Geological Society of America
Reviews in Engineering Geology, Volume VII
1987
Rainfall thresholds for triggering a debris
avalanching event in the southern Appalachian Mountains
D. G. Neary
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station
School of Forest Resources and Conservation
University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida 32611
L. W. Swift, Jr.
Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory
Otto, North Carolina 28763
ABSTRACT
In early November 1977, a storm system that formed in the Gulf of Mexico moved
northeastward into the Appalachian Mountains. It produced intense (as much as
102 mm/hr) and heavy (200-300 mm) rainfall that set off debris avalanching in steep
terrain of the Pisgah National Forest, North Carolina. Antecedent rainfall during September and October was 177 percent of normal and the wettest on record for these 2
months. The storm began on 2 November, and rainfall was relatively continuous and
even (20-50 mm/day) for the next 3 days. The long-duration rainfall was capped by
intense convective downpours the night of 5-6 November when debris avalanching occurred. Peak intensities measured at 15 gauges near Asheville, North Carolina, ranged
from 21 to 102 mm/hr, with nearly half exceeding 75 mm/hr. Return intervals for peak
intensity rainfall in the range of 75 to 102 mm/hr are 50 to 200+ yr. Total storm rainfall
for these gauges ranged from 35 to 250 mm, with peak 24-hr rainfalls of 30 to 180 mm.
Rainfall intensities for 1-, 3-, 6-, 12-, and 24-hr periods at a gauge near one avalanching
site were 69,137,159,164, and 180 mm, respectively.
Development of the storm was monitored by GOES infrared satellite imagery in
real time, and flash flood warnings were issued. Debris avalanching and high stormflow
produced peak stream flows with return periods ranging from 20 to 100+ yr. The largest
debris avalanches occurred on steep slopes (70% +), started at high elevations
(900-1,100 m) in shallow residual soils (less than 1 m deep), had tracks commonly
greater than 700 m, and carried a volume of material averaging 2,500 m3 per avalanche.
INTRODUCTION
A number of recent studies have improved understanding of Campbell, 1975; Hollingsworth and Kovacs, 1981; Istok and
the climatic and geomorphic processes that trigger debris ava- Harward, 1983). Failures usually begin with sufficient rainfall to
lanches. These studies have investigated the physical properties of bring the entire soil mantle to field capacity. Then rainfall with an
failed slopes, the effects of slope angle and pore water pressure, intensity exceeding percolation and interflow rates saturates the
the mechanism of debris avalanche movement, and the properties
soil above some slowly permeable stratum. As the piezometric
of the resulting deposits (Fisher, 1971; Hutchinson and Bhandari, head in this stratum increases, the frictional component of the
1971; Scott, 1972; Williams and Guy, 1973; Swanston, 1974; shear forces holding the soil on-slope decreases. This, combined
81
82
Neary and Swift
with decreased cohesion due to water displacing air in soil interstices, reduces the shear resistance force enough to produce slope
failure. Conditions that aggravate this process include a thin soil
mantle, steep slopes, concentrated drainage, shallow-rooted vegetation, and high clay content in the soil mantle. Prior and current
land use, such as roads, logging, farming, and construction, can
aggravate slope instability (Megahan and Kidd, 1972; Greswell
and others, 1979; Swanston, 1979; Swanson and others, 1981).
Eschner and Patric (1982), in their report on known cases of
debris avalanching in forested regions of the eastern United
States, noted some common characteristics of these slope failures.
Within forests of this region, debris avalanches occur irrespective
of vegetative cover. In contrast, logging aggravates slope failures
in Pacific coast mountains (O'Loughlin, 1974; Swanson and others, 1981). Scott (1972) mentioned clear-cutting in his study of
1,700 debris avalanches in the Appalachian Mountains, but did
not report evidence that clear-cutting was a major factor contributing to eastern debris avalanching.
The storm events triggering debris avalanching in the East
appear to have a threshold of 125 mm in 24 hr and occur from
May through November (Fig. 1; after Eschner and Patric, 1982).
These are the months when high-intensity, convection, and cyclonic storms are most abundant in the East. Eschner and Patric
(1982) estimated a general return period of 100 yr for storms
producing debris avalanching. However, few studies of historic
debris avalanching episodes in the eastern United States have had
sufficient data to analyze in detail the rainfall conditions that trigger slope failure.
We have elaborated a November 1977 debris avalanching
event in western North Carolina, also reported by Eschner and
Patric (1982). Some of the information on this event, particularly
the characteristics of the storm that triggered the slope failures, is
among the most complete for an event of this type. This chapter
describes the antecedent moisture conditions, storm development,
and rainfall intensities and amounts that contributed to the most
recent episode'of slope failure in the southern Appalachian
Mountains.
CLIMATOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
The southern Appalachian region has one of the highest
annual rainfalls east of the Cascade Mountains of Oregon and
Washington. This wet climate and its effects on the hydrology of
forest watersheds has been studied for 50 yr at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service's Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory (Swift and others, 1987). Mean annual rainfall
of the southern Appalachian Mountains ranges from 1,000 to
2,700 mm, but can reach 3,800 mm in wet years. Snowfall
usually accounts for less than 5 percent of total precipitation.
The characteristics of the November 1977 storm contrast
markedly with typical duration, size, and intensity characteristics
for the southern Appalachian storms. In general, the majority of
storms in this region last less than 6 hr, and only 5 percent exceed
24 hr (Fig. 2a). Thus, the storm described here is unique in that its
Highly
probable
250
375
500
625
750
Rainfall in mm/day
A' Storms approaching threshold
B> Most likely to start debris flows
C« Very rare storms
(After Eschner and Patric, 1982)
Figure 1. Risk of debris avalanching in southern Appalachian Mountains: A indicates storms approaching threshold of 125 mm/day; B indicates storms most likely to start debris avalanches and flows with rainfall
of 125 to 250 mm/day; C indicates very rare storms, definitely producing debris avalanches, with rainfall of more than 250 mm/day (after
Eschner and Patric, 1982).
duration was 96 to 120 hr. Of the 133 storms that, on the average, occur yearly in the southern Appalachians, only 6 percent
exceed 50 mm (Fig. 2b), although they account for 34 percent of
the annual precipitation (Fig. 2c). Most of the storm periods have
low-intensity rainfall because rates surpass 10 mm/hr only 4
percent of the time (Fig. 2d). Rain in excess of 10 mm/hr produces 31 percent of the average total annual precipitation, whereas only 5 percent of the precipitation comes from rainfall greater
than 50 mm/hr. The storm of November 1977 had peak intensities double the latter rate.
Antecedent conditions prior to the 1977 debris avalanche
storm were conducive to slope failure conditions. Rainfall in
western North Carolina during September and October was 177
percent of normal. Including November, this was the wettest fall
period on record (Tennessee Valley Authority, 1977). Debris
avalanches were triggered by one intense storm that comprised 70
to 80 percent of November 1977 precipitation on soils that had
two previous months of record-high moisture inputs.
METEOROLOGICAL SITUATION
The storm of 3-7 November 1977 was produced by a lowpressure system that pulled moist air from the Gulf of Mexico.
Precipitation accompanied a slow-moving cold front on 2-3 November. A low-pressure center reformed on 4 November over the
Florida Gulf Coast along the then-stationary cold front. It moved
Rainfall thresholds for triggering a debris avalanching event
Q
Storm duration
83
Storm size
D
24 hr
12 hr.
20 mm
2mm
10 mm
6hr.
3hr.
•5mm
% of 133 storms per year
d
Storm size
5mm
IOO mm
10 mm
Precipitation intensity
lOmm/hr.
5 mm/hr/
2Omm
2 mm/hr:
50mm
% of total annual precipitation
6
% of time
Precipitation intensity
50 mm/hr.
2O mm/hr.
10 mm/hr-
2mm/hr.
^
V»mm/hr.
% of total precipitation
Figure 2. Long-term rainfall patterns at recording gauge 6, Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, Otto,
North Carolina, based on 40-yr record. A, storm duration; b, storm size as percentage of average of 133
storms/yr; c, storm size as percentage of total annual precipitation; d, precipitation intensity as percentage of time; e, precipitation intensity as percentage of total precipitation.
84
Neary and Swift
11i31 P 11/5
3:30 A 11/6
Figure 3. GOES infrared satellite imagery of southeastern United States during night of 5-6 November
1977. A, 8:30 p.m. EST; b, 9:30 p.m. EST; c, 11:31 p.m. EST; d, 12:30 p.m. EST; e, 1:30 a.m. EST; f,
3:30 a.m. EST (highest convective cells in black).
Rainfall thresholds for triggering a debris avalanching event
85
Tennessee
No°
North Carolina
Figure 4. Map of Asheville-Statesville, North Carolina, area showing precipitation (in millimeters) that
caused flood of November 1977. [Map adapted from National Weather Service (Stewart and others,
1978).]
slightly westward on 5 November and then tracked north- convective cells moved slightly to the northeast by 2331 (Fig. 3c)
northeast over Georgia, Tennessee, and Kentucky on 6-7 No- and intensified further by 0030 EST (12:30 a.m.) on 6 November
vember. Rainfall began in western North Carolina in the early (Fig. 3d). Later satellite images showed increased area coverage
morning of 2 November. Precipitation was generally continual at 0130 EST and continued drift to the northeast (Fig. 3e). By
and even (20 to 50 mm/day) from 2-5 November, by which 0330 EST, the main convective cells were still over western
time cumulating rainfall generally exceeded 60 mm.
North Carolina but were beginning a gradual dissipation as
The long-duration rainfall before 5 November was capped another cell intensified farther east over the Atlantic coastline.
by intense downpours that initiated the debris avalanching. The
The general isohyetal map prepared by the National
heavy rainfall on the night of 5-6 November was produced by Weather Service (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
convective activity in association with orographic lifting over the Administration, 1977) for this storm shows the distribution patsouthern Appalachian Mountains. Development of the convec- tern of the rainfall (Fig. 4). Four isohyetal peaks ranging from
tive cells was simultaneously observed in near real time on GOES 200 to 320 mm occurred in a southwest-northeast line along the
infrared satellite imagery. Forecasts of flash flooding were issued Appalachian Mountains. The largest peak occurred in the Mt.
for the area involved using a (then) newly developed forecasting Mitchell area. This discussion focuses on the most southwestern
of the isohyetal peaks, specifically, the vicinity of Hominy Creek
procedure (Scofield and Oliver, 1977; Heidelberger, 1977).
Intensive convective cells formed within the storm cloud and Bent Creek watersheds, southwest of Asheville (Fig. 5). On
around 2030 EST (8:30 p.m.) on 5 November (dark patches in these watersheds, exceptionally complete rainfall and debris avaFig. 3a). These cells centered over western North Carolina, inten- lanching data were collected. Both streams originate in the Pisgah
sified, and grew in area coverage by 2130 EST (Fig. 3b). The National Forest and flow into the French Broad River. They are
86
Neary and Swift
PRECIPITATION
(mm)
NOVEMBERS-?, 1977
/
7
/"^
)
A STORM CAUSING
f
FLOODING AND SLIDES
X
IN
WESTERN NORTH CAROLINA
Figure 5. Total precipitation (in millimeters) in vicinity of Asheville, North Carolina, for 3-7 November
1977 storm.
separated by a forested ridgeline which exceeds 1,100 m in
elevation.
Total precipitation in the Asheville, North Carolina, area
during the 3-7 November 1977 storm ranged from 53 to 320
mm (Fig. 5). Rainfall in the Hominy Creek drainage was generally in the range of 190 to 216 mm, based on a survey of unofficial gauges and exposed containers made immediately after the
storm (NOAA, 1977). Across the ridge to the east in the Bent
Creek basin, two USDA Forest Service gauges overtopped at
188 mm sometime during the storm. Both of these basins had
previously received total storm rainfalls in excess of 200 mm
without occurrence of debris avalanching. However, antecedent
moisture conditions predisposed the slopes to failure with sufficient rainfall loading (TVA, 1977). The unique feature of the
November 1977 storm was the particularly intense burst of rainfall that culminated an otherwise normal, long-duration event.
This is precisely the type of situation that Campbell (1975) described as providing the climatic conditions for slope failure.
The U.S. Geological Survey estimated return intervals for
peak flows of streams in the storm area to range from 25 to more
than 100 yr (Fig. 6) (U.S. Geological Survey, 1977; Stewart and
others, 1978). A record flood occurred on Hominy Creek
northwest of Bent Creek (Fig. 5). The stream gauge at Candler
was destroyed, but high-water marks established the crest at
7.37 m, nearly 2 m above the previous record set in 1940 (TVA,
1977). Although the flow on ungauged Bent Creek is unknown,
the Highway 191 bridge across the creek was washed out.
An indication of the storm sequence over the Bent Creek
and Hominy Creek basins can be illustrated from the Tennessee
Valley Authority recording rain gauges near Mt. Pisgah, Cedar
Mountain, Roan High Knob, and Little Switzerland. Figure 7a
shows that 120 mm of rain had fallen at Mt. Pisgah during the
90 hr prior to the intense rainfall the night of 5-6 November.
Then, during a 6-hr period, an additional 55 mm of rain fell. Peak
rainfall intensities calculated from Tennessee Valley Authority
gauges around Asheville showed a range from 21 to 102 mm/hr
(Table 1). At the Mt. Pisgah gauge, peak intensity was only
21 mm/hr despite its high total storm rainfall (180 mm) and high
87
Rainfall thresholds for triggering a debris avalanching event
Western North Carolina
Area of most severe flooding
November 6-7, 1977
(Flood recurrence interval - years)
A
B
C
WS
Asheville
Boone
Charlotte
Winston Salem ./
v
x""^ _ ^--
Coweeta
Hydrologic Laboratory
Figure 6. Flooding return period in areas of western North Carolina affected by severe flooding, 6-7 .
November 1977.
b.
a.
E
2SOl
E 250-
Mount Pisgah, NC
TVA Gage 254
c
200
o
c
'6
'" 200O
ISO-
1
'5
+j
50-
"3
3
E
3
E
u
0
o
I5
°"
100
100-
«
_>
o
Roan High Knob, NC
TVA Gage 231
I
M
2
M
3
M
4
M
5
M
6
M
7
M
e
50-
o
fl
M
M
November 1977
November 1977
d.
C.
E
250
Cedar Mountain, NC
TVA Gage 283
E
250
"| Llttle Switzerland, NC ; Overtopped
TVA Gage 235
200-
200-
ISO
150-
100
100-
o
*c
'5
a
50
^
O
3
E
o
50-
3
E
0.
3
0-
u
I
November 1977
MO
™3
f" 4
* S * fi
November 1977
Figure 7. Recording rain gauge analog traces from Tennessee Valley Authority. Recording rain gauges
1-8 November 1977: a, Mt. Pisgah TVA gauge 254; b, Roan High Knob TVA gauge 231; c, Cedar
Mountain TVA gauge 283; d, Little Switzerland TVA gauge 235.
*
Neary and Swift
88
TABLE 1. PRECIPITATION AMOUNT AND INTENSITY FOR 3-7 NOVEMBER 1977 STORM
AT SEVERAL TENNESSEE VALLEY AUTHORITY GAUGES NEAR ASHEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA
Peak intensity (mm)
JjXCVa u lOll
Gauge Site*
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
(m)
1463
Cataloochee Ranch
Waynesvllle Watershed
Parker Branch
Sassafras Mountain
Laurel Mountain
Gloucester Gap
Coxcombe Mountain
Haywood Gap
Roan High Knob
North Fork
Mount Pisgah
Blueridge P.O.
Mills River
Cedar Mountain
Little Switzerland
789
658
1048
1244
951
1274
1646
1865
756
1573
Ct-nrm &m/1lint
(mm)
53
53
79
>87
125
145
154
155
173
>178
823
180
193
195
202
1085
250
689
610
1 hr
15
22
24 hr
91
34
41
77
71
51
70
67
80
140
176
87
144
69
96
102
180
141
>163
25
91
34
76
24
86
38
46
21
*A11 gauge charts show intense rain between 2000 and 2400 EST on
5 November 1977.
Storm of 3-7 November 1977
100
1_
I 80
E
I
60-r
50
a.
100
150
200
Storm Amount - mm
250
- Storm of 3-7 November 1977
100
80
l
a>
60-
40
201
b.
500
1000
1500
Gage Elevation - M
2000
Figure 8. Rainfall at 15 TVA gauges near Asheville, North Carolina, 3-7
November 1977. a, Total storm rainfall in relation to peak hourly intensity, b, Peak hourly intensity in relation to gauge elevation.
elevation (1,573 m). At Roan High Knob (Fig. 7b), the total rainfall (173 mm) was similar to that at Mt. Pisgah, but most of it
came during the night of 5-6 November. Consequently, the peak
hourly intensity at Roan High Knob was 181 percent higher and
the 24-hr peak intensity was 60 percent greater than at Mt. Pisgah
(Table 1). At Cedar Mountain (Fig. 7c), the peak 24-hr intensity
was similar to that at Roan High Knob, but the peak 1-hr intensity of 96 mm/hr was 4.5 times that at Mt. Pisgah (Table 1).
The rain gauge at Little Switzerland (Fig. 7d) had the highest 1-hr intensity (102 mm/hr) and second highest 24-hr intensity
(163+ mm). The Little Switzerland gauge was overtopped toward
the end of the storm so the actual peak 24-hr intensity is unknown. It could have been 10 to 20 mm higher, or in the range of
the Mills River gauge, which had the highest measured 24-hr
rainfall intensity of the sites listed in Table 1. Some of the gauges
listed in Table 1 are outside the area shown in Figure 5. Thus,
peak hourly intensities varied considerably from point to point,
and intensities high enough to initiate slope failures can only be
inferred. Storm totals in the Bent and Hominy Creek areas were
similar to the four highest totals in Table 1 (Blue Ridge P.O.,
Mills River, Cedar Mountain, and Little Switzerland). If rainfall
intensities were also similar, then intensities of 90 to 100 mm/hr
probably set off the debris avalanching. At Mills River, 13 km
southeast of Bent Creek, the rainfall intensities during the night of
5-6 November were 69,137,159,164, and 180 mm for periods
of 1,3,6,12, and 24 hr, respectively.
The peak hourly intensities, given in Table 1, were weakly
related to storm total rainfall (Fig. 8a) and were not related to
altitude (Fig. 8b). Gauges entirely within the French Broad River
Basin had total storm rainfalls of less than 81 mm and 173 to 180
mm and had maximum intensities less than 60 mm/hr. Gauges
with middle (81 to 155 mm) and upper total rainfall ranges
(greater than 191 mm) recorded the most intense rainfall. These
89
Rainfall thresholds for triggering a debris avalanching event
400
STORM INTENSITY RETURN PERIODS
Gage 6, Coweeta Hydrologic Lab
High
300-
GAGE6
250-
300-
3-7 November 1977
Storm Data [•]
/24-hr
200175-
12-hr
E
E
= 200
o
•g 150-
M-
c
'5
cc
£ 125-
Low
Q
100-
100
7550-
25-
30 - mln
15 - min
5 - mln
Ihr
0-
2
5 10 2550100150200250
Return Period (years)
Figure 9. Storm intensity return periods for Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory gauge 6 with storm data from 3-7 November 1977 storm (dots).
gauges were all located along the ridges that form the
southeastern boundary of the French Broad River watershed.
This ridgeline is the divide for the Mississippi and Atlantic continental watersheds and also the main topographic structure for
producing orographic lifting of air masses coming from the south.
Forty percent of the peak hourly rainfall intensities listed in
Table 1 exceeded 75 mm/hr. Based on long-term data from the
Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory located 96 km southwest of
Asheville, rainfalls greater than 75 mm/hr have return periods in
excess of 50 yr (Fig. 9). Peak intensities greater than 86 mm/hr in
Table 1 (Sassafras Mountain, Blue Ridge P.O., Haywood Gap,
and Cedar Mountain) compare to return periods of 100 to
ISO yr. The peak hourly intensity at Little Switzerland
(102 mm/hr) may have been a 175 to 200-yr event. However,
none of the 24-hr rainfalls were exceptional, with 24-hr precipita-
3hr
6hr
12 hr
Time period
24 hr
Annual maxima I94I-I984[»—•]
Nov. 1977 storm Intensity range |t 1
Figure 10. Tennessee River Basin rainfall intensity range with annual
maxima for 1-, 3-, 6-, 12-, and 24-hr intensities, 1941-1984, and November 1977 rainfall intensities for Mills River TV A gauge. High and
low ranges represent highest and lowest annual maximum rainfall intensities for indicated time periods and length of record.
tion less than 150 mm, approximating a 1- to 10-yr return period.
The remainder (155 to 180 mm in 24 hr) were 10- to 25-yr
return period rainfalls. Thus, the exceptional characteristic of this
November 1977 storm was the high 1-hr peak intensities. Total
storm and 24-hr rainfalls were not unusual for the area.
Indeed, in comparison to the historical range of rainfall
intensities for the entire Tennessee Valley network, the maximum
intensities at Mills River for the November 1977 storm fall in the
middle to low range (Fig. 10). Although much higher intensity
rainfalls have occurred within the Tennessee River Basin, the
combination of very wet antecedent conditions on steep slopes
with high-intensity, short-duration rainfalls created conditions especially favorable for slope failures in the southern Appalachians.
Recorded intensities at several sites exceeded the 125 mm in
24-hr threshold suggested by Eschner and Patric (1982).
Neary and Swift
90
Rain gauge**?
Hominy Creekj Bent Creek w a t e r 1 shed d i v i d e
J
Rain gauge
Rain gauge*3
\
\
Bent Creek Experimental Forest
Buncombe County .North Carolina
Figure 11. Debris avalanche tracks, Bent Creek Experimental Forest,
USDA Forest Service Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, for 3-7
November 1977 storm (asterisks indicate short avalanches associated
with roads).
1/2
I mile
2km
DEBRIS AVALANCHING
The most extensive debris avalanching triggered by the 3-7
November 1977 storm occurred near Hominy Creek and Mt.
Mitchell. However, the best information on the debris avalanching came from Bent Creek where a survey was conducted after
the storm (Fig. 11). This basin is an experimental forest managed
by the USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment
Station.
Except for one debris avalanche, all the major slope failures
occurred along the ridge between Bent and Hominy Creek. Seven
major avalanches were identified. A large number of smaller
slope failures occurred, some of these associated with roads (asterisks in Fig. 11). Most of the avalanches originated on undisturbed
forest slopes. The heads of the seven largest slope failures were
located between elevations of 945 and 1,100 m on slopes of 70
percent and greater (Table 2). Four of these debris avalanches
had multiple scarps. Exact runout lengths were difficult to establish because debris avalanche material merged into existing
stream bottom colluvium, alluvium, and other debris. Most of the
easily identifiable debris avalanche tracks were estimated to be
from 655 to more than 810 m long.
Some of the avalanches entrained a considerable amount of
woody material. Most of this debris was deposited on lower
gradient slopes, old debris fans, or terraces formed by roads.
Measurements of debris avalanche volumes were not conducted
at Bent Creek. A report by the National Forest in North Carolina
indicated that 24 major debris avalanches occurred on federal
land in the Bent Creek basin and the Beaverdam drainage of
Hominy Creek (USDA Forest Service, 1979). These avalanches
covered a total area of 12 ha. If an average failure depth of
0.5 m in the source area is assumed (based on visual and
photographic review of most avalanches), then a conservative
estimate of the average volume per debris avalanche was about
2,500 m3. This value is in the middle of the range of slope failure
volumes reported by Swanson and others (1981). Deep scouring
91
Rainfall thresholds for triggering a debris avalanching event
TABLE 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SEVEN MAJOR DEBRIS AVALANCHES, BENT CREEK EXPERIMENTAL
FOREST, BUNCOMBE COUNTY, NORTH CAROLINA, STORM 3-7 NOVEMBER 1977
' Debris Avalanche Head
Debris
Avalanche
Character
Runout Length
(m)
Elevation
(m)
Slope
1
1055
80
Multiple
1235+*
N
2
1035
80
Multiple
700+
NE
3
1100
120
Single
655+
SE
4
990
80
Multiple
810+
SE
5
1035
60
Single
700+
SE
6
975
60
Multiple <
700+
SE
7
945
80
Single
760
SE
Aspect
^Minimum track length; actual length is impossible to determine because of track
coincidence with major stream channels.
of some stream channels suggests that even larger amounts of tive events obscure the perception of their importance as an eromaterial were moved. More details on the debris avalanching can sional process. Peak hourly rainfall intensities of 90 to
be obtained from Neary and others (1986).
100 mm/hr approached the suggested 24-hr threshold for initiating debris avalanches in mountainous regions of the humid
CONCLUSIONS
East. These high hourly intensities were the key to triggering
slope failure in well-drained and highly permeable forest soils of
This study examines the conditions that produced an epi- the southern Appalachians.
sode of debris avalanching in forests of the southern Appalachian
Mountains. All the classical conditions of antecedent moisture
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(177 percent above normal), heavy rainfall (more than 125 mm
over 3 days), intense downpours (as much as 102 mm/hr), steep
We acknowledge assistance of the staff of the National
slopes (35 to 80 percent), and shallow soils (depth to bedrock less
than 2 m) were present. Although slope stability is not recognized Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Particular
as a general problem in mountainous areas of the East, debris thanks are due Grant Goodge of the National Climatic Center
avalanching is a major contributor to long-term erosion rates and and to the staff of the USDA Forest Service National Forests in
influences formation of some of the more productive forest soils. North Carolina for assistance in assembling information and
Long-return periods of 100 to more than 200 yr for these destruc- illustrations.
REFERENCES CITED
Campbell, R. H., 1975, Soil slips, debris flows, and rainstorms in the Santa
Monica Mountains and vicinity, southern California: U.S. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 8S1, 51 p.
Eschner, A. R., and Patric, J. H., 1982, Debris avalanches in eastern upland
forests: Journal of Forestry, v. 80,343-347.
Fisher, R. V., 1971, Features of coarse-grained, high concentrations fluids and
their deposits: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 41, p. 916-927.
Greswell, S., Heller, D., and Swanston, D. N., 1979, Mass movement response to
forest management in the central Oregon Coast Range: U.S. Department of
Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-84, Pacific
Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon, 26 p.
Heidelberger, E. D., 1977, Value of GOES data in recent floods: Eastern Region
Technical Attachment No. 77-24, National Weather Service, Department of
Commerce, Washington, D.C., 4 p.
Hollingsworth, R., and Kovacs, G. S., 1981, Soil slumps and debris flows; Prediction and protection: Bulletin of the Association of Engineering Geologists,
v. 18, p. 17-28.
Hutchinson, J. N., and Bhandari, R. K., 1971, Undrained loading; A fundamental
mechanism of mudflows and other mass movements: Geotechnique, v. 21,
p. 353-358.
Istok, J. O., and Harward, M. E., 1983, Clay mineralogy in relation to landscape
instability in the Coast Range of Oregon: Soil Science Society of America
Journal, v. 46, p. 1326-1331.
Megahan, W. F., and Kidd, W. J., 1972, Effect of logging and logging roads on
erosion and sediment deposition from steep terrain: Journal of Forestry,
v. 70, p. 136-141.
92
Neary and Swift
Neary, D. G., Swift, L. W., Jr., Manning, D., and Burns, R. G., 1986, Debris
avalanching in the Southern Appalachians; An influence on forest soil formation: Soil Science Society of American Journal, v. SO, p. 465-471.
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 1977, Climatological data, November 1977, North Carolina: Asheville, North Carolina, NOAA Environmental Data Service, National Climatic Center, 19 p.
O'Loughlin, C. L., 1974, The effect of timber removal on the stability of forest
soils: Journal of Hydrology, v. 13, p. 121-134.
Scofield, R. A., and Oliver, W. J., 1977, A scheme for estimating convective
rainfall from satellite imagery: Washington, D.C., National Oceanographic
and Atmospheric Administration Technical Memorandum, National Environmental Satellite Service, v. 86,41 p.
Scott, R. C., 1972, The geomorphic significance of debris avalanching in the
Appalachian Blue Ridge Mountains [Ph.D. thesis]: Athens, University of
Georgia, 124 p.
Stewart, J. M., Heath, R. C., and Morris, J. N., 1978, Hoods in western North
Carolina, November 1977: Chapel Hill, Water Resources Research Institute,
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 24 p.
Swanson, F. J., Swanson, M. M., and Woods, C., 1981, Analysis of debrisavalanche erosion in steep forest lands, in Davies, T.R.H., and Pearce, A. J.,
eds., Erosion and sediment transport in Pacific Rim Steeplands: Christchurch, New Zealand, International Association Hydrological Sciences Publication no. 132, p. 67-94.
Swanston, D. N., 1974, Slope stability problems associated with timber harvesting
in mountainous regionsof the western United States: U.S. Department of
Agriculture Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-21, Portland,
Oregon, 14 p.
, 1979, Effect of geology on soil mass movement activity in the Pacific
Northwest, in Forest soils and land use, Proceedings, 5th North American
Forest Soils Conference: Fort Collins, Colorado State University, p. 89-116.
Swift, L. W., Jr., Cunningham, G. B., and Douglass, J. E., 1987, Climatology and
hydrology at Coweeta, in Swank, W. T., and Crossley, D. A., eds., Forest
hydrology and ecology at Coweeta: Berlin, Springer-Verlag (in press).
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 1977, Precipitation in the Tennessee River
Basin—November 1977: Knoxville, TVA, Division of Water Management,
10 p.
U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Region, 1979, Final
report on emergency flood repair: Asheville, North Carolina, National
Forests in North Carolina, 12 p. (unpublished).
U.S. Geological Survey, 1977, Water resource conditions in North CarolinaNovember 1977: U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Division and
North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Raleigh, North Carolina, 2 p.
Williams, G. P., and Guy, H. P., 1973, Erosional and depositional aspects of
Hurricane Camille in Virginia, 1969: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
Paper 804,80 p.
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED BY THE SOCIETY DECEMBER 29,1986
Printed in U.S.A.
REVIEWS IN ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
VOLUME VII
DEBRIS FLOWS/AVALANCHES:
PROCESS, RECOGNITION,
AND MITIGATION
Ed/fed by
JOHN E. COSTA
AND
GERALD F. WIECZOREK
The Geological Society of America
3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140
Boulder, Colorado 80301
1987
© 1987 The Geological Society of America, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Copyright is not claimed on any material prepared
by government employees within the scope of their
employment.
All material subject to this copyright and included
in this volume may be photocopied for the noncommercial
purpose of scientific or educational advancement.
Published by The Geological Society of America, Inc.
3300 Penrose Place, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, Colorado 80301
Printed in U.S.A.
GSA Science Editor Campbell Craddock
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Debris flows/avalanches.
(Reviews in engineering geology; v. 7)
Papers from a symposium co-sponsored by the
Engineering Geology and Quaternary Geology and
Geomorphology Divisions of the Geological Society of
America, at the annual meeting in Reno, Nev. on
Nov. 5,1984.
Includes bibliographies.
Includes index.
1. Mass-wasting—Congresses. 2. Avalanches—
Congresses. I. Costa, John E. II. Wieczorek, Gerald F.
III. Geological Society of America. Division of
Engineering Geology. IV. Geological Society of
America. Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology Division.
V. Series.
TA705.R4 vol.7[QE598]
624.1*51 s [551.3]
87-19657
ISBN 0-81374107-6