Graduated
110
4.161
.478
Total
644
4.119
.563
Sum of
Squares
df
Mean
Square.
Between
Group
.225
2
.113
Within
Group
203.875
641
.318
Total
204.098
643
F
p
.354
.702
As Table 3 shows that students’ attitudes towards teaching profession do not differ in terms of level of
education [F (2-641) = 0.354, p >.05].
Table 4 represents the variance analysis of students’ attitudes to teaching profession in relation to
faculty or high school variable.
Table 4. Variance Analysis of Students’ Attitudes to Teaching Profession in relation to Faculty/ High
School Variable
Mean
Faculty/ High
Sum of
Mean
N
sd
df
F
p
School
Squares
Square
(x)
Faculty of Arts and
Sciences
Faculty of Theology
Faculty of Fine Arts
School of Physical
Education and
Sports
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445
4.082
.583
69
25
4.152
3.950
.445
.599
30
4.449
.545
Between
Group
Within
Group
7.360
5
1.472
4.774
196.738
638
.000
.308
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Zeynep DEMİRTAŞ & Gökçe Pınar AKSOY
Health High School
School of State
Conservatory
Total
30
4.056
.512
45
4.358
.399
644
4.119
.563
Total
204.098
643
As Table 4 represents that students’ attitudes toward teaching profession change significantly in
accordance with faculty or high school which they are studying at or they were graduated from. [F (5-638) =
4.774, p <.05]. In order to find the source of the difference, scheffe test was conducted and according to
findings, there is a significant difference between students from School of physical education and sports and
from Faculty of Arts and Sciences for the benefit of students from School of physical education and sports.
Kruskal Wallis H- Test results of students’ attitudes towards teaching profession in relation to
departments of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences can be seen in Table 5.
Table 5. Kruskal Wallis H- Test Results of Students’ Attitudes towards Teaching Profession in relation
to Departments of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences
Department
N
History
Geography
Sociology
Philosophy
Turkish Philology
German Philology
Chemistry
Biology
Mathematics
84
27
96
17
88
34
17
23
59
Mean
ranks
211.85
231.00
198.21
201.26
267.88
222.31
194.0
188.4
236.2
df
8
P
X2
18.689
Significance
History-Turkish
Philology
Chemistry-Turkish
Philology
Biology-Turkish
Philology
Sociology-Turkish
Philology
.017
As is seen in Table 5, attitudes of students towards teaching profession shows a significant difference in the way of
departments of Faculty of Arts and Sciences [X2=18.689, p <.05]. So as to find the source of the difference, Mann
Whitney U-test was conducted by regarding binary combination of the groups. There is a significant difference
between Turkish Philology students/ graduates and History, Chemistry, Biology and Sociology students/ graduates in
the interest of Turkish Philology students.
Table 6 shows T test results of students’ attitudes towards teaching profession in relation to departments of the
Faculty of Theology.
Table 6. T Test Results of Students’ Attitudes towards Teaching Profession in relation to Departments of the
Faculty of Theology
Departments
N
x
sd
Df
t
P
Basic Islamic Sciences
Islamic History and Arts
37
32
4.104
4.206
.481
.400
67
.960
.347
According to Table 6, students’ attitudes do not differ in terms of departments of Faculty of Theology
[t (67) = 0.960, p >.05].
Table 7 shows Mann Whitney U test results of students’ attitudes towards teaching profession in
accordance with departments of Faculty of Fine Arts.
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Investigation of Pedagogical Formation Certification Program Students’ Attitudes Towards Teaching Profession In Terms of Some Variables
Table 7. Mann Whitney U Test Results of Students’ Attitudes towards Teaching Profession in
accordance with Departments of Faculty of Fine Arts
Departments
Painting
Traditional Turkish
Handicrafts
N
13
Mean Ranks
11.38
Rank Sum
148.00
12
14.75
177.00
U
p
57.000
.253
Table 7 indicates that students’ attitudes do not differ significantly with regard to departments of
Faculty of Fine Arts [U= 57.000, p >.05].
Mann Whitney U test results of pedagogical formation students’ attitudes toward teaching profession
as regards departments of School of Physical Education and Sports can be seen in Table 8.
Table 8. Mann Whitney U Test Results of Pedagogical Formation Students’ Attitudes towards Teaching
Profession as regards Departments of School of Physical Education and Sports
Departments
N
Recreation
Sport Management
18
12
Mean
Ranks
16.33
14.23
Rank Sum
U
p
294.00
174.00
93.000
.525
According to Table 8, there is no significant difference between departments of School of Physical
Education and Sports in terms of students’ attitudes towards teaching profession [U= 93.000, p >.05].
Mann Whitney U test results of students’ attitudes with regards to departments of Health School can be
seen in Table 9.
Table 9. Mann Whitney U Test Results of Students’ Attitudes in terms of Departments of Health School
Departments
Midwifery
Nursing
N
12
18
Mean Ranks
11.29
18.31
Rank Sum
135.50
329.50
U
p
57.500
.032
Table 9 represents that there is a significant difference between departments of Health High School in
the sense of students’ attitudes [U= 57.500, p <.05]. When mean ranks considered nursing students’ attitudes
towards teaching profession are significantly higher than those of midwifery students.
Table 10. Kruskal Wallis H Test Results of Students’ Attitudes with regard to Departments of School of
State Conservatory
Departments
Basic Sciences
Turkish Folk
Dances
Turkish Music
N
Mean
Ranks
12
22.00
12
22.58
21
23.81
df
X2
2
.162
P
.922
As Table 10 shows that students’ attitudes do not change significantly in terms of departments of
School of State Conservatory [X2= 0.162, p >.05].
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Zeynep DEMİRTAŞ & Gökçe Pınar AKSOY
RESULT, DISCUSSION, AND SUGGESTIONS
The present study examines the attitudes of students, taking pedagogical formation, towards teaching
profession in relation to gender, level of education, department, faculty/ high school variables. Findings of
the study indicates that there is no significant difference between students’ attitudes towards teaching
profession in terms of gender variable. Some researches support this finding (Demirel and Akkoyunlu, 2010;
Bulut, 2009; Başbay, Ünver and Bümen, 2009; Okçu and Çelik, 2009; Gömleksiz, Oral and Bulut, 2006; Bulut
and Doğar, 2006; Şimşek, 2005; Yüksel, 2004; Çapa and Çil, 2000) whereas results contradict with some other
studies (Eraslan and Çakıcı, 2011; Aksoy, 2010; Keser, Bayır and Numanoğlu, 2009; Çapri and Çelikkaleli,
2008; Seferoğlu, 2004). There is no significant difference between students’ attitudes towards teaching
profession in the sense of students’ level of education (3rd and 4th grade or graduated). Similarly Çapa and
Çil (2000) found no significant difference between 3rd and 4th grade students’ attitudes towards teaching
profession. Furthermore, Eraslan and Çakıcı (2011) found no significant difference between pedagogical
formation students’ attitudes towards teaching profession in terms of level of education (3rd grade or
graduated). With regard to faculty or high school variable students’ attitudes show a significant difference
between School of Physical Education and Sports and Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The attitudes of students
from School of Physical Education and Sports are significantly higher than those from Faculty of Arts and
Sciences. School of Physical Education and Sports include education courses related to physical education as
compared to Faculty of Arts and Sciences so that students’ attitudes towards teaching profession maybe
higher in School of Physical Education and Sports. Moreover, students who take pedagogical formation
training answers questions on the scale mostly by “mostly agree” option. Researches support this finding
(Bulut, 2009; Şimşek, 2005; Demirel and Akkoyunlu, 2010; Başbay, Ünver and Bümen, 2009). In terms of
departments there is no significant difference between departments of Faculty of Theology, Fine Arts, School
of Physical Education and Sports, State Conservatory while there is a significant difference between
departments of Faculty of Arts and Sciences and Health High School.
Turkish Philology students from
Faculty of Arts and Sciences shows higher attitudes towards teaching profession than History, Chemistry,
Biology and Sociology students. Similarly, nursing students from Health High School represents significant
higher attitudes towards teaching profession than Midwifery students. Findings of studies related to
department show differences (Aksoy, 2010; Çapa and Çil, 2000; Demircioğlu and Özdemir, 2014; Saracaloğlu
et al., 2004). Order of priority for departments changes every year in the sense of teacher assignment so that
attitudes of students from those departments can be different towards teaching profession and this can
explain contradictory findings in the literature with regard to department variable. Further studies that
compare pedagogical formation students’ attitudes towards teaching profession in terms of faculty or high
school variables are necessary. In addition, quantitative and qualitative studies which investigate why
students from different faculties and high schools except for Education faculties take pedagogical formation
in order to be a teacher should be carried out. Discussions about the necessity and quality of pedagogical
formation frequently come to the fore. Researches show that training teachers with pedagogical formation
creates some problems (Gül, Bakan and Ünal, 2014; Yıldırım and Vural, 2014). Teaching profession should be
qualified, regarded as a specialization profession, and pedagogical formation certification programs should
be improved accordingly.
REFERENCES
Aksoy, M. E., (2010). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumları. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırma
Dergisi, 2, 197-212.
Başbay, M., Ünver, G. & Bümen, N. T. (2009). Ortaöğretim alan öğretmenliği tezsiz yüksek lisans
öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları: Boylamsal bir çalışma. Kuram ve
Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 15 (59), 345-366.
Bulut, İ. (2009). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumlarının değerlendirilmesi (Dicle
ve Fırat üniversitesi örneği). Dicle Üniversitesi Ziya Gökalp Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 14, 13-24.
Bulut, H. & Doğar, Ç. (2006). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine karşı tutumlarının incelenmesi.
Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 8 (1), 13-27.
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Investigation of Pedagogical Formation Certification Program Students’ Attitudes Towards Teaching Profession In Terms of Some Variables
Celep, C. (2010). Meslek olarak öğretmenlik. C. Celep (Ed.), Eğitim bilimine giriş içinde (s. 45-74). (3. Baskı).
Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
Çapa, Y. & Çil, N. (2000). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumlarının farklı
değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 18, 69-73.
Çapri, B. & Çelikkaleli, Ö. (2008). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenliğe ilişkin tutum ve mesleki yeterlik
inançlarının cinsiyet, program ve fakültelerine göre incelenmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, 9 (15), 33-53.
Çelik, K. (2010). Bir meslek olarak öğretmenlik. A. Tanrıöğen & R. Sarpkaya (Eds.), Eğitim bilimine giriş içinde
(s.235-265). (2. Baskı). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
Demircioğlu, E. & Özdemir, M. (2014). Fen ve edebiyat fakültesi öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine
yönelik tutumlarının çeşitli değişkenlere göre incelenmesi. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi
Dergisi, 10 (3), 110-122.
Demirel, M. & Akkoyunlu, B. (2010). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin öz-yeterlik inançları ve
tutumları. Uluslararası Öğretmen Yetiştirme Politikaları ve Sorunları Sempozyumu II, 16-18 Mayıs,
Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Beytepe-ANKARA.
Eraslan, L. & Çakıcı, D. (2011). Pedagojik formasyon programı öğrencilerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik
tutumları, Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 19 (2), 427-438.
Gömleksiz, M. N., Oral, B. & Bulut, İ. (2006). Ortaöğretime nitelikli öğretmen yetiştirmede tezsiz yüksek lisans
uygulaması. Orta Öğretimde Yeniden Yapılanma Sempozyumu 20-22 Aralık 2004 Bildiriler Kitabı
içinde (s. 545-551), Ankara: MEB Talim Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı.
Gül, İ., Bakan, S. & Ünal, A. (2014). Pedagojik formasyon uygulamasında karşılaşılan sorunlar (Ondokuzmayıs
Üniversitesi örneği). 9. Ulusal Eğitim Yönetimi Kongresi, 8-10 Mayıs, Siirt.
Helvacı, M. A. (2007). Öğretmenlik mesleğinin özellikleri. N. Saylan (Ed.), Eğitim bilimine giriş içinde (s. 313332). Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık.
Keser, H., Bayır, Ş. & Numanoğlu, G. (2009). Öğretmen adaylarının öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları.
Uluslararası 5. Balkan Eğitim ve Bilim Kongresi, 1-3 Ekim 2009, Edirne.
Okçu, V. & Çelik, H. Ç. (2009). Öğretmen adaylarının KPSS’ye ilişkin görüşlerinin öğretmenlik mesleğine
yönelik tutumlarına etkisi. I. Uluslararası Türkiye Eğitim Araştırmaları Kongresi, 1-3 Mayıs 2009,
Çanakkale.
Saracaloğlu, A. S., Bozkurt, N., Serin, O. & Serin, U. (2004). Öğretmen adaylarının mesleğe yönelik
tutumlarını etkileyen faktörler. Çağdaş Eğitim Dergisi, 311, 16-27.
Seferoğlu, S. S. (2004). Öğretmen yeterlikleri ve mesleki gelişim. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 58, 40-45.
Şimşek, H. (2005). Ortaöğretim alan öğretmenliği tezsiz yüksek lisans programına devam eden öğrencilerin
öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutumları. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Elektronik Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi,
2(1), http://efdergi.yyu.edu.tr, 07/10/2010 tarihinde alındı.
Üstüner, M. (2006), Öğretmenlik mesleğine yönelik tutum ölçeğinin geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması, Kuram
ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 45, 109-127.
Yıldırım, İ. & Vural, Ö. F. (2014). Türkiye’de öğretmen yetiştirme ve pedagojik formasyon sorunu. Journal of
Teacher Education and Educators, 3 (1), 73-90.
Yükseköğretim Kurulu, (YÖK). (2010). 28.01.2010 tarih ve 03317 sayılı yazısı.
Yüksel, S. (2004). Tezsiz yüksek lisans programının öğrencilerin öğretmenlik mesleğine ilişkin tutumlarına
etkisi. Uludağ Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 17(2), 355-379
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Volume 1 / Issue 1 / January 2016
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A Study on the Psychometric Features of the Turkish Version of the Brief
Sensation Seeking Scale (BSSS-8) for Young Adults and the Relation
between Sensation Seeking and Life Satisfaction
Eyup Celik1, Mehmet Emin Turan1
A RTI CL E INFO
A BST R ACT
Article History:
Received 03.10.2015
Received in revised form
15.11.2015
Accepted 13.12.2015
Available online 01.01.2016
The purpose of this study is to adapt the sensation seeking scale for young adults into
Turkish and to investigate if the life satisfaction of university students differ significantly
in terms of sensation seeking. In addition, it was investigated whether the life satisfaction
levels of university students differ significantly in terms of gender. The data for this
research was collected from 570 university students. The original form of BSSS-8
consist of 8 items and 4 factors. The scale was subjected to CFA in order to determine
the structural validity of its Turkish version and it was found that this version had a
single factor structure. The results of the CFA suggested acceptable levels of fit indices
(χ2/df = 4.46, RMSEA = .07, GFI =96, CFI = .94, IFI = .94, NFI = .93, AGFI = .93, and
NNFI = .91). The reliability coefficient of the scale was found at a level of .79.
Furthermore, corrected item total correlation were found to be in a range between .22
and .59. The results suggest that the single factor structure of the scale produces valid
and reliable results. In addition, it was found that the life satisfaction levels of university
students differ significantly in terms of sensation seeking level, but life satisfaction
levels of university students do not differ significantly in terms of gender. The results
showed that the life satisfaction levels of students with lower sensation seeking are
higher than of students with higher sensation seeking.
© 2016 IJERE. All rights reserved
Keywords:1
Sensation seeking, life satisfaction,adults
Introduction
It is obvious that happiness is a striking phenomenon for mankind since ancient times. The concept of
happiness is addressed within the scope of structures such as life satisfaction, psychological well-being and
life quality (Tuzgöl Dost, 2007). Life satisfaction, among the structures used to explain happiness, stands out
as the one most commonly observed. Life satisfaction involves the whole lifespan of an individual from
several perspectives. In other words, life satisfaction is not only about a specific condition but it is about the
satisfaction from life in general (Özer & Karabulut, 2007). As theorized by Neugarten (1961), life satisfaction
is defined as the state one reaches at evaluating his/her expectations (what s/he wants) and his/her
possessions (what s/he possesses) (Cited in, Şener, 2008). However, it is possible to find several different
definitions for life satisfaction in the literature. Tuzgöl Dost (2007) defines life satisfaction as the evaluation
method adopted by an individual to assess his/her life according to the criteria s/he selected and states that
the fields of satisfaction includes health, free time, job, family, money, identity and one’s close circle of
friends. Selçukoğlu (2001), on the other hand, defines life satisfaction as the perceived difference between
one’s desired wellbeing and his/her actual state of wellbeing. Yiğit, Dilmaç, and Deniz (2011) suggested that
life satisfaction is one’s subjective and explicit interpretation of his/her happiness and prosperity. Akın,
Arslan, Celik, Kaya and Arslan (2015) found that life satisfaction was predicted positively by informational
support, esteem support, motivational support, and venting support. According to the researchers, the
reason behind the satisfaction is accounted for subjectively is that the data about one’s life satisfaction is
communicated through questions investigating if that person is happy about his/her life in general terms.
Life satisfaction is also explained as the self-perception of one in terms of his/her culture and values;
cognitive assessment which involves interpretation of the fields of life; and the emotional reactions between
the expected and actual state (Çivitçi, 2009; Mutlu, 2012; Ünal, 2011). When the definitions and explanations
of the life satisfaction are reviewed, it is clear that one’s expectations and the level these expectations are
Corresponding e-mail: eyupcelik@sakarya.edu.tr
University
1Sakarya
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A Study on the Psychometric Features of the Turkish Version of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (Bsss-8) For Young Adults and the Relation
Between Sensation Seeking And Life Satisfaction
met, one’s opinions and perceptions, the context one lives in and personal features have an effect on his/her
life satisfaction. In this context, it could be suggested that one’s developmental phases throughout his/her
life (childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, etc.) and one’s personal characteristics such as sensation
seeking may have an effect on his/her life satisfaction. Literature review showed that sensation seeking is
commonly addressed in the context of stimulation theory. Stimulation theory states that individuals do not
feel good as a result of lower levels of stimulation therefore they seek to elevate their stimulation to an
agreeable level with sensation seeking acts (Raine, Brennan, & Mednick, 1997). Sensation seeking is defined
as the courage to discover unknown and mysterious situations or to experience such situations (Zuckerman,
2007). Nevertheless, Zuckerman defines sensation seeking as the act of seeking several, complex, strong and
new excitements and experiences and taking several risks (social, financial, legal, physical risks, etc.) in order
to be able to make it possible for such an experience (Zuckerman, 1994). Considering the definition of
Zuckerman, individuals may differ in their sensation needs as it is the case for many other areas of life when
their sensation needs are in question. Zuckerman theorized sensation seeking as a structure with 4 subdimensions. Among these dimensions are 1) Seeking excitement and adventure (taking physical risks, doing
extreme sports, etc.), 2) Seeking experience (searching for new and exciting experiences), 3) Disinhibition
(desire to take social risks and risky acts regarding health [unprotected sex, over consumption of alcohol,
etc.]), 4) Boredom susceptibility (Lapsekili, Uzun, & Ak, 2010). Individuals with higher levels of sensation
seeking are likely to be interested in exciting acts such as doing bungee-jumping, being interested in
mountaineering and watching horror movies (Stephenson & Southwell, 2006). Individuals with lower levels
of sensation seeking, on the other hand, prefer not to get involved with such acts which heighten stimulation
level (Renfro, Antoine, & Lawson, 2013). Manifesting itself in varying dangerous acts, sensation seeking may
guide us to the patterns behind an individual’s behavior. Individuals with higher sensation seeking levels,
whether the danger level of their acts is rather high, may perceive the risk level rather lower than it actually
is (Zuckerman & Kuhlman, 2000). Zuckerman stated that higher sensation seeking levels are a normal
character trait except the risky behavior and says “A community will need two different individual
characters. People who will read, make laws, and have a family and people who will discover and feel the
excitement with an adventurous spirit like Colombus.”(Cited in Lapsekili, Uzun, & Ak, 2010). Considering
the personal differences, each individual has a different stimulation level and stimulation need. If a person
experience heightened levels of stimulation need resulting in spiritual imbalance and if that person does not
have the environmental possibilities to meet this stimulation need and fails to turn to appropriate activities,
then s/he might turn to self-destructive (drug abuse and uncontrolled sex, etc.) activities which may lead to
irreparable damages. it is the case for every phase of development of a person, young adulthood also
requires some developmental tasks which will influence individuals’ future to a great extent. Realization of
the tasks peculiar to this developmental phase coincides with the university education. An individual’s
ability to educate himself/herself, improve himself/herself, building long-term romantic relationships, and
improving his/her social tendencies may well play an important role in his/her success in his/her career and
social life after university education. In this context, young adults who face both internal and external
expectations may go through a busy study schedule during university years. Growing independent from
their families during this phase, individuals may want to have fun and participate in social activities the way
they see fit. However, it might prove hard for young adults to meet their needs due to the insufficient
opportunities their campus and its environs offer. Although they are partly independent from their families
and they try to be self-sustained, they are mostly dependent on their families in terms of finances. In the
light of these facts, young adults who fail to sufficiently meet their entertainment and social needs may face
with low life satisfaction and in turn may have a heightened level of sensation seeking in order to make
themselves happy. However, as stated in the literature, sensation seeking may lead the young adults in acts
which may cause harm to themselves (drug abuse, unprotected or polygamist sex life, etc.). Moreover, an
individual who cannot meet his/her sensation seeking needs through sports and arts activities and acts like
discovering which do not pose danger to one’s psychological and biological health may face lowered life
satisfaction due to the psychological imbalance s/he experience because of the need for stimulation.
Examining the literature, we could not be reached on research investigating the life satisfaction and
sensation seeking relationship in university student in Turkey. Furthermore, literature review showed that
there are limited amount of studies focusing on identifying the variables related with the sensation seeking.
Therefore, it was aimed to adapt the sensation seeking scale for young adults to Turkish and to investigate if
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Eyup Celik, Mehmet Emin Turan
the life satisfaction of university students differ significantly in terms of sensation seeking. In addition, it was
investigated if the life satisfaction levels of university students differ significantly in terms of gender.
METHOD
The research was conducted using relational survey method. Karasar (2006) states that it is possible to
estimate the score of another variable when the score of one variable is estimated using the relational survey
method. In this context, this study aimed to investigate the relations between sensation seeking and life
satisfaction of university students using the relational survey method.
PARTICIPANTS
The data for this research was collected from 570 students of Sakarya University. Crewell (2002)
suggested that an appropriate sampling method must be utilized in order to collect data from volunteering
individuals and to conveniently reach to the individuals to be included into the sample during the data
collection process. Thus, data was collected using appropriate sampling method in this research. The sample
consists of 168 male and 402 female participants. Data was collected from participants of ages ranging from
18 to 23 and who were willing to volunteer.
Measuring Tools
Life Satisfaction Scale
This scale was developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985) and was adapted to Turkish
language by Durak, Şenol-Durak, and Gençöz (2010). The study in which the scale was adapted to Turkish
also involves a confirmatory factor analysis in order to determine its validity. According to the results of the
confirmatory factor analysis, the single factor structure of the scale was confirmed and it was shown that the
fit indices obtained were at an acceptable level (χ²/df= 2.026, IFI= .99, TLI= .98, CFI= .99, and RMSEA= .43).
Nevertheless, it was found in the adaptation study that the reliability coefficient of the Turkish version of the
scale was at .81 (Durak et al, 2010). According to Flynn, Schroeder and Sakakibara (1994) internal consistency
coefficients of .60 and above fall in the acceptable reliability limits. Life Satisfaction Scale is a onedimensional scale consisting of 5 items which are scored using 7-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree, 7 =
Strongly Agree). Life satisfaction score is obtained when each score for the items of the scale is added
together. No reverse coded items are included in the scale. The lowest possible score of the scale is 5 while
the highest possible score is 35.
Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Adults
Brief Sensation Seeking Scale was developed by Hoyle, Stephenson, Palmgreen, Lorch, and Donohew (2002).
This scale consists of 8 items and scored using Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neither disagree nor
agree, agree, and strongly agree) based on self-assessment. The items of the scale, both in English and
Turkish are shown in Table 1. Hoyle et al. (2002) conducted a study in order to investigate the validity and
reliability of this scale on the adolescents and suggested 4 factors for this scale. Each sub-dimension of the
scale consists of 2 items. On the other hand, the study in which the validity and reliability of this scale was
investigated for young adults by Stephenson, Velez, Chalela, Ramirez, and Hoyle (2007) showed that the fit
indices of the 4 factors model (experience seeking, boredom susceptibility, thrill and adventure seeking,
disinhibition) obtained from the first order CFA and the single factor model obtained from the second order
CFA are at an acceptable level. It was found that the scale has 4 sub-dimensions as a result of the first order
CFA (χ2 (14, n = 257) = 26.54, p = 0.022; CFI = 0.970; and RMSEA = 0.059). Nevertheless, Stephenson et al.
(2007) conducted a study applying second order CFA in order to determine if the factors of the scale fall
under a single factor and it was found that 4 factor of the scale fall under a single factor ( χ2 (16, n = 250) =
268.78, p = 0.025; CFI = 0.970; and RMSEA = 0.036). The higher scores obtained from the scale indicate higher
levels of sensation seeking while the lower scores obtained from the scale indicate lower levels of sensation
seeking.
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A Study on the Psychometric Features of the Turkish Version of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (Bsss-8) For Young Adults and the Relation
Between Sensation Seeking And Life Satisfaction
Table 1. Items of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Adults in English and Turkish
Items
1. İlginç yerleri keşfetmekten hoşlanırım.
I would like to explore strange places.
2. Evde çok fazla zaman geçirdiğimde huzursuz olurum.
I get restless when I spend too much time at home.
3. Korkutucu şeyler yapmaktan hoşlanırım.
I like to do frightening things.
4. Çılgın partilerden hoşlanırım.
I like wild parties.
5. Rotası belli olmayan ve zaman sınırı olmayan bir geziye çıkmak isterim.
I would like to take off on a trip with no pre-planned routes or timetables.
6. Heyecan verici bir şekilde ne yapacağı belli olmayan arkadaşları tercih
ederim.
I prefer friends who are excitingly unpredictable.
7. Bungee-jumping yapmayı denemek isterim.
I would like to try bungee jumping.
8. Yasadışı olsa bile yeni ve heyecan verici deneyimleri yaşamayı severim.
I would love to have new andexciting experiences, even if they are illegal.
The Translation Process of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Adults
Before the adaptation of the scale, necessary authorizations were obtained in order to translate the scale into Turkish
contacting Hoyle who developed the scale. Translation of the scale into Turkish was performed by two specialists
working on the guidance and psychological counseling independently and both translations were then compared in
order to make necessary alterations. Then, the translated items of the scale was translated into English by a specialist
from the English literature and language field to see if the scale is consistent with its original and no issues found to
prevent the adaptation of the scale into Turkish.
Data analysis
A confirmatory factor analysis was conducted in order to investigate the structural validity of the scale for the data
collected and Cronbach’s Alpha equation was used in order to determine its reliability during the adaptation process
of the brief sensation seeking scale for young adults. Corrected item-total correlations were investigated for the item
analysis. Correlation analysis was used relation between sensation seeking and life satisfaction of university students
while t-test was used in order to see if life satisfaction levels significantly vary according to the sensation seeking
levels. In addition, it was investigated if the sensation seeking and life satisfaction levels of university students vary
significantly in terms of gender using t-test.
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Eyup Celik, Mehmet Emin Turan
FINDINGS
The Structural Validity of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Adults
Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis was used in order to investigate the structural
validity of the scale and to see if both versions of the scale have a similar factor structure.It was first
examined if the scale has 4 factors as it is the case for its original version and it was found that the model
obtained do not offer acceptable fit indices as a result of the CFA. Then, the single factor structure of the
scale was investigated using CFA. The results of the analysis were in line with the study conducted by
Stephenson et al. (2007) which shows that all the items included in the Turkish version would fall under a
single factor. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis suggested acceptable levels of fit (RMSEA = .07,
GFI = .96, CFI = .94, IFI = .94, NFI = .93, AGFI = .93, and NNFI = .91) with χ2/df (4.46) ratio. The results of the
factor analysis are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Results of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (HA=Sensation Seeking)
Reliability of Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Adults
Cronbach’s Alpha formula was applied in order to determine the reliability of the scale. Analysis
showed that the Cronbach's Alpha value was .79.
Item Analysis of Brief Sensation Seeking Scale for Young Adults
Corrected item-total correlations of the scale items were investigated for the item analysis. Findings of
this analysis are shown in Table 1. Table 1 shows that the total corrected correlations of the items were found
to be in a range between .22 and .59.
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A Study on the Psychometric Features of the Turkish Version of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (Bsss-8) For Young Adults and the Relation
Between Sensation Seeking And Life Satisfaction
Table 2. Results of the Corrected Total Item Correlation
Items
rjx
1
.22
2
.27
3
.59
4
.58
5
.53
6
.56
7
.59
8
.57
The Relation between Life Satisfaction and Sensation Seeking
Correlation analysis was used in order to investigate the relation between life satisfaction and sensation
seeking of university students. The results of the analysis showed a negative correlation between life
satisfaction and sensation seeking (r= -.11). The results of the correlation analysis are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Results of the Correlation Analysis
Variables
1
Life Satisfaction
1
Sensation Seeking
-.11**
1
23.06
24.69
6.48
6.65
DF
2
**p< 0.01
Independent sample t-test was used in order to see if life satisfaction levels significantly differ
according to the sensation seeking levels. For this purpose, participants were divided into two groups as
higher level of sensation seeking and lower level of sensation seeking according to sensation seeking scores.
For that, higher and lower scores of the participants’ data were considered. After examining that the data
were normally distributed. After that, the mean and the standard deviation scores of the sensation seeking
were calculated ( = 24.69 and SD= 6.65). In this frame of this distribution, 341 participants were excluded
from the analysis who were between one standard deviation above the average (31.34), and one point below
the average point of sensation seeking scores (18.04). Consequently, 111 participants, whose sensation
seeking scores between 8 - 18.04 (%19.47 of participants) were named as lower sensation seeking levels and
118 participants whose sensation seeking scores between 31.34 – 40 (%20.70) of participants) were named as
high sensation seeking levels.
According to the analysis results which aimed to see if life satisfaction levels of university students
differ with the sensation seeking level, it was found that the average life satisfaction ( = 21.72) of the students
with high sensation seeking levels were lower than the ones ( = 24.19) with low sensation seeking levels. This
finding is also supported by the eta squared value (μ²= .35). Results are shown in Table 2.
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Eyup Celik, Mehmet Emin Turan
Table 4. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values of the Life Satisfaction Scores According to Sensation Seeking
Level
Sensation Seeking Level
N
SD
Low
111
24.19
6.65
High
118
21.72
7.15
t
p
2.70
.007
DF= 227
Differences in terms of Gender
According to the result of the analysis aiming to find if life satisfaction levels of university students differ in terms of
the gender. It was found that life satisfaction do not differ significantly with the gender. However, considering Table 3,
it is clear that male students had higher average levels of life satisfaction ( = 23.60) when compared to female
students ( = 22.83). Results are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations and t-values of the Life Satisfaction According to Gender
Life Satisfaction
Gender
N
SD
Female
402
22.83
6.52
Male
168
23.60
6.36
t
p
-1.28
.20
DF= 568
DISCUSSION
Adapting the sensation seeking scale for young adults into Turkish and investigating if the life
satisfaction levels of university students differ significantly in terms of sensation seeking, this study shows
that the Turkish version of the scale, which has 4 dimensions in its original version when assessed with CFA,
has a single factor structure. It was found that the fit indices of the model which were obtained using CFA
were at an acceptable level. According to Sümer (2000), the χ2/df ratio obtained for this model shows that
the model is consistent with the data as it is below 5. Schermelleh-Engel, Moosbrugger, and Müller (2003)
states that all the GFI, AGFI, CFI, IFI, RFI, and NFI fit indices of the model being above .90 and RMSEA and
SRMR values being below .08 may be an indicator that the model is acceptable. In this context, the model
obtained from the CFA of the sensation seeking scale for young adults and used in this research is acceptable
as the χ2/df ratio is below 5 and other fit indices (RMSEA, GFI, CFI, IFI, NFI, AGFI, and NNFI) of the model
are in an acceptable range. Nevertheless, it was also found that the internal consistency coefficient of the
scale is in an acceptable range according to the literature. Flynn, Schroeder, and Sakakibara, (1994) states that
Cronbach's Alpha values above .60 indicate the reliability of the scale. In the light of the information above it
can be said that the results obtained from the sensation seeking scale prove that this scale is a valid and
reliable measuring tool to be used for young adults. Literature review showed that there are limited amount
of studies focusing on identifying the variables related with the sensation seeking. Therefore, this study is
important as it adapts this scale, which will facilitate further studies about sensation seeking, into Turkish.
The other purpose of this study was to investigate if the life satisfaction significantly differ with the
sensation seeking level. It was found that the life satisfaction significantly differ with the sensation seeking
level as a result of the analysis conducted for this hypothesis. Results showed that individuals with higher
sensation seeking levels have lower life satisfaction. Literature review showed that the results obtained in
this study in terms of the relation between life satisfaction and sensation seeking was inconsistent with some
of the results obtained in other studies. For example, Oishi, Schimmack, and Colcombe (2003) suggested that
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A Study on the Psychometric Features of the Turkish Version of the Brief Sensation Seeking Scale (Bsss-8) For Young Adults and the Relation
Between Sensation Seeking And Life Satisfaction
sensation seeking does not directly affect life satisfaction while affecting positive feelings. The study on
adolescents conducted by Çelik (2015) claims a positive relation between sensation seeking and life
satisfaction. On the other hand, Stegman (2010) reported a negative relation between the sub-dimensions of
sensation seeking, namely disinhibition and boredom susceptibility, and life satisfaction. Stegman’s results
are consistent with the results of this study. Moreover, there are research on the positive correlation of
depression with sensation seeking (Carton, Jouvent, & Widlöcher, 1992), and others indicating a negative
correlation with life satisfaction (Lewinsohn, Redner, & Seeley, 1991). It seems that the risky behaviors
experienced by and results of the irresponsible way of life of adults increases the depression levels therefore
making them feel bad. However, such a result may be accounted for the fact that the participants of the
study are teacher candidates. According to the society teachers are supposed to show positive behaviors and
lifestyles. Thus, negative lifestyles caused by sensation seeking may lead a guilty feeling in teachers
therefore decreasing their life satisfaction. This study investigated if the life satisfaction levels of university
students differ significantly in terms of gender. The results of the analysis showed that the life satisfaction
levels of the university students do not differ significantly with gender; however, male students had higher
average levels of life satisfaction when compared to female students. This finding of the study is consistent
with the study conducted by Grant, Wardle, and Steptoe (2009), while it is inconsistent with the study
conducted by Dorahy, Schumaker, Simpson, and Deshpande (1996). The fact that life satisfaction of male
students is higher than the one of female students may be attributed to the societal gender roles. Our society
offers more independence for men, while it is not the case for women in many fields. Therefore, not able to
be free due to societal gender roles, especially during the university years when students are independent
from their families, female students might have lower life satisfaction when compared to male students as
they feel restrained and not able to have fun as they would like to. Nevertheless, previous research indicate
several changes in one’s life during the transition to the university such as financial situation (Goldrick-Rab
& Han, 2011), lifestyle (Abar & Maggs, 2010) and interpersonal relationships (Kenyon & Koerner, 2009).
These changes may prove hard for the student therefore leading to low life satisfaction. With the influence of
gender roles, it might a fact that male students are more successful and resilient in the process coping with
these changes and adapting to the university life when compared to female students. Thus, the life
satisfaction of male students may be higher than the life satisfaction of female students. This study also
reveals some constraints along with the important findings stated above. The sample used in this study was
limited only with university students. Therefore, future studies need to apply this scale which we have
investigated its validity and reliability here, focusing on psychometric characteristics of people other than
university students. Thus, it will be possible to tolerate the constraint of this study contributing to the
validity and reliability of the scale. In addition, it is possible to contribute to the generalization of this study
investigating the relation between sensation seeking and life satisfaction within samples consisting of
different age groups, different ethnicities, different education levels and socioeconomic levels. Stephensonet
et al. (2007) showed that the original version of the scale may be used with 4 dimensions according to the
first order CFA, while the second order CFA showed that the scale can also be used with single dimension.
However, as it was not possible to confirm the 4 factors structure of this scale using first order CFA, the
single dimension structure was tested. The single dimension structure was confirmed with CFA. Therefore,
future research needs to focus on confirming the 4 dimensional structure of the Turkish version of the scale
using first order CFA and single dimension structure using second order CFA. Although it has its
constraints, this study proves important for the analysis of life satisfaction and sensation seeking which are
significant variables for the mental health and for offering a measuring tool for sensation seeking tendency
of young adults for our culture.
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International Journal of Educational Research Review
Scale Construction: Motivation and Relationship Scale in Education
Yunus Emre DEMİR
AR TIC LE IN FO
A BST R ACT
Article History:
Received 18.09.2015
Received in revised form
20.10.2015
Accepted 26.10.2015
Available online 01.01.2016
The aim of this study is to analyze the validity and reliability of the Turkish
version of Motivation and Relationship Scale (MRS), (Raufelder , Drury ,
Jagenow , Hoferichter & Bukowski , 2013).Participants were 526 students of
secondary school. The results of confirmatory factor analysis described that the
21 items loaded three factor and the three-dimensional model was well fit (x2=
640.04, sd= 185, RMSEA= .068, NNFI= .90, CFI = .91, IFI=.91,SRMR=079, GFI=
.90,AGFI=.87). Overall findings demonstrated that this scale is a valid and
indicates that the adapted MRS is a valid instrument for measuring secondary
school children’s motivation in Turkey.
© 2016 IJERE. All rights reserved
Keywords: 1
Motivation, relationship, validity, reliability, confirmatory factor analysis
INTRODUCTİON
Motivation is a power that dynamises behaviors of individuals for certain purposes, directs these
behaviors and ensures those to maintain consistently (Demiral and Acat, 2002). Examining motivation
within educational environment, it is a process that emerges by dealing with all factors in educational
environment (teacher, student, environment, attitude of students etc.) and evaluating relations between
them (Akbaba, 2006). It is a fact that motivation plays a significant role on revealing creativity of students,
developing a style in respect to learning and increasing school success (Dede and Yaman 2008). In this
context, it can be said that motivation is closely related to learning. The style of students on learning specific
to themselves is evaluated within the scope of motivation. Therefore it can be said that learning will be more
effective and as desired within the educational environments in where the styles of students on learning are
considered (Bozkurt and Aydoğdu 2009). While considering learning styles, the question of how learning
will be realized on individuals brings inter-personal differences into the forefront. Educational environment,
in where individual differences are considered, is an environment proper to learning style (Bozkurt and
Aydoğdu 2009). There are some internal factors effecting learning motivation, including concern of
individuals on accomplishment, characteristic feature and attitude and environmental factors including
reinforcers that are presented to student for directing her/him to targeted behaviors (Akbaba, 2006). It is a
fact that there is relationship between motivation and learning and learning styles of individuals. These
learning styles vary from individual to individual. Teachers should not ignore this difference on influencing
motivation of students. Accordingly, teachers may have some liabilities to motivate students. It is declared
that internal and environmental factors are associated with motivation and should be examined
multilaterally. Will of student on featuring her/his own creativity and exhibiting a genuine attitude is very
important with regard to internal motivation. Considering individual differences, that teachers determine
reinforcers to direct students to learning is evaluated in terms of environmental factors (Akbaba, 2006).
Academic success related to motivation is seen as a significant factor over students influencing them in this
field. There are many factors on such environments that influence students to attain success in educational
environments and their motivation processes (Ames, 1987; Brophy, 1987). Schools and teachers in charge
influence students to involve them in educational environments and support them within this period. Those
who have some adaptation problems with school feel themselves far from the environment and school due
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Motivation and Relationship Scale: Validity and Reliability Study
to lack of sense of belonging towards their schools (Mouton and Hawkins, 1996). When considered from this
point of view, teachers seem to play a key role on motivating actions as integrating students to educational
environments. Relation of motivation with formerly specified academic success may be ensured by
involving students in educational environments and supporting them. In this context, involvement of
students in educational environments is within the scope of school events as well as that it plays a key role
on formation of an effective learning environment (Kenny, Kenny and Dumont, 1995). At this point,
formation of an effective motivation process contributes to progress of attitudes and perceptions of
individuals towards educational environments. However, some negative attitudes and perceptions are being
developed pertaining to this issue. And this is related to students that how they deal with negative
motivating process against other stimulant in school and environment. Positive or negative attitudes that
students acquire about school environments play a key role on influencing their academic achievements.
Absence of a similar scale in educational environments measuring motivation, relations and manner of
perceptions of individuals on motivation became an incentive for conducting this study in our country. This
study is thought that it may provide a basis for the studies which determine perception level regarding
motivation of related age group and creates resource in order to fulfill the gaps within the studies. As being
extremely economic in implementation in terms of time and accessible to target group, purpose of this study
is to examine the validity and reliability of motivation and relation scale (MRS) on the sample including
middle-school students.
METHOD
This research is the study of scale adaptation and conducted via “survey model”. Students are tested
with the Turkish version of Motivation and Relation Scale (MRS) within this model.
Participants
The participants of this research included 526 students from a public school located in Sakarya, Turkey.
233 participants were male and 293 participants were female which constituted 44.7% of the sample.
Tools of Data Collection
Motivation and Relation Scale (MRS ) is an assessment tool developed by Diana Raufelder, Kate Drury,
Danilo Jagenow, Frances Hoferichter and William Bukowski (2013). It consists of three sub-dimensions
namely Peers as Motivators (PM) , Individual Learning Behaviors (ILB) and Teachers as Motivators (TM)
and 37 items which are divided as follows : PAM (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15), ILB (16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21) and TAM (22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37). The items are responded on 4point Likert-scale ranging from ”strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “agree”, to “strongly agree”.
Procedure
Prior to the study, the first authors of the development study of MRS were contacted for the permission
of adapting the MRS into Turkish via e-mail. Upon their approval, the present study was conducted. MRS
was primarily translated into Turkish by three English teachers and the needed arrangements were done
after the translations were examined. Next, the same group of English teachers translated the target
language back into the source language (English) , compared to the original version in terms of consistency
and then final Turkish version was attained by negotiating upon all turkish versions. Various arrangements
were done after the trial form was examined by professionals of evaluation and assessment field. By carrying
out the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), adaptation of the original scale into Turkish culture was
confirmed after assessing the scale in terms of validity and reliability. Besides of these assessments, the scale
was analysed in terms of item-total correlations and internal consistency reliability. LISREL 8.54 and SPSS
22.0 package programs were used during the data analysis process.
FINDINGS
As a result of this analysis, it is seen that Motivation and Relation Scale has an internal consistency
reliability coefficient of .73.Item analysis is done to determine the discriminating ability of MRS items.As a
result of this item analysis it is seen that corrected item-total correlation coefficients have a range of values
from .08 to .50.Item-Total Correlations for the Turkish Version of RMS are displayed Table 1.
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Serhat Arslan & Yunus Emre Demir
Table 1: Item-Total Correlation for the Turkish Version of RMS
Items
Item-Total Correlation
(r jx )
1.Arkadaşlarım bana zeki olduğumu söyledikleri için okulda çaba göstermeyi severim
2.Arkadaşlarımın beni motive etmesi okuldaki başarımın daha iyi olmasını sağlıyor.
3.Arkadaşlarım öğrendiğinde daha fazla öğrenmek için motive oluyorum.
4.Arkadaşlarım okulda kendilerini geliştirmek istediğinde ben onlardan daha iyi olmayı
istiyorum.
5.Arkadaşlarım beni motive ettiğinde okulda çaba gösteriyorum.
.39
.42
.38
.35
.48
6.Okulda arkadaşlarımın gösterdiği çaba ile aynı çabayı göstermeye çalışıyorum.
7.Arkadaşlarımla ben okulda gayret göstermemiz için birbirimizi motive ediyoruz.
.37
.37
8.Arkadaşlarımın sayesinde okulda daha fazla çaba göstermeye çalışıyorum.
.50
9.Arkadaşlarım bir sınav için bana çok çalıştıklarını söylerlerse ben onlardan daha çok
çalışırım.
.39
10.Okuldaki gayretimin az olması arkadaşlarımın daha çok dikkatini çeker.
.20
11.Arkadaşlarımın okula ilgisi olmazsa bende gayret göstermek istemem.
.13
12.Arkadaşlarım beni okul çalışmalarına olabildiğince az zaman harcamaya teşvik ediyor.
.14
13.Bazen, arkadaşlarım sınavın hoş olmadığını söyledikleri için okulda çaba harcamam
.12
14.Arkadaşlarım iyi notların bir şey ifade etmediğini söylerse daha az çalışırım.
.08
15.Arkadaşlarım okulu sıkıcı bulduğunda ben de okulu sıkıcı bulurum.
.10
16.Başkaları ile çalıştığıma kıyasla, kendi başıma çalıştığımda daha iyi öğrenirim.
.32
17.Arkadaşlarım ve ben bir test için birlikte çalıştığımızda çalışmak daha kolaydır
.25
18.Sınav yaklaştığında kendim çalışmayı tercih ederim.
.26
19.Ödevimi asla arkadaşlarımla değil her zaman kendim yaparım.
.29
20.Arkadaşlarımla çalışmaktansa kendi kendime çalışmak okuldaki başarımı kolaylaştırır.
.23
21.En iyi şekilde arkadaşlarımla birlikte çalıştığımda öğrenirim.
.21
Construct Validity
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is highly recommendable for the researchers focusing on clear
hypotheses about a scale such as the number of factors or dimensions underlying its items, connection
between certain items and certain factors, and the link between factors.By applying CFA, researchers assess
“measurement hypotheses” relating to internal structure of a scale. CFA allows researchers to assess the
degree of consistency between their hypotheses and the actual data of the scale.( Fur and Bacharach,2008)
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Motivation and Relationship Scale: Validity and Reliability Study
The conclusion of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the eight-dimensional model was well fit (x2=
640.04, sd= 185, RMSEA= .068, NNFI= .90, CFI = .91, IFI=.91,SRMR=079, GFI= .90,AGFI=.87).
Factor loadings and path diagram for Turkish version of MRS are displayed in Figure 1.
DISCUSSION AND RESULT
In this study, the purpose is to adapt MRS which was developed by Raufelder and others (2013) into
Turkish and to examine validity and reliability of Turkish form. The groups which are studied on validity
and reliability are quantitatively sufficient that are necessitated by statistical analyses (Tabachnick&Fidell,
2007). Structural validity of MRS has been examined by DFA. In consequence of DFA, the scale has been
found that it has three dimensions just as original form and structural validity of the scale has been
provided. Considering limits of adaption index of DFA, it can be said that the model works and original
factor structure of the scale corresponds to factor structure of the Turkish form. Satisfactory reliability coefficient of MRS indicates that the reliability is sufficient. If anticipated reliability level for measuring
instruments to be used in studies is 70% (Sipahi, Yurtkoru, & Çinko, 2008), it may be concluded that
reliability of MRS has been provided. Considering item analysis, it is seen that some items within the scale
has not reached to 30%. Taking the motivation within three dimensions provides to approach the motivation
from various aspects and to ascribe various meanings. It is quite important for measuring the motivation
and relation (MRS) that each item within the scale is related and consistent with each other. In this context, it
may be concluded that motivation must be handled multi dimensionally according to the data acquired from
the student involved in the study group. However it is possible to say that peer relationship is important but
not sufficient solely. Considering the findings acquired from MRS and examining with respect to validity
and reliability, it is not inconvenient to use the scale. The study, eventually, includes middle-class students
of 6, 7, 8th classes; but it can be said that items within the scale may appeal to various age groups and also
these groups may be studied as well. The scale has been applied by keeping the original form, considering
confirmatory factor analysis (DFA), comparing with validity and reliability values within original form, it
has been found that the values found are not far from each other. Though the motivation is an internal
process and emerged through various ways within various age groups, implementation of MRS within the
high school level is important for it expands research group, on the purpose of making scale items inclusive
and questioning. Obtaining reliable and valid results for determination of motivation and relation on
middle-class students who compose the research group necessitates the scale to be used in this form. With
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Serhat Arslan & Yunus Emre Demir
reference to the findings, it is possible to say that the scale is proper to apply in different population and
samples as well. However it can be concluded that expanding the research age group extents the scope of the
study and contributes to other studies in this field. The suggestions that can be given for contributing to
other studies which may utilize the study in accordance with the findings of this study are as follow:
Teachers should regard that grading is not sufficient solely to motivate students and consider himself/herself
as a significant incentive within the scope of student-teacher relationship. Moreover, they should express
that student play role on motive of individual learning behaviors and students should care peer relationship.
REFERENCES
Akbaba,S.(2006).Eğitimde motivasyon.Kazım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi,Sayı:2006/13,sf:348.
Ames, C. (1987). The enhancement of student motivation. In M. Maehr & D. Kleiber (Eds.), Advances
in motivation and achievement: Vol. 5. Enhancing motivation (pp. 123-148).Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Bozkurt,O.,Aydoğdu,M.(2009).İlköğretim 6. sınıf fen bilgisi dersinde Dunn ve Dunn öğrenme stili
modeline dayalı öğretim ile geleneksel öğretim yönteminin öğrencilerin akademik başarı düzeyleri ve
tutumlarına etkisinin karşılaştırılması.İlköğretim Online8(3),741-754
Brophy, J. (1987). Synthesis of research on strategies for motivating students to learn.Educational
Leadership, 45, 40-48.Dede,Y.,Yaman,S.(2008).Fen öğrenmeye yönelik motivasyon ölçeği:Geçerlik ve
güvenirlik çalışması.Necatibey Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik Fen ve Matematik Eğitimi,2(1),19-37
Demiral,S.,Acat,M.B.(2002).Türkiye’de yabancı dil Öğreniminde
sorunları.Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi,31,312-332
motivasyon
Kaynakları
ve
Eryılmaz,A.(2013).Okulda motivasyon ve amotivasyon:’Derse Katılmada Öğretmenden Beklentiler
Ölçeğinin Geliştirilmesi’.Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi,Sayı;2013/25,1-18
Mouton, S.& Hawkins, J. (1996). School attachment:Perpectives of low-atteched high school students.
Educational Psychology,16(3),pp.297-305
Özdamar, K. (2004). Paket programlar ile istatistik veri analizi 1. Eskişehir: Kaan Kitabevi.
Rafuelder,D. ,Drury,K. ,Jagenow,D. ,Hoferichter, F. ,Bukowski,W.(2013). Development and validation
of theRelationship and Motivation (REMO) scale to assess students' perceptions of peers and teachers as in
adolescence. Learning and Individual Differences 24 (2013) 182–189
Sipahi, B. Yurtkoru, E. S.,& Çinko, M. (2008). Sosyal bilimlerde SPSS’le veri analizi. İstanbul: Beta
Basım Yayım Dağıtım.
Tabachnick, B. G.,&Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics. Boston: AllynandBacon.
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Motivation and Relationship Scale: Validity and Reliability Study
ASPENDIX
Motivasyon ve İlişki Ölçeği
Her sorunun karşısında bulunan; (1) Tamamen Katılmıyorum (2) Katılmıyorum (3) Katılıyorum (4) Tamamen
Katılıyorum anlamına gelmektedir. Lütfen her ifadeye mutlaka TEK yanıt veriniz ve kesinlikle BOŞ bırakmayınız. En
uygun yanıtları vereceğinizi ümit eder katkılarınız için teşekkür ederim.
Olumlu Motive Edici Olarak Akranlar
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
22
Arkadaşlarım bana zeki olduğumu söyledikleri için okulda çaba göstermeyi severim.
Arkadaşlarımın beni motive etmesi okuldaki başarımın daha iyi olmasını sağlıyor.
Arkadaşlarım öğrendiğinde daha fazla öğrenmek için motive oluyorum.
Arkadaşlarım okulda kendilerini geliştirmek istediğinde ben onlardan daha iyi olmayı
istiyorum.
Arkadaşlarım beni motive ettiğinde okulda çaba gösteriyorum.
Okulda arkadaşlarımın gösterdiği çaba ile aynı çabayı göstermeye çalışıyorum.
Arkadaşlarımla ben okulda gayret göstermemiz için birbirimizi motive ediyoruz.
Arkadaşlarımın sayesinde okulda daha fazla çaba göstermeye çalışıyorum.
Arkadaşlarım bir sınav için bana çok çalıştıklarını söylerlerse ben onlardan daha çok
çalışırım.
Olumsuz Motive Edici Olarak Akranlar
10
Okuldaki gayretimin az olması arkadaşlarımın daha çok dikkatini çeker.
11
Arkadaşlarımın okula ilgisi olmazsa bende gayret göstermek istemem.
12
Arkadaşlarım beni okul çalışmalarına olabildiğince az zaman harcamaya teşvik ediyor.
13
Bazen, arkadaşlarım sınavın hoş olmadığını söyledikleri için okulda çaba harcamam.
Arkadaşlarım iyi notların bir şey ifade etmediğini söylerse daha az çalışırım.
14
15
Arkadaşlarım okulu sıkıcı bulduğunda ben de okulu sıkıcı bulurum.
16
Başkaları ile çalıştığıma kıyasla, kendi başıma çalıştığımda daha iyi öğrenirim.
17
Arkadaşlarım ve ben bir test için birlikte çalıştığımızda çalışmak daha kolaydır
18
19
Sınav yaklaştığında kendim çalışmayı tercih ederim.
Ödevimi asla arkadaşlarımla değil her zaman kendim yaparım.
20
Arkadaşlarımla çalışmaktansa kendi kendime çalışmak okuldaki başarımı kolaylaştırır.
21
En iyi şekilde arkadaşlarımla birlikte çalıştığımda öğrenirim.
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