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Pak. J. Entomol. Volume 28 (2) 2013 (July-December) CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
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Pak. J. Entomol. Volume 28 (2) 2013 (July-December) CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail address: info@pjek.org.pk
CONTENTS
01
02
03
04
.05
.06
07
.08
09
10
11
12
KEYS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF LONG-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS
TETTIGONIOIDEA (ENSIFERA) OCCURRING IN PAKISTAN BYSULTANA, R.,
PANHWAR, W.A. & WAGAN, M.S.
KEY FOR IDENTIFICATION OF INSECT-FAUNA OF THE FREE-RANGING
URBAN DOG, CANIS DOMESTICUS (L.) CARCASS IN TROPICAL REGION
OF PAKISTAN: A TOOL FOR FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY BY PERVEEN, F.,
ALI, P.A AND AKBAR, M.F.
DISTRIBUTION AND TAXONOMY OF TRIBE OEDIPODINI (ORTHOPTERA,
ACRIDOIDEA) FROM PAKISTAN BY BUGHIO, B.A., SULTANA, R. & WAGAN,
M.S.
SONGS AND SOUND PRODUCING ORGANS IN CRICKETS (ORTHOPTERA:
GRYLLIDAE) IN AID TO SYSTEMATICS BYKHAN, N. AND AHMAD, I.
STRAINING INDICA RICE GENOTYPES FOR RESISTANCE AGAINST
PREVELENCE OF LEAFFOLDER CNAPHALOCROCIS MEDINALIS GUENEE
AND STEM BORERS SCRIPOPHAGA INCERTULAS WALKER BY AKHTER,
M., ZIA, S., HAIDER. Z., AND SABIR, A.M.
EFFECT OF GLIRICIDIA SEPIUM AND SOLANUM NIGRUM EXTRACTS
AGAINST LARVAL AND PUPAL STAGES OF TRIBOLIUM CASTANEUM AND
AEDES AEGYPTI BY NAZLI, R., IBRAHIM, F., ALI, W., AHMAD, A., ALI, Q.M.,
JAMIL, K., AND ABBAS, T.
SOUND
PRODUCING
ORGANS
USING
SCANNING
ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY (SEM) OF SVERCACHETA SP.(GRYLLIDAE: GRYLLINAE:)
WITH REFERENCE TO ITS SYSTEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS BY AHMAD, I.
AND KHAN, N…………………………………………………………………..
IMPACT OF MATING ON LONGEVITY OF RED COTTON BUG MALES
DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS (FAB.) (HEMIPTERA: PYRRHOCORIDAE) BY
ANSARI, N., SOOMRO, N.M., MALIK, S., URSANI T.J. & PITAFI, K.D.
INCREASED ATTACK OF RICE STEM BORE COMPLEX COUPLED WITH
ENHANCED YIELD IN RESPONSE OF NITROGEN APPLICATION ON PADDY
CROP BY BHUTTO, A.A, SOOMRO, N.M. AND KHAN.M.F.
OCCURRENCE OF PARASITOID SPECIES ON VARIOUS LEPIDOPTERAN
LARVAE AT TANDOJAM BY MEMON,M.A., RAJPUT, I.A., LANJAR, A.G.,
YOUSUFZAI, M.S., RAJPUT.A.A., BALOCH, A.Q., KHUHRO, T.A.
THE SPIDER DIVERSITY IN AND AROUND UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI SINDH
PAKISTAN BY KAZIM, M. PERVEEN, R. AND FATIMA, N.
BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND PREDATORY POTENTIAL
OF
MENOCHILUS SEXMACULATUS FAB. (COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLIDAE)
FEEDING ON CABBAGE APHID, BREVICORYNE BRASSICAE AT THREE
CONSTANT TEMPREATURE LEVELS BY KHAN, J., HAQ, E., MASTOI, M.I.,
JAVED, H.I, MAHMOOD T., RASOOL, A., ASHRAF, M. AND ABID, S.
113-116
117-126
127-136
137-148
149-156
157-162
163-168
169-174
175-180
181-188
189-194
195-201
The Journal is Recognized and Approved by HEC, Quality Assurance Division, Islamabad-Pk.
Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 113-116, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
KEYS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF LONG-HORNED GRASSHOPPERS
TETTIGONIOIDEA (ENSIFERA) OCCURRING IN PAKISTAN
RIFFAT SULTANA, WAHEED ALI PANHWAR & MUHAMMAD SAEED WAGAN
Department of Zoology, University of Sindh Jamshoro-Pakistan
riffatumer@hotmail.com, Cell #: 0321-3048595, 0333-2776771
(Received for publication: 05.10.2013)
ABSTRACT
At the present a total of 13 species of Tettigonioidea were collected. Of them 07 belong to subfamily Phaneropterinae, 03
each to Conocephalinae and Tettigoniinae. In this manuscript simplified taxonomic keys based on the easily recognizable
characters was provided for the correct identification of Tettigonioidea occurring in Pakistan.
Keywords: Taxonomic keys, Tettigonioidea, identification, Pakistan.
INTRODUCTION
Many workers have worked on the Acrididae of
Pakistan e.g. (Ahmed 1980, Wagan 1990, Wagan &
Naheed 1997, Yousaf 1996 and Riffat & Wagan
2007-2010, Barkat et al., 2013) but, no attention has
been paid to Tettigonioidea of Pakistan. As some of
the species belonging to Tettigonioidea are
important pests of agriculture fields of rice,
sugarcane, trees, shrubs, herbs & grasses (Wagan
& Hartley 1983 , Jago 1997; Mbata 1992 and Riffat
et al., 2012). Tettigonioidea are phytophagous
insects therefore one would expect a considerable
number of plant pests in this family (Otte &
Naskrecki, 2004). Many species are ecologically
associated with forest biocenoses, damaging trees
and shrubs in addition to herbaceous plant. These
facts extend the range of injurious plants to forest,
fruits, orchards and berry shrubs. It was important to
identify them accurately so that diagnosis of an
economic problem can be properly made.
It was therefore, felt necessary and simplified
taxonomic keys based on the easily recognizable
morphological characters are provided for the
separation of, sub-families, tribes, and species of
Tettigonioidea occurring in Pakistan. The correct
Tettigonioidea occurring in Pakistan. The correct
identification of species obtained from this study will
be instrumental in understanding and devising the
population management strategies to adopt control
measures at appropriate time.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The adults of Tettigonioidea were collected from the
agriculture fields of rice, sugarcane, forests, fruit
orchards, grapevine, berry shrubs, hilly, semi desert
& desert areas, trees, shrubs, herbs & grasses with
the help of traditional insect hand-net (8.89 cms in
diameter and 50.8 cms in length) as well as by hand
catching. The collection was made during the year
2011-2013 in months of year mostly in March to
October from various provinces of Pakistan.
Collected material brought in to the laboratory and
was killed by means of potassium cyanide in
standard entomological killing bottles and then all the
specimens were preserved in boxes by adopting the
standard entomological method described by Vickery
& Kevan (1983) and Riffat & Wagan (2012).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Key to subfamilies Tettigoniidae occurring in Pakistan
1. Head rounded and short, fastigium of vertex not produced or pointed, face, not flattened or slanting;
prothroxic spiracles small, not covered by pronotum; tegmina well developed, usually rather to very
broad leaf-like, anterior tibiae flattened dorsally and somewhat quadrate in cross section . Hind
nd
tibiae with a pair of apical spines , tarsi with Ist& 2 segments cylindrical, not grooved laterally,
tegmina lacking an expanded area with prominent, parallel cross veins, ovipositor rather short, sickleshaped and typically rather blunt, apically denticulate……………………….……..……Phaneropterinae
Sultana et al. (2013)
114
---. Not as above……………………………………………………………………………………………………2
2. Head comparatively short, not conical, with the fastigium of vertex forming a short, narrow, rounded or
truncated rostrum prosternum with a pair of spines, anterior tibiae with an apico dorsal spine or tibiae
and femora with ventral rows of strong spines, ovipositor rather stout, sword or dagger-like, usually
somewhat curved upward, though sometimes fairly straight………………………………Tettigoninae
--. Head typically sub conical to strongly pointed; prosternum sometimes Lacking spines; anterior tibiae
with terminal dorsal spines,tibiae and femora without ventral rows of strong spines, ovipositor long,
typical rather slender and straight or only slightly curved………………………………..Conocephalinae
Key to the tribes of Phaneropterinae occurring in Pakistan
1
Pronotum with lateral carinae serrate like straight & saw like tegmen broad ……….Trigonocoryphini
--.
2.
--.
3.
--.
4.
Not as above …………………………………………………………………………………………………….2
Male cerci long & curved ……………………..……………………………………………… Phaneropterini
Male cerci not long …………………………….……...……………………………………………………..…3
Ovipositor not shorter than pronotum ……………………………………………………………Holochlroni
Ovipositor longer than pronotum ………………………………………………….......................................4
Subgenital plate of male not deeply bifurcate with long lobes styles……….…………………….Ducetini
--.
Subgenital plate of male with deeply bifurcate……………………………….…………………….Elimaeini
Key to species of Phaneroptera
1-
Cerci apex tapering gradually with well-developed spine …………………………..…P. roseata Walk.
--.
Cerci of male long, strongly arcuate, not undulate …………………………..……P.spinosa B.-Beienko
Key to the species of Trigonocorypha occurring in Pakistan
1. Fsatigium of vertex slightly divided by middle sulcus, tegmina wide and without a pale band in its basal
half ……………………………………..……………………………………………..…T.unicolor Stal
--.
Fastigium of vertex completely divided into two by middle sulcus;tegmina
narrower with a slight notch beyond the middle of anterior margin and a
narrow pale band in its basal part………………………………………..T.angustata Uvarov
Key to the tribes of Conocephalinae occurring in Pakistan
1. Larger species (Length without ovipositor, more than 24 mm) vertex of head produced to form a tapering
cone between antennal bases, notched below, extending beyond basal antennal segments; fore &
middle tibiae with spines beneath;(mostly nocturnal and crepuscular).……… ..……Copiphorini
--. -
Smaller species (Length without ovipositor 8.7 to 9.2 mm) vertex of head not extending beyond basal
antennal segment; produced as rounded tubercle with concave sides,not notched beneath;fore&
middle
tibiae
without
spines
beneath;
(
mostly
diurnal
&
crepuscular)
………………………….………………………………………………………………………Conocephalini
Key to the species of Euconocephalus occurring in the Pakistan
1. A narrow black line on the extreme anterior margin of the tegmen is absent ………..…..E.incertus Walker
---- A narrow black line on the extreme anterior margin of the tegmen is present.....E.pallidus Redtenbacher
Keys for identification of Long-horned grasshoppers Tettigonioidea (Ensifera) occurring in Pakistan
115
Key to the tribes of Tettigoniinae occurring in Pakistan
1. Wings always short, color dark brown………………………………………………………...Drymadusini
--. Wings always large .color brown or dark gary………………………………………………..……………...2
2. Size usually large, body brown,ovipositor slightly curved ventral,obliquely slanting on dorsal side of apex,
Prothorax ventrally with two long slender spines between
fore legs, tegmina without distinct
dots………………………………………………………………………………………….……….Gampsocleidini
--. Usually small, body gray,ovipositor curved dorsally. Prothorax ventrally Without spines,tegmina with dots
………….…………………...……………………………………………………………………………….Platycieidini
F
Fig. (a). Phaneroptera falcata (Poda, 1761) ♂
Fig. (b). P. quadripunctata Brunner von Wattenwyl,
1878,
Fig.(c).Trygonocorypha unicolor Stool 1873, ♂
Fig.(d). Conocephalus maculates (Le Guillou,
1841), ♂
Fig.(e). Euconocephalus incertus, Walker 1869, ♂
♀
Fig. (f). E.pallidus Redtenbacher, 1891 , ♂
Sultana et al. (2013)
116
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was financially supported by grants
received from Pakistan Science Foundation
Islamabad for Research Project (No PSF/S-SU/BIO
(423) is highly acknowledged.
.
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 117-126, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
KEY FOR IDENTIFICATION OF INSECT-FAUNA OF THE FREE-RANGING
URBAN DOG, CANIS DOMESTICUS (L.) CARCASS IN TROPICAL REGION
OF PAKISTAN: A TOOL FOR FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY
FARZANA PERVEEN*1, PIR ASMAT ALI1 AND MUHAMMAD FAHEEM AKBAR2
1
Department of Zoology, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University (SBBU), Main Campus, Sheringal, Khyber
2
Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan; Beaconhouse School System, Margalla Campus, H-8, Islamabad (BMI-G),
2
Pakistan; Department of Agriculture & Agribusiness Management, University of Karachi, Karachi,
*
Pakistan; E-mail: farzana_san@hotmail.com, Cell #. 0300-2253872
(Received for publication: 24.08.2013)
ABSTRACT
Entomologists use the scientific methods to calculate the time of an organism death through insect communities, as
biological indicators which have been studied in Forensic Entomology. In the present study, insect-fauna was identified in
carcass of the free-ranging urban dog, Canis domesticus (L.) in tropical region, i.e., Takht Bhai and Mardan, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 15-25 May 2011. Decomposition of carcass has been divided into 5 stages: a) fresh; b)
bloat; c) active decay; d) advanced decay; and e) dry. The collected insects were identified into 11 species of 3 orders.
The blowfly, Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart) and C. megacephala (Fabricius) belonging to family Calliphoridae. The flesh
fly, Parasarcophaga ruficornis (Meigen) belonging to family Sarcophagidae; housefly, Musca domestica (Linnaeus) to
family Muscidae and cheese fly, Piophila casei (Linnaeus) to family Piophilidae. They are included in order Diptera. The
hide beetle, Dermestes maculates (Geer) belonging to family Dermestidae; clown beetle, Hister sp (Gullenhal) to
Histeridae; ham beetle, Necrobia rufipes (Fabricus) to Cleridae and skin beetle, Trox sp (Harold) to Trogidae are included
in order Coleoptera. The hornet wasp, Vespa orientalis (Linnaeus) belonging to family Vespidae and jummper ant,
Myrmecia pilosula (Smith) to family Formicidae were included in order Hymenoptera. Chrysomya rufifacies and M. pilosula
first arrived to the carcass. Chrysomya rufifacies’s adults, larvae and pupae dominated the early stages (fresh and bloat)
of decomposition. Histers sp adults, larvae and pupae dominated the later stages (active decay and advanced decay) of
decomposition. For a case study of death, this research will be helpful to investigate of crimes in tropical regions of
Pakistan for forensic entomologists, as biological indicator and scientific evidence in court.
Key Words: Carcass, free-ranging urban dog, identification, insect-fauna, key, tropical region.
INTRODUCTION
Mardan district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP),
Pakistan was set up as an independent district after
the name of its headquarter town in 1937. It is
consisted of two Tehsils: Mardan and Takht Bhai. It
lies between 34°-05’ and 34°-32’ north latitude, 71°48’ and 72°-25' east longitude and altitude of 283 m
(928 ft) in the south west (Olive Oil Pakistan, 2001).
It is bounded on the east by Swabi, west by
Charsadda, north by Buneer districts and Malakand
protected area, south by Nowshera district. The total
area of the district is 1632 km. The summer season
is extremely hot. A steep rise of temperature is
observed during May-June. Even during JulySeptember recorded quite high temperatures. During
May-June dust storms are frequent at night. The
temperature reaches its maximum in June 45.50 °C
(Figure-1) Perveen and Khan, 2013a).
Perveen et al. (2013)
Fig.1(a)
Figure 1 Map of Takht-i-Bahi, Mardan, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan where the free-ranging
urban dog, Canis domesticus (L.) carcass was
placed for observation of ecological succession of
insect faunal pattern during 15-25 May 2011: a) map
of Pakistan showing Khyber Pakhtunkhwa; b) map of
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa showing Takht-i-Bahi; c) map
of
Takht-i-Bahi (encircle) (Perveen and Khan,
2013b).
The study of insect’s communities as biological
indicators for death of an organism since time
passed introduce in forensic entomology. Forensic
means that the entomologist used the scientific
methods to solve crimes. They examine evidences in
order to help the law enforcement agencies in
solving crimes. Entomology is the study of insects’
biology (Collins, 2001). Research for this purpose is
conducted across the world. It is a very fast growing
field of research and study. For investigation of a
case, the entomologists understand insects’
succession patterns through identification of insects
and their stages during their life cycles in different
habitats. The first such case was observed in 1235
AD (after departure) in China, where the first study of
flies’ attraction to blood was used to solve a murder
investigation (Goff, 2000; Benecke, 2001). Forensic
entomology is highly accurate for 72 h after death
and in some cases the last method that can be used
for making post mortem interval (PMI) estimations
(Kashyap and Pillai 1989). A definite ecological
succession occurs among the insects’ communities
on decomposing carcasses. A particular group of
insects characterizes each stage of decomposition.
Each of which has a particular arrival, which allows it
to occupy a particular niche (Payne, 1965). Blowfly,
Chrysomya spp and fleshfly, Parasarcophaga spp
are observed one of the important forensic indicators
during the initial stages of carcass decomposition
(Lord, 1990). The larvae of blowfly, C. rufifaies, C.
vicinia, C. megacephala and flesh fly, P. ruficornis,
P. dux, P. albiceps consume maximum carcass.
Fig. 1(b)
Fig.1(c)
Blowfly, C. ruficaies, C. vicinia and C. megacephala
lay eggs, while flesh fly P. ruficornis, P. albiceps, P.
dux, deposit larvae in natural body orifices. These
larvae quickly invade the most of regions of the dead
body (Payne, 1965; Putman, 1977; Putman, 1983;
Goff, 1993; Tantawi et al., 1996).
Many factors can influence the normal time
sequences of carcass faunal succession. To get the
most accurate post martin interval (PMI) estimations
knowledge of these factors are important. This would
reduce assumptions made by a forensic
entomologist (Catts and Haskell, 1990). These
factors include locations and circumstances in which
death could occur. The environment in which a body
found is important such as arid environments
(Galloway et al., 1989) or desert (Schoenly and
Reid, 1982; Hegazi et al., 1991), tropical
environmental regions (Cornaby, 1974) or intertidal
zones (Davis and Goff, 2000).
Insects are often reared in laboratories under
constant temperature and humidity to determine the
time required for their development, while in nature,
these insects are exposed to fluctuating
temperatures, humidity and rainfall, which may
hasten, retard, or have no effect on the rate of
development (Beck, 1983). When a body is found or
a crime scene is investigated, the presence or lack
of insects can provide many clues as to what
actually happened (Anderson & Vanlaerhoven
1996).
Forensic entomologists systematize the knowledge
of arthropod succession in human corpses
(Greenberg and Kunich, 2002). Dr. Bergeret Arbois
in 1850 in Paris was the first westerner to use
insects as forensic indicators. He performed an
autopsy on the body of a child. He found that a flesh
fly had deposited larvae in 1848 and mites had laid
eggs in the dried corpse in 1849 (Hall, 1974).
Mégnin (1894) published “La Fauna des cadavers”
Key for Identification of Insect-Fauna of the freeranging Urban Dog Carcass in tropical region of Pakistan
for the medical and legal professionals that
entomological data could assist in forensic
investigations. He established the science of forensic
entomology (Greenberg and Kunich, 2002).
Niezabitowski (1902) was the first man to study
insects on carrion in the Russia. His observations
differed from others making doubts on the
application of forensic entomology in Russian empire
(Greenberg and Kunich, 2002). The Ruxton case in
1935, police was informed of human remains
discovered in a river near Edinburgh. Two bodies
were reassembled and proved to be Mrs Ruxton and
her children’s nurse, Mary Rogerson. The date on
which the remains were deposited was established
rd
by the presence of 3 instar maggots whose age
was estimated at 12-14 days by Dr Mearns. This
evidence agreed with, corroborated other evidence,
and led to the conviction of Dr Ruxton (Lane and
Brian, 1992).
Carvalho and Linhares (2001) examined the process
of corpse decomposition in any death investigation
by using insect evidence. The postmortem changes
in soft tissues usually give an idea and the timeframe
of an individual has been dead, the decomposition
modification can considerably change death time
estimates. Bodies of animals after death subjected to
insects that dominate the whole body and
accelerating the decomposition rate. Most frequent
factors affected in PMI estimates such as
temperature, burial depth and insect’s access to
body were fully noted. Dipterans were the insects of
greatest forensic interest and their factors inhibited
or favoured colonization. Dipterans development
was a necessary pre-requisite for estimating the PMI
using entomological data. The objective of present
research is to establish key for identification of
insect-fauna of C. domesticus carcass in tropical
region of Pakistan, which can be used as a tool for
forensic entomology, in future.
MATERIAL AND MATHODS
The study was conducted to prepare the key for
identification of the ecological succession pattern of
the insect fauna appeared with the dead body
(carcass) of free-ranging urban dog, Canis
domesticus (L.) was placed in tropical region,
Mardan, Pakistan (Ali et al., 2013; Perveen and
Khan, 2013a and b). It can be used as an important
tool in legal investigations in forensic entomology.
An alive C. domesticus was caught from the street of
Takht Bhai, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
and it was killed by chloroform, then its carcass was
kept under the wire gaze cage (length: 54”; width:
36”; height: 32”) in the ground of Government
Degree College, Takht Bhai, Mardan under natural
environmental condition during 15-25 May 2011 (ca.
11 d). A heavy stone ca 5 kg was put on the cage to
119
ensure that other living scavengers did not disturb it.
The wire gaze cage was removed aside at every
sampling time. Temperature, humidity and rain-fall
variations were noted 3 times a day during the
collection period (Ali et al., 2013; Perveen and Khan,
2013ab).
Different insect species with their developmental
stages were collected 3 times in a day, i.e., morning
(ca. 0700-0800 h), noon (ca. 1200-1300 h) and
evening (ca. 1800-1900 h), which appeared on
carcass of C. domesticus. Adults of insects were
collected through insects net while larvae, pupae
and beetles crawling were collected through forceps.
It was ensured that all species of insects with their
developmental stages were sampled during study
period of fleshy tissues of dog carcass exhausted.
Gloves and mask were used to secure the self-body.
Insects were kept in transparent glass jars, killed by
spraying esbiothrin (d-trans allethrin: 1.26 g/kg) and
Permithrin (0.50 g/kg) (Mortein®) Reckit Benckiser,
Karachi, Pakistan, pinned and arranged in an insect
box, however, developmental stages were preserved
in 70% ethanol (C2H5OH) with few drops of glycirine
(Ali et al., 2013; Perveen and Khan, 2013a and b).
The photographs of adult insects and their
developmental stages were taken through digital
camera (5 mega pixel, Sony, Tokyo, Japan).
Collected insects were identified by using forensic
methods, already preserved specimen, internet,
literature available, keys and expert entomologists
on the bases of their characteristics (Dodge, 1953;
Seago, 1953) and a key was established for the
same.
RESULTS
During the present research, insect life cycles begun
within minute of death of C. domesticus, which acts
as precise clock. Two-time dependent processes for
the calculation of death time period was involved in
this research. The first was the growth of insect
larvae that feed upon the carcass. Therefore, the
age of a larva provided a minimum time since death.
The second was the succession of carrion arthropod
species found in the body, which had the potential of
providing both a minimum and maximum estimated
post mortem interval (PMI). Post mortem interval
estimations were based on the body decomposition,
insects faunal evidence analysis and the
environmental influences (Figure 2).
Perveen et al. (2013)
Table 3 The arrival schedule of insect community on carcass of the free-ranging urban dog, Canis domesticus
st
th
(L.) was observed during 5 different decomposition stages (fresh: 1 -12 h: stage existed just after death to
th
th
th
th
th
th
th
th
th
12 hour of death; bloated: 13 -48 h; active: 49 -96 h; advanced: 97 -144 h; dry: 145 -265 h) in tropical
region, i.e., Takht-i-Bahi, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 15-25 May 2011
SNo
Arrival time
Pictorial of stages
1.
within 10 minutes of
death
fresh
2.
within 13 minutes of
death
fresh
Flesh fly
Parasarcophaga ruficornis
(Meigen, 1826)
Order: Diptera
Family: Sarcophagidae
3.
within 15 minutes of
death
fresh
House fly
Musca domestica
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae
4.
within 17 minutes of
death
fresh
Blow fly
Chrysomya megacephala
(Fabricius, 1794)
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
5.
after 25 minutes of
death
fresh
Jummper ant
Myrmecia pilosula
(Smith, 1858)
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Formicidae
6.
40 minutes of death
and not found in
evening
fresh
Hornet wasp
Vespa orientalis
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Vespidae
7.
24 -25 h after death
bloated
Cheese skipper
Piophila casei
(Linnaeus, 1758)
Order: Diptera
Family: Piophilidae
th
th
Pictorial of
insects fauna
Common names/scientific
names/authority/year
Blow fly
Chrysomya rufifacies
(Meigen, 1826)
Order: Diptera
Family: Calliphoridae
Key for Identification of Insect-Fauna of the freeranging Urban Dog Carcass in tropical region of Pakistan
th
8.
47 h after death
bloated
Hide beetles
Dermestes maculatus
(Geer, 1774)
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Dermestidae
9.
47 h and 10
after death
bloated
Clown beetles
Hister sp.
(Gullenhal, 1808)
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Histeridae
10.
71 h after death
th
active
Ham beetle
Necrobia rufipes
(Fabricus,1781)
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Cleridae
11.
81 h after death
th
active
Skin beetle
Trox sp.
(Harold, 1872)
Order: Coleoptera
Family: Trogidae
th
th
minute
(Ali et al., 2013)
( Perveen & Khan,2013b)
2013b
Figure 2 Generalized death decomposition scenario modified to facilitate the present research
(Catts and Haskell, 1990).
121
Perveen et al. (2013)
Figure 3: The percentage of collected insect species belonging to 3 orders associated with the free- death;
th
th
th
th
th
th
th
th
bloated: 13 -48 h; active: 49 -96 h; advanced: 97 -144 h; dry: 145 -265 h) in tropicalregion,
i.e., Takht Bhai, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 15-25 May 2011.
Key to the insect fauna associated to carcass of C. domesticus
The identification key to the insect fauna associated to carcass of C. domesticus during 5 different
decomposition stages:
Insects identification of the free-ranging urban dog, Canis domesticus (L.) carcass
1a
Chitineous exoskeleton, jointed legs, wings present or absent………….………….
…………………………………………………………………………Phylum Arthropoda
1a(i)
Wings transparent or hard with 1 or 2 pairs, antenna may hidden or 1 or 2 pairs
segmented and various shapes present between eyes, 3 pairs jointed leg
……………………………………………………………………………….Class Insecta
1a(ii)
Body flattened, 1 pair of transparent wings, legs modified for jumping, mouth parts
piercing and sucking type, tarsi 4-5 segments, antennae hidden, halters
present……………………………………………………………………………..Order Diptera
1b
One pair of wings, greyish or yellowish abdomen, body length varies……….…………….2
2a(1b)(i)
Greyish lines running down the length of their thorax, no hypopleural bristles, wing veins
6 and 7 short and do not move towards each other.……………………….Family Mucidae
2a(1b)(ii)
A greyish fly, about 6-7 mm in length, 4 narrow black stripes along its thorax and a
greyish or yellowish stripe along its abdomen....…………………...... Musca domestica
2b
Abdomen and usually thorax with shining metallic, one pair of wings halteres present
……....................................................................................................................................3
3a(2b)
Abdomen and thorax blue, green or bronze …...………..…………Family Calliphoridae
3a(2b)(i)
The anterior spiracle being white to pale yellow...………………….Chrysomyia rufifacies
3a(2b)(ii)
The anterior spiracle orange to black-brown in colour............Chrysomyia megacephala
3b
Abdomen and thorax with different coloration, conspicuous dark vittae on gray
background………………………………………………….…………………………………….4
4a(3b)(i)
Abdomen and thorax dull gray or brown and conspicuous dark, mesonotum with
conspicuous dark vittae on gray background.……..…..................Familiy Sarcophagidae
Key for Identification of Insect-Fauna of the freeranging Urban Dog Carcass in tropical region of Pakistan
123
4a(3b)(ii)
Abdomen and thorax dull gray or brown, thorax with 3 stripes down it……………
……………………………………………………………………… Parasarcophaga ruficornis
4b
5a(4b)(i)
Small, black flies and broken wings…………………………………………………………….5
Small black flies, costal vein of the wing appears broken at one point………………………
…………………………………………………………….......................... Family Piophilidae
5a(4b)(ii)
Shiny, 2.5-4.5 mm in length, black in colour…………………………………. Piophila casei
5b
Wings thickened, cross veins absent and elytra present…..…..………………………..…..6
6a(5b)
Front pair of wings thickened hard, elytra shortened, one or more abdominal segments
from above (beetles), hind legs not modified for jumping..................................Coleoptera
Antennae segmented, lack simple eye digging legs…………………………..……………..7
6b
7a(6b)(i)
Antennae with last 3 segments with clubbed shaped, tarsi simple, posterior coxae dilated
into plates...........................................................................................Family Dermestidae
7a(6b)(ii)
Their antennae with 5-11 segments, ending in a club, the head made of 2 or 3 segments,
coxa on the front leg conical and sticks out prominently from the coxal cavity
……………………………………………………………………………Dermestes maculates
7b
8a(7b)(i)
Small round body, hard shiny eletra…………………..………………………………………..8
Hind tarsi 5 segmented, antennae elbowed and clavate………………..Family Histeridae
8a(7b)(ii)
Small, shiny black beetle, hard exoskeleton, often leathery or sculptured texture, more
or less oval shape, antennae elbowed (geniculate), the last segments of the antennae
modified obvious club, legs with flat tibiae……………..…………………………Histers sp
8b
Normal size and posterior coxa small…………………………………………………………9
9a(8b)(i)
Posterior coxae not dilated into plates, partly protecting femora, posterior coxae flat, not
prominent, covered by femora in repose, tarsi with 4 segments of normal
size…..………………………………………….……………………………… Family Cleridae
9a(8b)(ii)
Beetles usually brightly colored or at least some part of their body, elongated and
cylindrical in shape, appear to have a neck, because the first part of the thorax (the
pronotum) less broad than their elytra, the adults hairy.......................... Necrobia rufipes
9b
Dull, rough and hairy elytra…………………………………………………………………….10
10a(9b)(i)
Medium size, dull brownish or muddy, rough and hairy elytra……………...Family Trogidae
10a(9b)(ii)
Dorsal surface of the body rough and brown, elytra hairy, tip of antennae flat, adult legs
not broad and modified for digging……………………………………………………..Trox sp
The free-ranging urban dog, Canis domesticus (L.)
carcass decomposition in tropical region, i.e., Takht
Bhai, Mardan Takht Bhai, Mardan, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan during 15-25 May 2011 was
characterized by 5 stages (Bharti and Singh, 2003)
with their duration observed in hours, i.e., fresh (1st12th h) stage existed just after death to 12th hour of
th
th
th
th
death, bloated (13 -48 h), active (49 -96 h),
th
th
th
th
advanced (97 -144 h) and dry (145 -265 h) and
the ecological succession pattern of insect species
collected were identified into 11 species of 3 orders
in descending order: Diptera: 5 species >
Coleoptera: 4 species > Hymenoptera: 2 species
(Figure 1).The arrival schedule of insects’ species on
the carcass of C. domesticus was: C. rufifacies came
within 10 minutes of death, P. ruficornis within 13
minutes of death, M. domestica within 15 minutes of
death, C. megacephala within 17 minutes of death,
M. pilosula after 25 min of death, V. orientalis, 40
min of death and not found in evening, P. casei 2425 h after death, D. maculates 47 h after death,
Hister sp 47:10 h after death, N. rufipes 71 h after
death and Trox sp 81 h after death.
Perveen et al. (2013)
DISCUSSION
In the present study of insect fauna identification for
legal investigation, carcass of the free-ranging urban
dog, Canis domesticus (L.) was placed in Mardan
(tropical region), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Decomposition of C. domesticus carcass was
divided into fresh, bloat, active decay, advanced
decay and dry stages. Bharti and Singh (2003)
examined the insect fauna succession on the pig,
Sus domesticus L. carcass in India, which included 5
aforementioned stages. In which 38 species were
recorded including 4 order and 13 families. Shi et al.
(2009) observed the insect fauna succession on the
rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus (L.) carcass in China, 4
stages of decomposition were divided into fresh,
boat, decay and dry. In which 49 species were
recorded of 3 orders and 15 families. Vitta et al.
(2007) reported that the insect associated with S.
domesticus carcass in Thailand. They divided the
study into the above mentioned 5 stages of
decomposition. They recorded 10 species from 2
orders and 9 families. At the present, 3 orders, 10
families and 11 species were found and in C.
domesticus carcass, flies’ numbers were abundance,
therefore, the fastened rate of decomposition.
However, due to fast decomposition rate of carcass,
the most of insect species were not arrived. If the
flesh tissues were not quickly removed, may be
more diversity of insects would be observed.
In the present research, collected species, C.
rufifacies, and C. megacephala were belonging to
family Calliphoridae and P. ruficornis was belonging
to family Sarcophagidae, however, M. domistica was
belonging to family Mucidae, moreover, P. casei was
belonging to family Piophilidae, further, D. maculates
was belonging to family Dermestidae, furthermore,
Hister sp. was belonging to family Histeridae and N.
rufipes was belonging to family Cleridae, however,
Trox sp. was belonging to family Trogidae,
furthermore, V. crabro was belonging to family
Vaspidae, also, M. pilosula was belonging to family
Formicidae. Carvalho et al. (2000) reported insects’
succession on S. domesticus carcass. They reported
11 species belonging to 2 orders and 7 families.
Chrysomya albiceps, C. putoria, C. vomitoria, H.
segmentaria, H. semidiaphana were belonging to
family Calliphoridae, however, P. intermutans was
belonging to family Sarcophagidae, moreover, O.
chalcogaster was belonging Muscidae, further, P.
casei was belonging to family Piophilidae,
furthermore, D. maculates and S. Oxyletrum
disciolle, were belonging to family Dermestidae,
however, N. rufipes was belonging to family
Cleridae. Both studies reported diverse fauna from
carcasses belonging to different families of Insecta.
In the present study, it was observed that the
average temperature was 35.35±1.54 °C (results
were not shown) and it played important role in
development of adults, decomposition rate and
insect succession. Byrd and Butler (1997) reared
larvae at different temperature 15, 17, 25 and 35 ºC.
Flies larvae emerged between 190-134 h at 17 and
25 ºC and they emerged in 38 h at 35 ºC.
Hewadikaram and Goff (1991) reported faunal
succession in two S. domesticus carcasses. The rate
of decomposition was more in natural environment
that in controlled. Fast rate of decomposition was
due to high external and internal temperatures,
which were equals. In control, internal temperature
was low than external. More insect were exposed in
test than control. Ames and Turner (2003) examined
that development of larvae of C. rufifacies and
decomposition was low at low temperature than at
high temperature. Therefore, high temperature
played important role and it increased insect
succession rates.
In the present study, average humidity was 38.58%
(results were not shown), it was observed that high
and low humidity produced low and high
temperatures, respectively, which had effect on
adults and larvae of insects. Denno and Cothran
(1976) reported in their study of competitive
interactions
and
ecological
strategies
of
sarcosaprophagous fly, Sarcophaga carnaria (L.)
and calliphorid flies, Calliphora vomitoria (L.) on O.
cuniculus carrions. In which they concluded that
humidity affected flies arrival and their larval
activities. Tantawi et al. (1996) studied the arthropod
succession exposed on O. cuniculus carrion. It is
concluded that humidity can be made tissues a
suitable
wet
conditioned
environment
for
decomposition but it was stopped larvae growth and
insect activities.
In the present study, rainfall was not occurred in
fresh and bloat stages of decomposition (results
were not shown) and was noted a great diversity of
flies species. The rainfall was occurred in active
decay and advanced decay stages, which was
brought fast decay stages. Ahmed and Ahmed
(2009) reported by comparing dry and wet seasons
of decomposition in the cadavers. They showed that
rainfall and wet season had disturbed flies activities.
The difference was 17% from dry season. Therefore,
in rainfall, insects stopped the activities of search for
food, mate and oviposition that fasted in dry season.
Rainfall increased the rate of decomposition of
carrions than in wet season. Large numbers of
larvae were collected in dry season than rainfall. It
also induced larval migration from cadaver.
CONCLUSION
The insects collected from C. domesticus were
identified into 11 species of 3 orders, however, the
highest number of species was belonging to order
Diptera, i.e., 5 and the lowest number of species to
order Hymenoptera, i.e., 2. Each collected species
Key for Identification of Insect-Fauna of the freeranging Urban Dog Carcass in tropical region of Pakistan
was belonging to each separate family of 3 orders
except family Calliphoridae of Diptera contained 2
species of blow flies, i.e., C. rufifacies and C.
megacephala. The key for identification of insectfauna of C. domesticus carcass in tropical region of
Pakistan was prepared based on characteristics of
insects.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended to study indoors, outdoor,
endemic and exotic insects’ fauna of different
regions of Pakistan. The keys for identification of the
ecological succession pattern of the insect fauna
appeared with the dead body (carcass) of different
animals in various geographical regions should be
prepared to solve the criminal homicide, murder,
manslaughter cases in the societies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr Ather Rafi, Senior
Scientist, National Insect Museum, NARC,
Islamabad for identification of insects. The authors
are grateful to Officials, Department of Zoology,
Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan for helping
and providing laboratory facilities throughout the
present research. The experiments comply with the
current laws of the institution and country in which
they were performed.
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CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
DISTRIBUTION AND TAXONOMY OF TRIBE OEDIPODINI (ORTHOPTERA,
ACRIDOIDEA) FROM PAKISTAN
BARKAT ALI BUGHIO, RIFFAT SULTANA & MUHAMMAD SAEED WAGAN
Department of Zoology, University of Sindh. Jamshoro, Pakistan
barkatali2009@gmail.com, riffatumer@hotmail.com
(Received for publication: 10.10.2013)
ABSTRACT
At the present 04 species of tribe Oedipodini i-e Oedipoda coerulescens Linnaeus, O. fadtshenkoi pamirica; Saussure,
O.miniataatripes, Bei-Bienko and Mioscirtus wagneri rogenhoferi, Saussure were collected from agricultural field. In
addition to this, detail genitalia study was also carried out. The result of present study will be helpful for control planning
agencies in near future.
Key Words: Tribe, Oedipodini, genitalia, species, control, Sindh, Pakistan.
INTRODUCTION
Walker (1870) was first established a Tribe
Oedipodini as a family in 1870 with Oedipodia as
type genus. Latter on Dirsh (1956 & 1961) also
treated it as subfamily. The grasshoppers of tribe are
commonly known as saxicoles due to inhabitants of
rocky areas .They usually considered as pest of
agricultural fields and pasture lands. The members
of this tribe causes damage to many crops i.e maize
and seedlings of cotton and also feeds on leaves of
common weeds like Baru and on cabbage leaves
during winter (Wahla, 1959). Cotes (1893)
recorded a serious damage Oedipodinae in
different parts of Sindh. Previously many Coworkers i-e Kirby; 1914, Mischenko; 1936 and Biebienko & Mischenko 1951, Uvarov 1921, 1966,
Dirsh, 1975, Ahmed, 1980, Ritchie, 1981, Wagan,
1990, Baloch,2000, Tokhai, 1997, Walker, 1922,
Moeed 1966, Riffat et al., 2012 & Barkat et al.,
2013 carried out work on morphological and genitalia
components of grasshoppers but after this there was
no update record was available on this tribe in detail.
It was therefore felt necessary and an attempt has
been made on the distribution; taxonomy and phallic
complex of Oedipodini from this region. Hopefully
finding of present study will be useful to make
prediction about the relationship and for the purpose
of accurate identification.
Because of this possible reason the studies has
been carried out on the distribution, taxonomy and
phallic complex of these insects; that will help us to
make prediction about the relationship and for the
purpose of accurate identification.
MATERIAL AND MATHODS
COLLECTION, KILLING AND PRESERVATION OF
SAMPLES
The specimens were collected from agricultural
crops, herbs and shrubs along road sides with the
help of standard entomological net(8.89 cms in
diameter and 50.8 cms in length). The collection
were made during the year 2009-11.About 552
specimens of grasshoppers were collected. After the
collection specimens have been brought to the
laboratory killed and preserved by adopting the
methods described by Vickery and Kevan (1983)
Riffat and Wagan (2012)
STUDY OF GENITALIA
For the study of male genitalia Kevan and Kniper
(1961) method was adopted. After relaxing supraanal plate of the specimen was raised smoothly with
the help of needle cut laterally and whole phallic
complex was taken out. The phallic complex was
immersed in 10% hot potassium hydroxide solution
for 5to 10 hours in order to remove unsclerotized
and non chitinous tissues and for female genitalia.
Randell (1963) method has been adopted. After
relaxing the insect as per method mentioned above
with the help of fine scissors an incision was made
Bughio et al. (2013)
128
on each side of the abdomen where the tergum
meets the sub genital plates, and continued for
enough anteriorly to allow removed of the extra plate
in the neat operation. The sub genital plate was then
depressed with forceps and a third cut made at its
base were removed with the sub genital plates. The
spermatheca lies just above the vagina was also
removed. The dissected sub genital plate and
spermatheca was then washed with 10 % potassium
hydroxide solution and examined in water and stored
as above.
consulting named collections available in Sindh
Entomology Museum at Department of Zoology
University of Sindh Jamshoro Pakistan. The
diagrams were drawn with the help of “Ocular square
Reticule” placed in right eye piece of the
stereoscopic dissecting binocular microscope. All the
measurements are given in the millimeter. The
scheme of measurement followed is that of Hollis
(1965).The terminology with regard to phallic
complex and female genitalia is adopted from
Dirsh(1956 ).
The collected specimens were identified through the
works of Kirby (1914) and Chopard (1969) and by
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Key to the species and sub species of Oedipoda
1. Inner aspects of hind femur not black, dark band narrow, wings at base violet, hind tibia yellow with dull
bluish apices ,Epiphallus (Fig,II- a) bridge thick, anterior projections placed laterally with pointed acute
apices, posterior projections expanded with deep rectangular process, ancorae straight upwardly
but angularly rounded at base -------------------------------------------------------.fadtshenkoi pamirica.
Saussure.
--- Inner part of ventral aspects of hind femur black Epiphallus with bridge narrow, slightly crescent in form
…….…………………………………………………………………………………2
2. Wings bluish at base, dark band short with weak radial arm, hind tibia with bluish shading. Epiphallus
(Fig–III a) with anterior projections laterally protruding with sub-acute boundaries, apodemes stout
large rounded towards apex, rami flattened lobe like, laterally with furrow, gonophore process straight.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------coerulescens. Linnaeus.
3. Wings bright rose at base, dark band with large radial arm ,hind tibia dark blue. Epiphallus (Fig IV-a) with
anterior projection fairly wide but with some protruding rounded boundaries, apodemes moderate
produced anterior with club-shaped process, rami larger and lobe like in form, gonophore process
very wide at middle but with truncated apices ------------------------------------.miniata atripes .Bei-Bienko.
4.
Pronotum smooth, dorsal carina of hind femur not dented, dark band of wigns without arm,epiphallus
(Fig V -a) bridge straight, and forming a narrow strip between the lateral plates. Anterior projection
slightly upward, with pointed sub acute apices; posterior projections as well as expanded with externofurrow at base. Ancorae smaller, slightly concave, having rounded apices at apex, oval rounded at
base……………………………………...……………………………………….
mioscirtus
Saussure.
Oedipoda fadtshenkoi pamirica Saussure,
(Fig. I. a, Fig.II. a-d)
Description:
Small in size. Antennae filiform 22-24 segments
longer than head and pronotum together. Head sub
– globular, shorte than pronotum. Fastigium of
vertex elongated, wide depressed in middle, lateral
carinulae highly marked, raised with
obtuse
apices.
Fastigial foveolae hexagonal; roundly
sloping over frons; frons vertical and straight;
frontal
ridge wide and flat. Pronotum slightly
constricted in prozona, rough tuberculate; median
carina in prozona raised
and slightly sharp;
intersected by posterior sulcus only. Prozona with
distinct oblique carinae behined the anterior margin.
Tegmina and wings fully developed with obtuse
rounded apices. Hind femur short, robust wide and
flattened, base with expanded upper carina. Hind
tibia slender, with 10 inner and 9 outer black tipped
spines. claws shorter. Arolium small.
Phallic complex:
Apical valve of penis larger than the valve of
cingulum, penis valve thin, narrowing at apex with
rounded sub acute apices. Valve of cingulum
shorter than the valve of penis, slightly wide at
base, straight upward with acute rounded apices.
Arch of cingulum welldeveloped, incurved. Basal
Distribution and Taxonomy of tribe Oedipodini (Orthoptera, Acridoidea) from Pakistan
bridge fold fairly wide and thickening. Apodemes
shorter, stout, produced anteriorly with sub angular
pointed apices. Zygoma small somewhat thick. Rami
elongated, flap like inflections extending into the
sheath dorsally. Gonopre process, straight thick at
middle, with obtuse rounded apices. Ejaculatory
duct larger and produced anteriorly. The epiphallus
bridge shaped, bridge straight and thickening,
forming an narrow strip between the lateral plates.
Anterior projections laterally placed; with obtuse
pointed acute apices; posterior projections expanded
with deep shallow rectangular processe. Ancorae
moderate, straight upwardly, with rounded acute
apices at apex, but angularly rounded at base. Lophi
straight laterally, diverging sharply from the lateral
plates, apical lobes half and one time longer than the
posterior processes;
apical lobes
with oval
rounded apices . Besides the lateral plates small
oval sclerites.
129
Generally dirty brown in color. One third of antennae
grey, apex brown. Tegmina semitransparent with
two brown
bands; apex membranous. Wings at
base violet, extreme base with bluish tinge, dark
band weak, apex clear. Hind femora on inner
aspect black with one light band. Hind tibia yellow
with dull bluish apices.
Female:
Cerci conical, wide and round at base, apices nearly
pointed. Ovipositor short, stout and robust, valves
curved, lower valve with outer lateral projection.
Spermatheca:
The spermatheca pre–apical diverticulum larger,
straight upwardly with rounded apices at apex.
Apical diverticulum sac like enlarged, wide and
rounded at base.
General Coloration:
Table: I: showing the measurement of various body parameters of Oedipoda fadtshenkoi pamirica
Body Parameters
Male (n = 12)
(Mean ± Sd)
(Range)
Female (n = 9)
(Mean ±Sd)
Length of Antennae
Length of Pronotum
6.83 ±2.35
4.04 ± 0.46
6-8
4-4.1
7.22 ±1.13
5.02 ± 0.63
7-8.2
5-5.1
Length of Tegmina
16.91 ±3.63
16-19
19.77±0.39
19-22
Maximumwidthof Tegmina
Length of hind Femur
Maximum width of hind Femur
3.2 ± 1.24
8.23 ± 1.35
3.19± 1.32
3-4
8-9
3-4
4.58 ± 1.68
11.26± 1.47
4.14± 0.94
4-5
11-12.2
4-5
Length of hind tibia
Length of Body
8.03 ± 0.93
16.5 ± 2.23
8-8.1
16-18
10.03 ± 0.81
21.77 ± 4.85
10-10.1
20-24
(Range)
Remarks: This subspecies is very closely related to O. coerulescens ( Linnaeus ) on the basis of
graceful body form and coloration but can easily be separated from the same in having wings violet
at base, dark band few weak with clear apex. Hind femora on inner aspect black with one light band
and by other characters as noted in keys and description.
(Fig. I. b, Fig.III. a-d)
and 10 outer black tipped spines. claws shorter.
Arolium small, moderate.
Description:
Phallic complex:
Of small size. Antennae filiform, about 20-22
segments, longer than head and pronotum together.
Head sub globular, shorter than pronotum. Fastigium
of vertex depressed, with lateral raised carinulae,
obtusely passing over frons. Fastigial foveolae
large;frontal ridge flat and slightly narrow. Pronotum
rough, constricted in prozona; median carina high
and sharp in prozona. Tegmina and wings fully
developed, with acute rounded apices. Hind femora
short, stout but not very wide, dorsal carina notched
before apical end. Hind tibia slender, with 11 inner
Apical valve of penis more over parallel to the
valve of cingulum; valve of penis vertically
upwarded, slightly thick tapered at apex with
pointed sub acute apices. valve of cingulum
concave with outer margins at base, narrowing at
apex with angular rounded apices. Arch of cingulum
well developed, slightly up raised, incurved
outwardly. Basal bridge fold angularly sloped down.
Apodemes larger, stout, produced anteriorly, convex,
rounded with sub acute apices at apex. Zygoma not
ii) Oedipoda coerulescens
Linnaeus
Bughio et al. (2013)
130
so visible. Rami remarkable lobe like flattened
extending
dorsally, with
externo-denticulate
laterally. Gonopore process straight with sub acute
apices. Ejaculatory duct larger and produced
anteriorly .The epiphallus bridge shaped, bridge
narrow ,thin ,curved slightly crescent in shape.
Anterior projections protruding laterally with pointed
acute boundries, posteriorly widened with deep
shallow externo - acutangular transverse processes.
Ancorae straight laterally, moderate and slightly
incurved at apex with pointed apices; wide at
base, having angularly rounded processes. Lophi
moderate, laterally placed, with rounded apical lobes
slightly inwards ending
into
small, deep
emarginations with rounded margins. Besides the
lateral plates small oval circular sclerites.
General Coloration:
Generally dusty brown in color. Tegmina
semitransparent, with two light bands, apical end
transparent. Wings bluish at base, dark band week
and with a short radial arm. Hind femur on inner
side black brown and with one light band. Hind tibia
paler, with light bluish shading.
Female: Cerci short and conical, with rounded tips.
Ovipositor small, valves with curved apices, pads of
ventral valves smooth.
Spermatheca:
The spermatheca pre –apical diverticulum shorter,
thick with rounded acute apices. Apical diverticulum
sac like broadened, angularly rounded at base.
Table. II showing the measurement of various body parameters of Oedipoda coerulescens
Body Parameters
Male (n = 06)
Female (n = 08)
(Mean ± Sd)
(Range)
(Mean ±Sd)
(Range)
Length of Antennae
Length of Pronotum
7.06 ± 0.37
4.16±0.35
7-7.2
4.1-4.2
8.45 ± 1.63
5.25 ± 1.21
8-9.2
5-6
Length of Tegmina
Maximum width of Tegmina
17.33 ±1.14
4.06 ± 0.26
17-18
4-4.1
18.62± 1.33
5.15 ± 0.24
18-19
5-5.2
Length of hind Femur
10.13± 0.23
10-10
11.66 ± 1.30
11.1-12
Maximum width of hind Femur
4.2± 0.34
4-4.3
4.8 ± 1.09
4.3-5.1
Length of hind tibia
8.6 ±1.46
8-9.2
9.37 ± 3.74
10-11
Length of Body
16.5± 1.22
16-17
22.5 ±2.44
21-23
Remarks:
This species is very closely related to O.
fedtshenkoi fedtshenkoi (Sauss) in having general
body form but can be separated by median
carinae high and sharp in prozona slightly low in
metazona; and tegmina with two light bands
wings bluish at base dark band weak with a
short radial arm. Hind femur on inner side black
brown and with one light band. Where as in
former member winge light crimson red at base
and with a band.
vertical and rough; frontal ridge sulcate, slightly
excurved between antennae with obtuse lateral
carinae .Pronotum of medium size, rough and
tuberculated, median carina raised in prozona,
sharp, deeply intersected by posterior sulcus.
Tegmina and wings fully developed, obtusely
rounded at apices. Hind femur wide, dorsal carina
notched before apical end. Hind tibia slender, with
11inner and 10 outer black tipped spines. Claws
shorter. Arolium moderate, rounded.
iii-Oedipoda miniata atripes
(Fig. I. c, Fig.IV. a-d)
Phallic complex:
Bei-Bienko . 1950
Description: Of medium size. Antennae filiform,
about 22 segments, slightly longer than head and
pronotum together. Head subglobular, shorter than
pronotum. Fastigium of vertex large and rounded,
lateral carinulae strongly marked, median carinula
only distinct at posterior
margin, depressed.
Fastigial foveolae rounded, shallow cavity; frons
Apical valve of penis about equal to the valve of
cingulum; some wide at apex with obtuse rounded
apices. Valve of cingulum thick, wide, tapered at
apex with acute rounded apices. Arch of cingulum
large with little raised median process. Basal bridge
fold flattened.
Apodemes moderate little thick,
produced anteriorly, sub rectangular, with clubshaped processes. Zygoma well developed. Rami
Distribution and Taxonomy of tribe Oedipodini (Orthoptera, Acridoidea) from Pakistan
larger, flap lobe like extending as well as dorsally.
Gonopore processes elongated, thickening, wider at
the middle and with truncated apices. Ejaculatory
duct produced anteriorly. The epiphallus bridge
shaped, bridge convex, crescent shaped, narrow,
liked with lateral plates one of each side. Anterior
part of lateral plates fairly wide, with slightly
protruding rounded boundries. Posterior projections
wider, with externo-lateral expansions at base;
actangular. Ancorae large, straight upwarded, with
sub acute rounded apices at apex, but little wide,
incurved at base. Lophi slightly diverging from the
lateral plates; lophi transversely incurved with large
apical lobes, obtuse rounded, ending into small
rounded terminal processes. Besides the lateral
plates small oval circular sclerites.
General Coloration:
131
Generally dark paler brown in color. Tegmina with
two bands, apex membranous. Wings bright rose at
base, dark band narrow, only extended to middle of
the posterior wing margin, black band with large
radial arm, apex colorless and hyaline. Hind femur
inside black, with only one apical light band .Hind
tibia dark blue on inside, inner row of tibial spines
black; near knee joint with a light band.
Female:
Cerci small, conical, widened at base. Ovipositor
short and stout, valves curved, ventral valves at
base with small external lateral projection.
Spermatheca:
The spermatheca pre–apical diverticulum straight
upward, somewhat wider, thickening and with sub
acute rounded apices at apex. Apical diverticulum
sac like, broadened, smoothly rounded at base.
Table.III showing the measurement of various body parameters of Oedipoda miniata atripes
Body Parameters
Male (n = 10)
(Mean ± Sd)
(Range)
Length of Antennae
Length of Pronotum
5.09± 3.47
5.03±0.86
6-9
5-5.1
7.16± 1.12
5.3 ± 1.09
Length of Tegmina
Maximum width of Tegmina
19.16±0.92
4.06± 0.48
19-20
4-4.2
22.84 ± 2.83
4.22 ± 0.94
Length of hind Femur
Maximum width of hind Femur
10.68±1.24
4.03 ± 0.86
10-11
4-4.1
12.5 ± 2.02
5.30 ± 1.08
Length of hind tibia
Length of Body
9.2± 0.89
18.2±1.26
9-10
18-19
10.3 ± 1.42
19.82 ± 9.07
Remarks: This subspecies is very closely related
to O. fedtshenkoi pamirica Saussure, on the basis
of general appearance and in coloration but can
easily be separated in having hind femur wide
dorsal carinae notched before apical end and
wings deep bright rose at base dark band
narrow only extended to middle of the posterior
wing margin. Hind femur inside black with only
one apical light band and by other characters as
noted in keys and description
iv) Mioscirtus wagneri rogenhoferi (Saussure)
(Fig. I. d, Fig.V. a-d)
Description
Body of medium size. Antennae filiform 21-23
segmented, longer than head and pronotum
together. Head
subconical,
shorter
than
pronotum, raised above the level of pronotum,
eyes rounded, situated in the middle part of head.
Fastigium of vertex concave, lateral carinae high,
frontal ridge narrow and flat above. Pronotum
tectiform rugose, tuberculate, median carina
intersected by posterior sulcus only, lateral carinae
Female (n = 12)
(Mean ±Sd)
(Range)
7-8.2
5.1-6
22-25.1
4.1-5
12-14
5.1-6
10.11.2
18-25
absent; posterior margin acutely rounded. Tegmina
and wings fully developed. Hind femur slender. Hind
tibia slender with 9-10 black tipped spines on either
sides.claws shorter. Arolium small.
Phallic complex:
Apical valve of penis slightly longer than that of
valve of cingulum; penis valve lightly thickening,
and wide at apex with rounded sub acute apices.
Valve of cingulum shorter than the valve of penis,
triangular, with middle curved processes, having
rounded apices at apex. Arch of cingulum flat,
smaller. Basal bridge fold thickening and wide.
Apodemes moderate, acute with incurved dorsal
line, that produced into club shaped points
anteriorly, with obtuse rounded tip, having narrow
median part. The epiphallus bridge shaped, bridge
straight, thin and forming a narrow strip between
the lateral plates. Anterior projection slightly upward,
with pointed sub acute apices; posterior projections
as well as expanded with externo-furrow at base.
Ancorae smaller, slightly concave, having rounded
apices at apex, oval rounded at base. Lophi
diverging sharply from the lateral plates, laterally
Bughio et al. (2013)
132
sided,
upwards with incurved
base, directed
anteriorly, with small apical lobes having smooth
rounded sub acute apices, ending in concave
terminal processes. Besides the lateral plates, small
oval circular sclerites. Zygoma small and straight,
remarkable. Gonopore process slightly convex,
thick, wider anteriorly with truncated apices.
Ejaculatory duct, larger broad somewhat and
produced anteriorly.
margin. Wings always yellow colored in male while
yellow or red in female, at base with a crescentshaped dark band. Hind femur dusty brown, with
two small dark bands on its ventral aspects. Hind
tibia with two black and white rings.
Female:
Ovipositor short curved valves, lower valve with
external lateral projection. Cercus short, conical.
Spermatheca:
The spermatheca pre-apical diverticulum smaller,
thick with rounded acute apices
Coloration:
Generally reddish brown in color. Tegmina with a
white spot in between two brown spots at its anterior
Table.IV showing the measurement of various body parameters of Mioscirtus wagneri rogenhoferi
Body Parameters
Male (n = 7)
(Mean ± Sd)
Female (n = 5)
(Range
(Mean ±Sd)
(Range)
)
Length of Antennae
5.62±1.43
5-6.1
7.2-8.0
7.66±1.00
Length of Pronotum
4.14±0.41
4-4.2
4.2-5.0
4.46 ±2.19
Length of Tegmina
16.85±1.68
16-18
22.1-23.0
22.44 ±1.04
Maximum width of Tegmina
3.08 ±0.51
3-3.2
3.3-4.1
3.52 ±0.98
Length of hind Femur
9.14±0.72
9-9.2
12-13.1
12.86 ±0.46
Maximum width of hind Femur
4.15±2.49
3-3.3
4.1-4.2
4.08±0.45
Length of hind tibia
8.14±0.42
8-8.2
10.2-11.0
Length of Body
16.57±1.29
16-17
22-24
10.68 ± 1.05
22.6 ±2.13
Remarks. This subspecies is closely related to M.wagneri wagneri ( Kitt ) in having slender and graceful
body but can easily be separated from the same in having large size and the tegmina also longer
extending up to the middle of hind tibia and by the other characters as noted in keys and
description.
Distribution and Taxonomy of tribe Oedipodini (Orthoptera, Acridoidea) from Pakistan
(a)
(b)
(C)
(d)
Fig.I. (a) Oedipoda fadtshenkoi pamirica Saussure Male (b) Oedipoda coerulescens Linnaeus Female
(c) Oedipoda miniata atripes Bei-Bienko Male (d) Mioscirtus wagneri rogenhoferi Saussure Male
133
134
Bughio et al. (2013)
Fig.II:Oedipoda fadtshenkoi pamirica, genitalia. a) Epiphallus. b) Endophallus and Cingulum lateral view. c)
Same dorsal view. d) Spermatheca.
Fig.III. Oedipoda coerulescens , genitalia.a) Epiphallus. b) Endophallus and Cingulum lateral view.
c) Same dorsal view. d) Spermatheca.
Distribution and Taxonomy of tribe Oedipodini (Orthoptera, Acridoidea) from Pakistan
Fig.IV:
135
Oedipoda miniata atripes, genitalia. a) Epiphallus. b) Endophallus and Cingulum lateral view.
c) Same dorsal view.d) Spermatheca.
Fig.V: Mioscirtus wagneri rogenhoferi , genitalia.a) Epiphallus. b) Endophallus and Cingulum lateral view.
c) Same dorsal view. d) Spermatheca .
Bughio et al. (2013)
136
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 137-148, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
SONGS AND SOUND PRODUCING ORGANS IN CRICKETS
(ORTHOPTERA: GRYLLIDAE) IN AID TO SYSTEMATICS.
NASREEN KHAN1AND IMTIAZ AHMAD2
1*
Department of Zoology, Jinnah University for Woman, Karachi.
Department of Agriculture, University of Karachi, Room No. 15, Biological Research Centre.
E-mail: nasreen_khan2007@yahoo.com, Cell #. 0306-2176289
(Received for publication: 30.11.2013)
ABSTRACT
In the present work different genera and species of family Gryllidae were identified on the basis of male song
patterns and their sound producing organs i.e. pars stridens, tegmina, and plectrum. These characters were
successfully used to separate different species into sibling species, which were previously considered as a single
species and their identification was confirmed without any difficulty and with utmost satisfaction.
Key Words:. Songs, Sound Producing organs, crickets, Orthoptera, Gryllidae
INTRODUCTION
Earlier the species of crickets of the family Gryllidae
were identified worldwide by their external
morphological characters including those of their
external male and female genitalia. Until the
th
beginning of 20 century external morphological
characters including genitalial characters were used
for the identification and classification of crickets.
Different species were separated on the basis of
these characters, but using only these characters,
th
the systematists were not entirely successful. In 20
century the researchers used other evidences
including ecological and behavioral characteristics to
solve many disputes and in this respect the male
songs proved as the most reliable tool to separate
not only normal species but also sibling species.
Different species-specific limitations were observed
in the calling songs of crickets (Bennet-Clark, 1989).
Previously
monospecific
cricket
genus
Pictonemobius Vickery and Jhonston was isolated
on its calling songs characteristics. Morphology and
habitat characters also exhibited that this genus has
at least four sibling species (Scott et al.,
1989).Earlier the researchers did not use the song
characters, due to lack of recording facilities. When
these facilities became available, workers realized
that songs would be the most important reliable
species recognizing characters. Earlier a group of
sibling species were considered as a single species
on the basis of their similar external morphology and
genital components, but when the acoustic
characters were used as taxonomic characters,
these sibling species were identified as different
species and these were considered as the most
reliable and useful characters for their identification.
Most of these species produce a loud sound which
could be heard from a long distance, when
conditions become favourable and helpful to male.
Stridulatory organs are now also considered as
important taxonomic characters for the recognition of
cricket species especially when electron microscope
giving high powered resolution became available. In
stridulum, different structures were studied viz.:
number of teeth in file, structure and density of teeth
per millimeter, size and structure of file and length of
file. These factors were helpful for the taxonomy of
species and these structures have minor but most
sensitive and indeed consistent differences in
different species. A particular species has its
particular number, density and structure of teeth, and
length of file.
The different histories of the several populations
express particular patterns of divergence in song
and external morphology (Tregenza et al,. 2000).
The morphology of east African Cryncus species is
very similar and only male songs are used as reliably
distinguishing characters. When the songs had not
been known, all of them might have been treated as
one species (Otte, 1985).
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
th
Around the beginning of the 20 century the
systematists of this group concentrated on the
calling notes/signals of the males to their conspecific
female partners. This behavioural character was
found most reliable when Fulton (1932) discovered
for the first time that populations of Gryllus
assimilisFabricius in North Carolina, USA produced
four different types of calling songs/signals which
actually were then considered as four different
species and indeed G. assimilis proved to be a
complex of four different sibling species.
Acoustic Characters
Allard (1910) recognized for the first time
Geographical Variation in the sounds of field
crickets. Fulton (1932) was the first worker to use
sound to distinguish cricket species. Chopard (1938)
recognized that songs are produced by males only,
to attract and keep the conspecific female at choice
rate, or to chase male invaders. Acoustic
communication is an important biological character
in crickets, which communicates song to the male
attackers (Chopard, 1938; Huber et al., 1989) Until
the first half of the last century, all United States
Gryllus were categorized as a single species, then
Fulton (1952) recognized that four species survived
in North Carolina, from which one he called the
“triller” field cricket because its song was almost
continuous with distinct chirps, parallel to other North
Carolina species.
In the recent years researchers concentrated over
variations in the male signals, inter and intra
populations, and how call factors such as carrier
frequency, call rate or other temporal properties
could express reliable informations on male song
quality (Jennion and Petrie, 1997 and Bentsen et al.,
2006). Huber et al. (1989) revised the work
presented by Chopard (1938).
Walker (1962) recognized different species of
AllonemobiusHebard with their calling songs easily.
Alexander (1957) emphasized that if two insects of
same locality or area have different songs, they are
different species. Quality differences in songs could
be better used as identification characters for a
worker to distinguish different species for organizing
the Achetagroup (Alexander, 1957).
Alexander and Thomas (1959) worked on the
classification of gryllids and attempted to resolve the
confusion about different species of Allonemobiusby
different characters, in which male songs proved to
be an excellent tool for differentiating the species.
Alexander (1962) described that the crickets have
most complex acoustic pattern which is the best
understood tool due to its taxonomic features. The
song of Orthopteran group plays a significant role in
conspecific recognition. (Gwynne and Morris, 1986).
Desutter-Grandcolas and Robillard (2003) noted that
crickets are well known for their terminal stridulating
and for the loud calls emitted by male crickets
(Dumortier, 1963; Sales and Pye, 1974; Ewing,
1989).Alexander (1957) also named eastern United
States four chirping Gryllus Linnaeus and him and
others named two others, after that G.
rubenspersisted the only eastern States trilling
Gryllus. A functional analysis mentioned that the
individual crickets could be recognized to the proper
taxon with less than 10% error, supporting the
statement that calling song could be used by female
specimen as species recognition mechanism
(Timothy et al,. 1998). Acoustic signals are usually
used as a key for the recognition and discrimination
of closely related species (Otte, 1989). Cade (1981)
worked on the cricket songs and noted that they
commonly characterized by their carrier frequency,
intensity and temporal structure.
The Californian Gryllus integer Scudder had a series
of brief trills having 2 to 3 pulses of sound
(Weissman et al., 1980), which were different from
Texan species. Weismann et.al (1980) mentioned
that the Texan species is not the G. integer and the
name was used mistakenly (Cade and Otte, 2000).
G. rubens survives in South East United State
(Alexander, 1957) which overlaps with Gryllus
texensisCade and Otte (Walker, 1974). They had no
morphological differences, but the calling songs of
both the species were different (Cade and Otte,
2000).
The carrier frequency (CF) reveals as a reliable
indicator of male body size and show the past history
of a male. (Simmon and Ritchie, 1996). Zuk et al.
(2001) compared the calling songs of field cricket
Teleogryllusoceanicus (Le Guillon) from 15 sites of
six different regions of Oceania and Australia, and all
song components significantly varied i.e. increased
song length and pulse duration and intervals
between song components.
The two species were sympatric from western
Florida to eastern Texas (Walker, 1998). These two
species were the only known trilling field crickets in
the southeastern US, and were recently isolated by
song differences alone. Geographical distribution
describes the parameters of variation in songs,
instead of similarities ( Zuk. et al., 2001).
Stridulatory File:
Ensifera sings generally by stridulation; sound
emission of differentiated regions of the body
(Dumortier, 1963).
Songs and sound producing organs in cricket in aid to systematics
The length of the stridulatory file and the number of
file teeth within a genus or a sub genus, are
generally inversely correlated with pulse rate
(Walker, 1963). The structures of the tegmina of
different species that produce and radiate the
acoustic signals, having different structures (Walker
and Carlysle, 1975), and later may be used as
taxonomic character.
The morphology of teeth is similar among the same
species and highly varied among different
subfamilies (Walker and Carlysle, 1975). The teeth
density is diverse among different species. (Miyoshi
et al., 2007), as both left and right harps are involved
in generating sound (Michelsen and Nocke, 1974).
When pars stridens of different species were
compared, they exhibited small differences. (David
et al., 2003).
David et al. (2003) identified with the help of their
number of teeth and their song pattern, and some
specimens were identified with their loud chirps and
some with weak chirps (Alexander, 1962). Diversity
of stridulatory organs, signals and behavior solve the
problems of origin and evolution of signals in
Ensifera (Desutter-Grandcolas, 2002). Cricket
species sometimes have very dissimilar file teeth
with almost identical calling songs, whereas
sometimes species with very similar file teeth have
very different calling songs. Still it could be stated
that most subfamilies of crickets could be identified
on the basis of file teeth structure. (Walker and
Carlysle, 1975).
In the light of above, the need to study the gryllid
fauna of this region is further stressed. Presently 11
genera of 2 sub-families and 23 species of this most
complex group is described here from different
regions of Pakistan, on the above very important
basis of characters.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Manysurveys and expeditions were carried out for
the collection of the representatives of the sub-family
Gryllinae and Nemobiinae of family Gryllidae. These
were collected from different areas of Pakistan by
the author, her supervisor and colleagues, of
Zoology Department, Karachi University, Karachi.
More than 500-550 specimens were collected during
various visits arranged from 2008 through to date
and preserved as per standard procedure. These
specimens were identified by author and her
supervisor with the help of literature at hand and also
by sending the material to other researchers like A.
V. Gorochov, Libin Ma for their identification. These
identifications
were
confirmed
by
sending
photographs to Russia and China.
Collection technique
expedition:
used
139
in
the
above
Representatives of the family Gryllidaewere mostly
collected at night. They producesounds for intra
specific communication and are easily detected.
They usually were captured by hand under the
grasses, litters, near the roots of plants, by their
sounds, or they can be captured with the help of light
trap. Another technique used by Yang et al. (1994) in
which the peanut butter was used to collect the
specimen.
The specimens were collected during April to
September in summer season, when temperature
o
o
remains in between 25 C to 35 C and humidity
varying in between 32-70%.
Illustration technique:
After preservation the specimens were placed in
boiling water to soften them for detaching the right
tegmina with the help of fine forceps. Tegmina were
pulled out at their basal joints in the thoracic region,
then cleaned with brush using 40% formalin, on a
slide and finally covered with a clean cover slip for
photograph by using Nikon Cool Pix 5400 digital
camera after placing it under Nikon SMZ 800
Binocular.
Song analysis:
For identification adult males were used. Songs of
males were recorded with the help of Steinberg H4n
Cubase LE4 Bundled Handy recorder. The recorder
was placed vertically near the specimen for whole
night in a sound proof room. After recording the 5
minutes song was sliced with the help of Audacity
1.3 Beta (Unicoded) software. Then these sounds
were analyzed at my supervisor’s Lab No. 15 of
Biological Research Centre, Karachi, Pakistan.
These sounds were analyzed by their pulses per
seconds, number of chirp per second, pulses per
chirp, carrier frequency, and song duration. Songs of
eight species using twenty five males were recorded
as described above. These sounds were studied and
analyzed by the use of software Matlab version
7.12.0.635 (R2011a) 32-bit (Win 32) on March 18,
2011, with License No. 161052.
Analysis of Pars Stridens:
Afterrecording the sound the specimens were then
studied on the basis of their file structure.
Morphological study of file teeth, plectrum, and
microtrachea were analyzed with the help of
Scanning Electron Microscope. For SEM the
specimens were boiled for a few minutes, and then
the right tegmina were removed from the specimens
and mounted on a stub placed in a desiccator with
Silica gel to dry.
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
Fig. 1(a)
Fig. 1(b)
Songs and sound producing organs in cricket in aid to systematics
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 5
Fig. 4
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
141
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. Toxicity of insecticides
Crickets are known by their acoustic characters
which are called chirping property of pulse rate. It is
an important phenomenon for the existence of their
life. Only the male produces sound which varies in
variable situations.
Earlier the researchers did not use the song
characters, due to lack of recording facilities. When
these facilities became available, workers realized
that songs would be the most important reliable
species recognizing characters. Earlier a group of
sibling species were considered as a single species
on the basis of their similar external morphology and
genital components, but when the acoustic
characters were used as taxonomic characters,
these sibling species were identified as different
species and these were considered as the most
reliable and useful characters for their identification.
Most of these species produce a loud sound which
could be heard from a long distance, when
conditions become favourable and helpful to male.
Stridulatory organs are nowalso considered as
important taxonomic characters for the recognition of
cricket species especially when electron microscope
giving high powered resolution became available. In
stridulum, different structures were studied viz.:
number of teeth in file, structure and density of teeth
per millimeter, size and structure of file and length of
file. These factors were helpful for the taxonomy of
species and these structures have minor but most
sensitive and indeed consistent differences in
different species. A particular species has its
particular number, density and structure of teeth, and
length of file.
Previously the author and her colleagues revised the
different sub-families of the family Gryllidae on the
basis of their external morphology and genital
components (Kamaluddin et al., 2001; Khan and
Kamaluddin, 2006). When the international literature
was concerned, it was a matter of frustration that the
above mentioned characters were not as consistent
and therefore were not being used as the most
reliable taxonomic characters.
In the present work it was noted that the
representatives with high frequency which would be
in between 2.8-05 kHz having long wings at their
stridulatory teeth size of tegmina, longer or almost
reaching to the apex of abdomen, number of oblique
veins 4-5, whereas the species having reduced or
short wings at their stridulatory teeth, length of
tegmina shorter than the abdomen and oblique veins
2-3 in number having low frequency which would be
lower than 02 kHz, provided reliable characters
Fulton (1932) was the first researcher who used the
acoustic characters as taxonomic features and used
them to identify the members of the family Gryllidae.
He found different types of notes in their songs i.e.,
when the male became alone or was not sexually
excited, produced calling songs, or when a male
actively mating with female produced mating or
courtship songs, or old male members often
produced a type of song when their files became
worn out. In his investigation he determined two
types of calling songs, the first type was, when a
male was facing a female, it produced short phases
of sound, whereas the second type of sound was
produced when male chirps had been louder and at
slower rates, almost 5-6 chirps per second without
any regular rhythm.
Vickery and Jhonston (1970), Farris et al. (1997) and
Kamaluddin and Khan (2012) described the
representatives of the sub-family Nemobiinae on the
basis of their morphological and genital characters
with their cladistic analysis. Walker and Carlysle
(1975) described the structure of their stridulatory
file. Now the representatives of the sub-family were
identified for the first time from Pakistan on the basis
of their stridulatory file and teeth profile.
Nickel and Walker (1974), Walker and Carlysle
(1975), Otte (1987), Otte and Peck (1997), Ferreira
and Ferguson (2002), David et al. (2003), Pereira et
al. (2005) and Chen et al. (2006) worked on different
species of the genus Gryllus on the basis of their
stridulatory file, structure of teeth, density of teeth
per millimeter and song pattern. They used these
characters for the classification and identification of
the species, but no one discussed a single species
from Pakistan not even from Oriental region,
whereas Chopard (1969) described the genus from
Oriental region on the basis of their external
morphological characters and genital structure, but
he did not describe their acoustic characters.
The representatives of the genus Gryllus in the
present studies appeared to be clearly noticeable
and were isolated among all other genera of
Gryllidaein the sound producing characters, i.e.,
length of stridulatory file 2.0-3.8 mm, number of teeth
150-170, density usually 42-55 teeth per mm, blade
like teeth.
Alexander (1957), Weissman and Rentz (1977),
Gray (1997) and Moradian and Walker (2008)
described the acoustic characters of different
species of Acheta and analyzed them to distinguish
the different species. These characters were:
frequency or rate of tooth strike, rate of wing stroke,
rate and regulation of chirps, number of pulses per
chirp and rhythmic quality and degree of pulse
frequency dominance, structure of stridulatory file,
number and density of teeth, their behavior and song
Songs and sound producing organs in cricket in aid to systematics
pattern. These characters were used with more
reliability for the identification of closely related taxa.
The representatives of the genus AchetaFabricius in
the present studies appeared to be clearly isolated
among all other genera of Gryllidae on the basis of
their sound producing characters, i.e., length of
stridulatory file 1.8-2.2 mm, number of teeth usually
more than 200, density 100-115 teeth per mm, and
their songs contain 4-5 groups of repeated chirps per
second, 2-3 pulses per chirp and 8-15 pulses per
second. The genus having high carrier frequency
due to the presence of long wings at their stridulatory
teeth with 4-6 oblique veins at tegmina.
Caltabiano et al. (1980) and Desutter-Grandcolas
(1997) investigated the Brachytrupesspecies and
discovered behavioral characters, and pattern of
sound. Earlier Chopard (1969) and Randell (1964)
described and identified the species on the basis of
their external morphology and genital structure, but
not a single researcher described their stridulatory
file, structure of teeth, and other acoustic characters
especially from Indo-Pakistan sub-continent. The
representatives of the genus BrachytrypesServille in
the present studies appeared to be clearly
recognized and were isolated among all other
genera of Gryllidae by the sound producing
characters, i.e., length of stridulatory file 4.0-4.5 mm,
number of teeth 81-85 and density 19.7-20.2 teeth
per mm.
Previously the author and her colleagues revised the
different sub-families of the family Gryllidae on the
basis of their external morphology and genital
components (Kamaluddin et al., 2001; Khan and
Kamaluddin, 2006). When the international literature
was concerned, it was a matter of frustration that the
above mentioned characters were not as consistent
and therefore were not being used as the most
reliable taxonomic characters. Majority of recent
researchers, who worked on the family Gryllidae,
used instead the acoustic characters including song
pattern and sound producing traits i.e. stridulatory
file and teeth structures and sound pattern.
When we searched the literature,in Pakistan not
only, indeed a few workers i.e. Ashraf et al. (1978)
and Saeed et al. (2000) worked on different genera
of the family Gryllidae used only the external
morphology and genital characters to recognize their
taxa. Not a single worker used the acoustic
characters or sound producing traits. This situation
necessitated the present work and as a result it is
most satisfying that with reference to their song
pattern and the structure of sound producing organs
by using different modern technologies, it was
possible to get indeed most satisfactory results
which is not only being presented here but also
analyzed in the light of above review of literature.
In the present work it was noted that the
representatives with high frequency which would be
143
in between 2.8-05 kHz having long wings at their
stridulatory teeth size of tegmina, longer or almost
reaching to the apex of abdomen, number of oblique
veins 4-5, whereas the species having reduced or
short wings at their stridulatory teeth, length of
tegmina shorter than the abdomen and oblique veins
2-3 in number having low frequency which would be
lower than 02 kHz, provided reliable characters.
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
High Carrier Frequency
Higher than 3kHz
Ocillogram
Fig. 10
Amplitude Spectrum
Fig. 11
Songs and sound producing organs in cricket in aid to systematics
145
Ocillogram
Fig. 12
3
x 10
-3
Amplitude Spectrum of y(t) Gryllopsis (Sir Abid)
2.5
Amplitude
Spectrum
|Y(f)|
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 13
2
2.5
x 10
4
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
ILLUSTRATION OF FIGURES
Fig. 1.(a, b) Scanning Electron Microscope
Fig. 2. Stryridulatoryteeth having long wings
Fig. 3. Anal teeth
Fig. 4.Microtrachea
Fig. 5.Anal region
Fig. 6. Stridulatory teeth having short wings
Fig. 7. Anal teeth
Fig. 8. Tegmen having long wings
Fig. 9. Tegmen having short wings
Fig. 10. Ocillogram of High carrier Frequency
Fig. 11. Amplitude Spectrum of High carrier
Frequency
Fig. 12.Ocillogram of Low carrier Frequency
Fig. 13. Amplitude Spectrum of Low carrier
Frequency
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 149-156, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
IMPACT OF MATING ON LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY OF FEMALE RED
COTTON BUG DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS (FAB.)(HEMIPTERA:
PYRRHOCORIDAE)
NEELAM ANSARI*¹, N.M.SOOMRO², S.MALIK³, T.J.URSANI4& K.D.PITAFI5
Department of Zoology, University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan
Email I.D: neelammphil@yahoo.com (Cell# 0345-3599872)
(Received for publication: 11.12.2013)
ABSTRACT
The observations on fecundity and longevity were carried out males and females Dysdercus cingulatus (Fab.) at
laboratory conditions. It includes recording the size of mated and unmated females with life time fecundity. Also longevity
of mated females and unmated females were determined. Moreover, the egg-laying processes of mated and unmated
females was studied. The mated females lay more eggs than unmated females a reason to believe that males may be
transferring some proteinous nutrients to the females during mating or may be the males transfers some sort of triggering
factors that increase the egg production activity.
Key words: Longevity, fecundity, mated females and unmated females, Dysdercus cingulatus
INTRODUCTION
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is a natural fiber
material used throughout the world. In Pakistan
cotton is cultivated over an area of 6 million acres. It
contributes a major part in our foreign exchange,
which is up to 68% (Khan and Khan 1995) and
shares about 62.3% in the total export (Anonymous,
2003). It accounts for 7.0 percent of value added in
agriculture and 1.5 percent of GDP. During 2012-13,
the crop was cultivated on an area of 2879 thousand
hectares, 1.6 percent more than last year (2835
thousand hectares). The production of 13.0 million
bales during the period 2012-13 against the target of
14.5 million bales resulted in decline of 10.3 percent
against the target (Government of Pakistan, 201213). In Pakistan cotton yield for the last few years
has been decline which may be due to the heavy
pest infestations or other hidden reasons such as
weather variations, manure problems, irrigation and
may be incorrect timings of sowing/cultivation.
Cotton crop is infested by wide range of insect pests
at various stages of crop growth compared to any
other crop (Uthamasamy, 1994). Cotton crop is
susceptible to the attack more than 100 insect pests
and mites (Yunus et al, 1980).Among a variety of
reasons of low yield, the magnitude of insect pests,
which damage the cotton crop from sowing to
maturity, play an important role. Approximately 162
species of insect pest attack is an important practice
of integrated pest management on various growth
stages of cotton (Uthanarany et al, 2004).
Dysdercus cingulatus (Fab.), red cotton bug is an
agriculture pest and understanding life parameters of
this pest may be advantageous in controlling this
pest thus reducing the level of damage to the cotton
crop. This is the most serious pest of cotton in South
East Asian countries, having many alternative host
plant species belonging to families Malvacae and
Bombacae, (Katsyunki and Buithi 2004).Its different
stages are mainly the pest of cotton in various states
of India (Sohi, 1964).In the Sub-Indian Continent it is
found only in Bangladesh and North Eastern India, in
Pakistan it is reported from Sindh and Punjab.
Size has many profound effects on biology of
animals. In particular, large females often have
greater longevity and higher fecundity (Hinton 1981).
It is not only associated with development and
survival, but influences many aspects of mating and
reproduction. As far as female size is concerned,
greater size is often associated with higher fecundity,
but there are relatively few example of male
preference for large females (Manning, 1975;
Gwynne, 1981). Trivers (1972) suggested that this is
a consequence of the differential investment by the
two sexes in gametes, mating and parental care.
Further he argued that the females almost invariably
invest more energy in eggs than do males in sperm,
and that frequently they invest more energy in the
raising of offspring.
The present paper focuses on two aspects longevity
and fecundity of D. cingulatus both mated and
unmated females and their size under controlled
condition.
Ansari et al. (2013)
150
MATERIALS AND MATHODS
Field collection of nymphs of D. cingulatus were
made from the cotton field. Directly from cotton
plants, Gossypium hirsutum L. at Nasim Nagar
Hyderabad Sindh (25.367°N, latitude and 68.367°E
longitude).
The field collected nymphs were brought in
polythene bag to laboratory where they were kept in
jars. Cotton seeds and leaves were provided as
food. The nymphs were reared at 29°C±1°C under
controlled condition for stock culture. The
experiments were performed in two groups A and B.
In group A experiment, the newly emerged adult
males and females were identified and kept in
separate jars for 2 to 3 days. After that they were
paired 15pairs in jars. Each pair in a separate jar- all
jars containing food and allowed to mate (overnight).
After mating, the males were removed from the jars
and on providing suitable oviposition site, 2 to 3
layers of pieces of cotton leaves, the fecundity and
longevity of females was recorded. In group B
experiment, fifteen newly emerged females were
obtained from stock culture and each pair placed in
separate jar containing food material. Data on
fecundity and longevity of virgin females were also
recorded.
The size of mated and unmated females was
measured by taking wing length- the distance from a
prominent supra-alar bristle to the posterior margin
of the upper wing in the folded position (Butlin et al,
1982). Wing length is known to be strongly
correlated with most other bodily dimensions. The
results were analyzed using student t-test.
RESULTS
Effect of mating on fecundity of females
On mating the abdomen of the female became
greatly distended and they became very much
lethargic. For egg laying, the female inserted her
abdominal tip into the spaces between leaves and
pushed the abdomen down until it reached just
above the floor of the leaves. After a pause of few
minutes the egg- laying started and the eggs were
laid one by one which formed a cluster in the leaves.
After laying the eggs, the female tried to cover them
by pushing pieces of leaves over the eggs and
making her antennae movements that whether
perhaps to confirm that the eggs were covered.
The eggs of D. cingulatus are oval and cream in
colour. At the time of oviposition the eggs were
viscid and stuck together, they soon dried and the
cluster fell apart if touched with a needle. The eggs
were counted for each mated female (average
48.9±16.98). The relationship b/w female size and
fecundity is shown in fig II b.
Effect of mating on longevity of females
Longevity of the mated females was measured in
days (average 58.0±3.94). The relationship b/w
female size and longevity is shown in fig II a.
Longevity of unmated and mated females
It was observed that unmated females live longer
than the mated females (unmated ♀s longevity
average 67.8±5.31 days and mated ♀s longevity
average 58.0±3.94 days). The relationship b/w
unmated female size and longevity is shown in fig I a
and that of mated female size and longevity is shown
in fig II a.
The results show that mated females live
approximately 97 days and unmated females live
approximately 121 days.
Statistical analysis of Longevity
Student t-test showing no difference in the longevity
of unmated ♀s and mated ♀s (p=0.2). The non
significance of results indicate that the male
transfers no nutrients or any proteinous material
during copulation.
Fecundity in virgin females
It was observed that unmated females lay less
number of eggs (average 34.0±12.52) than mated
females (average 48.9±16.98). The relationship b/w
unmated female size and fecundity is shown in fig I
b.
Statistical analysis of fecundity
Student t-test showing no difference in the fecundity
of unmated ♀s and mated ♀s (p=0.5). The non
significance of results indicate that there exists no
difference in life time fecundity of mated and
unmated females. However, increased number of
egg production by fertile females does suggest
mating trigger egg production but this aspect
requires more studies.
DISCUSSIONS
Present study aims at the fecundity and longevity of
mated and unmated females D. cingulatus. The
longevity of virgin females 67.8±5.31 (range 41 to
121) and mated females 58.0±3.94 (range 44 to 97).
The results show that longevity of virgin females was
higher than the mated females. Siddiqi (1987)
showed that virgin females longevity 17.7±0.64
(range 12 to 22) and mated female longevity
16.75±0.51 (range 13 to 21). Our finding agrees with
Siddiqi (1987). Varma and Patel (2012) observed
that the total life cycle of female D.koenigii was
55.68±2.42 (range 51 to 59) and Verma et al (2013)
showed that the total longevity of D.cingulatus was
53.6±2.302(range 50 to 56).
Feeding is essential for the acquisition of reserves
for the development of ovary and the formation of
yolk, there by egg maturation and increased
production. The natural food, the cotton seeds offer
maximum reproductive potential in this insect
(Engelmann 1970). Other factors such as carrying
the experiments at constant conditions, supply of
Impact of mating on longevity and fecundity of female rod cotton bug
151
fresh and healthy cotton seeds Hodjat (1968). The
present experiment was important for rearing the
laboratory culture.
The present study based on fecundity of mated and
virgin females. The females lay eggs 48.9±16.98
(range 55 to 218) and the virgin females lay eggs
34.0±12.52 (range 18 to 141).
influence the fitness value of both the females and
males.
The fecundity of mated and unmated females under
genetic and environmental control is the major
measure of biological fitness.
As regards the number of eggs, Siddiqi (1987)
reported that female lay eggs 403.15±19.05 (range
247 to 546) and the virgin female lay eggs
214.8±13.82 (range 84 to 306), Singh (1923)
reported 90 to 105 where as Srivastava and Bahadur
(1958) claimed 100 to 130 eggs in total, laid in single
batch. Mehta (1930) found that a female lays 50 to
121 eggs during her whole life. Varma(2012) showed
that the average fecundity of female D.koenigii was
95.2±19.13 (range 65 to 120) and Verma (2013)
observed that average fecundity of female
D.cingulatus was 88±22 (range 55 to 113).
Results of the present study were made on 15 pairs.
It shows that the life time fecundity of mated females
mean is 48.9±16.98 eggs and the life time fecundity
of virgin females mean is 34.0±12.52 eggs. With
longevity of mated females mean is 58.0±3.94 days
and longevity of virgin females mean is 67.8±5.31
days.
CONCLUSION
Present study reveals that mated females lay more
eggs than unmated females. Common perception
says that virgin females do not lay eggs, but egg
laying in virgin females is an interesting
phenomenon of present study. The life time
fecundity range of virgin females is 18-140 eggs and
the life time fecundity range of mated females is 55218 eggs.
The longevity of virgin female was greater than the
mated females. The unmated females lay less eggs
than the mated females. Another important
observation was that all the eggs were fertilized as a
result of single mating an aspect that requires more
studies.
Other parameters that affect the life process of red
cotton bug are temperature and humidity-but
experiments were carried out under laboratory
controlled conditions
The aspects of total number of egg production by
mated and unmated females were recorded as
fecundity and fertility of female depends upon the
mating duration. Mating and reproductive success
Table a. Showing total life span (longevity) and total number of eggs (fecundity) of unmated (virgin) females
Unmated female
S.No
Unmated female size
Longevity in Days
Life time fecundity
1
82.0
100
126
2
3
80.5
80.4
121
61
140
0
4
80.0
56
0
5
6
80.0
80.0
47
59
0
0
7
80.0
80
42
8
80.0
79
79
9
79.0
58
74
10
78.0
57
0
11
75.0
61
0
12
13
70.9
70.5
71
58
18
0
14
70.0
41
31
15
69.0
68
0
1155.3
1017
510
Mean
77.0±1.14
67.8±5.31
34.0±12.52
Range
69-82
41-121
18-141
Ansari et al. (2013)
152

unmated Females (longevity)
120.00
Dot/Lines show Means

100.00
80.00




60.00





40.00
70.00
75.00
80.00
small size of f emales
large size of f emales
unmated Fem ales (size)
Figure I a Relationship between longevity and female size (unmated). Female size is expressed in graticule units (1 unit=0.063mm)
unmated Females Fecundity(Total number of eggs)

Dot /Lines show Means

120.00
80.00

40.00



0.00



70.00

75.00
small fem ales # of eggs

80.00
large f emales # of eggs
unmated Females (size)
Figure I b Relationship between fecundity and female size (unmated). Female size is expressed in graticule units (1 unit=0.063mm)
Impact of mating on longevity and fecundity of female rod cotton bug
Table b. Showing total life span (longevity) and total number of eggs (fecundity) of mated females
mated female size
Mated female
Longevity in Days
Life time fecundity
1
82.0
97
218
2
80.4
59
0
3
80.3
46
55
4
80.3
45
78
5
80.0
47
0
6
80.0
56
0
7
80.0
51
0
8
80.0
83
0
9
77.0
51
0
10
74.0
72
136
11
74.0
56
0
12
72.0
53
74
13
70.9
64
65
14
70.5
47
0
15
70.0
44
108
1151.4
871
734
Mean
76.7±1.08
58.0±3.94
48.9±16.98
Range
70-80.4
44-97
55-218
S.No
153
Ansari et al. (2013)
154

Dot/Lines show Means
Mated Females (longevity)
90.00
80.00
70.00


60.00



50.00



70.00
72.50
75.00
77.50
80.00
large size of f emales
small size of f emales
Mated Females (size)
Figure II a Relationship between longevity and female size (mated). Female size is expressed in graticule units (1 unit=0.063mm)
mated Females Fecundity(Total number of eggs)

Dot /Lines show Means
200.00
150.00

100.00




50.00
0.00

70.00

72.50
75.00
small females # of eggs
77.50

80.00
large f emales # of eggs
mat ed Females (size)
Figure II b Relationship between fecundity and female size (mated). Female size is expressed in graticule units (1 unit=0.063mm)
Impact of mating on longevity and fecundity of female rod cotton bug
155
Cotton experimental site
Cotton field
Nymphs and Adults of D. cingulatus
D.cingulatus in experimental site
Mating pair of D. cingulatus
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adult size and male mating success in the
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ENGELMANN, F (1970). The physiology of insect
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katydids
(Orthoptera:
Tettigoniidae,
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SIDDIQI, J.I (1987). Studies on reproduction of
oviposition in Dysdercus cingulatus (fab)
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SINGH, H. (1923). On the anatomy and bionomics of
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HODJAT, S.H. (1968). The effects of crowding on
the survival, rate of development, size, colour
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SOHI, G.S. (1964). Pest of cotton in Entomolgy in
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HINTON, H.E. (1981).The Biology of Insect Eggs.
Pergamon Press, Oxford.
SRIVASTAVA, U.S. AND BAHADUR, J. (1958).
Observations on the life history of Red cotton
bug, Dysdercus cingulatus (Hemiptera:
Pyrrhocoridae).Indian J. Ent. 20: 228-233.
UTHANARANY, S., KANNAN, M. MOHAN, S.
(2004). The impact of insecticides on sucking
insect pest and natural enemy complex of
transgenic cotton. Current Sci., 86 (5): 726729.
KATSYUNKI, K. AND BUITHI, N. (2004). Effects of
host plant species on the development of
Dysdercus
cingulatus
(Heteroptera:
Pyrrhocoridae) Applied Ent. and Zool, 39: 183187.
TRIVERS, R.L. (1972). Parental investment and
sexual selection. In Campbell, B. (ed.) Sexual
Selection and the Descent of Man 1871-1971,
Heinemann, London, pp. 136-179.
UTHAMASAMY, S. (1994). Intra and inter plant
behavioural dynamics of the cotton bollworm
complex.
In
functional
dynamics
of
phytophagous insects (Anathakrishnan, T.
N.ed.) Orford and IBH publishers. New Delhi.
PP 115-131.
KHAN,W.S. AND KHAN. A.G. (1995). Cotton
situation in the Punjab, an overview, paper
presented at National Seminar on “Strategies
for increasing cotton production” held at
Agricultural House, 21- Agha khan-III road,
Lahore, April 26-27.
YUNUS, M., YOUSUF, M. AND JILANI, G. (1980).
Insect and spider mite pests of cotton in Pak.
Monogr. PL-480, Deptt.Entomol., Univ. Agri.,
Faisalabad. pp.256.
MAC GILL, E.I. (1935). On the biology of Dysdercus
howardi Ballou (Hem.). Ibid. 26: 155-162.
VARMA, H.S. AND PATEL, R. K. (2012). Biology of
red cotton bug (D. Koenigii) AGRES-An
International e-journal, ISSN 2277-9663, 1(2):
148-154.
MANNING, J.T. (1975). Male discrimination and
investment in Asellus aquaticus (L) and A.
meridianus racovitsza (Crustacea: Isopoda).
Behaviour 55: 1-14.
VERMA,
MEHTA, D.R. (1930). Observations on the influence
of temperature and humidity on the bionomics
of Dysdercus cingulatus (Fabr.) Ibid. 21: 547562.
S.;
HASEEB,
M.
AND
MANZOOR,U.(2013). Biology of red cotton
bug, (Dysdercuscingulatus) Department of
Plant Protection, Faculty of Agricultural
Sciences.Insect Environment, 19(3): 140141.
Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 157-162, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
EFFECT OF GLIRICIDIA SEPIUM AND SOLANUM NIGRUM
EXTRACTS AGAINST LARVAL AND PUPAL STAGES OF
TRIBOLIUM CASTANEUM AND AEDES AEGYPTI.
RAHILA NAZLI*, FARZANA IBRAHIM**, WAJEEHA ALI, AKHLAQ AHMAD***,
QAZI MEHMOOD ALI***, KHALID JAMIL* AND TAHIR ABBAS*
1
Food & Marine Resource Research Center ,PCSIR Lab Complex, Karachi-75280, Pakistan
**Jinnah University for Women Karachi, Pakistan.
***.PARC- Southern Zone Agricultural Research Centre, Karachi, Pakistan.
dr.akhlaqahmad@yahoo.com
(Received for publication: 30.12.2013)
ABSTRACT
The Present study was conducted to evaluate the biological activity of Gliricidia sepium and Solanum nigrum against
mosquitoes and stored grain insects. Gliricidia and Solanum used as medicinal plants. Ethanolic extract of leaves of both
plants have been used to check larval & pupal mortality of Aedes aegypti and Tribolium castaneum. The significant result
was showed 100% in 2% conc. &100% in 4% conc. and 90% in1% &100% in 4% in Gliricidia & Solanum respectively on
larval & pupal mortality. The average repellency of Gliricidia sepium 52.25% and 51.75% Solanum nigrum after 8 weeks
was tested on Tribolium castaneum at 600µg/cm² & 300µg/cm² respectively.
Key Words:. Gliricidia sepium; Solanum nigrum; Tribolium castaneum; Aedes aegypti; Ethanol; Mortality.
INTRODUCTION
Red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) is
one of the major insect pest of stored grains with
cosmopolitan distribution (Ghizdaru & Deac, 1994;
Hyden & Soren, 1987; Abro,
1996; Wong et al.,
1996; Suresh and White, 2001; Hulasare and White.,
2003). Although, T. castaneum is considered a pest
of flour and other milled cereal products and a
secondary pest in stored wheat (LeCato, 1975;
Hamed & Khattak, 1985., Irshad & Talpur,1993.), a
single larva can damage 88 grains during its life
which leads to a considerable loss of quality grain
and viability of seeds (Atanasov, 1978). Apart from
loss of weight and quality of food grains, insects of
genus Tribolium secrete a variety of toxic quinones
which are said to be carcinogenic. Presence of
Tribolium spp., in the food grains give pungent smell
and infested flour becomes dirty yellow in colour
(Ladish et al., 1967; Smith et al., 1971; El-Mofty et
al., 1989) and negatively affect baking quality of
flour. The amount of damage in quality and quantity
and health hazards due to insect infestation when
converted into monetary concerns may run into
millions of rupees to national exchequer annually .
These losses could be prevented either by chemical
or biological methods. Chemical methods pose many
environmental
hazards.
Therefore, biological
methods, which are safe for the environment, are
encouraged.
Insect’s transmitted disease remains a major source
of illness and health hazard worldwide. Mosquitoes
alone transmit disease to more than 700 million
people annually (Taubes, 1997). Malaria alone kills
3 million people each year including 1child every 30
second (Shell, 1997). A person normally acquires
malaria only through the bite of an infective female
Anopheles mosquito which has previously obtained
the plasmodia from a malaria patient. Aedes aegypti
mosquitoes transmit many serious diseases like
Dengue fever and yellow fever which has recently
struck Pakistan and has almost turned up to an
epidemic proportion. This mosquito thrives in urban
and suburban neighborhood because backyard
containers, buckets, water cans, etc., offer ideal
breeding condition for them. Control of such
diseases becoming increasingly difficult because of
increasing resistance approach to pesticides
(Ranson et al, 2001). Plants may be a source of
alternative agent for control of Mosquitoes, because
they are rich in bioactive chemicals, are active
against a limited number of species including
specific target insect, and are bio-degradable. They
158
Nazli et al. (2013)
are potentially suitable for use in integrated pest
management programs (Alkofahi et al, 1989).
Mosquitoes develop genetic resistance to synthetic
insecticides (Wattal et al., 1981).
were very effective at controlling intermediate host of
parasites causing human schistosomiasis and
fascioliasis (Ahmed and Ramzy, 1997).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
During recent years, some plants have been
receiving global attention and their secondary
metabolites have been formulated as botanical
pesticides for plant protection since they do not
leave residues toxic to the environment, have lower
toxicity to mammals and medicinal properties for
humans (Duke, 1985). The insecticidal activity of
many plant-products has been reported extensively
against stored-product pests (Lale and Mustapha,
2000; Tripathi et al., 2000; Ke´ ita et al., 2001; Cox,
2004; Han et al., 2006; Rozman et al., 2007).
Different types of aromatic plant preparations such
as powders, solvent extracts, essential oils and
whole plants are being investigated for their
insecticidal activity including their action as
repellents, anti-feedants and insect growth
regulators (Isman, 2000, Weaver and Subramanyam
2000). There are many reviews dealing with the use
of plant products in general, against insect pests of
stored products (Lale, 1995; Golob & Gudrups,
1999; Adler et al., 2000), specifically on essential oils
(Regnault-Roger 2002.)
Gliricidia sepium commonly known as Agunmaniye
in southwest Nigeria is a leguminous tree and
belongs to the family fabaceae (Chadhokar, 1982).
Gliricidia can be found in tropical and sub-tropical
countries as live fencing that is, planted along the
side of field. The tree is usually medium size with
composite leaves and has pink to lilac colored
flowers tingled with white. Gliricidia sepium affords
many compounds: chief among them is tannin,
which varies with the location of the tree. Most of the
research with Gliricidia and its compounds have
focused on its nutritive quality (Vansoest, 1982).
However some studies have focused on the ability of
the plant to decrease soil nematodes populations
and control insects or fungi (Ganesen, 1994).
Ethanol extract of the leaves used to check the
efficacy on parasitic nematodes, clinical pathogens
and mosquitoes repellent activity (Nazli et al., 2008),
it also study ethanol extract of G.sepium have the
most active antibacterial components than antifungal
and can be a good source of chemical
compound.(Nazli et al.,2011). Solanum nigrum
“black nightshade” belongs to the family Solanaceae.
The family is widely distributed throughout tropical
and temperate region of the world (Edmonds, 1978).
People have been trying to alleviate and treat
diseases with different plant extract and formulation
(Cowan, 1999). Globally, about 85% of the traditional
medicines used for primary health care are derived
from plants (Farnsworth 1988).The ethanol extract of
the fruit of S.nigrum L. was studies for its
nuropharmacological properties on experimental
animals (Perez, 1998). Egyptian S.nigrum extracts
Plant colleting and Processing:
Gliricidia Sepium plant leaves were collected from
Coastal Agricultural Research Station, SARC,
PARC, Karachi, and Solanum nigrum plant leaves
were collected from PCSIR laboratories complex
Karachi. All the samples were preserved in waxquoted paper bags and brought to the laboratory for
biological assays.
Plant extraction:
The fresh dried plant leaves of G. Sepium and S.
nigrum (5kg) were ground and soaked in ethanol
(commercial, doubly distilled 50 lit). The filtrate was
concentrated under reduced pressure at 40ºC to a
gum. This crude gum was used for research activity
purpose.
Rearing of the test insects:
Insect pest of stored grain Tribolium castaneum
(Hbst.), were reared in the laboratory on natural diet
under control condition of 27± 10C temperature and
55± 5% humidity. Laboratory reared female
mosquitoes Aedes aegypti of 4-5 days old were
placed into separate laboratory cages measuring
1x1 ft. The temperature and relative humidity was
0
maintained at 27 c and 85% respectively.
Repellency studies:
The repellency tests were conducted using the
method described by (Laudani et al., 1955) and (Mc
Donald et al., 1970). Ethanolic leaves extracts
samples of Gliricidia sepium and Solanum nigrum,
were tested for repellency against T. castaneum by
paper strip method. Filter paper strips (What man
No.1) of 8x10 cm dimensions were treated with
desired dilutions of extracts so that deposits of
600,300 and 150µg of the test material per cm² of
filter paper were achieved. Each treated strip was
attached width-wise edge to edge with untreated
strip on by cello tape on the underside. A glass ring
having 6.5 cm internal diameter, 3.5cm high and
open from both side was placed on the two matched
strips so that the line joining the paper strips made
the diameter of the glass ring providing equal areas
of treated and untreated paper as test arena. Ten
adults of T. castaneum, of 10-15 days of age were
released in the middle of the test arena within the
glass ring. Individuals that settled on treated and
untreated (control) halves were counted at 0900 and
st
1600 hours daily for five consecutive days during 1 ,
nd
th
th
2 , 4 and 8 weeks after treatment. Average insect
counts of each 5 days period were converted to
percentage of repellency by deducting the
Effect of G. sepium and S. nigrum extracts against larval and pupal stage of T.castaneum and Ae. aegypti
percentage of individuals on treated half from those
on the control half of the test arena. Weekly
th
repellency, persistence up to 8 week and overall
average repellency values of different treatments
were compared.
Larvicidal and pupicidal assays of Mosquitoes:
Larvae tested in the present study were obtained
from laboratory culture maintained as described by
(Murugan and Jeyabalan 1999). Freshly hatched
larvae were used for the bioassay test. The required
quantity of both plants leaf extract concentrations i.e
0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0% and 4.0% were mixed thoroughly
with 200 ml of rearing water in 500 ml beakers.
Twenty (20) mosquito larvae of fourth instar were
released in to each trough. Larval food consisted of
1g of finely ground dog biscuits. The beaker
containing 200 ml of rearing water with methanol
served as control. Dead larvae and pupae were
removed and counted at 24 h intervals. Observations
on larval and pupal mortality were recorded.
Percentage mortality observed in the control was
subtracted from that observed in the treatment
(Abbott, 1925).
Statistical Analysis:
Percentage mortality was transformed to satisfy
normality and homoscedasticity requirements are
necessary. Data were then subjected to one-way
analysis of variances (ANOVA) followed by Duncan’s
1955 multiple range tests. Statistical package for the
social science (SPSS) version 14.0 was used to
determine significant difference at p< 0.05 among
the treatments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
G.sepium plant extracts shows significant toxicity to
the Aedes aegypti in both larval and pupal stage.
(Table 1).
At 2% and 4% concentration no
significant difference is found among larval mortality
however there is a significant difference in pupal
mortality. Larval mortality shows that as the
concentration of G.sepium leaf extract is higher the
toxicity of the plant is also higher. Whereas pupal
mortality shows no significant relation between
concentration of plant and percentage of pupal
mortality. 100% larval mortality was found in 2.0%
and 4.0% concentration of G.sepium extract while
the lowest was found in control. However at 1.0%
concentration the results were also promising. Pupal
mortality shows some variation, highest mortality
was found in 4.0% and 0.5% concentration while
lowest was found in 1.0% concentration and control.
Mosquitoes repellent activity has been studies
against Aedes aegypti , the maximum repellency
was observed in 78% in 0.2 ml Ethanolic extract of
159
G.sepiumi (Nazli,etal,2008). On the other hand
S.nigrum plant extract exhibited significant toxicity to
both larvae and pupae of A.aegypti at higher
concentration (Table 2). Data shows that as the
concentration of S.nigrum plant extract increases
the% of larval and pupal mortality also increases.
However at 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0% there is no significant
difference in larval mortality. Higher larval and pupal
mortality was found in higher 4.0% concentration of
S.nigrum plant extract however the lower or no
mortality was obtained in control. Comparing both
G.sepium and S.nigrum plant extracts (Table 1& 2)
data showed that G.sepium plant extract is more
toxic to larvae as compared to pupae, while
S.nigrum plant extract is toxic to both larvae and
pupae.
Repellency of Gliricidia sepium and Solanum nigrum
at 600, 300, 150 µg/cm² application rates at 1, 2, 4
and 8 weeks after treatment against T.castaneum.
G.sepium extracts show significant repellency to
T.castaneum within 8 weeks of treatment with
different concentration of plant extract (p< 0.05)
Table 3 shows that at 600µg/cm² the repellency is
significantly higher in 4thweek whereas no significant
st
nd
difference was found within 1 and 2 weeks. While
in the concentration of 300 and 150µg/cm² the
st
repellency is higher in the 1 week and as the week
progress the repellency decreases significantly.
Although the average % of all the three
concentrations showed that highest repellency was
found in 600µg/cm² at 4th week significantly, but
significant higher repellency was found in 300 and
150µg/cm² concentration in the starting 1st week.
Therefore from dosage point of view concentration of
150 and 30 0 µg/cm² found to be more effective. The
effective of insecticides activity of Accacia silotica
extract in controlling pest of Trogoderma granarim,
T. castaneum, callosobruhus maculatus and
Sitophilus zeamaiz(Chairat et, al 2002). Charkrevarty
1976, reported that S.nigrum cantains solanine and
solasodine which may be the direct reason of killing
the insects. Table 4 shows that as the week
progress S.nigrum plant extract showed more
repellency to T.castaneum. In 600 and 150 µg/cm²
st
the repellency was lower in 1 week while higher in
the last week while in 300µg/cm² highest significant
repellency was found in 1st week and then significant
decrease in the later weeks. Promising result was
found at the concentration of 300µg/cm² in starting
week
in
average
percentage
among
all
concentration. Comparing the effect of both
G.sepium and S.nigrum plant extracts (Table 3& 4)
to T.castaneum data showed that S.nigrum is
significantly more effective to T.castaneum as
compare to G.sepium at low concentration of plant
extract.
Nazli et al. (2013)
160
Table 1:
Percentage mortality of Aedes aegypti with different concentration of Gliricidia sepium.
Mean with different alphabet letters indicate significant difference (p< 0.05)
Concentration %
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
Control
Table 2:
Larval Mortality %
c
76
ab
92
a
100
a
100
d
4
Pupal Mortality %
a
60
c
48
b
56
a
68
c
48
Percentage mortality of Aedes aegypti with different concentration of Solanum nigrum.
Mean with different alphabet letters indicate significant difference (p< 0.05)
Concentration %
0.5
1.0
2.0
4.0
Control
Table 3:
Larval Mortality %
b
88
b
90
b
89
a
100
c
00
Pupal Mortality %
c
82
b
90
a
92
a
99
d
00
Percentage mean repellency of Taibolium castaneum at different weeks with
different concentrations of Gliricidia sepium. Mean with different alphabet letters
indicate significant differences (p< 0.5)
Conc.µg/cm2
600
300
150
Control
% Mean Repellency week after treatment
1
2
4
8
59b
55b
81a
14c
61a
54b
42c
16d
a
c
b
60
18
29
24b
b
b
a
10
8.0
21
17a
Average %
52.25a
43.25b
32.75c
14.00d
Table 4: Percentage mean repellency of Tribolium castaneum at different concentrations of
Solanum nigrum . Mean with different alphabet letters indicate significant
difference (p< 0.05)
Conc.µg/cm2
600
300
150
Control
% Mean Repellency week after treatment
1
2
4
8
37c
50b
64a
48b
72a
40c
58b
37c
b
b
a
36
30
42
48a
d
c
b
00
19
33
44a
Average %
49.75a
51.75a
39.00b
24.00c
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 163-168, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
SOUND PRODUCING ORGANS USING SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY (SEM) OF SVERCACHETA SP.(GRYLLIDAE: GRYLLINAE:)
WITH REFERENCE TO ITS SYSTEMATIC RELATIONSHIPS.
IMTIAZ AHMAD1 AND NASREEN KHAN2
1.
1
Department of Agriculture, University of Karachi, Room No. 15, Biological Research Centre.
2. Department of Zoology, Jinnah University for Woman, Karachi.
E-mail: nasreen_khan2007@yahoo.com Cell #: 0306-2176289
(Received for publication: 30.11.2013)
ABSTRACT
In this work the specimens were collected from Dir, Khyber Pakhtoon Khaw, and their sound producing organs were
studied under the Scanning Electron Microscope, following the technique of David et al. (2003). The sound producing
organs including the file structure, length of files, number of teeth present on the files, teeth structure, structure of tegmen,
and plectrum were particularly studied. These characters appear to be consistent and offer reliable characteristics to
distinguish males of Svercacheta sp. from other related taxa found in Pakistan.
Key Words:. Sound, producing organs, SEM, Svercacheta sp. Systematics
INTRODUCTION
These Insects are the pests of different plants, viz.
Graminaceous plants, including common grasses,
Rice ( Oryza sativa), cotton (Gossypium), tobacco
(Nicotiana
tobacum),
tomato
(Lycopersicum
esculentum), tea (Camellia sinensis), decaying
leaves of wet places of different fields. At the
th
beginning of the 20 century the systematists of this
group recognized the differences in the calling notes
of the males, which they used to attract their
conspecific
female
partners.
Allard
(1910)
recognized for the first time the geographical
variation in the sounds of field crickets. In the singing
gryllids undescribed species can be recognized by
their song differences (Davis, 1922; Fulton, 1930;
Pringle, 1955; Thomas and Alexander, 1957).
Ensifera generally use stridulation for sound
emission (Dumortier, 1963). Stridulum is considered
as a complex organ with its structure and its
functioning mode. (Michelsen and Nocke, 1974;
Sismondo, 1979; Koch et al., 1988; Bennet-Clark,
1989; Desutter –Grandcolas, 1995). When pars
stridens of different species were compared, they
showed small but consistent differences. (David et
al., 2003). The structures of the tegmina of different
species that produce and radiate the acoustic
signals, offer reliable differences between related
taxa (Walker and Carlysle, 1975), and may be used
as important taxonomic characters for separating
closely related species.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The species of crickets of the Super-family Gryllidae
were identified earlier by their morphological
characters including their external male and female
genitalia and later confirmed by sending the
specimen’s photograph with detailed description to a
Russian entomologist A. V. Gorochov, for
confirmation of the identification. The specimen was
boiled for a few minutes to prepare it for SEM
studies. When the body became soft, the right
tegmina was detached from the specimen, and
placed on a slide and covered with a clean cover slip
for taking photograph by using Nikon Cool Pix 5400
digital camera was placed it under Nikon SMZ 800
Binocular. Microscopie. Photograph of the tegmen
was taken by mounting it on a stub, placed into an
auto coater JEOL model No. JFC-1500 Japan
0
having gold target coating, which coated up to 300 A
then placed to scan with Scanning Electron
Microscopy, (SEM) by using JEOL Japan model No.
JSM 6380A studied from the ventral region and
taking pictures of the file, from Centralized Science
Laboratory, University of Karachi, Karachi.
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
164
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Tegmina: (Fig. 1)
Tegmina well developed, apical margin oval. Apical
field having six rows of cells with one diagonal vein
present, feebly curved, not joining to chord, without
st
cross veins. Chords four, 1 and 2nd strongly
rd
th
convex, 3 faintly curved, 4 straight. Three oblique
st
veins present, 1 long, complete, joining to mirror,
curved at middle. Lateral field broad, with seven subcubital veins with variable distances. Mirror large
having oval apex. Two median veins, straight, joining
to each other at middle, two cubital veins present,
having variable distances, with two branches.
Stridulatory file having pointed basal end. Wings
long. Length of tegmina 4.8-5.3 mm., width 03-3.2
mm.
Pars stridens: (Fig. 2-6)
Teeth not evenly distributed on entire file, covered
2/3 area of file, distance between teeth variable.
Morphology of a single tooth of Svercacheta sp.
resembling with those of other species of same
genus. Teeth with basal area thick, cusps thick,
swollen, without any wrinkle. Wings round, narrow,
sharp. Apical margin thin, feebly curved. Anterior
wing feebly shorter than posterior wing, later broad,
acute at lateral margin, basal margin straight,
flattened. Posterior wing feebly longer than anterior
wing, narrow, sub-acute at lateral margin, basal
margin narrow, flattened. Both wings curved, not
pointed towards anal region. Costal and anal teeth
different in appearance to median teeth in size and
shape, teeth with long and flattened wings, having
maximum distance. Anal teeth filamentous, cusp
concave, regular, lateral wings large, broad, lateral
margins acute, terminal teeth having variable shape,
not overlapping at each other. Plectrum narrow,
rounded at costal margin, anal margin straight,
turned over plectrum, anterior and posterior margins
pointed. Microtracheae scarce, long, thin, straight,
pointed. Length of file 1.2-1.4 mm, plectrum 0.5-0.6
mm, total number of teeth 129-136 including minor
and asymmetrical teeth. Density 92.5-107.5 in ♀
teeth per millimeter.
Sound producing organs using scanning electron microscopy of svercacheta sp.
165
Khan and Ahmad (2013)
166
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 5
Fig. 4
ILLUSTRATION OF FIGURE
Fig.. 1. Tegmen
Fig. 2. Stridulatory File
Fig. 3. Stridulatory Teeth
Fig. 4. Anal Region
Fig. 5. Microtrachea
Fig. 6. Plectrum
Fig. 6
Sound producing organs using scanning electron microscopy of svercacheta sp.
DISCUSSION
Earlier the systematists mainly used the
morphological characters because they were
ignorant of the importance of the song characters.
When they realized the importance of song
characters and the organs which produced the
songs they formed that these offer reliable species
recognizing characters. Stridulatory organs are now
also considered as important taxonomic characters
for the recognition of cricket species especially when
electron microscope giving high powered resolution
became available. In stridulum, different structures
were studied viz.: number of teeth in file, structure
and density of teeth per millimeter, size and structure
of file and length of file.
In Pakistan the present second author and her
colleagues earlier worked on gryllid systematics on
the basis of their morphological structures,
particularly genital components of male and female
specimens (Khan and Kamaluddin 2006) and using
these for their cladistic analysis (Kamaluddin and
Khan 2005, 2012). Recently in Pakistan the present
authors now use instead the acoustic characters
including song pattern and sound producing traits
(Ahmad and Khan 2013, Khan and Ahmad 2013).
Walker and Carlysle (1975), Otte and Cade (1984),
Otte (1987) and Montealegre et al.(2011) identified
the taxa of the family Gryllidae with reference to their
external morphology, genital characters and
correlated these with their sound pattern. Presently
the representatives of the sub-family Gryllinae were
identified for the first time from Pakistan on the basis
of their stridulatory files and teeth profile and song
pattern.
In Pakistan we found the closest taxon resembling
Svercacheta
Gorochov
from
the
genus
Acanthogryllus Chopard. Both share the characters
of having general structure of tegmina longer than
abdomen, mirror quadrate in shape, 6-8 rows of
apical cells, teeth triangular with apical margin
smooth. However Acanthogryllus appears different
from Svercacheta in having 04-05 oblique veins,
triangular teeth of stridulatory file , number of teeth
less than 150 and density of teeth 60-68 per
millimeter, whereas Svercacheta .contains 2-3
oblique veins, flap-shaped teeth of stridulatory file,
number of teeth 129-136 and density of teeth 92-108
per millimeter.
Gorochov (1993) described Svercacheta nigrivertex
on the basis of their morphological characters and
genital components, but no one described this group
with its song pattern or sound producing organs.
167
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 169-174, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
IMPACT OF MATING ON LONGEVITY OF RED COTTON BUG MALES
DYSDERCUS CINGULATUS (FAB.) (HEMIPTERA: PYRRHOCORIDAE)
NEELAM ANSARI*¹, N.M.SOOMRO², S.MALIK³, T.J.URSANI4& K.D.PITAFI5
Department of Zoology, University of Sindh Jamshoro, Pakistan.
Email I.D: neelammphil@yahoo.com (Cell # 0345-3599872)
Received for publication: 08.12.2013)
ABSTRACT
The impact of mating on longevity of males of red cotton bug,Dysdercuscingulatus(Fab.) were studied under laboratory
conditions. The observations were based on nymphs collected from the field and laboratory grown adults. At the nymphal
stage the males were cultured separately/ individually not only from the females but to avoid male to male
interaction/fatigue affecting longevity. The longevity of males was measured on both the mated and unmated males. The
results indicate that mated males live less longer than unmated. The fact leads to believe that males may be transferring
some kind of reproductive resources during mating, however the findings that unmated males may have reserved some
vital resources that enhance longevity.
Key Words:. Longevity, mated males, unmated males,Dysdercuscingulatus
INTRODUCTION
D .cingulatus develops faster when feed on
cultivated rather than wild species and host plant
properties such as the weights of feeds and growth
habit could not explain the observed difference in
survival and developmental rate (Katsyunki and
Buithi, 2004). The red cotton bug pass through six
generations and the nymphs and adults are
voracious feeders, infesting leaves, flower and
boll of cotton and suck up the juice from the
seed of either green or ripped cotton bolls(Verma, et
al., 2013).The attacked bolls do not open properly as
a result the quality of the lint is reduced, the oil
content of the seed decreases, and the germination
of seeds is affected. During ginning, the lint becomes
attained with the crushed nymphs and deposited
excreta, which affects the market value of crop. Lint
also is stained by the crushed bacterium
Nematosporagosypii, transmitted into the boll by this
bug (Roy et al. 2002).
The adult have been observed in copulate for as the
growth of D.cingulatus including its temperature
dependency was examined when fed with seeds of
cotton, okra and several other ornamental plants
species which are common host plants of
D.cingulatus in South East Asia (Katsyunki 2003).
Mating and reproductive success influence the
fitness values of both the males and females. The
concentration of phospholipid is higher in the testes
than in the fat body, indicating a demand for the
maturation of sperm prior to mating. It is further
evident that in the males the maximum phospholipid
levels in the testes and fat body on the forth post
emergence day are sufficient for sperm maturation
for the successive mating, which occur prior to the
oviposition of each batch of eggs. Since the cotton
seed used for food is rich in lipid D.cingulatus may
utilize the seed (phospholipid) necessary for
maturation of eggs leading to success rate towards
reproduction. (Zaidi,et al; 1985).
The present paper focuses on longevity of
D.cingulatus of both mated and unmated males and
their size under controlled condition.
MATERIALS AND MATHODS
The nymphs of D. cingulatus were collected from the
cotton field at Nasim Nagar Hyderabad Sindh
(25.367°N, latitude and 68.367°E longitude).
The field collected nymphs were brought in polythene
bag to laboratory where they were kept in jars (18 cm
Ansari et al. (2013)
170
height ×9 cm diameter). The green tender bolls of
cotton with pedicel were provided as food. The
pedicel of cotton bowl was wrapped with cotton swab
soaked in water to maintain its turgidity. Such
prepared bolls were kept at the bottom of rearing jars.
The mouth of jar was covered with piece of net and
held tight with rubber band. The food was replaced
every morning. The excreta of the insect as well as
left food was removed by using hair brush to maintain
sanitation and keep culture healthy. The nymphs
were reared at 29°C±1°C under controlled condition.
The experiments were performed in two groups A and
B. In group A experiment, the newly emerged adult
males and females were identified and kept in
separate jars for 2 to 3 days. After that they were
paired 15 pairs in a jars. Each pairs in a separate jarall jars containing food and allowed to mate
(overnight). After mating, the females were removed
from the jars and the mated males were separated
and the longevity of males was recorded. In group B
experiment, fifteen newly emerged males were
obtained from stock culture and placed in separate jar
containing food material. Data on longevity of
unmated males was also recorded.
The size of mated and unmated males was
measured by taking wing length- the distance from a
prominent supra-alar bristle to the posterior margin
of the upper wing in the folded position (after Butlin
et al, 1982). Wing length was known to be strongly
correlated with most other bodily dimensions. The
results were analyzed using student t-test.
and that of mated male size and longevity is shown
in fig. I.
The results included that the mated males live
approximately for 95 days and unmated males live
approximately for 125 days.
Statistical analysis of Longevity
Student t-test showed significant difference in the
longevity of unmated ♂s and mated ♂s (p=0.03). It
may be due to the fact that there is some kind of
proteinous material in semen that adds to the
longevity of unmated males.
DISCUSSION
The most important problems hindering cotton
cultivation is insect pest infestation. D.cingulatus has
long been regarded as a serious cotton pest
(Maxwell-Lefroy 1908). According to Katsyunki and
Buithi (2004), D. cingulatus has a considerably broad
host plant range, therefore, many plant species can
serve as alternative host plants as cotton is a
seasonal crop. In addition, it is highly probable that
D. cingulatus has a good ability to move between
distant habitats according to seasonal transitions of
flowering and or fruiting of the host plants.
The literature on the biology, longevity and fecundity
of D. cingulatus in Pakistan is very scarce. However,
in India, Vennila.et al. (2007) describe the
description of insect stages, life history, damaging
effect in cotton field and symptoms.
RESULTS
Effect of mating on longevity of males
During mating, the male mounts on the abdomen of
the female, bend its abdomen downward to bring it in
contact with the female genitalia and establish
copulation. The male then descends and turn back
so that its head is in opposite direction. Both the
copulating individuals continue to feed and move
about in the direction determined by the females as it
was stronger and longer than the male. The adult
have been observed in copulate for as long as 3
days.
Longevity of the mated males was measured in days
(average 56.4±3.49). The relationship b/w male size
and longevity was shown in fig. I.
The present study is based on longevity of mated
and unmated males. The mated males longevity
56.4±3.49 (range 42 to 95) and the unmated males
longevity 75.4±7.43 (range 42 to 125).
Varma and Patel (2012) observed that the average
longevity of D. koenigii male, red cotton bug was
22.33 ± 1.44 days. The total life cycle of D. koenigii
was 55 to 66 (60.0 ± 3.52) days of male red cotton
bug at an average room temperature of 25.50 ± 7.36
°C and an average relative humidity of 55.19 ± 21.36
per cent.
Verma et al. (2013) observed that the longevity of D.
cingulatus male was 20 to 24 days with an average
of 21.6 ± 1.81 days. they also observed that total life
period or longevity of male was 56 to 63 (average 59
± 3.240)
Longevity of unmated and mated males
It was observed that unmated males live longer than
the mated males (unmated ♂s longevity average
was 75.4±7.43 days and mated ♂s longevity
average was 56.4±3.49 days). The relationship b/w
unmated male size and longevity is shown in fig. II
According to Adjunto (2000) D.ruficollis longevity of
males life cycle was 31.35; 44.25; 81.60 days.
In several species of Orthoptera mating is expensive
for the male since a large nutritious spermatophore
comprising upto 40% of his body weight, is
Impact of mating on longevity of red cotton bug males Dysdercus cigulatus
transferred to the female during mating (Bowen et
al., 1984; Gwynne, 1984). In a sense the male is
actually making the eggs. Although such behavior
has not been seen in red cotton bug but for
shortening of life the occurrence of same
phenomenon may be assumed.
Butlin et al(1984) observed that the longer adult life
of larger males, and possibility their greater mating
frequency, give them the potential to fertilise more
females, but whether or not this will be realized
depends on male-male interactions as well as those
between males and female
Islam and Mridula(1980) observed the effects of
lower temperature on the longevity of both sexes
and found that males live longer than females, may
be females are less tolerance to lower temperatures
normally it is the other way around. If the females
possis more adipose tissues.
171
CONCLUSION
Results of the present study were made on 15 pairs.
It shows that the life time longevity of mated males
mean is 56.4±3.49 days and the longevity of
unmated males mean is 75.4±7.43 days. The life
span of mated male range is 42-95 days and the
unmated male range is 42-125 days. The results
also indicate that unmated males live longer than
mated males, a confirmation for transferring some
vital resources other than the sperm and seminal
fluids requires more studies.
Another
parameter that affects life process is
temperature which play an important role in
controlling population, as temperature drops the
adult population increases. Humidity is yet another
factor that has positive effect in increasing the
population.
Once male and female life parameters are
determined, it may turn easier to control the
population of red cotton bug which may lead to
increase in yield in both quality and quantity of yield.
Table: Showing life span (Longevity) of Dysdercus cingulatus mated and unmated males
Mated male
Unmated male
S. No
Mated male size
Longevity in Days
Unmated male size
Longevity in Days
1
68.0
50
69.0
125
2
3
67.0
67.0
60
69
69.0
68.0
107
96
4
67.0
59
68.0
60
5
65.0
49
68.0
86
6
65.0
47
68.0
44
7
65.0
54
67.0
68
8
63.0
45
67.0
56
9
60.7
47
65.0
48
10
60.7
42
65.0
77
11
60.4
59
65.0
43
12
60.3
70
65.0
42
13
60.0
51
63.0
57
14
60.0
95
60.9
105
15
60.0
49
60.9
118
949.1
846
846
846
Mean
63.2±0.77
56.4±3.49
65.9±0.70
75.4±7.43
Range
60-68
42-95
60.9-69
42-125
Ansari et al. (2013)
172

70
Dot/Lines show Means
mated males (Longevity )


60


50



60.00
62.00
64.00
small male longev ity
66.00
68.00
large male longev ity
mated males(size)
Figure I. Relationship between longevity and male size (mated). male size is expressed in graticule units(1unit=0.063mm)
Dot/Lines show Means
125.00

unmated males (Longevity)

100.00

75.00



50.00
60.00
62.50
Small male longevity
65.00
67.50
70.00
large male longevity
unmated males (Size)
Figure II. Relationship between longevity and male size (unmated). male size is expressed in graticule units (1unit=0.063mm)
Impact of mating on longevity of red cotton bug males Dysdercus cigulatus
Cotton experimental Field
Damaged cotton boll
Adults of D. cingualtis
Mating of the insect’s pair
Nymphs of D. cingualtis
Male adults of D. cingualtis
173
174
Ansari et al. (2013)
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(1984). The katydid spermatophore (Orthoptera:
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BUTLIN, R. K., READ, I.L. AND DAY,T.H. (1982).
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size and male mating success in the seaweed
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(1984). The effect of larval density on an
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GOVERNMENT OF PAKISTAN (2012-13). Pakistan
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GWYNNE, D.T., (1984). Courtship feeding increase
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Nature, 307: 361-363.
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of low temerature on longevity and
reproduction ofDysdercuscingulatus (Fabr.).
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4: 39-41.
KATSUYNKI, K. (2003). Effect on the growth of the
cotton stainer by Dysdercuscingulatuswhen feed
various host plant seeds including those of wild
species Jircas research Highlight.
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host plant species on the development of
Dysdercuscingulatus
(Heteroptera:
Pyrrhocoridae). Applied Ent. andZool, 39: 183187.
MAXWELL-LEFROY, H. (1908). The red cotton bug
D.cingulatus (Fab.). Memoirs of the Department
of Agriculture in India (Entomological Series) 2:
47–58
ROY, A., BANERJEE, S., MAJUMDER,P. AND
DAS,S. (2002). Efficiency of mannosebinding plant lectins in controlling a
Homopteran insect, the Red cotton bug. J.
Agric. Food Chem.50: 6775-6779.
VERMA,
S.;
HASEEB,
M.
AND
MANZOOR,U.(2013). Biology of red cotton
bug, (Dysdercuscingulatus) Department of
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Sciences.Insect Environment, 19(3): 140-141.
VENNILA,S.; BIRADAR,V.K.; SABESH,M. AND
BAMBAWALALE O.M. (2007). Know your
cotton insects strainers (Red and Dusky
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 175-180, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
INCREASED ATTACK OF RICE STEM BORE COMPLEX COUPLED WITH
ENHANCED YIELD IN RESPONSE OF NITROGEN APPLICATION ON
PADDY CROP
ALI AKBAR BHUTTO, NAHEED MAHMOOD SOOMRO AND
MUHAMMAD FARHANULLAH KHAN*
Department of Zoology, University of Sindh, Jamshoro
*bhutto.aliakbar@yahoo.com, Cell #: 0333-3683122
**Department of Zoology, University of Karachi
farhan.ullah.khan@hotmail.com
(Received for publication: 22.11.2013)
ABSTRACT
In order to estimate the damage caused by the rice stem borer in response to the higher nitrogen application, Nitrogen
was applied at the rates and at the rate of 120 kg/ha to the paddy crop and it was observed that as compared to the
untreated plots, significantly more Dead Heart percentage, White Head percentage, productive tillers and yield was
formed, followed by 110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha. nitrogen application. However, a closely related doses i.e. 90 to 100 kg/ha
and 110 to 120 kg/ha did not show any significant difference in the effects they exerted. Overall all the nitrogen
applications exerted significant higher Dead Heart percentage, White Head percentage, Productive tillers and yield as
compared to the untreated control plots
Key Words:. The stem borers complex, yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga . incertulus (Walker)., Schoenobius spp.,
Tyiporyza spp, white stem borer Scirpophaga innotata (Walker), pink stem borer Sesamia inferens
(Walker), striped stem borer Chilo suppressalis Walker. Dead heart, White head, Nitrogen fertilizer
INTRODUCTION
Since, rice serves as a regular part of diet,
exportable commodity, cattle feed etc and rice straw
is used for the industrial purposes to manufacture
papers, packages etc., global wise the rice has a
unique position after the wheat crop in the
agriculture sector. Equally, the rice is an important
food and cash crop of Pakistan (Shafique et al,
2000). Hence, it occupies amongst the top
positioned food crops (Epidi et al. 2008, Butto and
Soomro 2009), therefore, with the exponentially
increasing world population; rice production is also to
be increased with the same pace. To achieve high
yield the use of fertilizer is unavoidable (Bhutto and
Ali 1973). In the most rice growing areas like
Pakistan most rice soils are very deficient in nitrogen
thus almost all the under cultivate area need
nitrogen for increased crop production. However, it is
most important to apply the proper quantity of
nitrogen at the proper stage of crop growth, as a
single high rates of nitrogen application weakens
the plant and excessive vegetative growth takes
place which leads to yield loss. Excessive use of
Nitrogen also exerts unfavorable effects on the
milling productivity and quality of rice. On the other
hand, including rice stem borers, rice remains under
the attack of various pest species (Baloch and
Abdullah, 2011, Sarwar, 2012)
Though, unavoidable losses are caused by the
sucking pest complex, nevertheless, the borer
damage is all above the losses, amongst the rice
borers, yellow rice stem bore and white stem borers
claims the loin share of the loss (Dhuyo, 2012),
however, other borer species i.e. Chilo spp and
Sesamia spp are not less important (Rehman, 2002;
Abro, 2003; Sheng and Weigian, 2003; Rashid et al.
2005; Butto and Soomro 2009). Salim (2002)
reported that the increase in the application of
nitrogen was found more prone to insect pests attack
and a significantly corresponding number of tillers per
hill increased. Presently, study was conducted to
Bhutto et al. (2013)
176
recognize the effects of nitrogen application on the
stem borer’s infestation on paddy crop.
MATERIALS AND MATHODS
Experiment was designed on randomized complete
block with three replications and six treatments.
Basmati-370 rice variety was transplanted at
experimental area of Rice Research Institute, Dokri,
Pakistan. Line transplanting was done with space
plant to plant and row to row 20 cm. The sub-plot
2
size was maintained 7 x 9 = 63.m . Experiment was
conducted during 2006 and repeated during 2007.
th
th
Nursery was sowing 15 and 10 June 2006 and
2007 and line transplanting was done on 12th and 7th
July 2006 and 2007 at 8 AM. The experiment was
carried out with five treatments of Nitrogen i.e. 80,
90,100,110 and 120 kg / ha/plot. Application of
nitrogen fertilizer was made in two rounds. First
application (i.e. half of the N dose) was made 2-3
days before transplanting and second application
(Remaining half dose) was carried out at 40-45 day
post transplantation. Thereafter, Dead Heart
percentage and White Head percentage was
recorded at the vegetative and reproductive stages
of crop. Productive and un-productive tillers were
recorded. Yield was also recorded from the each
treatment and the each replication. Data was
analyzed statistically via ANOVA and correlation
calculations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
As shown in Table 1 & 2, the rice yield
increased with the nitrogen dose and a good
correlation has been found between yield and
nitrogen dosage (0.98). on the other hand nitrogen at
the rate of 120 kg/ha during 2006 showed
significantly high Dead Heart percentage (16.70);
this followed by 15.43, 12.31, 10.97 and 9.23 in
respect of the 110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha nitrogen
application; while during 2007 Dead Heart
percentage was recorded as 16.76, 15.68, 12.39,
11.04 and 9.04 from the 120, 110, 100, 90 and 80
kg/ha respectively. The average Dead Heart
percentage of 2006 and 2007 was recorded as
16.73, 15.55, 12.35, 11.05, 9.13 and 8.66 through
the application of 120, 110, 100, 90, 80 kg/ha
nitrogen and Control respectively. More Dead Heart
percentage was recorded when nitrogen was applied
at the rate of 120 kg/ha. No significant difference
was found via ANOVA (at 0.5) between 90 & 100
kg/ha nitrogen application and between 110 & 120
kg/ha nitrogen application. However; the effect of
120 kg/ha nitrogen application was highly significant
(at 0.5) to Control. Table-1.
Significantly, the more White Head percentage
during 2006 was recorded (12.75) when nitrogen
was applied at the rate of 120 kg/ha; this followed by
12.40, 9.55, 9.36 and 8.41 from the 110, 100, 90 and
80 kg/ha nitrogen application; while during 2007 it
was recorded as 12.78, 12.59, 9.38, 9.34 and 8.34
from the 120, 110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha nitrogen
application, respectively. The average White Head
percentage of 2006 and 2007 was recorded 12.76,
12.49, 9.46, 9.35, 8.37 and 7.68 from the120, 110,
100, 90, 80 kg/ha nitrogen application and control
respectively. No significant difference was recorded
between 90 & 100 Kg/ha and 110 & 120 kg/ha.
Moreover, 120 kg/ha nitrogen application was found
highly significant to control in respect of white head
and dead heart formation Table-2. There was a good
correlation between nitrogen dosage and white head
and dead heart formation (i.e. 0.77 &0.78
respectively).
More productive tillers during 2006 were recorded
when Nitrogen was applied at the rate of 120 kg/ha
(24.70), this followed by 23.65, 22.48, 20.31 and
18.16 from the 110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha nitrogen
application; while during 2007 it was recorded 23.84,
23.29, 21.38, 20.35 and 18.38 from the120, 110,
100, 90 and 80 kg/ha nitrogen application,
respectively. The average productive tillers of both of
the years were recorded as 24.27, 23.47, 21.43,
20.33, 18.27 and 13.80 from the120, 110, 100, 90,
80 kg/ha nitrogen application and Control
respectively. No significantly difference was
recorded between 90 & 100 kg/ha nitrogen
application and 110 & 120 Kg/ha nitrogen
application. While in this regard, 120 kg/ha nitrogen
application was found highly significant to control as
well. Fig1.
Less unproductive tillers record was made during
2006 when the Nitrogen was applied at the rate of
120 kg/ha (0.90), this followed by 0.95, 1.21, 1.38
and 2.71 unproductive tillers appearance through the
110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha nitrogen application; while
during 2007 it was noted that 0.97, 1.26, 1.75, 2.00
and 2.67 unproductive tillers were appeared from
the120, 110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha nitrogen
application,
respectively.
The
averages
of
unproductive tillers during 2006-2007 were recorded
0.93, 1.10, 148, 1.59, 2.69 and 4.50 from the120,
110, 100, 90, 80 kg/ha nitrogen application and
untreated Control respectively. No significant
difference was recorded between 90 & 100 Kg/ha
nitrogen application and 110 & 120 Kg/ha nitrogen
application. 120 kg/ha nitrogen application was
found highly significant to Control. Fig.2. Salim
(2002) found that the numbers of tillers per hill were
increased with corresponding increase in the
application of Nitorgen which was more prone to
insect pests attack, and a less nitrogen availability
was observed with a lesser pest attack. Jiang Cheng
(2003) reported that more dead heads were found as
fertilizer increased. He further reported that larval
weight attainment and or developmental rate
Increased attack of rice stem bore complex coupled with enhanced Yield on paddy crop
177
increased with increasing fertilizer level. Presently,
similar results were obtained at the various nitrogen
doses nitrogen at the rate of 120 kg/ha during 2006
showed significantly the more yield than other
applied doses. The yield at this dose was obtained
26.91 Kg/plot, this followed by 26.87, 26.12, 25.36
and 23.81 kg/plot from the 110, 100, 90 and 80
kg/ha nitrogen application; while during 2007 it was
recorded 26.39, 26.20, 25.97, 25.40 and 22.71
kg/plot from the 120, 110, 100, 90 and 80 kg/ha
nitrogen application respectively. Average yield of
both years was recorded as 26.65, 26.53, 26.04,
25.38, 23.26 kg/plot and 17.10 from the120, 110,
100, 90, 80 kg/ha nitrogen application and Control
respectively. No significant difference was recorded
between 90 & 100 Kg/ha nitrogen application and
110 & 120 Kg/ha nitrogen application as well. 120
kg/ha nitrogen application was observed as highly
significant to the Control plots. Despite a higher rice
stem bores attack, overall the applications of
nitrogen exerted significant enhancement in the rice
production (Table-1 & 3). There was a good
correlation between yield and white head and dead
heart formation (i.e. 0.74 & 0.78 respectively).
as indicated in Table 1 & 2 there was an increase in
rice yield with the increasing application of the
nitrogen, similarly increase in stem borer incidence
was observed. In the light of the foregoing reports of
the various authors high nitrogen contributes an
enhanced production. As well as high nitrogen could
provoke the pest infestation (Ishii, and Hirano, 1963),
however, despite of higher pest infestation an
enhanced production is a point to ponder. Present
results, in the light of the reports of Pedigo, 1991,
Trumble et al., 1993; Yambao et al., 1993 and Rubia
et al. 1990 &1996, could be said as a conditional
compensatory behavior of the paddy plant against
the stem borers attack in the presence of a high
nitrogen supply. Since, an overcompensation pattern
has been found in association with a higher nitrogen
application, therefore, an insecticide deployment
would be almost avoidable in respect of borers
control, if a higher nitrogen application could be
made as a pesticide free IPM strategy for the borer
complex control on paddy crop as suggested by the
Rubia et al. (1996).
In the present study white head and dead heart were
considered as a parameter of the rice stem bores
infestations. The stem borer complex including
yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga (=Schoenobius
=Tyiporyza) incertulus (Walker), white stem borer
Scirpophaga (=Schoenobius =Tyiporyza) innotata
(Walker), pink stem borer Sesamia inferens (Walker)
and striped stem borer Chilo suppressalis Walker,
commonly cause dead heart and white head which is
recognized as the major symptoms of their attack.
The development of the dead heart is made by the
drying of the young shoot after turning into yellow
color through the feeding of a stem borer up on
inside the paddy leaf at the vegetative stage. The
rice plant heads with unfilled grains is called
whiteheads as result of stem borer feeding inside the
tillers (Rubia et al.; 1996). As indicated in the
foregoing lines and Table 1 & 2, a high rice
production was found coupled with an increase stem
bores infestations. These results were surprising at a
glance while in the beginning it was presumed that
the yield would be either reduced or would be at par,
this elevated production despite of high bore’s
infestation suggested a over compensatory pattern
(Pedigo, 1991) in the rice plant. It is a known
phenomenon that if a plant is found with an enhance
production in response of pest attack it is “Over
compensation / “Compensation”, that is compensate
the loss occurred (Pedigo, 1991; Trumble et al.,
1993). Similarly, rice plant could exhibit a
compensation behavior to the stem borers attack
(Rubia et al. 1990). Compensation in rice plant could
be in the way of formation of more tillers or higher
grain weight in the white head panicles); Yambao et
al., 1993 Rubia etal. 1996). In the present findings
The Authors would like to thanks, Dr. M. S. Wagan,
Chairman, Department of Zoology, University of
Sindh, Jamshoro for their moral support and authors
are also grateful to Mr. Abd-ur-Rehman Dhuyo,
Entomologist, Rice Research Institute, Dokri for his
valuable help.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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basmati rice varieties to Stem borers under
different control tactics of IPM and evaluation
of yield. Pakistan. Journal of Botany, 37(2):
319-324, 2005.
REHMAN,
A,
HAQ,
E.
and
INAYATULLAH,C.(2002a) .Impect of tillage
and cropping system on the survival of over
wintering rice stem borer larvae. Journal of
Agricultural Research, Pakistan 17(1): 163169)
SARWAR (2012). Management of rice stem borers
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) through host plant
resistance in early, medium and late plantings
of rice (Oryza sativa L.) Journal of Cereals and
Oil seeds Vol. 3(1), pp. 10-14,
SHENG,F,T, and WEIJIAN, Y,D (2003).Pest status
and loss assessment of the rice stemborer in
China. Journal of. Entomological Knowledge
40:289-294.
RUBIA, E.G., SHEPARD, B.M., YAMBAO, E.B.,
INGRAM, K.T., ARIDA, G.S., and PENNING
DE VRIES, F.W.T. (1990) Stem borer damage
and grain yield of flooded rice.Journal of Plant
Protection in Tropics 6, 205-2 11
RUBIA, E.G., K. L. HEONG, M. ZALUCKIA, B.
GONZALESIL and G. A. NORTON (1996).
Mechanisms of compensation of rice plants to
yellow stem borer Scirpophaga incertulas
(Walker) injury. Crop Protection. 15(4): 335.
TRUMBLE, J.T., KOLODNY-HIRSCH, D.M., and
TING, I.P. (1993) Plant compensation for
arthropod herbivory. Annual Review of
Entomology. 38, 93-119
YAMBAO, E.B., INGRAM, K.T., RUBIA, E.G. and
SHEPARD, B.M. (1993). Case study: growth
and development of rice in response to
artificial stem borer damage. In: SARP
Research
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Mechanisms
of
Damage by Stem Borer, Bacterial Leaf Blight
and Sheath Blight, and the Effects on Rice
Yield (Editors: W.A.H. Rossing, E.G. Rubia,
K.L. Heong, M. Keerati-Kasikorn and
P.R.Reddy), pp. 33-50.
Increased attack of rice stem bore complex coupled with enhanced Yield on paddy crop
Table: 1.
Effect of Nitrogen on Rice Production
S. No.
N. level
Yield 2006
Yield 2007
Total
Av.(Kg/Plot)
1
80
Kg/ha
23.81
22.71
46.52
23.26
2
90
Kg/ha
25.36
25.40
50.76
25.38
3
100 Kg/ha
26.12
25.97
52.09
26.04
4
110 Kg/ha
26.87
26.20
53.07
26.53
5
120 Kg/ha
26.91
26.39
53.30
26.65
6
Control
17.22
16.98
34.20
17.10
Table: 2 Correlation Between Various Characteristics under the Effects of Nitrogen Supply
S#
1. Yield
Variables
vs. White Head
Correlation = r*
0.74
2. Yield
vs.
3. Nitrogen Dose
vs. Yield
0.98
4. Nitrogen Dose
vs. White Head
0.77
5. Nitrogen Dose
vs. Dead Heart
0.78
Dead Heart
0.75
*r=Coefficient of correlation
*r = Σ (x-x) ∙ (y-y) ∙ {[Σ (x-x) 2 ∙Σ(y-y) 2]0∙ 5}-1
Table: 3.Effect of Nitrogen On Dead Heart And White Head Percentage on Paddy Crop
S.
No.
1
N .level
DH%
DH%
AV
2007
9.13
WH%
WH#
9.04
Total
2006
18.27
80
2
90
8.34
Total
2006
16.75
Av
2007
8.37
Kg/ha
9.23
8.41
Kg/ha
10.97
11.04
22.01
11.05
9.36
9.34
18.70
9.35
3
100 Kg/ha
12.31
12.39
24.70
12.35
9.55
9.38
18.93
9.46
4
110 Kg/ha
15.43
15.68
31.11
15.55
12.40
12.59
24.99
12.49
5
120 Kg/ha
16.70
16.76
33.46
16.73
12.75
12.78
25.53
12.76
6
Control
8.48
8.83
17.31
8.66
8.13
7.22
15.35
7.68
179
Bhutto et al. (2013)
180
Produc tiv e tille rs
Fig.1. Average Productive Tillers Formation At Various Nitrogen Doses On Rice Plant
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
18.27
20.33
21.43
23.47
24.27
13.8
80
90
100
110
120
Control
Treatments
U n-produc tiv e tille rs
Fig. 2. Average Un-Productive Tillers Formation At Various Nitrogen Doses On Rice Plant
4.5
5
4
3
2.69
1.69
2
1.48
1.1
0.93
110
120
1
0
80
90
100
Treatments
Control
Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 181-154, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
OCCURRENCE OF PARASITOID SPECIES ON VARIOUS LEPIDOPTERAN
LARVAE AT TANDOJAM
MUHAMMAD AFZAL MEMON, IMRAN ALI RAJPUT, ABDUL GHANI LANJAR,
MUHAMMAD SOHAIL YOUSUFZAI, ARIF ALI RAJPUT, ABDUL QADIR BALOCH,
TARIQUE AHMED KHUHRO
Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Sindh – Pakistan
E-mail: ranaimran234@gmail.com
Received for publication: 08.12.2013)
ABSTRACT
The results revealed that the rate of parasitism in varied on different larvae of lepidotera.the number of
parasitoides emerged on Spodoptera unipuncta larvae was 10.28%, Emproctis objecta 17.14%, Plusia
Spp10.00%, Spodoptera litura 9.33%, Agroitis ipsilon 18.57%, armyworm 15.71%, Hairy caterpillar 13.00%, caster
semi looper 14.00% and black cutworm 15.00%. Parasitoids emerged from Spodoptera unipuncta were Tachinid
fly, Apanteles sp, Braconid Wasp and Microplitis Species, ranged from 03 to 23 averaged 11.73/larva. Parasitoids
of Emproctis objecta were Braconid wasps and Tachinid flies, ranged from 02 to 04 averaged 2.20/larvae. The
major parasitoid of Plusia Spp. was Apocephalus of the Phoridae family, emerged in the range of 03 to 06
averaged 4.50/larva. The parasitoid of Emproctis objecta was Glyptapanteles emerging in the range of 07 to 41
averaged 20.0 per larva. Parasitoids of Spodoptera unipuncta on cotton were Apocephalus pergandei and Fleshflies emerged at the average rate of 12.00/larva. The parasitoids of Agroitis ipsilon were Microplitis, Cotesia
congregate and Cotesia wasp; emerged in the range of 03 to 23 with averaged 9.67 per larva in okra.
.
Key Words:. Parasitoids, Lepidopteran, species and crops
INTRODUCTION
The natural enemies of the lepidopteran pests are
important features of Integrated Pest Management
programs. Lepidopteran pests of economic
significance such as Thysanoplusia orichalcea and
Helicoverpa armigera, Plutella xylostella, Pieris
rapae, etc are the main species. All of these pest
species are attacked by various larval parasitoids
and entomopathogenic fungi, which can affect their
pest status to varying degrees. The larval parasitoids
are mainly hymenopteran species that have been
successfully introduced as biological control agents
(Cameron et. al. 1989). These include: Copidosoma
floridanum and Cotesia ruficrus, which were
introduced to control Chrysodeixis eriosoma and
which also attack T. orichalcea (Berry and Walker
2004); Cotesia kazak and Microplitis croceipes
introduced to control H. armigera (Walker and
Cameron 1989); Diadegma semiclausum found on
P. xylostella; and Cotesia glomerata and Cotesia
rubecula are effective Parasitoids against P. rapae
(Cameron and Walker, 2002). Other larval parasitoid
of lepidopteran larvae commonly recovered in
vegetable crops is Meteorus pulchricornis, an
important component of the hymenopteran parasitoid
fauna in modified habitats since it was first detected
in 1996 (Berry and Walker 2004).
Parasitoids are insects that live and feed on or in the
tissue of a pest (host), parasitizing and eventually
killing the host. Parasitoids are parasitic only in their
immature stages; adults are free-living. There are
egg larval, and Parasitoids categorized by the
specific host stage such as egg larva & adult that
they attack. Many parasitoids are very small and
difficult to see. Sometimes the only way to confirm
the presence or activity of a parasitoid is to look for
signs of parasitism, which include host color change
(usually darker), presence of emergence holes in the
host, weakened or deformed hosts, and mummified
hosts (Yu et al., 2005).
Studies on the natural enemies of the fall army
worm, Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) (Lepidoptera:
Noctuidae) have reported a great diversity of
associated parasitoids. Approximately 150 species
of fall armyworm parasitoids from 13 families have
182
Memon et al. (2013)
been recorded occurring in the Americas (MolinaOchoa et al. 2003). Twenty-two species have been
reported for Mexico, and species composition seems
to vary throughout the country (Molina-Ochoa et al.
2004). There are thousands of species of
Ichneumonidae; they are among the main
parasitoids of Lepidoptera, although the specific
hosts are unknown for most Neotropical species.
Biological data are provided by Townes (2000),
Gauld et al. (2002), Hanson and Gauld (2006) and
Yu et al. (2005). A great deal of research is devoted
to the study of natural enemies of lepidopterans of
economic interest. However, studies relating
parasitoids to their hosts and the plants on which
they feed in the wild are rare. Biological data for
Ichneumonidae reared from Lepidoptera larvae are
provided by Braga et al. (2001) and Marconato et
al. (2008), for Geometridae larvae feeding
on Piper spp. (Piperaceae) and for Geometridae
on Erythroxylum microphyllum (Eythroxylaceae). The
Ichneumonidae are a part of biodiversity inventory of
Lepidoptera caterpillars and their parasitoids found
feeding
on Croton
floribundus Spreng
(Euphorbiaceae). C. floribundus is a pioneer species
widely used to allow caterpillar collections. There is a
wide range of Lepidoptera species and Hymenoptera
parasitoids (Marconato et al., 2008).
Locally occurring parasitoids can be highly
significant in suppressing pest populations.
Parasitoids of moth eggs and caterpillars are
Trichogramma wasps, found in most crops where
there are moth pests and where spraying is
minimized; Telenomus sp are group of egg
parasitoids (larger than trichogramma), they lay just
one egg into a Heliothis moth egg and are important
early season parasitoids (Gauld et at.,2002).
In view of the facts stated above, the present
study was carried out on the occurrence of
parasitoids species on various Lepidopteran larvae
on different crops grown at Tandojam.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out on the occurrence of
parasitoids species on various Lepidopteran larvae.
The parasitoids species were collected and
taxonomic evaluation of these collected parasitoids
were performed at the vicinity of Tandojam. During
course of study Sunflower, Cotton, Okra, Cluster
Ban and Mustard crops were surveyed for collection
of the larvae of different Lepidoptera insect pests.
The crops were sampled weekly and all lepidopteran
larvae seen and were collected. The crops were
checked regularly at weekly interval and all sighted
larvae were collected. The collected larvae were
placed individually into empty plastic tubes with a
small slice of leaf from the host plant, or into tubes
containing a general-purpose insect diet, and pluck
with cotton. All collections were brought in to the
laboratory at the Department of Entomology, Faculty
of Crop Protection, Sindh Agriculture University
Tandojam at ambient temperature and specimens
assessed within 24 hours to record parasitoid
emergence. The collections were assessed every 23 days to record the fate of larvae and add fresh
food material if required. Fate was determined as
either: (1) unparasitised larvae / pupa / moth, (2)
parasitized larva, (3) diseased larva or (4) dead due
to unknown cause. Parasitised larvae were
maintained for cocoon formation, adult eclosion and
identification. Larvae showing symptoms of infection
by an entomopathogenic fungus (producing primary
conidia) were isolated, identified and stored the
pathogen. Mean while isolated parasitism agrigated
parasitism were also recorded. The data thus
finalized were tabulated according to the crop and
insect species.
RESULTS
The data in regards to occurrence of insect pests on
surveyed crops, alongwith larval collection and
percent parasitization are given in Table-1, while
parasitoids emergence per larva of different insect
pest species on various crops is shown in Tables 2 .
The taxonomic evaluation of various parasitoid
species alongwith their images is presented in
Table-3.
Larval collection and parasitization
The data (Table-1) indicated that on 350 Armyworm
(Spodoptera unipuncta) larvae collected from
sunflower fields with 36 parasitoids showing 10.28
percent parasitization; while on 35 Hairy caterpillar
(Emproctis objecta) larvae collected from the same
crop species (sunflower), 06 parasitoids were
collected showing 17.14 percent parasitization.
Similarly, on 30 Semi looper (Spodoptera unipuncta)
larvae in sunflower fields, 3 parasitoids were found
showing 10.00 percent parasitization.
The
parasitization of Spodoptera litura (Armyworm) in
cotton was observed as 9.33 percent, where 225
Spodoptera litura were parasitized by 21 parasitoids.
From okra, 70 cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) larvae and
13 parasitoids were collected indicating 18.57
percent parasitization, while on cluster bean 70
armyworm larvae and 11 parasitoids were collected
indicating 15.71 percent parasitization. On the same
crop species (cluster bean), 100 Hairy caterpillar
larvae with 13 parasitoids, 13.00 and 50 caster semi
looper (Achaea janata) larvae with 07 parasitoids
were recorded showing and 14.00 percent
parasitization, respectively. On mustard, 60 black
cutworm larvae were collected and 09 parasitoids
were also found resulting 15.00 percent
parasitization.
Occurrence of Parasitod species on various Lepidopteran larvae at Tandjam
Table-1
183
Occurrence of insect pests on surveyed crops, larvae collected, parasitoids
and percent parasitization
Crop
Name of insect
Technical Name
No. of
larvae
No. of
Parasitoids
Parasitoid
Percentage
Sunflower
Armyworm
Spodoptera
unipuncta
350
36
10.28
Sunflower
Hairy caterpillar
Emproctis objecta
35
6
17.14
Sunflower
Semi lopper
Plusia Spp
30
3
10.00
Cotton
Armyworm
Spodoptera litura
225
21
9.33
Okra
Cutworm
Agroitis ipsilon
70
13
18.57
Cluster Bean Armyworm
Spodoptera litura
70
11
15.71
Cluster Bean Hairy caterpillar
Emproctis Objecta
100
13
13.00
50
7
14.00
60
09
15.00
Cluster Bean Castor Semilooper Achaea janata
Mustard
Black Cutworm
Agroitis ipsilon
Parasitoid emergence from Emproctis objecta on
sunflower
Hairy caterpillar (Emproctis objecta) larvae were
collected from the sunflower fields in the surveyed
fields around Sindh Agriculture University Tandojam,
and the data (Table-2) indicated that the important
Emproctis objecta parasitoids collected were
Braconid Wasps and Tachinid flies (Table-3).
Diversified parasitoid emergence from Emproctis
objecta larvae was noticed at all the surveyed
locations. Braconid Wasps were the most abundant
parasitoids prevalent frequently. Out of 10 sunflower
fields the parasitoids emerged from Emproctis
objecta were in the range of 02 to 04 parasitoids and
larval parasitoids on average emerged from
Emproctis objecta were 2.20/larvae. The two most
important parasitoids were the Braconid Wasps and
Tachinid flies, which were observed throughout the
sunflower growing season on host plants. The
results suggested that Braconid Wasps and Tachinid
flies occurred variably and playing significant role on
the natural control of the larval populations of
Emproctis objecta.
Parasitoid emergence from Plusia Spp. on
sunflower
Semi lopper (Plusia Spp.) larvae were collected from
the surveyed sunflower fields at Tandojam and the
data (Table-2) showed that the major parasitoid of
Plusia Spp. was Apocephalus of the Phoridae family
(Table-3). The parasitoid emergence from Plusia
Spp. larvae was observed at both the fields.
Apocephalus was the most prevalent parasitoid
emerged from the semi loopers. The parasitoid
Memon et al. (2013)
184
emerged from Plusia Spp. were in the range of 03 to
06 parasitoids and on average per larva parasitoid
emergence was 4.50. The results indicated that
Apocephalus emerged differentially and played
important role to control larval populations of Plusia
Spp. larvae under field conditions.
Parasitoid emergence from Emproctis objecta on
cluster bean
Hairy caterpillar (Emproctis objecta) larvae were
collected from the surveyed cluster bean fields at
Tandojam and the data (Table-2) indicated that the
major parasitoid of Emproctis objecta was
Glyptapanteles from the Braconidae family of
parasitoids (Table-3). The parasitoid emergence
from Emproctis objecta larvae was observed at all
the cluster bean fields. Glyptapanteles was the most
abundant parasitoid emerging from the hairy
caterpillars of cluster beans. The Glyptapanteles
emerged from Emproctis objecta were in the range
of 07 to 41 and average emergence was 20.0 per
larva. Similar diversity of parasitoids was obtained in
all the locations. The results indicated that
Glyptapanteles emerged variably and played
significant role for natural control of Emproctis
objecta in cluster beans.
Parasitoid
emergence
unipuncta on cotton
from
Spodoptera
Armyworm of cotton (Spodoptera unipuncta) larvae
were collected from the surveyed cotton fields at
Tandojam and the data (Table-2) showed that
parasitoids of Spodoptera unipuncta on cotton were
Apocephalus pergandei from the Metopininae family
and Flesh-flies from Sarcophagidae family of
parasitoids (Table-3). Apocephalus pergandei and
Flesh-flies were the abundantly emerging parasitoids
from the Spodoptera unipuncta larvae on cotton. The
parasitoids emerged from Spodoptera unipuncta
were 12.00/larva, indicating that Apocephalus
pergandei and Flesh-flies were playing positive role
for controlling Spodoptera unipuncta on cotton under
field conditions.
Parasitoid emergence from Agroitis ipsilon on
okra
Cutworm (Agroitis ipsilon) larvae were collected from
the surveyed okra fields at Tandojam and the data
(Table-2) indicated that parasitoids of Agroitis ipsilon
were Microplitis, Cotesia congregate and Cotesia
wasp of the Braconidae family of parasitoids (Table3). These parasitoids were abundantly emerging
parasitoids from the Agroitis ipsilon on okra. The
Microplitis, Cotesia congregate and Cotesia wasp
emerged from Agroitis ipsilon were in the range of 03
to 23 and average emergence was 9.67 per larva.
Diversified emergence of parasitoids on Agroitis
ipsilon larvae were found in the field and could be
concluded that Microplitis, Cotesia congregate and
Cotesia wasp emerged differentially and played
marked role for controlling Agroitis ipsilon on okra.
Table-2 Parasitoid emergence per larva of Army worm, hairy caterpillar, semi
lopper, and cutworm on sunflower.
Name of crop
Sunflower
Sunflower
Sunflower
Cluster Bean
No. of parasitoids
emerged per
larvae
Stage of
parasitoid
emerged
Spodoptera unipuncta
11.73
Larva
Hairy caterpillar
Emproctis objecta
2.20
Larvae
Semi loopper
Plusia Spp
4.50
Larvae
Hairy caterpillar
Emproctis Objecta
20.00
Larvae
Army Worm
Cutworm
Spodoptera unipuncta
Agroitis ipsilon
12.00
Larvae
9.67
Larvae
Name of larvae
Technical Name
Army Worm
Cotton
Okra
Occurrence of Parasitod species on various Lepidopteran larvae at Tandjam
185
Table-3 Taxonomic studies of the parasitoid species on various Lepidopteran
larvae of various field crops
Family of
parasitoids
Host Name
Name of
parasitized
Sunflower Armyworm
Tachinid fly
Tachinidae
Diptera
Okra
Cotesia wasp
Braconidae
Hymenoptera
Sunflower Armyworm
Braconid
wasp
Braconidae
Hymenoptera
Sunflower Armyworm
Microplitis
Species
Braconidae
Hymenoptera
Cotton
Armyworm
Flesh-flies
Sarcophagidae
Diptera
Cluster
bean
Castor
Semilooper
Glyptapanteles Braconidae
wasp
Crop
Cutworm
Order of
parasitoid
Hymenoptera
Parasitoid image
Memon et al. (2013)
186
Okra
Cutworm
Cotesia wasp
Braconidae
Hymenoptera
Okra
Cutworm
Microplitis
wasp
Braconidae
Hymenoptera
Apocephalus
fly
Phoridae
Sunflower Armyworm
Diptera
Mustard
Black
Ctworm
Psyttalia wasp
Braconidae
Hymenoptera
DISCUSSION
species have been reported from Mexico, and
species composition seems to vary throughout the
country (Molina-Ochoa et al. 2004).
The rate of parasitism on Spodoptera unipuncta
larvae was 10.28 percent, Emproctis objecta 17.14
percent, Plusia Spp 10.00 percent, Spodoptera litura
9.33 percent, Agroitis ipsilon 18.57 percent,
armyworm 15.71 percent, Hairy caterpillar 13.00
percent, caster semi looper 14.00 percent and black
cutworm 15.00 percent. Considerable research has
been found published to support the findings of the
present studies. Microplitis are larval parasitoids with
one parasitoid emerging from one Heliothis
caterpillar; while cotesia are parasitoids of caterpillar
larva and produce characteristic bundles of white or
yellow cocoons and Copidosoma are parasitoids of
potato moth, Diadegma is parasitoid on cabbage
moth larva and Tachanid fly species are many and
their maggots have numerous hosts - from bugs to
caterpillars (Hanson and Gauld, 2006). Studies on
the natural enemies of the fall army worm,
Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith) have reported a great
diversity of associated parasitoids. Approximately
150 species of fall armyworm parasitoids from 13
families have been recorded occurring in the
Americas (Molina-Ochoa et al. 2003). Twenty-two
The present study further showed that the
parasitoids emerged from Spodoptera unipuncta
were Tachinid fly, Apanteles sp, Braconid Wasp and
Microplitis Species, ranged from 03 to 23 averaged
11.73/larva. Parasitoids of Emproctis objecta were
Braconid wasps and Tachinid flies, ranged from 02
to 04 averaged 2.20/larvae. The major parasitoid of
Plusia Spp. was Apocephalus of the Phoridae family,
emerged in the range of 03 to 06 averaged
4.50/larva. The parasitoid of Emproctis objecta was
Glyptapanteles emerging in the range of 07 to 41
averaged 20.0 per larva. Parasitoids of Spodoptera
unipuncta on cotton were Apocephalus pergandei
and Flesh-flies emerged at the average rate of
12.00/larva. The parasitoids of Agroitis ipsilon were
Microplitis, Cotesia congregate and Cotesia wasp;
emerged in the range of 03 to 23 averaged 9.67 per
larva in okra. These results are partially supported
by many past workers. Hiroaki Sato (1990)
concluded that factors influencing the host range of
parasitoids and the parasitoid richness of host
species or genera were discussed on the basis of
the koinoparasitism/ idioparasitism categorization.
Occurrence of Parasitod species on various Lepidopteran larvae at Tandjam
Romeis et al. (1999) showed that the parasitization
efficiency of parasitoid depends mainly on the
location of the host which explains that parasitism
levels did not increase under intercropping systems
or after mass-releasing of the parasitoids. TorresVila et al. (2000) reported that Cotesia sp. was the
most frequent parasitoid and population dynamics of
these parasitoids were markedly different. Although,
some other parasitoid wasp species were detected,
the parasitic complex caused more than 95% of the
larval parasitism. Molina-Ochoa et al. (2004)
surveyed parasitoids of armyworm, Spodoptera
frugiperda and reported that Meteorus laphygmae
exhibited the highest rates of parasitism for a single
collection with 22.2% and 22.1%, in Sinaloa, and
Michoacán, respectively. Arodokoun et al. (2006)
reported
parasitoids
belonging
to
the
Hymenoptera: Braconidae, and Diptera: Tachinidae
exploiting larvae of various insect pest species and
the rate of parasitism was 4.9% to 5.6%. Gabriela et
al. (2009) reported a diversity of parasitoids in
different ecological conditions and found C. grioti
and species of Archytas as the most abundant and
frequent parasitoids. The parasitism rate obtained
were 21.96%, 17.87% and 6.63% respectively with
an average of 18.93%. These results demonstrate
that Hymenopteran and Dipteran parasitoids of S.
frugiperda occurred differentially and played an
important role on the natural control of the S.
frugiperda larval population. Walker et al. (2011)
reported that parasitoid larval development was
significantly faster when planidia were placed on
late-instar H. punctigera larvae than on early-instar
larvae but puparium development and puparium
weight were not affected by host age.
Parasitised Helicoverpa larvae gained weight at the
same rate as unparasitised larvae until 2–3 days
before the exit of C. dorsalis larvae when they
entered a premature prepupal phase. Developmental
thresholds and day-degree requirements for C.
dorsalis were calculated and compared with H.
armigera.
The taxonomic evaluation of parasitoids in this study
showed that Tachinid fly is a member of Tachinidae
family in the order Diptera of parasitoids, Cotesia
wasp belongs to Braconidae family in the order
Hymenoptera, Apanteles sp. and Braconid wasp
belong to Braconidae family in the order
Hymenoptera, Microplitis sp. belongs to Braconidae
family in the order Hymenoptera, flesh-flies belong to
Sarcophagidae family in the order Diptera,
Glyptapanteles
belong
to
Braconidae
and
Microgastrinae families in the order Hymenoptera,
Cotesia congregata belongs to Braconidae family in
the order Hymenoptera, Microplitis is associated
with Braconidae and Microgastrinae families in the
order Hymenoptera, Apocephalus belongs to
Phoridae family in the order Diptera, Apocephalus
pergandei is related to Metopininae family in the
187
order Diptera and Psyttalia concolor is a member of
Braconidae family in the order Hymenoptera of
parasitoids. These findings coincide the results of
Hanson and Gauld (2006) and Gabriela et al. (2009)
who identified similar parasitoid species during their
experiments. The studies suggest that there is much
scope of biocontrol agents particularly parasitoids
wich can be multiplied through rearing and release
against lepidopteran pests.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The rate of parasitism in Spodoptera unipuncta
larvae was 10.28 percent, Emproctis objecta
17.14 percent, Plusia Spp 10.00 percent,
Spodoptera litura 9.33 percent, Agroitis ipsilon
18.57 percent, armyworm 15.71 percent, Hairy
caterpillar 13.00 percent, caster semi looper
14.00 percent and black cutworm 15.00 percent.
2. Parasitoids emerged from Spodoptera unipuncta
were Tachinid fly, Apanteles sp, Braconid
Wasp and Microplitis Species, ranged from 03
to 23 averaged 11.73/larva.
3. Emproctis objecta parasitoids were Braconid
Wasps and Tachinid flies, ranged from 02 to 04
averaged 2.20/larvae.
4. The major parasitoid of Plusia Spp. was
Apocephalus of the Phoridae family, emerged in
the range of 03 to 06 averaged 4.50/larva.
5. The parasitoid of Emproctis objecta was
Glyptapanteles emerging in the range of 07 to
41 averaged 20.0 per larva.
6. Parasitoids of Spodoptera unipuncta on cotton
were Apocephalus pergandei and Flesh-flies
emerged at the average rate of 12.00/larva.
7.
The parasitoids of Agroitis ipsilon were Microplitis,
Cotesia congregate and Cotesia wasp; emerged
in the range of 03 to 23 averaged 9.67 per larva
in okra.
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ARODOKOUN, D.Y., M. TAMO, C. CLOUTIER
AND J. BRODEUR. (2006). Larval
parasitoids occurring on Maruca vitrata
Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Benin,
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BERRY, J.A.; WALKER, G.P. (2004): Meteorus
pulchricornis (Wesmael) (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae: Euphorinae): an exotic
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BRAGA, S. M. P.; M. M. DIAS & A. M. PENTEADODIAS. (2001). Aspectos bionômicos de Eois
tegularia (Gueneé) e Eois glauculata (Walker)
(Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Larentiinae) e
seus parasitóides. Revista Brasileira de
Zoologia 18: 837–840.
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CAMERON, P.J., R.L. HILL, J. BAIN AND W.P.
THOMAS. (1989). A review of biological
control of invertebrate pests and weeds in
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communication, CAB International Institute of
Biological Control 10. CAB International,
Wallington, UK. 242 pp.
CAMERON, P.J.; WALKER, G.P. (2002): Field
evaluation of Cotesia rubecula (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae), an introduced parasitoid of Pieris
rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) in New Zealand.
Environ. Entomol. 31(2): 367-374.
GAULD, I. D.; C. GODOY; R. SITHOLE & J. U.
GÓMEZ. (2002). The Ichneumonidae of Costa
Rica,
4. Memoirs
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Entomological Institute 66: 1–768.
HANSON, P. E. & I. D. GAULD. (2006).
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HIROAKI SATO, (1990). Parasitoid complexes of
lepidopteran leaf miners on oaks (Quercus
dentataand Quercus mongolica) in Hokkaido,
Japan. Ecological Research, 5 (1) : 1-8.
MARCONATO, G.; M. M. DIAS & A. M.
PENTEADO-DIAS. (2008). Larvas de
Geometridae
(Lepidoptera)
e
seus
parasitóides, associadas a Erythroxylum
microphyllum St.Hilaire
(Erythroxylaceae). Revista Brasileira de
Entomologia 52: 296–299.
MOLINA-OCHOA, J., J. E. CARPENTER, E. A.
HEINRICHS AND J. E. FOSTER. (2003).
Parasitoides and parasites of Spodoptera
frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in the
Americas and Caribbean basin: an
inventory. Florida Entomol.
86:254289.
LINA-OCHOA,J., J.E.CARPENTER, R.LEZAMAGUTIERREZ, J.E.FOSTER, M.
GONZALEZRAMIREZ, C.A. ANGEL-SAHAGUN AND J.
FARIAS-LARIOS. (2004). Natural distribution of
hymenopteran parasitoids of Spodoptera
frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae in
Mexico. The Florida Entomologist, 87(4):461472.
ROMEIS, J., T.G. SHANOWER and C.P.W.
ZEBITZ. (1999). Trichogramma
egg
parasitism of Helicoverpa armigera on
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TORRES-VILA, L. M., M.C. RODRÍGUEZ-MOLINA,
E. PALO, O. ESTAL, and A. Lacasa. (2000).
The larval parasitoid complex of Helicoverpa
armigera on tomato in the Vegas del
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Ichneumonidae 3. Memoirs of the American
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WALKER, G.P.; CAMERON, P.J. (1989): Status
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Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 189-194, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
THE SPIDER DIVERSITY IN AND AROUND UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI
SINDH PAKISTAN
MUHAMMAD KAZIM1 , RUKHSANA PERVEEN1 AND NADIA FATIMA2
1
Department of Zoology University of Karachi 75270, Email Kazimarach@gmail.com,: Cell #: 0355-417070
2
Federal Urdu University for Arts, Science & Technology, Karachi nadiafatima.ku@gmail.com
Received for publication: 08.12.2013)
ABSRACT
Karachi is economical and commercial capital of Pakistan it is an important regional port. it is started as a small fishing
village called Mai KOLACHI in Sindh province. it location is 24°51′36″N, 67°00′36″E Altitude 8 meters AMSL total 3,527
km². It was reputed to be the cleanest city & first capital of the federation from 1947 to1960. Extensive agriculture is done
in the surrounding of Karachi and verity crops are observed. These crops which are suffered a lot from pest infection
spider play important role to control insect pest population. There are no serious and organize studied were made on this
important group in study area. Few literatures are available. In the present study 39 species from 16 families under 26
genera are being reported during 2010 to 2013. Collection were done by hand-picking, pitfall trap and visual searching
.in the current study Salticidae most commonly occurred species while lycosidae and aranidae are shown dominated in
agriculture field.
Key Words:. Spider Economical Pest Infection Agriculture crops
INTRODUCTION
Spider is very diverse group of class Arachnidae.
th
The have 7 number of animal diversity in the world
with count of 43700 spider species belonging to
3878 genera and 113 families (Platnick, 2013). It is
present all kind of habitat .They are predator and
abundant in all season during period of scarcity they
can survive through self-damaging effect (Lesar and
unzickar1978).
Dyal 1935 described spider fauna of Lahore and
reported 20 families 65 genera 124 species from
Lahore, Qurashi 1982 reported eight families from
Lahore., Arshad et al 1986, describes 13 family
37genera and 67 species, Khatoon .1985-1986. Butt
A. & Baig MA 1996.described biodiversity of
cursoreal Spider in a Guava Grove in Faisalabad
total 518 specimen of spider representing 8 families
17 genera and 26 species, Mushtaq. and Qadir
1999, Butt A, MA Beg. 2001. Abdul Ghafoor 2002
described Taxonomic and some ecological studies of
cursorial spider Faisalabad total 3423 specimens
belonging to 23 genera and 17 families Razzaq 2002
described spider of Kagan valley. Razia P 2003
Compiled fantastic work spider of Punjab total 14743
specimens belonging 158 species 20 families.
Shakila et al 2003: described biodiversity of temporal
variation in abundance of cursorial spider of cotton
field from Faisalabad total 2835 spider which
belonging to 9 family 41 genera and 101 species.
O.B Kok, et al. 2004: described diversity and ecology
of spider Deosai Plateau Northern Pakistan. Total of
8757 specimen representing 23 species 19 genera
and 9 families Khalid M 2004 described fauna on
foliage spider of Punjab they collected 5117
belonging 124 species 17 families under 51 genera
21 species. Razia Perveen, et al 2007, described a
checklist of the spider of Punjab total 14743.spider
belonging to 21 families 58 genera and 157 species.
One family 10 genera and 80 species new recorded
for the first time from Punjab Pakistan. Tahir 2009
studied Biodiversity and predatory efficacy of the
spiders in rice field Punjab they collected 28000
specimens belonging to 14 families under 44
species.
Farzana et al., (2012) described spider fauna in the
Frontier Region, Peshawar Pakistan. She has been
listed total 107 spacemen belonging to 9families
21species. Perveen & A Jamal 2013 Presented
short communication FR Peshawar, FATA, Pakistan.
During 23 species belonging 17 genera and 9
families were reported. Minimum information on
spider of Sindh are available Urasani and Soomro
2010 presented a check list spider fauna of sindh
she revealed 132 species belonging to 24 families
and 73 genera .Shahjahan et al 2012 studied effect
pesticide on population reduction of spider and
sucking pest in cotton crops Sindh listed 16 families.
T.J. Soomro et al 2013.descrided new species
Philodromus (Aranae: Philodromide) from Sindh
Kazim et al (2013)
190
Pakistan. M.Kazim et al 2014 Presented a checklist
of spider (Order Araneae: Class Arachnida ) from the
campus of University of Karachi , Sindh Pakistan
The species of spider from Pakistan with reference
to Karachi has been poorly documented Therefore a
survey was conducted to explored spider diversity in
Karachi.
1900, T Thorell 1895, Tikader 1982 as well as
authentic literature.
After the complete study
specimen are Preserved in 70% alcohal and few
drops of glycerin and stored in department of
Zoology and Entomology University of Karachi.
MATERIALS AND MATHODS
The authors are thankful to Dr Dmitri Logunov UK
Yuri M.Marusk Russia , Dr Charlis Haddad, South
Africa
Dr Gustavo Ruiz, Dr Matjaz Kuntner
Philippine for their help in conformation of some of
species.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Karachi is an important regional port of Pakistan it is
started as a small fishing village called Mai
KOLACHI. Its location is 24°51′36″N, 67°00′36″E
Altitude 8 meters AMSL total 3,527 km².Surrounding
RESULTS
of Karachi in under cultivation of different crops.
In the current study 39 species belonging to 16
These crops have providing habitat for different kind
families under 26 genera were recorded out of 39
of arthropods including spider. The main purpose of
species. family salticidae most commonly occurred
present study is exploring the spider fauna of
while lycosidae
and
Araneid are shown
Karachi was carried out from 2007 to 2013. Tree
dominated in agriculture
field. Salticidae are
trunks forest agriculture field, bushes walls, and floor
31%and highest species diversity Araneidae has
garden for spider collection by using hand-picking,
second largest in species and rest of the families has
pitfall trap and visual searching total 272 specimen
equal quantity
belonging 39 species from 16 families under 26
genera. Identification was don following Pocock
Table -1, Spider species recorded from surrounding Karachi University Pakistan
Family
Species
Sp. Count
Araneidae
Neoscona mukerjei
5
Clubionidae
Ganaphosidae
Hersilidae
Lycosidae
Nephilidae
Oxyopide
Pholcidae
Thomisidae
Theridiidae
Saprassida
Salticidae
Corinnidae
Filistatidae
Sicariidae
Scytodidae
Neoscona nautical
Neoscona pavidae
Neo scone odites
Neoscona minuta
Aranus cucurbitinus
Araneusnympha
Clubiona drassodes
Scotophaeus domesticus
Hersilia savignyi
Pardosa minuta
Perdosa domisestica
Perdosa altitudes
Lycosa maculate
Lycosa chaperi
Nephila clavipes
Oxyopes gavanus
Artema Atlanta
Thomisus pugilis
Thomsus labosus
Xysticus roonwali
Xysticus shyamirupus
Latrodectus hasseltii
Olios.sp
Plexipus.Paykulli
Plexipus.petersi
Thyene imperialis
Hasarius adansoni
Myrmarachna.bakri
Myrmarachna plataeucdaed
Marpissa Formosa
Marpissa tigrina
Thiania bhnoensis
Menemerus bivittatus
Hentzia mitrata
Castinneria atrica
filistata insidiatrix
Lexocaleas
Scytodus Thoracica
4
6
4
5
4
7
6
6
6
6
4
4
7
12
5
8
15
7
3
4
5
3
4
25
10
4
16
4
3
7
3
4
35
4
4
5
3
5
The spider diversity in and around University of Karachi Sindh Pakistan
191
Table 2: Number of genera and species of spider surrounding Karachi University Sindh Pakistan
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Families
Araneida
Clubionidae
Ganaphosidae
Lycosidae
Nephilidae
Oxyopide
Pholcidae
Thomisidae
Theridiidae
Saprassida
Salticidae
Corinnidae
Filistatidae
Hersiliidae
Sicariidae
Scytodidae
No. f Genera
02
01
01
02
01
01
01
02
01
01
08
01
01
01
01
01
Fig .1, Location map of Karachi Sindh Pakistan
No. of species
07
01
01
05
01
01
01
04
01
01
11
01
01
01
01
01
192
Kazim et al (2013)
Fig .1: Spider Tope dominant families recorded during Present survey 2010 to 2013 surrounding. areas
Families and their richness in percentage
Fig .2, Spider and their number recorded during Present survey 2010 to 2013 surrounding. areas
genera and species
The spider diversity in and around University of Karachi Sindh Pakistan
193
Fig .3: Spider and their Genera recorded during Present survey 2010 to 2013
Karachi and its surrounding of their richness
Fig .4: Spider and their Species recorded during Present survey 2010 to 2013 surrounding of Karachi
their richness.
DISCUSSION
In the present study survey was conducted during
2010 - 2013 to find out diversity of spider Karachi
and its surrounding areas it is clear here that no
particular field or plants selected for collection.
Previously many worker like Ashad et al from
Peshawar total 18 species 13 genera under 8
family later Farzana et al 2012 same locality and
described 23 species belonging to 15 genera under
9 families Lycosidae are dominated family In the
present collection 39 species 26 genera and 16
Salticidae are occurred common and dominated
family. Shakila et al 2003 described cursorial spider
of cotton field at
Faisal abad. The family
Gnaphosidae and Linyphiidae were common and
95.26 of total catch but here Salticidae are
common and 31% of total catches. Mukhtar 2004
described spider fauna of foliage spider fron Punjab
where most dominated family was Araneidae but
in the present study Salticidae was dominated.
Urasani and Somoro 2010 Presented checklist
mostly interior areas of Sindh but current study
focused on diversity of Karachi Sindh. Shahjahan et
al 2012 described bio diversity of rice spider
Tando Muhammad Khan and Badind district 4
families 6 genera and 4 species their study is
focused on rice field but the current study deal 39
species belonging to 26 genera under 16 family not
focused any particular field. It is just effort to find out
the diversity of spider Karachi.
194
Kazim et al (2013)
REFERENCES:
RAZIA, P, KHAN, A. A, MUSHTAQ, S, RANA, S.A,
(2007). A Checklist of the Spider of Punjab Pak.
J. Agri. Sci., Vol. 44 (4)
ARSHAD M, JAN GA, IQAL M (1984). Some
spiders of Peshawar and adjoining areas.
TAHIR M, BUTT A (2009). Some new species of family
Zool. Sur. Pak., 10: 83-89
Lycosidae from agricultural fields of Punjab,
Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool., 38: 185-189.
BUTT ,A ., (1996). Taxonomy and ecology of
wandering spider of citrus and guava
Orchards,and Vineyard Ph.D
Thesis TIKADER BK (1982). The Fauna of India: Araneae:
Araneidae. Zool. Sur. Ind., 2: 1-293.
University of Agriculture ,Faisalabad.
BUTT A, BEG MA. (2001). Description of two new
species of spiders of the families Clubionidae
and Oxyopidae from Pakistan. Pakistan
Journal of Zoology, 33: 35- 37
DYAl S (1935). Fauna of Lahore, 4 spiders of
Lahore. Bull. Dept. Zool. Punj. Uni. Lah.
Pak., 1: 117-252.
GHAFOO, A. and M.A. BEG, (2002). Description of
two new species of Araneid spiders from
Pakistan. Intern. J. Agric. Biol., 4: 525-527.
KHATOON, S., (1985). A checklist of Arachnids of
Pakistan. Bull. Hydrobiol. Res., 36-37: 645650.
MUSHTAQ S, QADAR A (1999). Three new species
of genus Oxyopes (Araneae: Oxyopidae)
from Pakistan. Pak. J. Zool., 31: 255-261.
MUKHTAR MK. (2004). Taxonomic studies on the
foliage spider fauna of Punjab. Department
of Zoology and Fisheries, University of
Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, 6: 1–76
M.KAZIM, RUKHSANA PERVEEN ,ABID RAZA
(2014) Presented a checklist of spider
(Order Araneae: Class Arachnida ) from the
Campus of University of Karachi , Sindh
Pakistan., INT.J.BIOTECH., 11 (1):173-176,
PARVEEN R (2003). Taxonomic study on some
spider of Punjab, Pakistan. Thesis,
Department of Zoology and Fisheries,
Agriculture
University
Faisalabad,
Pakistan, pp. 1-261.
POCOCK, R. I. (1900)B. The fauna of British India,
including Ceylon and Burma. Arachnida.
Lond., 1279
RAZZAQ A (2002). Taxonomical studies on spider
fauna of Kaghan Valley, Pakistan. M.Phil
Thesis, Department of Zoology and
Fisheries, Agriculture University Faisalabad,
Pakistan, pp. 1-112
THORELL T. (1895). Descriptive catalogue of the
spiders of Burma. London. 406 p.
URAANI , SOOMRO NM (2010). Checklist of spider
fauna of Sindh Province, Pakistan. Pak. J.
Entomol., 32(1): 20-25, 61-73.
PERVEEN F&JAMAL A.(2012).Check list of Spider
Fauna of FR Peshawar, FATA .Pakistan.
Arthropods 2012,1(1):35-39.
JABEEN,T et al.,(2010).Check list of Spider Fauna
of Sindh Provence Pak Entomol, Vol.
32,No.I.2010.
MUSHTAQ S, MA BEG and S AZIZ 2003.
Biodiversity and temporal Variation in the
Abundance of Cursorial Spider of Cotton Field at
Faisal Abad ,Pakistan J. Zool., 35(2).pp.125131.
O,B.KOK, L.N.LOTZ and C,R HADDAD (2004).
Presented a Diversity and Ecology of spider
(Arachnida : Araneae) of the Deosai Plateau,
Northern Pakistan Journal of Biological Science
7(10): 1689-1694.
T.J.SOOMRO,N.M.MALIK,S.M.H.SOOMRO,(2013).
described
new
species
Philodromus
(Aranae:Philodromide)
from
Sindh
Univ.Res.Jour.(Sci.Ser) Vol.45(2)379-380.
LEASER,C.D and UNZICKER, J.D.(1978).Soybean
spider
species
composition
,population
,densities and vertical distribution 11linois
Natural History Survey, Biology Notes 107,
Urbana iilineis.
QURESHI, I.A., (1982). Eight new records of spiders
from Lahore, Pakistan. Biologia, 28: 37–43.
SHAHJAHAN RAJPUT, TARIQUE AHMED KHURO,
SYED ALI HAIDER BABAR ZANANAND,
SAJJAD ANWAR (2012). Bio diversity of rice
spider in Tando Muhammad Khan and Badind
District of Sindh Pakistan Pak, J. entomol.
Karachi 27(2):129-136.
Pak. J. Entomol. 28 (2): 195-201, 2013
CODEN: PJENEL, ISSN: 1018-1180
Web site: http://www.pjek.org.pk
E-mail addressl: info@pjek.org.pk
BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS AND PREDATORY POTENTIAL OF
MENOCHILUS SEXMACULATUS FAB. (COLEOPTERA: COCCINELLIDAE)
FEEDING ON CABBAGE APHID, BREVICORYNE BRASSICAE AT THREE
CONSTANT TEMPREATURE LEVELS
JAVED KHAN , EHSAN UL HAQ , MUHAMMAD ISHAQUE MASTOI, HABIB IQBAL
JAVED ,, TARIQ MAHMOOD ,, AWAIS RASOOL , MUHAMMAD ASHRAF
AND
SALEEM ABID
,
1*
Insect Pest Management Program
Department of plant and environmental protection
National agricultural research centre Islamabad
Plant protection department, Multan
Social sciences research institute, NARC
Corresponding author email: javednarc2010@gmail.com, Cell #. 0313-5143613
(Received for publication: 30.12.2013)
ABSTRACT
The biological parameters of Menochilus sexmaculatus Fab., feeding on Brevicoryne brassicae aphids at three constant
temperature 24, 28 and 32 ± 1 ˚C were studied at Insect pest management program, National Agricultural Research
Center (NARC), Islamabad during 2011.The results revealed that there was a significant effect of different temperature
levels on the biological parameters and predatory potential of M. sexmaculatus. Maximum incubation period was
4.35±0.04 days while minimum was 3.39±0.39 days. The larval duration of the predator was 15.30±0.11, 11.80±0.12 and
8.40±0.06 days respectively. The larval predatory potential was 229.7±2.5678, 290.3±3.0352, 246.3±3.1035 aphids/
larvae respectively. The total immature developmental duration was 25.18±0.29, 19.1±0.34b and 12.7±0.11 days with
significantly different from each other. The adult male and female duration was 29.1±0.7238, 24.4±0.2407, 19.4±0.21 and
49.1±0.65, 36.10±0.61 and 29.61±0.48 days respectively. The developmental duration was significantly different at
different temperature levels. The adult predatory potential was maximum in female than male. Female reproductive
potential was maximum (388.4±6.28) at 28 ± 1 ˚C, while minimum was (185.4±3.97) eggs per female at 32 ± 1 ˚C. The
results indicates that temperature have significant effect on the developmental duration, reproductive and predatory
potential of M. sexmaculatus
Key Words:. Menochilus sexmaculatus, biology, predatory potential, Brevicoryne brassicae, temperature
INTRODUCTION
The zigzag beetle (Menochilus sexmaculatus)
formerly known as Cheilomenes Mulsant and
Coccinella sexmaculata Fabricius. It is an efficient
biological control agent of aphids and their
importance as a biological control agent has been
reported by several authors in past (Irshad, 2001)
Menochilus
sexmaculatus
Fab.
(Coleoptera:
Coccinellidae) is a common aphid predator and
widely distributed in many countries of the world,
Solangi et al., (2007). It is distributed in South East
Asia, Indonesia, Philippines, South Africa, Pakistan
and India, (Rahman et al., 1993). It is a generalist
entomophagous Coccinellid that feeds upon soft
bodied insects including aphids. Adult beetle are
bright yellow in colour with black zigzag lines on the
dorsal side of both elytra. (Atwal, 1991)
The predator, M. sexmaculatus has wide range of
hosts i.e rose aphid, green peach aphid, green bug
aphid, coffee green bug, thrips, green mustard
aphid, scales, jassid, corn borer, sorghum shoot fly,
maize aphid, etc (Palaniswami et al., 1995) M.
sexmaculatus is an efficient predator of many aphid
species e.g. the population of the mustard aphid was
considerably suppressed in field by this beetle (Ali
and Rizvi, 2009)
Insects have an optimum temperature at which they
can perform their best. Above and below the
196
Khan et al. (2013)
optimum temperature their performances decline. In
extreme temperatures insects can be suffered by
damages and even death can be caused. Extreme
temperature affects their developmental rate and
increases their mortality. A slight increase in the
temperature will cause increase in the activity but up
to certain extent, but after which they became unable
to function adequately (Rana, 2006)
Therefore, it is very important to study the
relationship between temperature and development
for any economically important species. Keeping in
view the importance of natural enemies the present
study were conducted on biological parameters and
predatory potential of M. sexmaculatus feeding on
cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae at three
constant temperature. This information will be useful
for mass rearing of the predator under controlled
conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Studies were conducted on the biological
parameters and predatory potential of Menochilus
sexmaculatus Fab. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)
feeding on cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae at
IPMP/DPEP/ NARC, Islamabad, during 2011.
Different sets of experiments were conducted in
growth chamber at three constant temperature levels
i.e. 24, 28 and 32±1°C with 60± 5 % relative humidity
14:10 light dark period.
Maintenance of Brevicoryne brassicae aphid
culture
The culture of cabbage aphid Brevicoryne brassicae
(Fig. J) was maintained on cabbage plants under
glasshouse condition and also in pots throughout the
experimental durations as shown in fig. H & I. Initially
the aphids were collected from cabbage field at
NARC and then released on cabbage plants in the
bed under glass house conditions. The colony was
maintained throughout the experimental duration for
feeding to the predator
Maintenance of M. sexmaculatus culture
Coccinellid predator M. sexmaculatus (Fig. A) was
iniatially collected from field at NARC farm and the
adults were kept in plastic rearing jars under
laboratory conditions. The adults were provided
cabbage aphid inside the jars on cabbage leaves
daily. The eggs were collected from the jars on
cabbage leaves. Freshly collected eggs of known
age were separated and kept for hatching at each
required temperature for conducting different
experiments.
Biological parameters and predatory potential of
immature stages of M. sexmaculatus at three
constant temperatures
To study the biological parameters and predatory
potential of immature stages, a total of 100 eggs of
known age were kept for hatching at each constant
temperature levels in growth chamber. Incubation
period and percent hatchability of eggs were
calculated.Upon hatching the first instar grubs were
separated and kept in plastic vials. Counted number
of first second nymphal instar of aphids was
provided in plastic vials and the vials were covered
with muslin cloth at the top. Initially the first instar
grubs were provided 20 aphids in vials. The vials
were kept in growth chamber at each constant
temperature levels. After 24 hours the numbers of
live and dead aphids were counted and the grubs
were provided fresh counted number of aphids in the
same vials. The numbers of aphids were increased
with increasing age of the grubs. The fourth instar
grubs were provided up to 350 aphids in vials for 24
hours. The insect passes through four larval instars.
The data on developmental durations, survival rate
and predatory potential for each larval instar were
calculated. The pupal durations and viability was
also calculated at each constant temperature.
Biological parameters and predatory potential of
adult male and female beetles at three constant
temperatures
To study the adult biology at three constant
temperatures, 24, 28 and 32±1°C, a total of 20 pairs
of newly emerged adults male and female beetles
were collected from stock culture and each pair was
released in small plastic jars. The jars were covered
with muslin cloth at the top and provided cabbage
aphid inside the jars for feeding. After 24 hours the
eggs were collected from each jar and counted
under binocular microscope daily. The process was
continued till the mortality of all male female in each
jar.
The data on developmental duration pre oviposition,
oviposition and post oviposition period was
calculated. The mean numbers of eggs per female
beetle at each respective temperature were also
calculated. The data obtained was analyzed
statistically by ANOVA and the means of significant
differences were compared by LSD at 5% level.
Predatory potential of immature stages feeding
on B. brassicae at three temperatures
To study the predatory potential of immature stages
st
of M. sexmaculatus, 50 newly emerged 1 instar
grubs of M. sexmaculatus were collected and kept in
plastic vials separately under growth chambers at
each constant temperature. Initially the grubs were
Biological parameters and predatory potential of Menochilus sexsmaculatus FAB. Feeding on cabbage aphid
st
nd
provided 20 (1 and 2 nymphal instar) of B.
brassicae aphids on cabbage leaves. The numbers
of aphids were increased with increasing age of the
grubs and the fourth instars were provided up to 250
nymphs per day. After 24 hours the aphids
consumed by each grub, dead and unconsumed
were counted in each vials. The unconsumed and
dead nymphs were removed with fresh one daily.
The exuva found in vials was removed soon after the
grub entered in to next instars. This procedure was
continued till pupation. The data were recorded on
st
nd
rd
th
predatory potential of 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and total
larval/grubs stage at each constant temperature
under growth chamber. The mean data were
statistically analyzed using LSD test.
Adult predatory potential
To study the predatory potential of adult male and
female M. sexmaculatus at three constant
temperatures. A total of 20 one day old male and
female emerged adults were separated and confined
in plastic vials separately. The jars were covered
with muslin cloth at the top. Counted number of (2nd
rd
and 3 ) nymphal instar of B. brassicae aphids were
provided on cabbage leaves daily. A total of 250300 aphids were provided to the adult male/female
of M. sexmaculatus separately inside the plastic jars
daily. After 24 hours the consumed, unconsumed
and dead aphids were counted and replaced with
fresh diets daily. The process was continued till the
death of all male/female at each constant
temperature levels. Mean data were statistically
analyzed using LSD test at 5% probability level at
each constant temperature.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Incubation period and hatchability of eggs
The results indicates that egg (Fig. B) incubation
period was 4.35 ± 0.04, 3.39 ± 0.39 and 20.10±0.37
days with 66.6 , 86.8 and 71.4% hatchability (Table
1). The data revealed that temperature have
significant effect on the incubation period and egg
hatchability of M. sexmaculatus.
Some previous authors Solangi et al., (2005)
reported that incubation period of M. sexmaculatus
was 3.6 days and eggs hatchability was 64.33 to
70.69 at 252C.
Developmental period of larval/grub stages
The larvae passed through 4 larval instars with three
moults as confirmed from the observation of exuviae
in the Petri dish. The data on developmental period
revealed that temperature significantly influenced the
development of first, second, third and fourth instars
of M. sexmaculatus reared on S. graminum aphids
(Table 1). The duration of first instar grubs (Fig.C)
was 3.39±0.70, 2.75±0.04 and 2.47±0.56 days with
86.0, 93.6 and 76.0% survival rate at three constant
197
temperatures respectively. The duration of second
instar grub (Fig. D) was 3.60±0.03, 3.04±0.04 and
1.56±0.04 days with 90.0, 90.9 and 84.0% survival
rate. The duration of third instar grub (Fig. E) was
3.47±0.04, 2.70±0.04 and 1.99±0.02 days with 90,
97 and 93% survival rate. The duration of fourth
instar grub (Fig. F) was 4.96±0.05, 3.40±0.06 and
2.79±0.10 with 100, 100 and 100% survival rate.
The duration of larval/grub stage was 15.30±0.10,
11.80±0.12 and 8.40±0.06 days with 76, 72 and 60
percent survival rate. The results indicate that there
was significant difference in larval duration at three
constantan temperatures (Table 1). The result
further indicates that with increasing temperature the
duration of larval stage decreased significantly. The
pupal (Fig. G) period was 4.280.08, 3.690.05 and
2.240.06 days. The duration of pupal stage
decreased significantly as the temperature increased
(Table1)
Previous workers Prodhan et al. (1995) reported that
the larval duration of the M. sexmaculatus lasted for
7 to 9 days on bean aphid. The result of the present
study indicates that Pupal period was 5.60±0.06,
4.05±0.05 and 2.60±0.05 days at three constant
temperatures respectively. These findings are very
close with Solangi et al. (2007) who reported that the
pupal period was 3.1 to 5.5 days at two
temperatures (34±1 ˚C and 20±1 ˚C) which indicates
that with increasing temperature duration of the
pupal stage decreased significantly. The results of
the present study indicates that temperature have
significant effect on the developmental durations and
survival rate of immature stages of M. sexmaculatus
when feeding on B. brassicae aphids.
Predatory potential of larval/grub stage at three
constant temperatures
The results indicate that the predatory potential of
first instar larvae was 12.1±0.29, 16.4±0.34 and
13.2±0.30 aphids per first instar grubs at three
constant temperature levels respectively. The
potential of second instar was 24.6±0.45, 37.4±0.56
and 29.6±0.50 aphids per second instar grubs of M.
sexmaculatus (Table 1). The predatory potential of
third instar was 49.4±0.42, 66.2±0.65 and 52.1±1.23
aphid per third instar larvae. The predatory potential
of fourth instar grub was 143.2±2.63, 170.3±a2.82
and 151.4±2.73 aphids respectively at three constant
temperature levels. The total larval/ grubs potential
were 229.7±2.56, 290.3±3.03 and 246.3±3.10 aphids
at three constant temperature levels respectively
(Table 2). The results indicate that maximum
potential was at 28 ± 1 ˚C while minimum was 32 ± 1
˚C. Some previous author’s reported different
potential at different temperatures feeding on
different host insects under different environmental
conditions.
198
Khan et al. (2013)
Solangi et al. (2007) reported that the total larval
predatory potential ranged from 100.16 to 228.44
aphids on three different types of foods.
Developmental
duration
of
adult
M.
sexmacualtus at three constant temperature
levels
The results of the present study indicates that pre
ovipostion period of adult female was 5.0±0.13,
4.30±0.41 and 3.60±0.81 days. The duration of
oviposition period was 37.6±0.64, 27.80±0.59 and
22.4±40c days (Table 1). The female longevity was
49.1±0.65, 36.10±0.61 and 29.61±0.48 days. The
adult male longevity was 29.1±0.72, 24.4±0.24 and
17.6±0.52 days. The result indicates that with
increasing temperature the developmental duration
decreased significantly. The result further indicates
that female live longer than male at all three constant
temperature levels. Similar, findings were reported
by (Pirzado et al., 1999) that the longevity of female
was 49.7 days and male was 41.8 days when
feeding on R. maids, which indicates that female
(Fig. A) lived longer than male. Ali and Rizvi (2009)
reported that female longevity of M. sexmaculatus
was shortest 41 days at 281˚C and longest 49 days
at 201˚C when feeding on M. persicae aphids.
The female fecundity rate was 290.8 ±8.40,
388.4±6.02 and 185.4±3.97 eggs per female at three
constant temperature levels respectively (Table 3).
The result indicates that maximum reproductive
potential was at 281˚C while minimum was at
321˚C. The result indicates that different temprature
have significant effect on the reproductive potential
of M. sexmaculatus when feeding on brevicoryne
brassicae aphid. Some previous authors reported
different fecundity rate for M. sexmaculatus when
feeding on different host insects. Asrar. Ali et al.,
(2012) reported that Mean fecundity rate of
M.sexmaculatus was 430.53, 548.67 and 432.43
eggs per female beetle at three constant
temperature i.e. 22±1°C, 28±1°C and 34±1°C
respectively when feeding on R. padi aphids. The
numbers of eggs were different from the present
results. These differences may be due to different
environment conditions and the hosts they used
were different from each other.
The predatory potential of adult male female was
significantly different from each other. The result
indicates that female predatory potential was
2210.0± 29.46, 2891± 65.42 and 2456.01± 18.71
aphids per female at three constant temperature
levels respectively. The male predatory potential was
1844.0± 36.35, 2159.6± 29.90 and 2012.0± 27.67
aphids per adult male beetle. The results indicate
that female beetle potential was maximum than male
beetle at all three tested temperature levels.
Maximum potential of female beetle was 2891±
65.42 at 28±1 ˚C while minimum potential was
2210.0± 29.46 aphids per female beetle. These
results are close with Mari et al. (2005) who reported
that the predatory potential of male M. sexmaculatus
was 2548 and 2930, and of female 2800 and 3080
on alfalfa aphids, respectively. The difference
between the present results and that of past workers
may be due to differences in the environmental
condition and the host insects they used.
CONCLUSION
The results of the present study indicates that out of
the three tested temperature 28± 1 ˚C was more
suitable for mass rearing of
M .sexmaculatus
feeding on Brevicoryne brassicae aphid. The
predatory and reproductive potential was maximum
at 28± 1 ˚C. The survival rate for different stages
was also maximum. The results further indicates that
temperature have significant effect on the biology
and predatory potential of M. sexmaculatus and with
increasing temperature developmental duration
significantly decreased. The results of the present
study can be utilized for quality mass rearing of the
predator under controlled conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present research work was conducted under
sub project entitled “Development and
improvement of mass production techniques of
insect bio control agents” under the Research for
Agricultural Development Program (RADP), Pakistan
Agricultural Research Council (PARC). The authors
would like to express their thanks to project incharge
and others senior colleagues for their full
cooperation and valuable suggestions and moral
support during the whole experimental durations.
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Table 1: Mean developmental duration ±S.E and survival percentage of immature stages of
Menochilus sexmaculatus Fab. feeding on cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. at three
constant temperatures
24±1 °C
Developmen
%
tal
Surviva
duration
l
(days) (n)
4.35±0.04 a
(100)
66%
28±1 °C
Developme
%
ntal
Surviv
Duration
al
(days) (n)
3.39±0.39b
(100)
86.6%
st
3.39±0.70 a
(43)
86%
2.75±0.04b
(40)
93.6%
2.47±0.56c
(38)
76%
2 instar
nd
3.60±0.03 a
(39)
90%
3.04±0.04b
(36)
90.9%
1.56±0.04c
(32)
84%
3rd instar
3.47±0.04a
(38)
97%
2.70±0.04b
(36)
90%
1.99±0.02c
(30)
93%
Developmental
Stages
Incubation
1 instar
th
4 instar
Total larval
duration
Pupal period
32±1°C
Developmen
%
tal
Survival
Duration
(days) (n)
1.70±0.37c
(100)
71.4%
LSD (ά
0.05)
F-value
0.55
1101*
0.084
67.5*
0.506
633**
0.187
287*
4.96±0.05a
(38)
100 %
3.40±0.06b
(36)
100%
2.79±0.10c
(30)
100%
0.499
230*
15.30±0.10
76%
11.80±0.12
72%
8.40±0.06
60%
4.214
1034*
2.60±0.05c
(28)
12.7±0.11c
(20)
93%
0.24
632*
5.60±0.06a
(38)
25.18±0.29
(35)
100%
4.05±0.05b
(36)
19.1±0.34b
(32)
100%
Total days from
70%
64%
egg to adult
Emergence
Mean followed by same letters (rows wise) are non significantly different
* = significant at 5%, 0.05 level
n= number of insects used at each stage
1.15
40%
419*
Table 2: Mean predatory potential of Menochilus sexmaculatus Fab. Larval instars feeding on
Brevicoryne brassicae L. aphids at three constant temperatures
Treatment
Mean Number of Hosts Insect Consumed
Total larval
(Temperatures)
1st instar
2nd instar
3rd instar
4th instar
consumption
24±1°C
12.1±0.2920c
24.6±0.4529c
49.4±0.4237c
143.2±2.6391c
229.7±2.5678c
28±1°C
16.4±b0.3428a
37.4±0.5688a
66.2±0.6511a
170.3±a2.827a
290.3±3.0352a
32±1°C
13.2±0.a3042b
29.6±0.5066b
52.1±1.2370b
151.4±2.7341b
246.3±3.1035b
LSD (ά 0.05)
0.8768
1.4300
2.3570
7.6425
8.1382
F-value
50.5
159
115
25.7
116
Mean followed by same letters (column wise) are non significantly different
* = significant at 5%, 0.05 leve
Table 3: Mean developmental duration of adult stages of Menochilus sexmaculatus Fab., fed on
Brevicoryne brassicae L. at three constant temperatur
Developmental
Stages
Temperatures
24±1 °C
28±1 °C
32±1 °C
LSD (ά 0.05)
F-value
Pre-oviposition (days)
5.0±0.1367
4.30±0.417
3.60±0.812
0.2688
54.5*
Oviposition
(days)
37.6±0.6423a
27.80±0.5967b
22.4±40c
1.6042
185*
Female fecundity
290.8 ±8.4078b
388.4±6.0028a
185.4±3.9731c
18.097
89.6*
Post-oviposition (days)
6.5±0.0902
4.00±0.0761
3.60±0.0497
0.2094
452*
Female longevity
(days)
Male longevity (days)
49.1±0.6554
36.10±0.6178
29.61±0.4878
1.6747
282*
29.1±0.7238
24.4±0.2407
17.6±0.5231
1.3875
150*
Female predatory
potential
2210.0± 29.466
2891± 65.429
119.66
64.9*
Male predatory potential
1844.0± 36.350
88.107
25.1*
2456.01± 18.716
2159.6± 29.905
2012.0± 27.674
Mean followed by same letters (rows wise) are non significantly different
* = significant at 5%, 0.05 level