Preface
It has been almost 30 years since I wrote my thesis on Sicite tone. After completing the thesis, I returned
to the village of Kotoura in Burkina Faso, where I continued to live for several more years, living and
working among the Sicite people. This allowed me refine some of my understanding of the Sicite language through further research. Two articles have since been published in the Journal of West African
Languages, one on the challenging analysis of a variety of mid tones in the language, and the other on
the phonological structure of the Senufo word. The latter corrects some of my misconceptions of the
vowel system that I had at the time I wrote my thesis. This work led to the development of the Sicite orthography which resulted in literacy programs and publication of literature in Sicite. I am so thankful to
God to be able to contribute in a small way to the development of the Sicite language and proud of those
who continue to teach and write and read in Sicite. In this way, the results of my research are not relegated to a little-read thesis for a few linguists, but serve the people as a whole.
Two people in particular have contributed to my further understanding of the Sicite language: Moussa
Traoré, who served as my language assistant, and transcribed hundreds of pages in his language, and
Zanga Lassina Traoré, who enriched his linguistics studies by researching in his own language and by directing the first literacy program in Sicite; my whole hearted thank-you to these two friends and colleagues.
One person and one institution have greatly contributed to ensuring continued access to the original
thesis despite the fact that it was not officially published: My father, Leonard W. Garber, a computer
programmer, created special characters so that I could write my thesis on the computer way back in the
1980’s. Since then, he updated the fonts and the software, and put it online on my personal website.
And now Max Planck Institute has gone one step further by ensuring a longer on-line life and incorporating it into their Language Description Heritage library. I want to thank both of these people for making it
available to the linguists who want to investigate the Sicite language both now and in the future.
Finally, I want to give special thanks to both of my parents, Leonard and Doris Garber, and my husband,
Daniel Kompaore, my most faithful supporters and encouragers in my quest to share with others what I
have learned.
Anne Garber Kompaoré
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso,
October 28, 2014
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A tonal analysis of Senufo: Sucite dialect
Garber, Anne Elizabeth, Ph.D.
University of J1linois at Urbana-Champaign, 1987
Copyright @)198'1 by G81'ber, Anne Ensabeth. All rights reserved..
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A TONAL ANALYSIS OF SENUFO:
SUCITE DIALECT
BY
ANNE ELIZABETH GARBER
B.A.,
A.M.,
University of Ottawa,
University of Illinois,
1978
1980
THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics
in the Graduate College of the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Urbana,
Illinois
1987
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN
THE GRADUATE COLLEGE
MAY
1987
i
:1
WE HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS BY
I
ANNE ELIZABETH GARBER
ENTITLED,
L�AN�A
LY
�F�S�EN�U�F�O�:
S
� � IS
� O
�
� �O
�N� A�
-BA�T
____
_________________________
SUCITE DIALECT
BE ACCEPTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
\,
u�w- k�
Wee o � Final Examination",
� W. J� &k.�
Director of Thesis Research
Head of Department
Com m
,
Chairperson
-_........
t Required
0·517
for d octor's degree but not for master's.
I
il
!J
I
® CaPYri ght by
Anne El i zabeth Garber
1987
iii
TONAL ANALYSIS OF SENUFO:
SUCITE DIALECT
Anne El izabeth Garber . PhD .
DePartment o� Li n9u i stics
Uni versi ty o� I l l i nois at Urbana-ChamP�i 9n . 1987
Char 1 es Ki sseberth . Advi so'"
Suci te. a Senu�o lan9uage Ot the Gur language 9rouP. i s spoken i n
southwestern Burki na Faso.
Its tonal system o� three l e'vel tones and several
contour tones exh i b i ts a consi derable number Ot compl ex al ternations.
Thi s dissertat i on Provi des a descriptive anal Ysi s o� the tonal al ternati ons
in Sucite.
Wi th the hel P o� the autose9mental approach and Cl ements (1981)
system o� tone teatures, we ProPose a doubl e ti ered apProach to tonal ana l YSis
i n the attemPt to anal yse the behaviour Ot the vari ous tYPes Ot Mi d tone tound
in the lan9Uage.
The d i ssertati on consi sts o� an i ntroducti on and si x chaPters. In Chapter
1,
we Provide a br iet descr i pt i on Ot the sound system. the m�rPhol o9Y. and syntax
Ot Suci te. chapter 2 descri bes the tone and morPhol ogy of the verb and
i ntroduces the concept Ot two tiers tor tonal anal ysi s.
tone and morPhol ogy i n Chapter
3
The di scussion Ot noun
bri ngs to l i ght the need to re-ex ami ne the
accePted uni versal o� associ at i ng tones to segments from left to right.
ChaPter 4 is a descri ption and anal ysi s of the tonal behaviour of verbs and
verbal Particles when Preceded by �omi nal and verbal el ements at various tones.
In Chapter
5.
we exami ne how the nomi nal el ements atf ect each other tonal l Y
within a noun Phrase.
Both tonal behaviour across word boundari es and tonal
al ternations wi thi n comPl ex nouns are exami ned and anal ysed with the use Ot the
double-ti ered apProach .
I n Parti cular . thi s chapter h i 9hl i 9hts the need tor
several dit terent tYPes Ot underlYing rePresentati ons t or Mi d tone.
Chapter
6
iv
d i scusses the tonal behavi our o� the adverb Phrase. quest i on �ormati on . and the
noun class cl i t i c , the l atter of whi ch Poses sPecial anal yti cal Probl ems.
Final ly. the orderi n9 o� the tonal rul es presented i n the thesi s i s di scussed .
--- --
--
-
----
-- -----
----- --------�--
--
-
v
Dedi cated to
mY fri ends i n Kotou�a
and to
the One who i s al waYs wi th us
----- -
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thi s studY woul d nat have been possi ble wi thout the cooperati ve suPPort o�
numerous Peopl e.
My � i rst exPressicn o� grati tude must be di recteq to mY language consul tants
who 91ad l Y Provi ded the data used i n this thesi s.
Pri marY consul tants have
been Ouattara Nama (�armer ) . Tra�r4 Mamadou de Katien (student > . Traore Mamadou
de Kat i l e (student ) . Traore Issiaka de Kati l e (Youn� farmer > . and Traore
Gnodjouti en (school teacher > .
I wi sh also to thank mY �riend and co-worker . Gai l Wi ebe Toevs. �or her
comPani onshi p and �or shari ng wi th me her i nsi 9hts an Suc i te dur i n9 our Years
t0gether i n Burkina Faso.
The Commi ssion on Overseas Mi ssi ons o� the General Conterence Mennoni te
Church and the A�rica Inter-Mennon i te Mi ssion are al so to be acknowl edged �or
kindlY permi tting me to Pursue the research requi red �or this di ssertati on . as
thei r emplOYee. and �or Provi ding a measure o� � i nancial assi stance.
Thanks also 90 to the members o� mY commi ttee �cr thei r comments and
SU99Psti ons. in Parti cular . to my advi sor . Char les Ki sseberth �or Patientl y
gui din9 m e through the numerous revi si ons requi red �or t h e thesi s.
Final ly. I wish to thank al l o� mY �riends �or the suPPort they provi ded
durin9 thi s l on9 ordeal . as wel l as mY si ster . Carol Yn . who tYPed much o� the
aPPendi :< and hel ped to PrePare the maPs in this thesi s.
--- -
-
--------- -----
Thank-You !
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
•
1
•
1
4
8
Cl assi f i cati on of Senufo within the GUR l an9uage 9rouP
Suci te as a SENUFO l an9uage (di al ect ? )
Senufo l an9uage Research
PurPose, APProach and Presentat i on
NOTES •
CHAPTER 1
II.
BASIC FACTS ABOUT SUCITE
-
INTRODUCTION
12
THE SOUND SYSTEM
A. Consonants •
1. Pre-nasal i zed Consonants and Consonant Cl usters
2 . Stress and Consonants •
B. Vowel s •
C. Tone
12
12
14
15
18
23
I I I . MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX
A. Nouns
B. Pronouns •
Personal Pronouns
C. The Noun Phrase
D. Verbs
E. The Verb Phrase
F. The Adverbi al Phrase
G. The Sentence
H. Ne9ati ve Formati on •
I . Questi on Formati on •
•
•
SUMMARY
•
25
25
26
28
28
31
32
33
34
36
36
•
37
•
38
NOTES
CHAPTER 2
-
40
THE SUCITE VERB
40
I.
INTRODUCTION
I I.
THE COMPLET IVE VERB
A. Structural Descri pt i on
B. Tonal Descri pt i on
•
•
I I I . THE I NCOMPLETIVE VERB ·
A. structural Descri pt i on •
B. Tonal Behavi our of the IncomPl etive Verb •
1 . The Under l Yi n9 Tone of the i ncompl eti ve suff i x .
------ ----
12
•
•
IV.
9
11
-
--
--
---
- -----------------------------
40
40
42
42
42
51
51
vi i i
55
2 . Root Tone Mutati ons i n the Incomplet i ve Verb
IV.
HISTORICAL SPECULATI ONS AND TONAL FEATURES
V.
(;ONCLUS ION
. . .
NOTES
CHAPTER 3
I.
-
61
. . .
.
. . . . .
. . . . .
.
THE NOUN
68
70
71
•
INTRODUCTION
A. Noun Structure •
B. Noun Cl asses and SuH i x i ng
C. Noun Tone
71
72
72
73
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
THE INDEFINITE SUFF I X - TYPE I
A. Structure • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
B. The Tonal Nature of I ndefi n i te Nouns - TYPe I
•
•
1 . The tone of the I ndef i n i te Suffi x - TYPe I • • •
2. Associ at i on conventi ons and the Indef i n i te Noun .
3 . Tone and Pre-nasal i zed Consonants •
4 . Hi gh f i nal nouns • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
II.
.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
. . . . .
75
75
80
82
84
87
89
91
I I I . THE INDEFINITE SUFF IX - TYPE I I ( Cl asses 2 and 6 ) .
91
A. Structure • • • • • • • • •
91
1. Cl ass 6 Indef i n i te Suff i x .
94
2. Cl ass 2 Indef i n i te Suf f i x •
•
•
•
•
•
96
3 . SummarY • • • • • • • • • •
•
•
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•
•
97
•
•
B. Tone of TYPe I I Indef i n i te Suf f i xes
97
1. Tonal Behavi our ot the Suff i x •
•
•
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•
•
•
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•
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•
99
2 . Segmental Del eti on and Tonal Behavi our
•
•
•
•
•
116
3. Root tone l ower i ng (High Del eti on )
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a. Hi gh Del eti on wi th Suf f i x Reduct i on ( 122 ) ; b . Hi gh Del et i on
wi th Ful l Suf f i x (124) ; c. Parti al Suff i x Del etion and
Resi stance to Hi gh Del eti on (125 )
IV.
THE DEFIN ITE SUFFIX
A. Structure - Type I • • • •
B. structure - TYPe I I nouns
C. Def in i te Suf f i x Tone .
V.
CONCLUSION
.
.
.
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER 4
-
TONE I N THE SUCI TE VERB PHRASE
•
•
•
•
INTRODUCTION
Domai n Ot Verb Tone Behavi our
---- ----
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NOTES
I.
•
•
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--
-
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._ ---
•
•
128
129
132
134
141
142
145
145
145
ix
II.
NOUN OBJECT TONE AND THE VERB : DESCRI PTION AND ANALYS I S
. . . .
A . Descri pt i on
B . Anal ysi s
•
1 . Low SPread i ng Ru l e
.
. .
. .
.
. .
2 . High Tone SPread i ng
3 . Mi d Tone Loweri ng
. . .
. . . .
.
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I I I . THE VERBAL PARTI CLES
A. Order With i n t.he Verb Phrase .
B. AsPect i n the Verb Phrase
1 . The I ncomPl eti ve Aspect
2 . The Compl eti ve Aspect Marker
C. Tanse, Modal , and Other Parti cl es
1 . The NA Parti cl e
2 . The NIl Part i cl e
3 . The Future Tense
. .
4. The I ncompl eti ve n'7'
5 . The CA Parti cl e
6 . The Habi tual m4?a
7 . The Modal SA
8 . The BA Modal
9 . The Pre-Tense Part i cl es
10 . The Ne9ati ve Parti cl e
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IV.
CONCLUS ION
NOTES
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CHAPTER 5
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----
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--
---- ------
198
201
•
TONAL BEHAVI OUR W I TH I N THE NOUN PHRASE
A . H i 9h Tone Nouns
B. Low Tone Nouns
C. M i d Tone Nouns
D. Mi d and M i d -Low Tone Nouns
E. Weak M i d and Mi d-Low tone Nouns
1 . Desc:,- i Pti en
( i ) Rai s i n9 (2 1 3); ( i i ) Low tone sPread i n9 (2 1 6)
2 . Anal ysi s
a. Mw and ML as Under l Yi n9l y H i gh Tone
b . Mw and ML as Under l Yi ngl y HI
(i) Low tone SPread i ng (229); ( i i ) High Tone SPreadi ng (231);
( i i i ) Di st i ngu i sh i ng Weak Mi d and M i d-Low Nouns (235); ( i v)
Mi d -Low Tone and I ndePendent Low Tone Li n k i ng (235); ( v ) Weak
M i d Tone and Feature Swi tch (239); (vi ) Rul e Order i n g (241 )
F. Low-Hi gh Nouns and RS Del i n k i ng
G. Concl usi on ot Mi d tone behavi our on Nouns
•
1 73
1 73
1 75
1 76
178
183
183
185
186
188
188
1 89
191
193
1 94
1 96
200
INTRODUCT ION
A. The E��ect o� Noun Phrase Structure on Tonal Behavi our
B. Nomi n al Tone
•
.
·
. . . .
TONE I N THE SUCITE NOUN PHRASE
•
·
146
146
1 49
1 49
157
1 69
•
•
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•
•
•
•
•
----- ---- ---- ----
20 1
202
204
205
205
206
207
210
212
213
218
218
227
243
247
:(
248
I I I . THE DEF I N I TE SUFF IX REV I S I TED • •
IV.
TONAL BEHAV I OUR OF THE COMPLEX NOUN • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
A. ComP l ex Nouns (HI + HI ) and the Ob l i 9atorY Contour Pr i nc i pl e .
1. The OCP Sol ut i on • • • • •
2. Rul e Order i n g for tile OCP •
3. H i 9h SPreaD i n g and w;P
4. Low Spreadi n9 and the OCP
5 . OCP and the Assoc' i at i on Conventi ons
B . H i 9h Del i n k i n9 • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • •
• • • • • • • •
C. Lex i ca l Changes
1 . Hi9h Del eti on
• • • • •
a. Hi9h Del eti on I (269) ; b. Hi 9h Del eti on I I (275)
2. Low Del eti on • • • • • • • • • • •
3. Other Lex i cal Changes • •
4. Tone on Nomi nal i red Verbs • • • • •
D • . Concl us i on of Study of COmPl ex Nouns • • • • •
278
292
293
288
CONCLUSI ON • • • • •
A. The Doubl e t i ered APProach to Tonal Anal ysi s •
B . SummarY • • • • • • • • •
29 9
289
293
•
V.
NOTES
. .
.
.
.
. . . .
.
CHAPTER G - THE SUCITE SENTENCE
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
. . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
I ntroducti on . . .
The Adver b i al Phrase •
The Noun Cl ass C l i ti c . . . .
Yes-No Quest i on s •
.
wh Questi on Format i on and Frontshi fti n9
Rul e Order i n9
G. Concl ud i n9 Notes .
·
·
·
·
·
·
295
. .
. . . . . . . . .
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·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
·
252
252
255
256
257
258
259
263
269
269
. . .
.
297
. .
. . . .
·
·
·
297
297
301
313
314
3 16
3 26
BIBLIOGRAPHY
328
BIBLI OGRAPHY OF SENUFO LANGUAGES
330
APPENDIX • • • • • •
332
332
352
368
NOUN LEX ICON OF SUCI TE.
VERB LEX I CON OF SUC I TE
WELMER ' S QUESTIONNA IRE
VITA • • • • •
----- ---- - -- -
. . .
.
. .
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.
399
1
INTRODUCTION
The sub ject ot thi s d i ssertati on i s the studY ot the tone ot Suci te
[ Suc� tel . a Senuto l anguage ot southwestern Bur k i na Faso, i nvesti gated on
l ocati on by mYsel t between the Years
1992 and 1995. Thi s i ntroduct i on t i rst
si tuates the Senut o l anguages as a whol e both geograPh i cal l y and geneti cal l y
bet ore d i scuss i ng the rel ati on o t Suc i te with the other Senuto l anguages. I t
continues wi th a revi ew ot the l i ngui sti c research i n var i ous Senuto l anguages
and ends wi th a d i scussi on ot why and how the subjec t ot Suci te tone i s to be
Presented i n the thes i s .
CI4"ifiC4tion of e.nufo within the SUR 14ngY491 grouP
It has been w i d elY acknowl edged by authors such as Lavergne de Tressan
( 1953), Greenberg ( 1966) and Westermann ( 1970) that the Senufo l anguages bel ong
to the Gur grouP of the Ni ger-Congo l anguage fami l y . The Gur or Vol tai c
l anguages are l ocated Pri mar i l y with i n the bas i n of the Vol ta Ri ver between the
Sahara Desert to the north and the troPi cal forest to the south. In terms of
pol i t i cal boundar i es , thi s area stretches IIfrom the southeast corner of Mal i .
across northern I vorY Coast , throu9h a l arge Part of UPPer Vol ta [Bur k i na
Fasol , northern Ghana, northern T090 , northern Dahomey [Beni nl i nto Niger i a .
(Bendor-Samuel ,
II
p. 141, 1971)
Senu f o l anguages are l ocated i n the southwestern corner ot th i s area,
bounded to the west by Mande l anguages , to the south by Kwa l anguages, and to
the north and east by other Gur l anguages. The i r area i s spl i t among pri mari l y
three countri es : I vorY Coast boasts the l argest number of sPeakers (over
700 .000 ) (Mensah , 1983), Mal i comes c l ose beh i nd (690,272) ( �, 1991) and
Bur k i na Faso has an estimated
100,000 sPeakers.
Northern Ghana al so has a t ew
-----
2
i sol .1f:ad grouPs.
Senu�o l angua9as are tYPi cal o� Gur l anguages in that they have a noun cl ass
su��ix system and verbs are marked tor asPect (comPletive and incomple�i ve) .
In ganer�l p the consonant and vowel systems � Senu�o l anguages do not have anY
particul arl y stri king �.aturesl .
Thera i s a d i sti nct di vergence in werd order . however .
Where most Sur
l anguages are SVOp Senu�o langua�s are SOVAdv2• A �ew other nei ghbouri ng Gur
l anguages i n Burkina Faso, such as Toussi an3, also have this word order.
Tonal l y , there i s no one common Pattern throughout Gur languages.
Samuel ­
Bendor ( 1971 ) nOtesp however, that a two tone downsteP system aPPears to be an
areal �eature cutti ng across Gur l anguage divisions SPreading into the Kwa
grouP. Thi s two-tone areal �eature stoPs short at the Senu�o languages. To both
the east (southeast ) and west D� the two-tone set o� languages, we �ind entire
blocks 0+ l anguages wi th SYstems Ot three level tones. The Senuto lan9Ua9&Sp
which are located to·th. w.�t o� the two ton. sYstems, as wel l a. a �.w other
mi scQl lanaous SUr l an9Uages bordering on the Senu�o area, Poss.ss three l evel
tones.
On the western side at Senu�o l .1nd, there are a numb.r o� /'Iand.
l anguage. which have pri mari l y twa di screte ton... I� Mi nYianka, a Senuto
l anguage, does actual l Y have onl Y two l evel ton•• ,
••
has b••n r.port.d4, i t
maY b e due to a more Prol onged contact with Mande l anguages in the �ar north­
western corner o� the Senu�o area.
In the �ar southeastern corner, on the other hand, we �ind two rePorted
�our-tone Senuto l anguage., Jiminie and TakpEr6• which just haPPen to be i n the
vicini ty o� several tour-tone languages o� other language grouPs - BEtE (Kru ) .
Atti' <Kwa) , and Gban (Mande) <See adjoi ning maP �or location ) . Again , i t
aPPears that l anguage contact maY play an important rol e in t�� devol opment o�
----
-
-
.-.
--- -----
------- --- ----
--
_._-_.
--'---
3
LJtN�"AGE
li 110 UPS
SURKII\IA fASO
MALI
M
Ke)':
�"'Q� Gt-o",�
��Q,"\t$:
L�IJA3e 8o�i�:
Mandl.:
M
Go...... :
C.
KwQ.�
Kw
Kl"'u:
K...
_
___ _
4
a l an9Uage's tonal .vstem.
Further comParative studies in the tonal svstams o�
Wast A�r i ca cou l d Potential l v vi el d verV i nteresting insights as to whv and how
tonal svstems change and $hi �t through the centuries.
Sycit-
., t
SENUEO ItaiM'" (di.lect?)
Unti l the l ast coupl e o� decades, Senu�o l an9Uage classi �i cation was
primar i l v a matter o� specul ation . In a Personal communi cation to Bendor-Samuel
( 1968) . R. Mi l l s divided UP Senu�o l anguages i nto three di alect. grouPs and
l abel l ed the.. Northern. central . and Southern Senu�o. Bandor-�iamuel ( 1 971 )
aPParentl v agreed wi th these divisions. Two recent publ i cations. Mensah ( 1983)
and Mi l l s (1984) avoid these geographic l abel s. but thev grouP the Senu�o
l anguages i nto roughlv the same cate90ries as
R.
Mi l l s ( 196 8) . apparentlv
al l owing �or more �uzzines. between group boundar�... In certai n cales.
i ndi vidual dialect. have not been adquatel v i nvesti gated
cation
�or
accurate classi f i ­
Added to that, the compl i cation o� mul t i pl e names �or a number of
diale:ts creates a comPl .x and.
a.
vet . i l l -d � i ned l i nguistic
grouP
o�
l an9UageS"' .
Before mV arr i val in Burkina Faso i n 1982. I onl Y knew o� SucHe as "Tagba".
Lavergne de Tre�5an ( 1 953) (and PerhaPs before him. Tauxi ar ) , incl udes Tagba in
his l ist � 30 Senu�o dialects.
He
had apparentl v i denti f i ed two locations �or
Tagba. one i n nor�hwest IvorY Coast and the ather i n Burkina Faso. He gave no
indi cati on o� what relation i t had to other Senu�o l an9Ua9as. I specul ated that
Tagba mi ght be rel ated to SuPVire, the Senu�o l anguage directl v to the wast
across the border i n Mal i .
MY
hunch Proved to be correct . as I l ater di scover­
ed. For not onl Y were Tagba and SuPVi re closel v rel ated . but the real name �or
Tagba. SUci te. was a re� lection o� the close phonol ogi cal
-----
._--
-
--
.-
-- ---
---- ------- _. _--
.-
5
MAll
SENUFO
LANGUAGES
SYENtftE
J<EY�
A
5
C
0
E
Cepiri
Po�Q.r�
KClSlt"f.
Gbot\'3.ororo
TQ\"I!jG.Y"G
---- - ---- - --------
F
G.
H
I
:r
Fodonon
Gbo�7.o"'o
FQn+a.Y""Q
Pa\'\1(U"Q
NaFQ\1Q (BowJou ko\.l')
--- ----- - --- --
6
correspondp.nca betNe.n the two.
Bath SuPYire and Sucite bel ong to the northern grouPing o� Senu�o l anguages.
According to Mi l l ' s (19 84) ma�. no disti ncti on i s made betNeen the tNO dia­
lectsJ both are under the same label . SuPYire. SUPYi re i s located in the
Si kasso area o� southeastern Mal i . Sucit. is an eastNard continuation of
SuPYi re i nto Burkina Fasa.
According to l egend. the Suci te-sPeaking peopl.
origi nate i n Mal i and the Sucite saY they sPeak the same language as the
SuPYire. In �act. soma People in Burkina Faso cal l thei r language • SuPYire ,
rather than ·Suc i te ' . Chance encounters betNeen i ndi vi dual s o� the tNO groups
has shewn that the two dial ects are qui te mutual l Y i ntel l i gi bl e.
When sPeaking to an outsider . a Sucite sPeaking Person Ni l l saY he speaks
Senu�o
or
perhaPs Bamana. as non-Senufo outsi ders Nould cal l him. Another
Senu�o grouP to the South Ni l l cal l these Peopl e Tagba. The NQ;"d Tagba i s
geosraPhi cal in nature. The Suci te peopl e l i ve on the Ta9auara pl ateau. Suc i te
is Nhat the Peopl e cal l thei r ONn l anguage. Deri ved �rom the same root are the
Nords ' si c3' (person) and · s�p{le' (P80ple) .
The Suci te-sPeaking Peopl e in Burkina Faso number apProx i matel y
<actual fi gure unkncwn) .
2�.000
TheY are l ocated i n the Kol oko Prefectul"e i n the
Province of Kenedougnu about 1 1 0 kil ometres Nest of Bobo-Dioulasso in south­
Nester"n Burki na Faso.
According to authori ties in Koloko. there are 32
vi l l ages. but thi s � i gure is not exact si nce a �eN vi l l ages are not Tagba. and
at least one Tagba vi l l age i s l ocated autside the Pre�ectur• •
The l i ngui stic nei ghbours o� Suci te are Nanergue. a northern Senu�o language
to the ncrth . SuPYi re, to the NeSt , and a Central Senufo language tc the scuth
knoNn as Senar o� Kankalaba (Prost. 1 964) . To the east and southeast are a
number of smal l and di verse grouPs: Turka (Gur ) , Samagho (Mande) . Dicula
----- ------
--
-
------- ---- ---- ------
LANCUAGES
OF
SOUTUWESr I3URKJWA
7
FASO
,
•
,
MALI
,­
I
•
•
•
�
,
8URKINA
FIfSO
I
,
Key:
1 .:."'. �"ca.\� QPpn",.lmo.+.''I
SUC,'/oe:
if'
*
Se"a.ri {KCI"kClIa.oQ: y
Se.�a.ri:
---- - ._--
-
.-
X
WOt'Cl :
10
�
Na. f,'o,.o : -&
Oicn... /o.:
0
SQm0,Jl1o
I'n,le$
1u.r-ka.:
v
NOt"�h Tou$:u'on: 2S
GCU..L,'", � �
$ou�h
Sl!.mc,: �
RQo.d.:
---------- -------- -------
..
Ta\ol�$iQ,": C
8
( Mande) , and Si amou or S£me (Kru ) . The l atter has el uded cl assi � i cati on , though
it has been suggested bv Person (1966) that Si amou i s an i sol ated Kru l anguage.
A�ter visi t i ng 6 major vi l l ages in the area, mV Partner , Gai l Wiebe and I
chase to l i ve i n Kotoura. a geograPhi cal lv central i zed vi l l age o� aPProx i matelv
2,000 Peopl e .
A � e w c i vi l servants and a COUPl e o� Dioul a speaki ng �ami l i es
l i ved on the Peri Pherv of the vi l l age but otherwi se the vi l l age was Purel v
Senu�o. The Per i od o� l anguage invest i gati on began an arri val an November 25,
1992, and conti nued unti l mV departure on June 9, 198�.
s.oYfA l,aiM•• Bey.rch
Before the 1�0Is" tone was nat gi ven anV i mPortance i n Senufo studies­
Cheronls (192�) descri pt i on o� Mi nvanka does not even ment i on tone. Prost
(1964) acknowledges the ex i stence of tones but makes no attemPt at transcri P­
tion .
Seri ous research of Senu�o l anguage5 began i n the m i d 19�01S when Conser­
vati ve Bapti st mi ssi onaries settled i n the Korhogo area of northern I vorV
Coast . Thei r ear l i est descript i ons o� Cabara ( Mi l l s , 19671) ref l ect thei r
re�l i zati on that tone was an essential part of thi s major Senufo l anguage. To
date, numerous art i c l es maV be found on a var i etv o� Senufo dialects· and three
theses or d i ssertat i ons have been wri tten . one on TV.bari (Laughren . 1973).
another an Nvarafol o (Baese, 1983), and a third on Fodonon (Bout i n , 1981). In
addi tion , at l east ten l anguages/d i al ects are currentlv being researched . A
sin9l e book has been PUbl i shed in recent Vears; Seaufg Phgngl ggy (1984) bv
El i zabeth Mi l ls .
Al l o� these resources , publ i shed and unpub l i shed , have
Proved helpfu l i n the anal Vsi s of the basic features of Suc i te.
The anal vsi s of tone, however , has nev"r been gi ven much sPace in al l of
----_ .
----
-
.---
9
these works. Mi l l s as wel l as a few others do describe the basi c tonal Patterns
o� the l anguages that they have investi gated , but l i ttle attemPt has been made
at a ri gourous anal Ysi s.
a tonal anaisYi s
an
Bob Carl son i sl:.h� -F i rst . to mY knowledge, to attemPt
a Sanu�o l anguage. He has wri tten an unPubl i shed descri P­
tive draft of SuPYi re tone, as wel l as the article "Downstep in SuPYi re"
( 1 983) . Hi s most recant unpubl i shad PaPer , SypYira tRn. ( 1 9� ) , i s h i s fi rst
attempt at
a
more comPrehensi ve anayl sis. al though the scoPe o� h i s PaPer does
not al l ow him to Present a thorough examinati on o� al l tonal behavi our.
PUr_e.
ApprO.ch .ad !tuentlt{on
The PurPose o� this research i s to explore the tonal Patterns of Suci te, a
dialect whi ch has not Previousl y been investigated . It i s hOPed that the
Presentation o� these data wi l l �urther the knowl edge o� the tonal behaviour of
Senufo l anguage. i n general .
The scoPe o� thi s studY wi l l be l i mi tad to the anal Ysi s � the simple non­
complex sentence i n Suci te. Tone in comPl ex sentence structure and di scourse
wi l l not be d�4Ji: wi th in detai l �or reasons of time. SP.ce, and l ack o�
su�� icient data.
However. prel i mi narY observati ons indi cate that tonal rules
outl i ned i n the di ssertati on are not contradicted in complex sentence struc­
tures.
Several theoreti cal tool s wi l l be used in the attemPt to provi de a satiS­
factorY anal Ysis. Firstly, the underlYing tones that provi de the basis for
rules wi l l have to be determi ned .
Research into the Possi b l e histori cal
Process of tonal devel opment with the hel P o� Cl ements ' prOPosed feature
system. as outl i ned in ChaPter 2, contri butes t owards this end.
Secondl y ,
---- ---_.
--.-
an
autosegmental apProach to tonal analYSis wi l l be undertaken.
._------ ---- --- ------
10
However , it will be qui ckl y seen that the autosegmental aPProach , as it has
been general l y aPpl i ed wi th re�erence to tone, maY requi re some modifications
here. In ChaPter 3, it wi l l be noted that the assumed Association Convention o�
le�t to Right linking Poses some Probl ems.
An al ternative sol ution ot Ri ght to
left l i nking is proposed, di scussed , and �inal l Y adoPted .
In addition , with the hel P of Cl ements' ProPosed feature system, whi ch
invol ves def ining tone through the use of both a Pri marY regi ster as wel l as a
subregi ster level ,
we
borrow some basic concePts �rom the recent developments
in non-l inear Phonology and ProPose a double ti ered aPProach to tonal anal Vsi s.
Thi s concept is f i rst i ntroduced in ChaPter 2, and i s brieflv di scussed i n
ChaPters 3 and 4, whi le a more thorough presentation o� a double ti ered
aPProach �or tonal analYsi s can be �ound in Chapter 5.
Final l y it wi l l be noted in Chapters
3
and 6 that rul e orderi ng is cruci al
for the ProPer aPPl i cati on � tonal rul es. Certain l exical rul es wi l l have to
take pl ace be�ore other rul es such as rules sPreading tones �rom one morPheme
tD another'.
The presentati on o� data wi l l be organized accordi ng to chaPter. The �irst
chapter wi l l present the basic �acts about the Sucite language, includi ng
Prel iminary information about tonal behaviour. The second chaPter wil l exami ne
verb tone and morphol ogv, whi l e Chapter 3 wi l l focus on nen-complex noun tone
and morphol ogy. Chapter
4
wi l l examine how the tonal envi ronment i n whi ch the
verb or verbal particle is pl aced, af�ects thei r tone, whi l e Chapter
3
wi l l
concentrate on tone i n COmPl ex nouns and noun Phrases. ChaPter 6 wi l l comPl ete
thi s descri ption bv describing the tonal behavi our of adverb Phrases and of the
sentence as a whol e. The noun cl ass cl i tic. whose tonal behaviour can al ter
tone in the sentence i n unexPected wavs. wi l l be tnm �ocus of attention here.
---- - ----
-
--
-
11
NOTES
1 . For A general surveY o.f Gur l angUAgeS, see Bendor-Samuel ( 1 971"> .
2. A di scussion concerning the hi stori cal impl i cations of ward order in Senufo
can be .found i n "Ward Order Ch."ge and the Senufo Language", Garber ( 1980) .
3. For descriptions of Toussian , see Prost ( 1964 ) and Burdon ( 1984 ).
4. Euni ce Pi ke, uPon Prel i mi narY investigationf suggested that Mi nYi anka has
twa level tones and one fal l ing tone.
s. Information from Mensah ( 1983) indicates that Jimini i s a four tone l an­
guage. However , MensAh , hi msel f, questions"the rel i abi l i ty of his source,
which, un.fortunateI Y, he does nat name. Wol fgang Stradner , a l i ngui st working
an Jimini wandered i r Jimini might b. underlYi ngl y a twa tone language. To mY
knowledge, l i ttle serious anAl Ysi s of tone has been undertaken in Jimi ni .
6. For a phonol ogical descri ption of TakPEr, a Tagbana di alect of Senufo, see
Heraul t ( 1973) .
7. References .for l ingui stic maPs and classi fi cati ons o.f Senu.fo di al ects
i ncl ude the fal lowing: Lavergne de Tressan ( 1933) , Westermann ( 1970) , Bendor­
Samuel ( 1 971 ) , Boutin ( 1982) , Mensah ( 1983), and Mi l l s ( 1 984 ) .
8. The reader i s asked to re.fer to the "Bibli ography of Senufo Languages'
located at the end of this di ssertation for a .ful l l i st of publ i shed and
unPubl ished materi al an Senu.fo l anguages.
CHAPTER 1
-
'11.
BASIC FAcTS ABOUT SUCITE
I. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 out l i nes the sound, morPhol gi cal , and syntac tic structures of the
l anguage 50 that the reader maY examine data in succe�di ng chapters wi th some
degree of fami l i ari ty. Informati on on tone is l i mi ted to outl in in g the Phoneti c
tones found i n Suc i te and l i st i n9 vari ous tonal comb i nati ons on three-syl l ab l e
words.
After desc�i bi ng basi c morphol ogi cal structures of nouns. ��ouns, and
verbs. the word order of the sentence i s di scussed i n rel at i on to where tonal
al ternati ons take Pl ace among i ts consti tuents. Al though examples of tonal
chan9aS are 9i ven . the rul es i nvol ved are l eft for thorou9h exami nat i on in
subsequent chaPters.
I 1. 11£ SOUND SVSTaI
A. Cgn'OD.nt.
In terms of frequencY. voicel ess consonants are general l y more frequent i n
Suc i te than thei r voiced counterParts. The voi ced doubl e stoP, Igbl i s also
qui te common . On the other hand . the voiced consonants , Ib/. Id/ . Iv/ . and Izi
are rel ati velY ra�a. The reader wi l l not. in chart ( 1 ) , the complete absence of
the voiced velar stoP, l iL.
Car l son analYse. the SuPYire vel ar �ri �ativ8 as
being underl Yin9ly 19/ . It i s possi b l e that the velar �ri cat i ve i n Suci te, lxi,
is al so under l Yi ngl y Ig/ . However , at thi s Poi nt in t i me . I have oPted to
conti nue usi n9 the symbol Ixl i n the transcriptions. Thi s vel ar fri cat i ve
aPPears to be ei ther voiced or voicel ess dePendi n9 on i ts Phonol 09i cal envi ron­
ment. It i s never found i n word i n i t i al Posi tion.
---- .---
-
- _._------
---- -------_ ._-
-
--_.. _.
13
Bel ow i s a char� o � �he consonan�s �ound i n Slldts .
(1)
�
P
plosi ve
k
n k [ gg)
mp [bb) n� [dd)
?
Nasal
b
d
mb
nd
m
n
I
Lateral
Fr i caHve
�
gb
nY
�
'19b
I)
I)m
r
h
s
v
z
c
AHrica�e
ndjjl
j
nj
SuPYire,
Y
w, wY
Gl i des
a
Senu�o d i al ec� c l osel Y rel a�ed to Suci te, has a number o�
attested Pal atal i zed consonants. The chart above shows three such consonants.
I�y/, /ny/ , and /Wy/l.
However , i n Suci te , i t aPPears that this � eature i s i n
the Process o� being l ost .
In the exampl es bel ow, the palatal i zed consonant
versi on o� �he word �reel Y al ternates wi th a non-pal atal i zed versi on .
(2) a. l t x o
b . mE x i
N
l Y�x o
' to get ol d ,
N
mYaK�
' name '
i ncomPl et i ve aspect '
A more thorough anal Ysi s wi l l have to be made be�ore the status o� palatal
consonants can be determi ned.
14
The sYmbol Icl represents the al veoPal atal affri cate [ t J.
1. Pr.-na.aliz.d Con.cnant. and eon.anant clu.t.r.
There are numerous envi ronments where a nasal consonant can be i mmed i atel Y
fol l owed by a stoP or by an affricate. In al l cases. however, these consonant
clusters are found in morpheme i ni t i al Posi t i on . In some i nstances, these nasal
consonants are der i ved . For axamPI •• the future tense verbal parti c l e consi sts
of sf + n . When a verb fol l ows i mmed i atel Y after this verbal particle, the
nasal causes Prenasal i zati on of stoPs and affri cates, and voi c i ng of fri cat i ves
as shown bel ow i n ( 3) 2.
( 3) a. Pan
' I wi l l corne '
corne
nd� st mPan [bban l
b . k �r!
go
nd� sf nk.lr! [gg.lrf J ' I wi l l 90 '
c. B
eat
nd� sf ndi
' I wi l l eat
d . ja
to be abl e
nd� sf nj.l
' I can '
e. gba
drink
nd� st mgba
' I wi l l dri n k '
f . yld
get uP
nd� sf njld
• I wi l l 'aet uP '
g. S:J
buY
nd� st Z:J
• I wi l l buy '
Some nouns wi th a nasal i n i t i al consonant cl uster aPPear to be der i ved
from veros whi ch do not have an i n i t i al nasal . The specul at i on then . i s that
Pref i x i ng a nasal to a verb in effect, nomi nal i zes i t , as is shown in the
exampl e bel ow.
(4 ) a. It
-----
> ndl
eat -----> f ood
There are however , Pre-nasal i zed nouns and verbs for whi ch there i s no
---- -
---.
-
-- ..
---- .
15
evidence that the i n i ti al nasal i s derived. Some at these are l i sted below.
( 5 ) a . mblJKf
' oPen, reveal '
b . mp a.
'protec t , detend'
c . mPill 6
' hi l l '
d . nj i de
' tongue '
e. n k�nl a
' t ooth '
What I cal l Pre-nasal i zed voi c�l .. s consonant s are nat phoneti cal lY real i zed
as such . In the consonant chart (1 ) , in ( 3a and b ) , and in ( 5b ,c , and .) above,
their Phoneti c transcr i pti on i s gi ven as a d oubl e voi ced consonant s. SuPYire
cognates at these words actual l Y Possess a Phoneti c pre-nasalized consonant .
However, i n Suci te, these Pre-nasal i zed voicel ess consonan t s soun d l i ke a
del aYed rel ease voiced stoP. The nasal not bei ng Pronounced , one has the
imPressi on that i t i s SNal l awed or that the ai rst ream th rough the nasal
Passages i s somehow b l ocked , the Pressure bui l d s uP in the mouth and i s
rel eased onl Y atter the art i cu l at i on o-F the stoP, gi vi ng the e-Ftect at a torti s
voi ced stoP or a l engthened or gemi nate voiced consonant . They contrast wi �h
voi ced stoPs a5 �el! as with voicel ess and Pre-nasal i zed voiced stops. Below
are two set s at mi ni mal Pai r s to il l u str ate thi s tact .
(6)
bi
pill �
2.
' theY '
" body '
mbi
' Hour '
mPill 8 [bb il1 61
' hi l l '
strns and Consonants
Consonant s alternate i n such a waY that wh i l e the majori ty ai consonant s are
al l owed in morPheme ini t i al Posi tion , these same consonants are nat al lowed to
begi n sub sequent sYl l ab l e s at the same morPheme. Al l Pre-nasal consonant s, most
.----
-
.-
16
stops such as P, t , k. d . gb . the a��ri cates
�Y, s , v , and
z.
c and j , and most �ri cati ves, � ,
ar a restri ct ed to morPheme i n i t i al Posi tion . I n (7) are some
examPles o� these consonants in word i ni tial Posi t i on . The nouns in (8) are
comPosed o� two noun rootsJ thus the above consonants can be �ound at the
beginning o� each noun root.
(7) a. ��x�
' Yam, i nde� i ni te '
b . �a-xo
' to l engthen , i ncompl eti ve asPect '
c · �..{
' to shake, comPl .t i ve asPect '
(8) a · a-d
' Person '
b . a-ki
' goat '
c · ka-��
' wi nd '
On the other hand. there i s a verY smal l set o� consonants that are a ll owed
onl Y i n non-morpheme i n i t i al Position . These are
�,
�,
and the glottal stoP, Z.
Below are a �ew examPles.
(9) a. n9u e,a-xo
' smoke '
' l oad ' (�rom tux a ' to carrY ' )
b . i: u KJ1-r�
c . k .ln :a
1,
' vi l l age '
Certain co nsonants such as nasal s. the voiced b i l ab i al , �, and the l at eral .
can be �o�nd i n both Posi t i ons:
(10) a. lQ70
b . a.7al a
c . !l{a
' water , i nda4i n i te
' twi st, wind , wri the
' twi n '
' owner '
�a�
' tel l a l i a'
' I ather , �oam '
The nasal vel ar , �, is most �requentlY �ound i n non-morpheme ini tial
---- ---- ---- ------ ----
--
---
---
-_. -
17
Posi t i on .
It Noul d b e conceivab l e t o suggest that those consonants al l o Ned on l Y i n
non-morpheme i ni t i al Position are in compl ementarY di stri but ion Ni th certai n
morPheme i n i t i al consonants. For examPle.
Posi t i on. alternates Ni th
Li kewise.
�.
i. Nhi ch occurs i n morPheme i n i t i al
which i s never � ound i n morpheme i n i t i al Posi t i on .
k maY al ternate Ni th
� or
2.
One maY a l so suggest that stress pl aYs a rol e i n the d i stri buti on o�
consonants. stress Pl aced on the � i rst sYl l ab l e o� the morPheme wou l d then
al l a N �or the mul t i pl i c i ty o� consonants. Nhi l e consonants �ound in Neak l y
stressed Posi t i on s are more l i mi ted and tend to b e the weaker versi ons � thei r
stressed counterParts.
Evi dence that stress i s l ocated i n word i n i t i al Posi t i on can be found i n the
behavi our o� the noun cl ass cl i t i c . whi ch . as Ni l l be seen l ater in ChaPter 6 .
c l i t i ci zes to i ts surroundi ng environmen t . When the n oun cl ass cl i t i c .
�. i s
� ound i n sentence i n i t i al Posi tion. as can be seen bel oN i n ( lla ) . i t Possesses
a consonant al l oNed onl Y i n morpheme i n i t i al Posi t i on . However , when the c l i t i c
i s Preceded by a verbal Parti c l e i n the sentence as seen in ( llb ) . i ts stoP
consonant i s � r i cat i vi zed. Nhi ch wou l d be expected i f i t s Pos i t i on i s nON
consi dered to be unstressed.
( 1 1) a. stressed :
ka t�x�
' carrY i t ! '
i t carrY
b . unstressed:
Na�
�
t�x�
' he carri ed i t '
he-TA i t carrY
It must be noted that the cl i ti c is the onl Y morpheme that al ternates betNeen
----_ ._-_._------- ------
--------- -.-.
.
_._.__.
-----
19
stressed and unstressed consonants.
One mi 9ht be temP�ed �o sU99es� tha� i ns �ead of stress bei n9 a factor . the
i ntervocal ic environment of stoP consonants l eads to their �ricat i vi za�i on .
However. i � one �akes a second l ook at comPound nouns (Si. i t i s seen that the
consonant of the second root of the compound does not undergo fricat i v izat i on
even �hough i t . too. i s i n i ntervocal i c posi t i on . Thus. the hYPothesi s that
stress i s a major factor of these particular consonant alternati ons is put
forward . The matter of str ess wi l l be consi dered again brief l y in the discus ­
sion o� vowel s.
B. ygw.l.
S�c i�' has 7 vowel s. al l of whi ch are verY common to West Afri can lan9uages.
(�2)
i
u
[al
a
a
Al l vowel s can be l engthened and nasal i zed . A l en9�hened vowel i s tran ­
scri bed wi th two vowel s: VV. Nasal i zed vowel s are wri tten as Vn . The on ' o t the
nasal ized vowel . however . can be someti mes confused wi th �he on ' in InYI or i n
anY Pre-nasal i zed consonant . For exampl e th e noun rlrJa ' rai ns ' i s wri tten i n
our transcript i on as z�nya. Wri tten as such . i t i s i mPossib l e t o know whether
19
the ' n ' nasal i zes the Previ ous vowel , [ z�-y31 or whether the ' n ' al ong with the
adjacent ' y' �orm a Palatal nasal , [zA-nY81. There4ore, to avoid an ambi guous
readi ng o� ily 3 , an aPo$trophe i s i nserted to i ndicate sYl l able divi si on :
zAn ' y3. In ad di t i on , when a ' n ' i s Preceded by a vowel and fol lowed b y certain
stoP consonan ts, ambigu i ty ari ses in trYing to discern whether the ' n ' bel ongs
to the preced i ng vowel or the �ol l owi ng consonant. The word kAkonk6 c ou l d be
phonet i cal l Y ei ther [ kAkok 61 or [kAkogg61. The �ormer is correct . To disti n ­
guish Pr e-na sal i zad consonant. from nasal i zed vowel s a superscript
'
:: wi l l be
used �or the �ormer onl Y in the si tuat i ons where ambigu ity ari ses. Therefore,
i n ( 1 3a ) no suPersci pt ' "' i . wri tten �or the nasal i zad vowel , wh ereas i n (b ) ,
there i s no nasal i zed vowel but rather a Pre-nasal i zed consonant . In cases
where th ere i s no ambi gui ty , the ' n ' wi l l not b e i n superscri pt, as .is sho wn i n
( 1 3c) .
( 13) a. kAk gok ' [k 1kok 6]
' col a, cough '
b. ka :kur� [ ka99ur�]
'fi ve '
c · nkanl 8
' tooth '
[9g113]
The reader wi l l al so note the Presence of the schwa i n square brackets i n
the vowel chart. The schwa i s found i n two sPec i f i c envi ronments. I n both
i nstances, it aPPears that the schwa is in compl ementarY distr i buti on wi th some
other vowel .
The f i rst vowel of anY morpheme can be anY � the ei ght vowel s 9i ven i n the
chart above. However, the vowel Ii i i s qui te rare i n thi s Posi tion , whi l e the
schwa i s qui te frequent , leading one to the susPici on that the schwa maY be an
underlYi ng Ii i whi ch i s central i zed i n certai n envi ronmen ts. Wh ile data i s not
suff i ci ent to COmPl ete an i n vest i gati on on thi s issue, the i tems gi ven bel ow
-----. ------. ----
20
seem to i ndicate that a h i gh front vowel (as the f i rst vowel o� the morpheme)
tends to remain �ronted when l ocated between two palatal or dental tyPe
consonants ( 1 4) , whi l e i t tends to be central i zed el sewhere ( 1 5) :
( 14) a· . H..de
' breast '
b. nc ile
' bal aPhone '
c. t id.
' creePi ng vi ne '
' goat '
hr.
' excrement '
b . s lea
' Parson '
t abe
' medicine '
c . b .a
' seed '
tak e
' tree-DEF '
( 1 5) a. s �i
However , even i � we cou l d explai n these aPParent eXcePti on s by Phonol ogi cal
condition i ng by adjacent consonants, we are sti l l faced wi th the fal lowing near
mi nimal Pair contrasti ng � and
( 1 6) a . f al.
b . f lle
••
' aPProach '
' beat (a f l oor ) '
Phonetical l y, the l atter i s nat a l ang vowel . Whether underl Ying vowel l ength
has something to do wi th thi s contrasti ve Pai r wi l l be l eft �or anal Ysis at a
l ater date. For the t i me bei ng, schwas have been retained i n transcri pt i on .
The second envi ronment i n which schwas are found i s i n the second or third
sYl lab l e at a morpheme where the sYl l able concerned i s nat i n word � i nal
Posi tion . Consi der the examPles bel ow:
( 1 7)
a.
b�nl �o
' to l engthen. incomPleti ve asPect '
b.
kap�?�.Id
' f i ngers '
c.
feramc
' urine '
d.
� aJ.'x a
' rack '
- �-- ----------. -----
21
The examPl e i n (a> consists o� a s i mpl e verb wi th an incomPl et i ve su��i x . The
�irst sYl l �b l e contains the vowel 10/ . The second vowel i s a schwa. It i s i n
the second sYl l ab l e o� the morpheme and i t i s not i n word �inal Posi t i on . The
third vowel is not a schwa and i t i s i n word � i nal Position . The examPl e i n ( b >
has two nomi nal morPhemes along wi th a nomi nal su� � i x . Nei ther the �i rst nor
the second vowel i s � schwa - both are the � i rst vowels o� thei r resPecti ve
morPhemes. The thi rd vowel i s a schwa and i t i s the second vowel o� the second
marphemQ �d i s not i n � i nal Posi t i on � the word. In al l the other examPles.
the same pattern is repeated; there is always a schwa when the vowel is in non ­
w ard f i nal and non-morPheme initi al Position . The choice o� vowel s Precedi ng
and �ol l owing the schwa does not seem to be a factor for schw� format i on 3•
There are at l east two possible an �l Yses for the schwa in this Posi t i on . The
fi rst i s to su9gest that i t i s underl Yingl y Ii i . as was suggested for schwas i n
morPheme initial Posi t i on . However . since the structural envi ronment seems to
b . such a cruci al f �ctor for schwa formation . i t maY al so be suggested that
the schwa could be underlYingl y anY vowel found in thi s Posi t i on .
I n order to Pursue thi s argument . i t is necessarY to take a l ook at the
general distri but i on � vowel s in a simpl e. non-compl ex word. It aPPears that
e�ch morPheme i s sPeci� ied far � si ngle vowel regardl ess of the number of
sYl l ab l es it Possesses. If a morPheme has two sYl lables. the fol l owi ng vowel
patterns emerge:
• Push ,
( 18) i
f !l '
' beat (a f l oor >
a
hIe
' approach '
e
gb are
' be short
'meet tagether . gr OUP '
E
P€r €
' sel l '
'di l ute. draw out '
a
b &?&
' accuse'
u
fulo
22
Al thaugh the abave are al l verbs4, the .ame Patterns can a l sa be faund far
nauns· If a marpheme has th ree sYl l abl e., a si mi l ar, but sl i ghtly al tered
Pattern &marges, t h i s t i me i nval vi ng a schwa.
( 19) i
na verbs
a
Y�r�K�
' rai se, strai ghten
e
Y,,"a')t
•
staP, t ransi ti ve '
' bather, heat '
u
kc1ra"�
a
t6rax 6
' stumble, bumP i nta '
' send. accamPanY '
' push raughly, jastl e '
' 9avern . t ransl ate '
In each case af the examPles i n ( 19) , the med i al cansanant i s a schwa. Phanet­
i cal l Y t h i s parti cu l ar vawel i s bath reduced i n l ength and cent ral i zed . Because
bath the vowel Preced i ng and the vawel fal l owing the schwa share same af the
same features. ane maY be l ed ta the canclusian that underlYi ngl y . the schwa
al sa shares these same features. Th i s underl Ying vawel then , i s reduced ta a
schwa when the structural candi ti ans �ar schwa farmati an are met .
In the discussian an cansanants. i t was suggested that st ress accurred an
the f i rst syl l ab l e af each marPheme. It maY also be cancei vab l e ta suggest that
the infarmatian concern i ng vawel features i s sPec i f i ed far the � i rst vawel af
the morPheme whi l e subsequent vawels adapt these features, which then are
mad i f i ed thraugh ru l es such as vawel reduct i an and central i zati an . Rul es �ar
thi s behavi au r wi l l nat be farmulated. hawever, because the i ssue af vawel
behaviaur i s a l i t t l e mare campl icated than i s Presented here, and a mare
thoraugh anal Ysi s needs ta be Presented .
Suff i ce it ta saY, hawever, that
schwas wi l l be retained in the arthagraphy for the Presentatian af data in thi s
thesi s.
23
c. Tgnw
On the sur�ace. there are three l evel s � tone i n Suci te. Hi gh ( � ) . Mid
(unmarked ) . and Law ( ' ) . Gl i des �orming anY combinat i on o� t�ese three l evel s
can be �ound i n the lan9uage.
However . the most common are High-Low (HL) and
Mi d-Low <ML) . The i ssue o� underl Ying tones is rather compl i cated and wi l l be
the �ocus o� attenti on i n the �ol l owin9 chaPters.
Tonal rul es oPerate within words. and between components of a verb phrase or
a noun phrase.
Noun cl ass cl i t i cs. Postpositions. verbs . and verbal parti c l es
are especial l y suscept i b l e to the tonal environment i mmed i atel Y precedi n9 them.
The Possib l e combi nat i ons of tone withi n a three sYl l ab l e noun <disre9ardi n9 the number of morphemes therei n ) are quite numerous . as shown bel ow i n
( 20) . As wi l l be seen l ater . the d i stribut i on o f tones w i th i n i ndividual
morpnemes i s l i mi ted . In add it i on , tonal rul es do b l ock Possi bi l i ti es �or
certain combi nati ons whi l e en9anderin9 others.
(20) <Number in an9l e brackets i ndi cates the number of tonal l Y i dentical three
sYl l ab l e i nde� i n i te sin9ular nouns �ound i n a l i st of approx i matel y 362 threesYl l ab l e nouns) :
1 . L-L-L
k4s�)(�'"
war
2. L-L-M
k45�ke
war-DEF
3. L-L-HL
k4Y � 1 @
compound
4. L-L-H
k4YUni!
comPound-DEF
5 . L-M-L
�na.i
Packrat
<1>
6. L-M-M
k.ico)(�
encl osure
<3 1>
<12>
<1 3 >
·Unl ess otherwi se marked , al l nouns 9i ven here are i n the i ndef i ni te form.
Those marked DEF are def i n i te nouns.
----- . . -- -
- . .-
----_ ._--- ---- -----
24
7. L-M-H
k.icok e
encl o5ure-DEF
8. L-H-L
mp�de)( .
rib
<2>
9. L-H-M
k.im6l u
ant:
< 4>
1 0 . L-H-HL
nY.ip!S l g
L-H-H
bundl e o t 9rass
< 4)
0
<2)
1 1 . M-L-L
nan.il �
+ i sh (sPeci es>
1 2 . M-L-M
toa!,)e
chi et . owner-DEF
1 3 . M-L-H
zanl ��n'
kidneY-DEF
1 4 . M-L-HL
zan l �l e
ki dney
1 5. ML-L-HL
canb�!')e
umbrel l a
1 6 . M-M-L
9bunna!')�
wal l
<3)
17. 1'1-1'1-1'1
tunkYaxl:
di arrhea
<9)
18. M-M-H
tunkyak e
di arrhea-DEF
19. M-M-HL
ku ru9ba
matted overhan9
M-H-L
<4>
0
20 . M-H-M
9bab'ne
roam of a house-DEF
21 . MH-M-M
I aal a!')e
butterf l y
<1>
M-H-H
0
22. M-H-HL
9bab'1 @
room of a house
<2>
23. H-L-L
PC1ny�x�
c l ay
<2>
24. H-L-M
PC1nyt ke
cl aY-DEF
25. H-L-H
UnyMge
st:ump of a tree-DEF
26. H-L-HL
Uny�!')e
st:ump at a t:ree
<1>
27. H-M-L
t'Pada
beam
< 4>
29. H-ML-M
sa." t QI')E
quai l -DEF
29. H-M-M
i4me!')E.
dew
------ .�- --- .�----
< 3>
25
30. H-M-H
kamel')g,
dew-DEF
31 . H-H-L
n'H U t}
buHocks
32. H-H-M
�a.Uke
rock-DEF
33. H-H-ML
ma.?anja
beard
<1>
di vi ner
< 7>
H-H-H
34. H-H-HL
<1>
0
c'-f61 �
I I I . MORPHOLOGV AND SYNTAX
A . �Nqun.
As i s the case wi th manY Ni ger Can90 l anguages. Senufo nouns and Pronouns
are marked �or c l ass. Thi s c l ass marker is su�fixed to the noun.
The cl ass
marker not onl Y conveYs cl ass a-ff i l i at i on but also def i ni teness and Pl ural i ty.
The ei ght noun cl asses have been grouped into -f i ve genderse. whi ch inc l ude
three si ngular/pl ural Pairs and two mass/col l ecti ve noun cl asses. Each cl ass
has twa types o-f suf-f i x i ng: Indefi ni te and De-f inite. Below is an examp le of
each tYPe for Gender 2 (Cl asses 3/.) :
(2 1 ) a. 9ba-xa
' house '
Inde.fi ni t. (Si ngu lar )
CIa•• 3
b . gba-k'
' the house ' Def i nite (Singul ar ) Class 3
c · gba-Ya
' houses '
d . gba-nY€
Indef i n i te ( Pl ural )
Cl ass 4
' the houses ' De� i n i te (Pl ural ) Cl ass 4
Bel ow i s a noun chart showi ng the rePresentati ve indefi n i te and de.f i n i te forms
.for each cl ass. Suf f i xes are underl ined .
- - -- ---- ----
26
(22 ) Gender Cl ass
1 . ' wi ' CI . 1
Engl i sh
Indetini te Det i n i te
gba
9ba-!lR
' ri ver '
gba-w
gba-i::bi
' ri vers '
2 . ' ki ' CI . 3
gba-u.
gba-Jsj
' house '
cl . 4
gba-�
9ba-an.
' houses '
3. ' I i ' CI . 5
gba-U.
gba-A::o.a
' torehead '
gb.-:al.i.
gb.-lt\:Id.
' toreheads '
4. ' ti ' CI . 7
su-�
sil-ia
' mai n d i sh '
5. ' Pi ' CI . S
sa-1iIL
si-m::b&
' oi l '
CI . 2
CI . 6
Al though these nouns are rePresentat i ve at their resPecti ve cl asses, there
are a substantial number at Phonol ogi cal al ternati ons tor each sutf i x , whi ch
wi l l be descri bed in Chapter 3 . The complex tonal nature at nouns wi l l be the
toPi c of di scussion in ChaPters 3 and 5.
B. PrMPUD.
Each noun c l ass has a general . emPhat i c , Part i t i ve , interrogati ve . demonstrat i ve,
and rel ati ve Pronoun.
The chart bel ow provides a qui c k view of the
shapes of some of these Pronouns:
(23) Cl ass
1
Cl i t i c
wu
EmPhati c
Parti tive
2
3
4
5
6
7
S
bi
ka
Yi
la
ki
ta
ba
wur�
Per�
kar�
Yir�
lara
kera
tar�
Par�
w�
pi
k�
Y�
U
ki
U
p�
Demonstrati ve n9'
mP!
n k'
nj!
nd'
nk{
nU
mpa
Interrogati ve n9a
mPi
n ka
nj i
nda
nki
nta
mPa
---- - --- -
-- - - - --- ---- -
---- -------
- --
---
27
Bel ow are exampl es of each Pronoun type. It must be noted that Pronouns ( i n
Parti cu l ar . the emphati c and the demonstrati ve > can be understood best onl Y i n
context of the d iscourse i n wh i ch they are used.
(24) Cl i ti c
a.
m
(functi ons as a Possessi ve. Ref l ex i ve o r General Pronou n )
' he i s her e '
nYe nanan
b . waa !iW. w"
he h i m saw
c · waa � 9b�l l
d.
m
' he saw h i m '
h. h i mself i njured
' he i njured h i msel f '
' hi s meat '
kaUe
(2S) EmPhati c Cl i t i c < al so Referenti al )
a. � wi
' i t ' s him '
b . � ka�te
' hi s ( ref ) meat '
� Ya
c . Ng�
but
e£:i
jub�
k�d"e
ctn min
theY-E Neg-T these-E words ' mean i ng know not
' But they d i d not understand the meaning of these words '
(26) Parti ti ve
a. m�l �r")e �
' some r i ce '
b . waa � we,
' he saw some '
c . c�"e � ci nan�
' Some chi l d was here '
(27) Demonst�at i va
a. nda� �
S::J
I thi s bought
b . a.ta kaUe
d. ndi Yi
' 1 bou�"t thi s '
' th i s meat '
cen aki
mo Ya mbf r f mEn
I Ne9-T know what You T think Neg
' I do not know what YOU
are thi nking '
(28) �nterrogati ve
a. aii tun wu y�
----- - -----
-
--
--
- - -
-------
' who i s i t? '
28
There i s also a cl ass i dent i � i er , which sur�aces i n phrases, such as the
�ol l awi ng:
(29) a. nAA �
' he ' s a man '
b . nUI)e �
' he ' s the man '
c . n1maa bi.
' theY
d . n1maab! b1
are
men '
' they ' re the men '
The tone o� Noun cl ass cl i t i cs i s qui te var iable . In i sol at i on or i n sentence
i n i t i al Posi t i on , they are mi d tan •• Otherwi se, they maY be High , Mi d , or Low
depending on the tonal environment . (See p . 33 �or ex amPl es o� tone variabi l i ty
and Chapter 6 for a tonal anal Ysis o� the noun cl ass cl i t ic . ) The other
pronouns are more stab l e tonal l y .
P.,.sanal Pranoun.
Bel ow i s a chart of. the Personal Pronouns.
(30)
wllri , w
• we '
' YoU , S9 . '
Y� ri . yl
' YOU, pl . '
' he, she, i t '
bi
' theY '
-'de, ni.
•
mo, ma
wu
I'
The thi rd Person Pronouns are the Cl asses 1 and 2 Pronouns.
+
Sllclt6, as wel l as other Senuf o l an9Uages, creates a l arge number of words
++
by comPoundi ng two simple nouns or by nomi nal i z i ng a Noun
In �act , the l atter i s qui te productive .
(31 ) a. k1-1�-x�
thing + water
cl .
Below are examPles of each .
' shower room '
b . ta-wa-xa
PI .ce + be drY
c . t'-Pa-dA
tree + spread across + cl .
-_
----- - _ ._._ .. _-_._---.
cl .
Verb eXPression .
' desert , drY pl ace '
' beam '
29
In these examPl es. the noun cl ass marker is tYPi cal ly at the end o� the ward .
Noun + Adj ecti ve constructions are essenti al l Y the nominal i z at i on o� the
Noun + Verb
and oPerate in the same waY as the examPles above. There seem to
be verY �ew real adjecti ves i n s�c� t'. The concepts normal l y handl ed by
adjecti ves are �ound in stati ve verbs. as seen bel ow .
(32) a. 9ba-kaA I E
C the house is ol d '
C the old hause '
b . 9ba-l €-ke
The adjecti ve
c 90od '
�aY be one o� the rare true adj ecti ves. It cannot be
accePted as ei ther a noun o r a verb i n isolat i on . It i s �ound onl Y i n adject­
i val or adverbi al Posi tion .
(33) a . *kaa
ce�e
b . *cef)e wi
C i t is 9oodness '
c . p�n-C�I)I\
d . waa P�r€
C i t is 9Dod '
c a 900d dog '
c�n-mi
c he sold wel l '
In Noun + Number constructi ons. each consti tuent retai ns its awn noun
c l ass. Numbers bel ong to the c wi ' 9ender . i . e • • Cl asses 1 /2 . As an i nde� i n i te
<Class 1 ) . i t possesses no su� � i x (35a) whi l e the noun wh ich i t modi � i es
Possesses the i ndef i ni te Cl ass 4 suffi x .
I n ( b ) . both the noun and the number
acquire the de� ini te su� � i x o� their resPecti ve noun cl asses.
(34) a. gba-Yi suunn{
b . 9ba-nyt s��nn�-'"
twa houses. INDEF
twa houses. DEF
However, i n Noun + Ordi nal Constructions . there i s onl Y one noun cl ass
marker . whi ch i s l ocated in ward t i nal Posi tion .
cl ass of the noun .
----- - -- -
-
-- -
Cl ass i s determi ned b y the
30
(35) a. 9ba-suun-��-ke
' the second house '
house-two-ard-cl-DEF
b. Ye-suun-�9�-n@
' the second year '
Year-two-ord-cl -DEF
In gen i t i ve construct i ons, consti tuents retain thei r awn noun cl ass
markers. In the examPl e bel ow, the Possessi ve noun is i n Cl ass 1 , whi l e the
second noun i s in Cl ass 3.
' the man ' s hause '
Tonal l y, a string of nominal el ements al on9 with thei r suffi xes oPerates as
a
uni t .
Each consti tuent i s sensi ti ve t o tonal rules, wh i ch wi l l b e di scussed
l ater i n greater detai l . Below are a few examPl es of tonal perturbati ons wi thin
the Noun Phrase. The wards an the l eft side of the arrow shaw the tane of the
i ndi vi dual wards as gi ven i n ci tati on f arm, wh i l e the wards on the r i 9ht side
of the arrow show what haPPens to the tone when the wards are grouPed together
i n noun Phrases.
(37) a. nda kacUe
--> nd� kU. te
' my meat '
b. 9baYi sMnn� ---> 9baYi suunnf ' twa houses '
c . I �Y� s��ni ---> l uY� s�unni
' two creeks '
d . ntara + fol� ---> ntaraf�l�
' l and chi ef '
e· mo foB
---> mo f61�
' Your chi ef '
'
The Noun Phrase i tseH is nat sensi t i ve to the tenal eni vi ronment surroundi ng
it 401i$$ the Noun Phrase be9i ns wi th a Noun Cl ass cl i t i c .
di scussed bri ef l y on p . 34 and i n detai l i n Chapter 6.
----- -- _ . _
. ._ . _--- ------
Thi s si tuat i on i s
31
D.
y..b,
The basi c verb i s obl i gatori l y marked �or asPect , either cOmPl eti ve
(per�ective, singul ar ) or i ncomp l et i ve (continuous, i mPer�ecti ve, pl ural ) .
Sandor-Samuel ( 1971 ) suggested a si ngu l ar - pl ural d i st i ncti on � or the two
�orms si nce the cOmPlet i ve descr ibes one comPl ete, � i n i shed acti on whereas the
incomPl et i ve descri bes a Pl ural i t y or rePet i ti on o� act i ons. In addi t i on , he
al so poi nted out ( and th i s is true � or S�c� t') that the ' Plural ' � orms o� the
noun and verb are Phonol ogical l Y simi l ar .
There ·also aPPears t o be some transi t i vi z ing and act i vi z i r.9 suH i xes ,
but the semanti c l oad o� verb su� � i xes has not yet been studi ed .
The comPl et i ve form of the verb aPPears t o have a zero morPheme. From
the basi s o� thi s �orm, the i ncomPl et i ve asPect i s der i ved . Tonal l y, an
i ncompl eti ve su� � i x vari es according to th. tone o� the root . Segmental l y , i t
can have a vari ety at shaPes. The most common are c _i ' . ' -ri ' , c -x o ' , c -ni ' .
and ' -I i ' .
Same of these suf � i x es can have Phoneti c variants, to b. seen in
Chapter 2 . There are al so a �ew verbs whi ch do nat �it i nto anY o� these
cate9ori es.
Selow are Slome examPl es showi ng these var i ous su� � i x es :
(38) Compl eti ve
9b�x�
gb�d -i
gather t0gether-
Cy'
cYe-xO
f"e�use;
kci.n
ka.-n1
boi l
y�
y(i-l f
steal
c&)
c6-d
catch, grab
The tonal nature o� verbs i s a toPic reserved �or di scussi on in Chapter 2 .
---- - . -- -
-
._ --
32
The basi c verb phrase consi sts of a verbal Parti cle and a verb .
The
verbal part i c l e contai ns i n�ormat i on concerni ng tense, mode, and Al so asPect .
As wi th other Ni ger-tongo l an9UageS. modal Particles tend to have been verbs
hi stori cal l y . Bel ow are a � ew examPl es o� tense and modal mar kers.
(39) a. wu A Pan --> waA Pan
' he came '
b. wu na Pan --> wu na pAn
' he has came '
c · wu 51 ba Pan -> wu s1 ba pAn
' he wi l l come '
he TA
M
come
d . wu 51 Pan
e· wu 51
he TA
' he wi l l came '
pan
ka
� i n i sh come
� . wu Ya ma.
g.
tof U
sf da
he T
' he is comi ng '
m a.
' he wi l l be comi ng '
come-i ncomPI .
A
h . wu caa m
he T�M
' he wi l l end uP coming '
' he was cDllli n9 '
come-i ncompl .
Seri al verbs or verbal chai ns are qu i te common i n s�clt"
just as they are i n
manY w�st Afri can l anguages . I n the examPl es bel ow, the two verbs are separated
by a tYPe of connecti ve whi ch coal esces to the f i nal vowel o� the � i rst verb .
(40)
a.
waa wu l �-�
he-T i t take-
Pan
came
b . waa p�ra.-a k�
he-T sel l - � i n i sh
------ - - -
-
' he brought i t '
-- - -------
' he � i n i 5hed sel l ing '
33
Li ke the noun phrase, the verb Phrase al so operates as a un i t tonal l y .
I� the
verbal Part i c l e and the verb are adjacent to each other . the tone � the
Part i c l e a��ects the tone o� the verb . Th i s is i l l ustrated in the examPl es
below.
(41 ) a. wu � Pan --> wa� pan
' he came '
b . wu na Pan --> wu na PAn
' he has come '
c . wu � kar! --> waa k�r!
' he went '
d.
wu
ni. kid
' he has 90ne '
Unl i ke the noun Phrase. whi ch . as a uni t . i s not a��ected by the tonal environ­
ment o� the �Qnsti tuents precedi n9 or �ol l owin9 i t . the verb Phrase i s sensi ­
t i ve tonal l Y to the noun Phrase whi ch Precedes. See (4�) �or examPles o� tonal
var i at i ons on the verb Phrase. as wel l as Chapter 4 �or a detai l ed anal Ysi s o�
these var i at i ons.
E. Ibm Adverbi•l Phr•••
The adverbi al Phrase i s l ocated post verbal l Y . and consi sts � a Noun Phrase +
Postposi tion or Pronoun + Postposi t i on .
The tonal ru l es that operate between
these two consti tuents are verY si mi l .ar to the rules that oPrah on the verb
Phrase.
Bel ow are a � ew examp l es :
(42) a· wu nYe
wu
kAtgxg
' he i s behind h i m '
b . wu nYe
mg
k.tgxg
' he i s blhind ygy '
c · ka nYe
wy
Hin
' i t i s b" i dp h i m '
d . k a nYe
mg
t�D
' it is
----- - - -- --
-
- - - ---- -----
biliii gi �gy '
34
B. Th- Sent."C_
We have al readY �al ked abou� �he naun Phrase and �he verb phrase as
sePara�e ent i ti es . In �his secti on wa wi l l exami ne �heir l ocat i on i n �he si mpl e
sentence and bri e� I Y d i scuss tonal phen�Mena that oPerate across Phrasal
boundari es. The basic word order i s out l i ned below:
(43) Subject + Verbal Parti c l e + Obj ect + Verb Phrase + Adverb Phrase
S CNP)
O CNP )
V. P.
Advp (NP+PP)
VP
Tonal l y, nomi nal + verbal el ements are grOUped �ogether as tonal uni �s . A
verbal el ement cannot be attected by the tone ot a Preced i ng nomi nal el ement .
howevar . The l i n k i ng i n the i l l ustrati on bel ow demonstrates tonal sensi t i vi t y
whi l e the square brackets rePresent b l ocks t o the aPpl i cati on a t tonal rul es .
(44) [Noun P
V. P . ]
[Noun P
Verb P]
[Noun P
Postposi t i on ]
Tha tone at verbal Particl es i s at�ected b y the tone at the noun subject. I n
add i t i on . the tone o� the verb i s sensi t i ve t o the tonal nature o� anY word
that precedes i t whether that word i s verbal or nominal . The examP l es bel ow
show var i ous tonal variations o� the underl i ned words.
( 45) a. lNd�
----- ..-- -
I
b.
c.
d.
--
�1.l
tut
w"]
[mo
You
l ook at
at] [mo
*]
man
tut
l ook at
[NU
S1' ]
man
-Fut
[NU
n4
kad ]
man
Past
l eave
[NAA
_ .
You
t wA
· 1 wi l l l ook at yOU '
id&]
" A man wi l l l ook at yOU '
" A man wi l l l ook at some '
some l ook at
" A man has · gone '
35
e·
IlA
kid ]
past
l eave
(Nd �
I
t I have gone '
( I ' m l eavi ng)
As ment i oned earl i er, a Noun Phrase is general l y nat sensi t i ve to the surround­
i ng tonal envi ronment. However , i� an NP begi ns wi th a noun cl ass cl i t i c . the
cl i ti c is sensi ti ve to the tone at anything whi ch precedes and as wi th anY
ather nou n . can also attect the tone at anythi ng wh i ch tal lows. as shawn bel ow .
(46) cl i ti c
V. P.
cl i t i c
Verb P
cl i t i c
Postposi tion
Below are exampl es whi ch i l l ustrate how the Presence at a noun cl ass c l i t i c or
the l ac k thereat i nt l uences tonal changeS on the sentence.
(47) a. wu �
b . wu n�
c . wu �
d.
�
�
w"
w"
kar� wee
' he l ooked at hi m '
-> wu na � wee
' he h.s l ooked at hi m '
-> wa� kiCa w�e
-> wu kar� w�e
wu kar� w"
e. wu �
-> waa � we,
' Look at his meat ! '
kari wee -> waa � kara wee ' He l ooked at his meat '
wu
-> wu na kar� we'
t . wu n� kar� w"
g. wu na
' he l ooked at meat '
�
kar� w"
-> wu na � k,{r,i w"
h. wu � wu kan �-�n -> wa� wu kan �
i.
wu
� wu l � �-�n
- > waa wO l � ��
l � t�ryu-�
-> waa � l � t��uO
j . wu �
k . wu
�
a
�
l�
�
t he has l ooked at meat '
' he has l ooked at h i s meat
' he gave i t to h i m '
' he took i t tram h i m '
t he took i t tram the tather '
t��u-6 -> waa � l � � t��uo
t he took i t tram h i s tather '
It �, ' meat ' i s i mmed i atel Y preceded by the verbal parti c l e , it does not
undergo tonal change. Al l other nouns behave i n this waY. However , i t a noun
cl ass cl i t i c is inserted , the tone
------- ----- ------ ------
at kic4 i s also attected . Any tonal changes
36
on the cl t i c can tri gger tonal pertubati ons on the noun Phrase and verob Phrase
el ements whi ch fol l ow, as can be seen i n the exampl es above. These phenomena
wi l l be d i scussed i n greater detai l i n Chapter 6 .
The ne9ati ve sentence i s formed by i nserti ng a negati ve morpheme i mmed i atel Y
before the verbal part i c l e and at the end of the sentence.
(48) a .
b.
wu .\ Pan
-
wu Yi .\ Pan min
he N
> wa.\ Pan
----
>
he came
wu Yi Pan min
" He d i d not come '
T c ome N
c . wu ni. Pan
he has come
d . wu y� na Pan min
--->
wi � na Pan min
" he has not come '
As wi l l be seen i n Chapter 4, both Parts of the negat i ve morpheme can be
affected by the tone of the Precedi ng word . The negati ve parti c l e .
affect the tone of the fol l owing verbal part i c l e , whi l e
mtn affects the tone at
the Yes-No Questi on Marker.
t.
Au"tim FormUig"
Yes-no questi ons are formed by addi ng " l a ' to anY sentence.
( 49) a . wa� Pan
" he came '
b . wa� Pan l a
" Di d he come? '
c . waa k.\d
" he l eH '
d . waa k.lr! l a
" Di d he l eave'? '
e· nda la
" Me? '
f . mo l a
" You? '
�. can also
37
9 . kalte l A
· the meat? '
h . m�B l �
' ri ce? '
As the exampl es above show. the tone o� the Yes-no question marker .
lao
vari es i n rel at i on to the tone o� the Precedi n9 word .
Frontsh i � ti ng takes P l ace �or WH questi ons. A Q marker
' Y� ' i s al so
Pl aced at the end o� the sentence.
(50) a. San
Where he-T �
b . San
' Where d i d he 90? '
waa k�r{ Ye
wa�
Q
w6 9b�ri Yi
[9b�rt � ]
' Where d i d he meet h i m? '
Where he-T him meat Q
' What did he see? '
c . NYi?a wa� nYa Ye [nY£ � ]
What he-T see Q
A �ront shi �ted const i tuent i s treated as
an
i sol ated tonal unit and theretore
has no et� ect on the tone o� the const i tuent whi ch �ol l ows.
Fronbh i H: i n9 al so takes pl ace qui te �re>1uentl Y in answers to WH quesb ons
(51 ) a . San mu Ya see?
b . caank6 l ao ndi Ya s6
' Where are You 90i n9? '
" I ' m 9Oi n9 to the market '
market to. I am 90i n9
IV. SUl'lMARY
Thi s chapter has been a sketch o� the basi c structure o� Suci te. Those
acquai nted wi th Senu�o l an9uages wi l l have rec09n ized numerous Patterns and
structures tYPi cal of Senu� o l anguages.
The i nventorY o� Suci te consonants i ncl udes stoPs . � r i cati ves. and l ateral s.
38
as wel l as pre-nasal i zed stoPs and palatal i zed consonants . which awai t further
i nvesti gAti on . Seven vowels were i sol ated , whi l e an ei ghth . the schwa. i s
tentati vel v consi dered not t o hAve phonol ogi cal status. However . not enough
research has vet been done to cl ar i f v thi s Poi nt .
Both consonants and vowel s aPPear to Pl av a rol e in signal i ng stress on
words. It was ProPosed that the f irst svl l ab l e of each word i s stressed . Thi s
f i rst svl l ab l e al l ows for the greatest var i etv of consonants. and i t i s al so
the Pos i t i on where a ful l v speci f i ed vowel aPPears to dictate the under l vi ng
vowel qual i tv of the vowel s i n the remai n i ng unstressed svl l ables of the word .
Agai n . more research wi l l have to be done on the rel ati on between segmental
behaviour and stress before anV def i n i te statements can be made.
It WAS al so seen that there are three l evel s of tone, as wel l as two fal l i ng
tones i n Suci te . In sketching out sentence structure and word order. i t was
noted that nomi nal el ements can affect the tone of fol l owing verbal s but that.
verbal s cannot affect the tone of nomi nal s. The di scussion concerni ng the
toPi cs of under l vi ng tone. the di stri buti on of tones in nouns and verbs. and
the rules governi ng tonal changes in the sentence wi l l be deal t wi th i n
succeedi ng chapters of this theSi s.
NOTES
1 . Whether these consonants are under lvi ngl v Pal at ized or whether thev consi st
of a combi nat i on of consonants .i s a matter that must wai t unti l further
research is done.
2. See ChaPter 3 for nasal condi ti on i ng of consonants on noun cl ass suf f i xes.
3. Transcri pt i ons in this thesis do not al wavs show a schwa in this Posi t i on .
Re9ard l ess of t h e transcri pt i on gi ven . however . a vowel i n morpheme med i al
Posi t i on is al wavs reduced i n length and tends to be at least sl i ghtly central ­
i zed . Further i nvesti gati or. w i th a l anguage cansul tant shou l d cl ear uP these
discrepancies i n the transcri pt i ons.
----- .-- - . � . - . .--- -.-----
-----
39
4. A si gni � i can� number o� d i sYl l ab i c verbs Possess a � i nal I i I i ns�ead o�
harmon i z i ng wi th �he i n i � i al vowel :
ct}B
hanri
�ori
' sPread out '
' construct . bui l d '
' gO ou� . aPPear '
s. There has been a quas�i on among �hose s�udYi ng Senu�o l anguages as �o how �o
number and organi z e the noun cl ass system. Those worki ng an Cebara (Mi l l s et
al > have grouPed si n9Ul ar and pl ural �orms �ogether . cal l i ng each 9rouPi ng a
cl ass. Thus. the �i rst �hree ' cl asses ' con�ai n bo�h si ngu l ar and Pl ural �orms
and the last twa contain mass and col l ect i ve nouns. Because Mi l l s set the
preceden�. a number o� ather peopl e have �ol l owed �hei r lead . Carl son adoP�ed
thi s sYs�em o� organi zat i on but renamed the ' cl asses ' . ' Genders ' . Recently, i n
a d i scussion wi �h MarY Laughren . she sugges�ed pl ac i ng each si ngu l ar and Pl ural
�orm i n i �s awn cl ass and added �hat Jean Cauvi n . who has wr i �ten an Mi nYi an ka.
a Senu�o l angUage. uses the same - sYstem. Carl son argues �or hta sYs�am i n
saYing tha� there i s nat �he mi x i ng and matchi ng o� noun cl asses as i s � ound in
Bantu l an9Uages. In add i � i on . he saYs tha� the s i n9U l ar and Pl ural {orms o�
each gender are cl osel Y l i nked and �eel s �hat �he system used shou ld re� l ect
thi s i ntimate Pai r i ng � si ngu l ars and Plural s .
One advantage o� assi gni ng a cl ass number � or each si ngul ar and each Pl ural
woul d be in caPturi ng a cer�ai n general i z at i on . �o be seen in ChaPter 3. tha�
goes across �he si ngul ar/pl ural di s�i nction . Instead o� di scussing the si ngular
i nde� i ni tes and d� i n i tes seParatel y � rom the Plural s . it might be mare
conveni ent to examine the si ngul ars and pl ural s an the same level when di scuss­
ing tonal and segmental behavi our . The anal ysi s woul d then nat be re�erring to
si ngular and Pl ural �orms but on l Y �o i nde� i n i te and de� i ni te su� � i xat i on o�
cer�ain noun cl asses.
For the above reason . I have uti l i zed the Laughren/Cauvin apProach �or
anal Ys i s in pre�erence �o Mi l l s ' and Carl son ' s. ChaP�er 1 . however . does re�er
to Carl son ' s gender system when i ntroducing Noun Cl asses.
6 . Wi �hin �he contex� o� �h is di sserta� i on . �he term ' noun phrase. narrowl y
re�ers to the s�r i ng o� nominal el ements al ong wi�h thei r su� � i xes .
7. The �erm ' verb Phrase ' wi th i n the contex � o� �hi s thesi s i s m.an� t o re�er
to a s�ring o� verbal el ements onl Y and no� �o �he broader d� i n i � i on wh i ch
al so i ncl udes objects and adverbi al Phrases.
-- - - - - - -----
40
CHAPTER 2
-
THE SUCITE VERB
I . INTRODUCTION
In Chapter 1 , we saw that verbs are marked �or asPect . Segmental l y, the
cOmPlet i ve farm of the verb is the basi c stem, and the i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x i s
added to that stem. The f i rst Part o� thi s chaPter wi l l Provide a descri pt i ve
account of the morphoPhonol ogy of the i ncomPl eti ve su�f i x , based - an a studY of
about 300 common Suci te verbs.
The root tone o� verbs someti mes changes when
an i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x is added . Th i s studY wi l l al so l ook at these tonal
changes i n an attemPt to d i scover anY general tendenci es worthy o� rul e
formu l at i on . The possi b l e underl Ying tone �or the i ncomPl eti ve su�f i x wi l l also
be di scussed and tentati ve rules wi l l be Posi ted , though the anal Ysi s o�
a
broader range of data i s needed before def i n i t i ve Proposal s can be made.
I I . THE COMPLETIVE VERB
A. structural Dwtcriptipn
The bas i c verb i s comPosed � one, twa, or three sYl l ab l es with a l i mi t of
three Tone-beari ng uni ts. The fal l owi ng sYl l ab i c structures can be found an
verbs :
(1)
CV
B
' eat '
CVV
wee
' l ook '
CVCV
cel €
' di vi ne '
CVVCV
jc,c,l i
' SClW '
CVCVCV
cal 'r')�
' heal , be heal thy '
Any a� these farms can be prenasal i zed i n stem-i n i t i al posi t i on :
NCVCVCV
ndax'l 6
----- -- - - - - - _._--- -----
' smel l '
41
There i s al so a smal l set o� monosYl lab i c verbs that Possess a di phthon9 i n
Phrase f i nal Posi t i on :
(2)
H il
' sprout '
Paon
' come '
.feo
' run '
' �eed '
cie
' do '
•
jie
wash ,
' enter '
A d i phthon9 is not as 1 0n9 as a 1 0n9 vowel . and shoul d be considered as a
si ngl e Tone-beari n9 uni t .
Di phthon9S i mi tate the tonal behavi our o � verbs wi th
short vowel s rather than that o� 1 0n9 vowel s . As a resul t . i t seems more
feasi b l e to consi d er them as havi n9 one Tone-Bear i n9 unit rather than two.
In
the exampl es bel ow. al l o � the verbs are Hi 9h tone i n ci tation form. However .
when preceded by
�
' he-Recent Past ' . the d i sYl l ab i c verb and the verb wi th
the 1 0n9 vowel acquire
a
Low-Hi9h tone. whi l e both the d i phthon9i zed verb and
the verb with a short vowel acqui re a simPl e Low tone.
(3) Verb structure
CVCV
cv:
CV
cvv
ptrt
• sel l ,
waa p�rt
' he sol d '
wee
' l ook '
waa w�e
' he l ooked '
l�
' take '
waa B
' he took '
He
' enter '
waa j l �
' he entered '
When a di phthon9i zed verb i s i n Phrase medi al Posi t i on . the second vowel o� the
di phthon9 i s l ost .
(4)
----- . -- - . -
Paon
-- -----
wa4 em l a
' di d he s;gma? '
waa £i l a
' di d i t sprgyt? '
wa4 ii. 1 ..
' di d he � i n? '
42
B. Tpn.l DetcriptipD
Re9ardless o� the number o� sYl l ab l es or tone-beari ng uni ts (TBU ' s) i t maY
have, a verb i n i sol ati on has a choi ce o� onl Y three di��erent tone patterns:
Hi gh , Mid and Low. Underl Yingl y, there are no contour tones o� anY tyPe. The
exampl es bel ow show the verbs in the i mPerati ve �orm.
(5)
1 TBU
3 TBU ' s
2 TBU ' s
a· H
l�
· take '
P€r€
b. M
s:,)
· buY '
tuxo
•
c. L
U
c show '
t�d
cul ur')�
C be heal thy '
carrY ,
�uxari
• rummage ,
· vomi t '
k�r�r')�
· goverr. , turn '
• sel l ,
It apPears then , that onl Y one tone need be sPec i � i ed �or each verb . Th i s
tone woul d b e Pl aced on a t i er seParat e �rom the segment , and b e l i nked t o al l
o� the TBU ' s o� the verb . Thus, as shown i n the examPl e below� there i s a
si ngl e High tone at the autosegmental l evel wh i ch can be l i nked ei ther to a
si ngl e TBU or to a mul ti TBU verb .
C take ,
P€r€
V
H
• sel l ,
cul Y r')i
\ i/
" be heal thY '
H
Mi d tone and Low tone verbs can be descr i bed i n the same waY. The under l Y i ng
nature of the M i d tone i tsel f wi l l be di scussed l ater i n thi s chaPter .
I I I . THE INCOMPLETlVE
A. structur.l
VERB
De.sriPtigD
The IncomPl et i ve form of the verb i s deri ved by suf � i x i ng to the basi c
ComPlet i ve �orm o� the verb . There are f i ve basi c tYPes of incomplet i ve
suf f i x i ng �rom whi ch . I ProPose, other types of suf f i x i ng are der i ved .
--
-
- -
-
--
-�-----
- -- - -- -------
43
The � and most papul ar tYPe i s simpl e VOWEL SUFFI XATION. On verb
stems wi th a si ngl e TBU. the h i gh vowel suff i x ( l et us suPPose that i t is
under l Yi ngl y i ) assi mi l ates to the root vowel i n terms at backness. then the
ti nal root vowel is rai sed to the l evel at the sut t i x vowel .
root vowel is
a
then the sut t i x i s lowered to
•
&.
However . i t the
There are three excePtions
to these descri pti ve rul es. Below are three i l l ustrations at the i mPl ementation
at these rules . each tol l owed by a short l i st at verbs whi ch behave i n the same
waY. The verbs i n the t i rst column are cOmPl et i ve torms at the i ncompl eti ve
ver�s. whi ch are i n the second col umn .
(7)
t6 + {
t6 + d
----->
----->
t6 + 6
' H ow '
-
tdd
BACKING
RAI SING
' draw a bow '
a. !)mo
' -F i nish '
c . k�n
( 8)
' cut ott '
k66n
N/A
we + {
--
we + {
----> wi !
' l ook '
a. bYe
bH
' teed. rai se '
b . tY€n
tUn
' H ower '
c . kin
kHn
' moan '
->
BACKING
RAISING
excePt ion : sutt i x l ower i ng and parti al rai si n9
d. U
(9)
ka + {
a. ca
' shaw '
tee
---> ki."
' chew '
da
' l ook t ar . search ,
------ -�-. ---
-----
LOWERING
44
.,
b. ca.n
cu.n
' droP, destroY '
c. nYa
nY.la
� see '
el<cePtions: rai si ng rather than l owering
d . gba
9b�u
' dr i n k '
e. ja
Hi
' shoot (Pul l tri gger ) '
There i s one smal l categorY of singl e sYl lab l e verbs where vowel rai sing
or l oweri ng takes pl ace, but there aPPears to be no suf � i x i ng as such , or if
there was, the suff i l< was del eted after the rai si n9 or l ower i ng rul e.
( 10) Vowel Rai sing
a. se
si
' gi ve bi rth . be born '
b. fo
fu
' emi grate '
c. jo
Yu
' sPeak. saY '
d. to
tu
' fal l '
B
e.
f. U
If
' eat '
U
' weave. brai d '
( 1 1 ) Vowel l oweri ng
a· Pan
ma
' come '
b . y i.
y a.
' be si c k. ache '
Di sYl l ab i c verb stems wi th two TaU ' s can al so be suff i xed by the Hi 9h
front vowel , ::i.. The f i nal vowel of the root i s then total l Y assimi l ated to the
suH i x vowel .
( 12) a. saxe
----_ .. _--
si)x � -i
' wai t '
b. tare
c . cel t
-
.-
-.---.
� di vine '
----
45
d. Yexe
yex £ -£
" quest i on '
e. f Y�?t
h@?i-i
" be qui et '
f . gb�x�
gb�d -i
" gather together '
g. I')ndB
I')m� H - £
" sl eep '
h . dd
dd-£
" pl ant '
i . fulo
fill l -i
" Push '
j . gbc\r.\
gbc\r l -i
" agree, meet '
In ChaPter 1 , i t was suggested that onl Y the f i rst vowel of a non-comPlex
word i s stressed and sPec i f i ed for -Features, whi l e .,y subsequent vOrrlel s
deri ved their shape �rom the f i rst vowel . In the examPles of ( 12) , i t appears
that when the i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x i s added to the verb stem, the unstressed
second vowel adoPts the f eatures of the suf f i x vowel instead of from the
stressed root vowel .
We have seen the behaviour of vowel suf f i x i ng on single TBU and doubl e TBU
verbs. Tri pl e TBU verbs also have their disti nct mode of beh.vi our . Instead of
a hi 9h · front suff i x vowel . however , the f i nal vowel of the verb root i s
rePl aced �y the high back vowel .
�
Thi s cate90rY i ncl udes not on l Y verbs
with three sYl l ab l es (see 14) but also anY verb with three TBU ' s , such as
di syl l ab i c verbs wi th l on g vowel s ( 13) . Doubl e TBU verbs whose second sYl l ab l e
begins with a nasal also bel ong t o t h i s grouP ( 15) 1 .
( 13) Long-short verbs
a. c�::Jnri
d�nr-u
" resol ve. choose '
b. ft:Ui.
-Fa-iJ -u
" bal ance '
c . f U nn�
fH nn-u
" be c l ea.., '
d . ctl.tl.l�
cLltl.l-u
" be lch '
-' .
-
.
-
-'
._.
._. _---
--- - -- -------
46
( 1 4) Short-short-short verbs
a. ce7.1t:
ce7el -u
' i nsul t , l au9h at '
b . cc1l ',,�
cc1U�c1
' heal , be ,eal thy '
c . fc1xa.-!
.fc1x�-c1
' .fri ghten '
( 15) Fi nal n.sal sYl l ab l e
a. P�n�
p�-u
' sPi n '
b . k�,,�
k�"-u
' l ather '
The su.f .f i x
�
l owered to
g,.
( 16) a . j ::J::Jx i
never occurs a.fter the consonant ,
�.
Rather i t aPPears to be
j��x-c
' sharPen '
b . wc1r6x !
w6r'x-6
' mi x uP, mi stake '
kal�d
kiUx-6
' sPoi l , be sPoi l ed '
c·
Th i s subcate90rY of verbs provides evi dence for the f act that Suc i te verbs
al l ow, at the most, onl Y three vowel s
or
three tone-beari ng uni ts on the verb2 •
If the i ncomPleti ve suf .f i x i s added , thi s restri c t i on remai ns i n .force. and
consequentl y the su.f .f i x repl aces the .f i nal vowel o.f the verb w i th the
�
suff i x i nstead of addi ng a f i nal vowel . In fact , thi s i s the onl Y tYPe of
suf f i x al l owed on tri pl e TBU verbs. At thi s pai nt , I wi l l not di scuss whether
the under l Y i n9 f orm of the i ncomPl eti ve vowel suf f i x i s
The sRSQnd tYPe of suf f i x i s
( 1 7 ) a. I E
::me
U -xo
' be ol d , get ol d '
b . PE n
ptn-xo
' be unhappy, d i s9Usted '
CY'
CYe-XO
' refuse '
H H -x6
' be .far , 90 far awaY '
c·
d• H H
. - .-- -�--------
=i or
�.
47
e. Pdl �
pt U-xo
' be bi g , get b i g '
t . Y£ ri
Ytr�-xo
' counsel
(6 of 19)
Note that thi s suf f i x can be added to verbs with one
or
two tone-bear i n9 uni ts.
The � suf f i x , �, has been i dent i f i ed on single TBU roots.
( 1 S ) a. yll
y6-U
' steal '
b . kll
k6-U
" di e '
There i s a certai n set of verbs whi ch exh i bi t a � suffi x . From the
examPles gi ven bel ow, the reader wi l l note that al l of them have d i sYl l ab i c
verb roots and that these roots al l end i n Ii I .
( 1 9)
c�r�
------
> c�di
' sneeze '
P�n�
---
> P�i
' l ose '
sf l !
------
> sfdf
' begi n '
tt x f -----> t'd!
' pl ace, Put '
Rather than suggest that � i s a comPletel Y dit terent suf f i x , one maY
specul ate that i t i s under l Yi n9ly a =LL suff i x . Two b i ts at evi dence ral l Y i n
suPPort of thi s proposal . Fi rst of al l , there are no exampl es of a d i sYl l ab i c
verb root acqu i r i ng a =LL suf t i x o n the surface, whi l e monosYl l ab i c roots
acqu i r i ng a :d1 suff i x do not ex i st . Thus, i t i s Possi b l e that these two
suttix es are i n COmPlementarY d i stri but i on . Secondl y, there is evi dence that
� was deri ved trom the del et i on at the t i nal Ii I and the coalescence ot the
t i nal root consonant wi th the sut f i x consonant . In ChaPter 3. i t i s seen that
the coal escence of
�
at a noun root and
- --- ----------
l ot a certain noun cl ass sutt i x ,
48
results i n d.: cere + Ie --->
cede
� calabash ' .
Al though the mechan-
i cs o� coal escence on verbal su�� i xes maY be a l i ttle d i��erent than that on
nouns. si nce a l arger var i ety o� � i nal verb root consonants are i nvol ved , this
examPl e o� coal escence on a noun does Provi de evi dence that 1 -> d in certain
Phonological environments.
The foyrth tYPe, �. i s added onl Y to singl e TBU roots.
verbs whi ch use the =nl suff i x .
There are 25
O� these, 1 7 Possess nasal stems Possi b l y
indicati ng that the nasal i ty o� the suff i x i s cond i t i oned by the nasal i n the
stem ( 20) . The other eight show no evi dence of nasal i ty i n the root (2 1 ) .
(20) a. son
sO-ni
� WClrshiP '
b . tun
t�-ni
• send ( someone)
c · ka.n
ki-n f
' boi l '
d . no
no-ni
• b i te '
I
( 4 o� 17)
(21 ) a. Pu
p�-ni
• swel l
b . wu
...u-n i
� Pour , SPi l l
c . su
si)-ni
' de�ecate '
d . t6
t6-nf
• c l ose, burY I
I
I
(4 o� 8)
I� the :nL su�� i x were a resul t o� nasal cond i t i oni ng, then one wou l d have
to seek out the under l Yi ng suff i x . One l i kelY candi date i s :li. A compl i cati ng
factor i s the Presence � :nL su�� i xed verbs l i ke these i n (21 ) that have no
trace of nasal i ty i n the root . Although it is possi ble that they were h i stori­
cal l Y nasal . there is no evi dence as yet that this was the case or that sYn­
chroni cal l Y , a 1 -> n ru l e can be moti vated3• In add i t i on , there are numerous
----- �- - .--- ----
-------
49
cases o� co-occurrence o� a nasal i zed vowel wi th
1
i n Suci te. where the
1
is
not nasal i zed . Bel ow are a �ew such ex�mPl es o� complet i ve verbs:
(22)
kan l a
• uProot ,
hnh
" i ncl i ne '
�aan l a
" H aUer '
The � type of su� � ixat i on �or the i ncompleti ve asPect is :Bl.
(23) a. k6
k6-d
" draw (water ) '
b . kun
ku-d
" crunch C i n eat i n9) '
c . c�
c6-d
" catch. grab '
d . j6
j66-r{
" swal l ow '
( 4 of 5 )
Most o� the d i sYl l ab i c verbs whi ch take the �
o� ::Ki.
or �
su�� i x have the � inal sYl l ab l e
i n the comPl eti ve �orm. In each case. the H nal sYl l ab l e o� the
camPI eU va verb i s rePl aced by the suH i x . ::r:i.. as shown bel ow.
(24) a· s6-d
s6-d
" burn '
b . mbu-d
mbu-d
" oPen '
c . mb�-x i
mbu-d
" suck '
(25) a. so-?o
so-ri
" cook '
b . a -?a
li-d
" return . 90 back '
c · wa-?a
wa-ri
" drY '
d . Ya-ri
Ya-ri
" cal l '
There i s al so a set o� verbs whose cOmPl eti ve and i ncomPlet i ve �orms are
i denti cal se9mental l y .
The common character i stic i s that they each end i n a
----�- --- -,-�-.-----
50
h i 9h vowel . "(26)
or
i..
sl l i i
' be strong '
b . c:t)B
c:: t)I i
' shi ver '
c . nY�?{n
nYi?{n
' sU r '
d . k�l �
k�l u
' rol l '
ito
si i l i
There are onl Y a c:: ouPl e of suPl eti ve exampl es.
( 27 )
a.
kad
b. 9b6
s'
' 90 '
kjJH
, ki l l '
Final ly, there are a tew verb torms where the comPl eti ve and i ncomPl et i ve
torms are obvi ousl Y phonologi cal l y rel ated to eac::h other . but each Pai r stands
in a c::l ass at i ts own . These have been grouPed together below.
(28) a. 1 6x 6
ndjJrjJ
' hear , I i sten '
b . w�l o
wjJjJ
' Pi ck uP, i:ake oH . trom '
c . tan I!.
Uan
' pl ease '
d . nYel i
nY� n i
' c::r Y '
e. Pan
m a.
' come '
In summarY . i t aPPears that al l tYPes Ot i ncomPlei: i ve sut t i x i ng i s
charac:: t eri zed b y the Presence Ot a h i gh vowel .
In most c:: ases, thi s vowel i s
=1. but i t was seen that tri pl e TBU verbs requi re the vowel .
�.
There are onl Y
a tew excepti ons t o thi s general statement .
Al though the structure Ot a parti cu l ar verb maY l i mi t i t t o a restri c:: ted
set Ot sutt i x es . there seems to be no cl ear phonolo9i c:: al rules c:: ond i t i oni ng the
c:: h oi c::e Ot i ncomPleti ve sut t i x . The choice seems to be Pri mar i l y arbi trarY. and
-----
---
-
--
-
---- -- - - --- --- ---
---- ----- ---- - --
51
with a few Phonol ogi cal constrai nts.
It must be noted that other Senufo
l anguages d i sPl aY an equal l y confusi ng vari ety of i ncomPletive suf f i x es.
ComParati ve studY maY Possib l y shed some l i ght on this Problem.
It remai ns cl ear . however. that the number of tone-beari ng uni ts i n the
stem has a bear i ng on what type of i ncomPl eti ve suff i x i ng is avai l ab l e to that
verb . Where m�osYl l ab i c stems hava �r.cess to al l the types of suffi x i ng
descri bed above. d i sYl l ab i c stems cannot use the :n1 suffi x . and al l stems wi th
three tone-beari ng uni ts (trisyl l ab i c and l ong-short b i sYl labic verbs) are
entirely l i mi ted to Vowel Suf f i x ation.
B. TRn.1 Behayiour of the Incompletiyw Verb
1 . Th. UnderlYin9 Ton. of the incomPI .ti ve .uffix
Al though there are a vari ety of segmental shapes for i ncomPlet i ve suff i x­
es. the one feature that l inks them al l together i s tone.
Re9ard l ess of the
bPe of segmental suH i xati on . the i ncomPl eU ve suH ix is always
High tone
after a h i gh tone verb. and Mid tone after Mid tone verbs.
(29)
COMPLETIVE
INCOMPLETIVE
a. Piri
pid-i.
" sel l '
b. ta-?a
ta-ti,
" Put (an f i re) '
When the i ncompl eti ve suffix i s attached to a Low tone verb. it is general l y
Mid tone, as the underl i ned suf f i xes i n ( 30 ) i nd i cate.
( 30) wu Ya t�x i -L l a
(he i s vomi t i ng Q )
wu Ya :<a k�-&D. moeJ (he i s i t gi ving you-to)
" Is h e vomi ti ng? '
" He i s giving i t to You . '
wu Ya xa k�-&D. n��u� <he i s i t gi vi ng man-to) " He i s gi vi ng i t to the man '
----- �-- - . --- ..------
52
However . i f the Low tone i ncomPlet i ve verb i s fol l owed by a noun class c l i t i c
(as i n (31b . c»
or i s i n Phrase f i nal Posi t i on (3 1 a ) . the tone of the suf f i x i s
l owered t o Low tone.
( 31 ) a. wu Ya tUx � -1
-> wu Ya tUx � t
" he i s vgmitin9 '
b. wu Ya x, k�-An �6 -> wu Ya x, k�� �6
" he i s 9ivin9 i t to hi m '
c . wu Ya t�x � -1 wu l a -> wu Ya tUx � t wd l a
" he i s vgmitin9 on i t '
DePendi ng on the tonAl envi ronment , then , the i ncompl eti ve suff i x can be High
tone, Mi d tane, or Low tone.
Before trYing to determine the under l Yi ng tone of the i ncomPleti ve suf f i x
l et us observe the behavi our of i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x tone i n Cebara. a major
Senufo l anguage i n the I vorY Coast . 4
In Cebara, the underl Yi ng tone for the i ncomPl eti ve sutt i x i s Hi gh after
Low and Hi gh tone verbs. but Mi d after Mi d tone verbs.
(32)
Complet i ve
IncomPl eti ve
Suc i te
Engl i sh
Low tone
kp�l t
kp�l i
gbel t . gbel t i
wound. i njure
Mi d tone
nYAari
nYaari
nYt £ ri . nY��ru
wal k . strol l
Hi gh tone
Pari
P€r€ , P€ri i
sel l
(Mi I I s. 1967?)
If we l ook at Cebara. we see that Hi gh tone fol l ows Low and Hi gh tone
verbs. Thi s l eads us to susPect that the underl Yi ng tone ot the suf t i x is Hi gh
tone. If h i stori cal l y. the i ndef i ni te suf f i x was Hi gh tone i n Senufo languages
i n general . then i t maY be Possi b l e that thi s suf f i x i s al so underlYi ngl y Hi gh
tone in Suc i te. However . posi ting an i ncompl eti ve Hi gh tone tor the Suc i te
i ncomPl eti ve suff i x . would require an expl anati on of how this High tone was
l owered to Mi d and . i n certai n cases. to Low tone.
-- _ .
-
- -
-
-. . -
----- ----- - _._ -- ------
---_ .
53
One Possible waY to account for Hi9h tone l ower i n9 after Low tone i s to
tri 9ger a Low tone SPreadi ng Rul e . stated as fol l ows:
(33) LOW SPREADING - When a Low tone i s fol l owed by a Hi 9h tone across a
morpheme boundarY. the Low tone sPreads to the r i ght.
Xl X
l"
,, 1
H
The fol lowin9 exampl e i l l ustrates thi s sPread:
' vomi t '
If the verb i s i n non-Phrase f i nal Posi t i on . both Hi gh and Low tone wi l l remai n
l i nked to the suf f i x vowel . Since. general l y a Low-Hi 9h contour i s not Pronounced on a si n9l e tone-beari n9 uni t , thi s contour i s simpl i f i ed on the
surface and becomes Mi d tone (see (30) for examPl es) . Hi 9h does del i n k after
Low tone sPread onl Y when the verb i s i n Phrase f i nal Posi t i on or before noun
cl ass cl i t i cse• Thi s Low SPread and Hi gh Del i nk i n9 i s i l l ustrated in the
examPles bel ow.
-> wu Ya t�xi -i II
(35) wu Ya t�x i -{ ·
�' 1
' He is vomi ti n9 '
f1
HIGH DELI NKING
L SPREADING
(36) wu Ya t�x i -i wU l � -> wu Ya t�x i-i � l �
\t'1
L H
I
H
LOW SPREAD
v--1 I
L
H
' He i s vomi t i n9 on ii '
H
HIGH DEL INKING
·On l Y those words whose tones are rel avant to the di scussion at hand wi l l
be marked for tone at the autose9mental l evel . Thei r fi nal surface tone wi l l be
i nd i ca.t:ed by the tone di acri tics above the words.
_-----
-
---
--
-.
- - - ---
----
-----
54
Al though we cannot Proceed with a thorou9h analYsi s at thi s stage. we can
alreadY see that the High del i nk i ng of ( 36) i s a resul t of a combinat i on of Low
tone SPreaci ng f rom the lef t and the High tone noun cl ass cl i t i c an the r i ght .
High del i nk i ng aPPears to be a waY of decontouri n9 a Law-Hi gh gl i de l i n ked to
the same TBU when a Hi gh tone fal l ows or when i t is in Phrase f i nal Posi t i on .
The ProPosed rul e wou l d be stated as fol l ows.
( 37) HIGH DELINKING -
Del i n k a Hi gh tone whi ch i s preceded by a Law tone
-.
l inked to the same TBU, and fal l owed by a Hi gh tone l i nked to the fal lowing TBU
or i s i n sentence f i nal Posi tion.
X
X
�{� \
By Posi t i n9 an underlYing h i gh tone fer the i ncompl eti ve suffi x , the above
anal ysi s can easi l y account for the tonal behaviour of the suf f i x after Hi 9h
and Law tone verb stems. We are f orced . however . to l ook fer another expl anat i on for why thi s putati ve Hi 9h tone suf f i x i s Mi d tone af ter a Mi d tone verb
stem, rather than the ex�ected Hi gh tone:
( 38) *ta
-d
' be putti n 9 '
Rather : ta-ri
What i s the nature of Mi d tone verbs that all ows for thi s apparent
anomal y? Do Mi d tone verbs have a f i nal f l oati ng Law tone that tri ggers Low
tone sPread onto the suf f i x ? Or i s the under l Yin9 tonal natur"e of the suff i :c
somethi n9 other than a Pure Hi 9h tone? These questi ons cannot be ful l y answered
unti l more data are Presented . Later i n Chapter 6 . we shal l see that the tonal
behaviour of the noun class cl i t i c and the i ncompl et i ve suffix is verY si mi l ar .
An anal ysi s of the underlYin9 tone of the cl i t i c i n Chapter 6 wi l l show that
this aPParent Pecul i ar i ty i s not just restri cted to the i ncomPl et i ve suff i x .
� --
-
--
-
-
- �.
- -- ------ � ---
-
ss
Be�ore �ermi na� i n9 �hi s d i scussi on . however .
�e
must take a l ook at the
root tone changes that take pl ace when the i ncomPl et i ve su�f i x is added .
2. Raat Ton. Mut.tions in the Incompl .ti ve Verb
what has not been stated so far i s that verb root tone often changes when
an i ncompl eti ve su�f i x has been added. The d ia9ram below i l lustrates the root
tone changes from complet i ve to i ncomPl eti ve. The thi ckened l i nes i ndi cate the
most common tonal changes. The changes rePresented by the thi n l i ne account for
12 or 13 verbs each of the 300 i n the corPus. For exampl e. onl Y 1 2 or 13 Mi d
tone verbs retain their Mid tone root when
an
i ncompl eti ve su� f i x i s added . The
broken l i nes represent onl Y 3 verbs each.
(39)
IncomPl eti ve root tone
ComPl eti ve tone
H ....-------�
'-"
H
L------- L
The tone of Hi gh tone and Low tone roots normal l y do not change when the
i ncompl eti ve suff i x is added :
(40) Hi gh tone
-----
-----
ptrt
" sel l '
cel l
" di vi ne '
-
---
---
- - - --------
-- - -- -- -- ---
-
------ ----
-
56
Yex U
' quest i on '
cuU�
' heal , be heal thy '
.fuxru
' .fr i ghten '
.fY�?�
.fy�?U
' be qui et '
gbOxO
gbOx U ·
' gather together '
gbarA
gbarU
' a9ree, meet '
.f H n ' ni
H i n ' nu
' be cl ean '
cMl o
c')ill u
' belch '
ct}B
ct}l i
' sh i ver '
( 4 1 ) Low tone
The .f i rst str i k i ng observati on i s that mgat Mid tone verbs are l owered �o
Law tone when an i ncomPl eti ve su.f .f i x i s added .
(42) a. waA
U
l a?
I ..?
b . wu Ya "
c·
waA fuxari l a?
d . wu Ya f')xQru la?
�x U
' he bgugbt? '
COMPLETIVE
' he i s byYing? '
INCOMPLETIVE
' he rymmaged?
COMPLETIVE
' he i s rummaging? '
saxe
$
' wai t '
tare
t�l"li
' 9ri nd '
c:l::mri
d�nru
' resol ve, choose '
ce?el t
ct}?t}lu
' i nsul t , l augh at '
j:l:lxi
j��xo
' sharpen '
son
sOni
' worsh i P '
tun
t.)ni
' send (someone) '
----- . . ---- - --- -- - ---
INCOMPLETIVE
---- --------- --------
57
In �act. those Mi d tone verbs that do not undergo root tone lowering are i n a
de�ini te mi nori ty and �al l i nto disti nct phonol ogi cal cate9Dri es. as wi l l be
seen shortl Y .
Al though Carl sen (n . d . ) di d not i denti�Y root tone l owering a s a common
resul t o� i ncomPl eti ve su�� i x i ng i n SuPYi re, he d i d note that a number o� Mi d
tone verbs acqui red the behaviour � Low tone verbs i n the i ncompleti ve. In
Cebara, no menti on has been made o� Mi d tone l ower i ng. In Suci te. however. Mi d
tone lowering i s so re9ular that
some
attemPt must be made to account for the
change.
It i s not known whether the tonal nature a F the suf f i x has something to do
with the Mi d tone Lower i ng, or whether the tonal structure of a Mi d tone verb
i tsel � l ends i tsel � to tone l oweri ng whenever anY su� f i x i s added, regardl ess
of i ts tonal structure. Most l i kel Y, the tonal nature of both the root and the
suff i x Pl ay a role i n root tone l ower i ng. If we l ook ahead to the tonal
behaviour of suff i xed nouns, we wi l l see that root tone lower i ng takes Pl ace
onlY in the Presence of a parti cul ar type of suff i x as shown in ( 43b ) .
( 43) a. ii-I e
b. it-xale
c bal aPhon -IND ' Class 5 Suff i x
c bal aPho�s-IND ' Class 6 Suf f i x
I � we suggest that the tonal nature of the suf � i x cal l s for root tone
l owering, we are �orced to ask why and how. At thi s poi nt, i t is qui te uncl ear
that a synchron i c sol uti on can be �ound to account �or this root tone lower i ng.
For now.
we
shal l cal l root tone l oweri ng a tonal mutation . A mutation i s a
Phenomenon which occurs at the Poi nt that words are �ormed but be�ore the
aPpl i cat i on of other tonal rul es. Mi d tone verbs whi ch undergo the mutation of
tone l ower i ng behave exactl y l i ke Low tone verbs, once the l owering has taken
Pl ace. Thi s means that the i ncomPl eti ve formati on of a Mi d tone verb usual l Y
---- . . -- .-.
-
--
-..
----_ ._--- ---- ------
58
l i rst consists ol Mid tone l oweri ng, and then the ad justing ol the tone o� the
i ncompl eti ve su� � i x i n accordance with the lact that the verb root is now low
tone.
( 44)
s� - G
I
I
M
H
-> s� -G
I
l
I
-> s�u
�1
H
' be buYing '
lH
Tone Mutation
low SPread
M->l
Whi l e most verb roots mai ntai n Hi gh and low tone on verb roots when the
i ncomPleti ve sul � i x is added , and l ower Mid tone in this same envi ronment ,
there i s a smal l set o� verbs where a low tone root i s raised to Hi gh tone i n
the i ncomPlet i ve , whi l e the Mid tone verb root remains Mid except i n one or two
cases, where i t i s al so rai sed to H i gh tone. Bel ow i s a l i st � the verbs which
fol low these Patterns:
( 1 0 ) a. se
si
gi ve bi rth , be born
b . fo
�u
emi grate
c· jo
Yu
speak, saY
d. to
tu
�al l
B
H
eat
f. U
U
weave, braid
m�
come
y a.
be sick, ache
k6r!
draw (water)
b . kGn
kGr!
crunch < i n eat i ng )
c· c�
c6r!
catch , 9rab
d . j6
j66r!
swal l ow
(24) a. s6-x!
s6-r!
burn
e·
( 1 1 ) a. Pan
b.
ya
,
(23 ) a. k6
,
59
b . mb6-d
mb6-d oPen
c. mbil-x �
mb6-d suck
(25) a. so-10
so-ri
cook
b. la-1a
li-d
return, 90 back
c. wa-1a
wa-ri
drY
d . Ya-ri
Ya-ri
cal l
HSi a. Yil
y6U
steal
b. kil
k6H
die
The common characteristic of al l these verbs i s that they have monosYl l ab i c ,
si n9le tone-beari n 9 roots.
Even those verbs wi th d i sYl l ab i c comPl eti ve forms
aPPear to be actual l Y monosyl l ab i c roots wi th a tYPe of comPl eti ve suff i x that
is rePl aced by an i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x (see (24) and ( 25 » .
Thi s set of excePtions i s aPParent l y qui te ol d i n Senufo because Cebara
Produces the exact same tYPe of behavi our .
In fact, the tonal correl ati on
between the two l an9auges for thi s set of excePti ons i s much h i gher than for
the ' normal ' tonal behavi our of i n comPl eti ve suff i xat i on . See examPles of
normal i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x at i on for Cebara i n (32) above.
Below are examPl es
of the excePti onal set of verbs i n Cebara, alon9 wi th the Sucite equ i val ents:
(45)
----- - - -- -
Cebara
Suc i te
En9l i sh
IH, IH
B, U
eat
1 il9il, l 6r6
ndilx � , nd6rf
Plant
mil9il, muru
mbilx � , mb6rf
suck
H 9� , U d <!'Ii 1 1 s, 1967? )
t�l d , Ud
descend
It is i nstructi ve to note that non-l owered Mi d tone verbs are found onlY
-
---
--
----
--- - --- --- -------
60
in �hi s i rregul ar grouP of verbs.
Therefore. �he Probl ems di scussed above tor
�he behaviour of �he i ncomPle� i ve suff i x tone af�er Mi d tone verbs shou l d not
comPl i cate �he analysi s of the under l Yi ng tone Ot the incomPl e�i ve suf f i x it we
consi der the i ncampl eti ve suHi x aH on o·f non-lowered Mid tone verbs as i rregu­
l ar alon9 wi �h the rai sin9 of Low tone verbs �o Hi gh tone.
Unfor�unateI Y . time and sPace do not al l ow for a more ri9Durous studY of
thi s type of tonal behavi our whi ch rai ses Low tone verb roots to High �one and
Preven�s the normal I O��i· i n9 of Mi d �Dne verb roots to Low tone. Wi �h the
Presen� data. �here appear to be some def i n i te �endencies for tonal change
bas�d on sYl l ab l e type and a Parti cul ar �YPe of i ncomPleti ve suf f i x i n9.
The
Precise reasons f or this deviation remains obscure . however , forcing us to
remai n a� �he descri pt i ve l evel of �he analYsi s. Wi th this in mi n d . the Low
Rai sin9 rule i s posi ted bel ow.
(46) LOW RAISING
When a si n9l e TBU verb roo� acqu i res an i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x of the shaPes.
0 . -ri o or -I i , Hi9h and Mid tone verbs general lY retai n thei r roo� tone. whi l e
Low tone roots are rai sed t o Hi9h :
o suf f i x
L - > HI
[Xl
-ri
-l i
root
In contrast. when a si n9l e TBU verb Possesses a Vowel suft i x or the :ni
suft ix . the verb root tone fol l ows the normal Pattern Ot loweri n9 ot �he Mi d
tone root i nstead of rai sin9 a Low tone root to Hi gh tone.
----- - ----
-
- - ------
---- ----- ---- ------- - -
-
61
IV. HISTORICAL. SPECULATIONS AND TONAL FEATURES
Exami nation � these root tone mutations reveal s one common tendency. In
both the grouP where Mi d tone l ower i ng takes pl ace, and the grouP where Low
Rai si ng occurs, the three waY tonal d i stinction �ound i n the comPl eti ve i s
reduced t o two tones i n the i ncomPleti ve. The l argest 9rouP. wh i ch i nvol ves Mi d
tone 1 0weri n9, di stingui shes between Hi gh and Law tone, whi l e the second .
" i rregular ' 9rouP contrasts High and Mi d tone. There are no examPles ot a Hi gh
or Low tone verbs mutating to Mi d tone i n the i ncomPl eti ve. As a resul t , the
vast majori ty ot i n comPl eti ve verbs are ei ther Low tone or High tone.
These observati ons l ead us to speculate that histori cal ly, the Suc i te
tonal system maY have evol ved trom a two tone system. Other evi dence suPPorting
this possi bi l i ty can be found by exami n i ng mi n i mal Pai rs. There are numerous
mi n i mal Pairs that contrast Hi gh and Low tones as wel l as Hi gh and Mid tone
verbs, but tonal Pai rs contrasti ng Mi d and Law tone are rel at i velY rare.
( 47) a. High vs. Mi d
( 1 5 0+ 28 mi n i mal Pai rs i n 300 verb corPus)
t�
' gri l l '
' blow, wi nnow, swel l '
t6
" .f l ow, driP '
' emi 9rate '
b. Hi gh vs. Low
( 10 at 28 mi n i mal Pai rs)
mbil:(�
mbax!
' open '
man!
' assemble, add '
c . Mi d vs. Low
" suck (an orange) ,
C
l i ght, Pl aster '
(3 ot 28 mini mal Pai rs)
Yiri
' cal l '
Yid
" get uP '
kul i
" gather '
kilH
" shave '
No mi nimal tonal tri pl ets have been tound tor verbs.
Bel ow is near
mi n i mal tri pl et:
( 48) tad
----- - --- -
· di9 '
tuxo
• carrY '
tilx i
"
vomi t '
- -- ----- ----- ---- ---- ------
62
The same can be found for nouns; no Mi d versus Low mi nimal Pai rs have been
attested . In addi t i on there are manY more Hi gh tone verbs than Mi d or Low tone
verbs ( 1 35 vs. 95 vs. 71 i n a data samPle o� about 300 verbs> .
Thi s cou l d mean that i n the d i stant Past � there was no tonal contrast
between the Mi d tone and Low tone. and as a resu l t . the l exi con d i d not devel op
mini mal Pai rs.
It has been ProPosed by numerous authors throughout the Years that proto­
Niger-Congo was a two tone l anguage. Proto-Bantu . i t has been suggested . was
also two tone. Cl ements ( 1979) suggests that the aggl uti na�i ve character of
manY Bantu l anguages maY have been a factor i n thei r trend toward an accent
tYPe system whi l e i solating l anguages tended to retai n the tonal d i stinctions
and even to al l ow for Prol iferation of tonal contrasts.
In West Afr i ca. there
are two. three. and t our tone languages. It was noted i n the Introduction that
Senufo d i al ects have Pri mar i l y three tones. whi l e a few aPPear to have two or
tour tones. The possibi l i ty that Senuto maY have evol ved � rom a twa tone sYstem
seems Pl ausi b l e i n the l i ght of ProPosal s gi ven by other l i ngu i sts fami l i ar
with Afri can l anguages.
The waY that a three or tour tone s�stem maY have evolved t ram a twa tone
sYstem has been the abject ot studY by vari ous authors.
Maddi eson ( 1 974 )
d i scusses the possi bl e mot i vati ons for tonal change or ' tone-spl i tt i ng ' . as the
h i stori cal Prol i fe -abon of tones i s oHen termed . These i ncl ude " the downdri ft
model " i n whi ch he suggests that "new constrasti ve tone l evel s"
evol ve "as a
result o� the suPeri mPosi t i on of i ntonational PaHerns. such as downdri H "
(p. 29) . the "sandhi model "
where tone sandhi rul es can tri gger Permanent
l ower i ng or rai si ng ot tones. and the " ' Phonation type ' model "
.- - -- ----------
where tonal
-----
63
change was tr i 99ered by se9mental � actors. such as certai n types o� consonants.
In discussi n9 the ' tone sandh i ' model . Maddi eson i nvi tes us to " i ma9i ne
how a l an9uage wi th two bas i c tone l evels but with a tendency �or h i 9h tones to
be somewhat l owered when a l ow tone fol l ows and for l ow tones to be somewhat
rai sed when a h i 9h tone �ol l ows cou l d develop into a l an9uage with �our tone
level s if the condi t i onin9 envi ronment was l ost or absorbed.
Thi s is essent-
i al l y the k i nd of Process that i s' sketched for Fe?Fe? by HYman ( 1 972) and for
Dschan9 by Tadadjeu ( 1974 ) .
A merger of the raised l ow and l owered h i gh tones
i nto a mid tone could resul t i n a three-l evel system evol vin9 �rom an earl i er
two level one. "
(49) Maddieson : h
I
I ->
lowered h 1
h -> rai sed
I
h
->
ml
->
mh
Another tYPe of tone spl i tti n9 was su9gested by DwYer (vi a Maddieson ) :
"DwYer < 1 973: 248-250) has su9gested that Southwestern Mande d i d develop a third
contrasti ve tone when the compl ementarY di stri bution of mi d and l ow Phoneti c
level s i n disYl l ab i c nouns was ' spoi led ' by the borrowin9 o� l ow-low nouns �rom
Northern Mande. and the d i stri buti on of the three tones does sti l l l argel y
reHect the ear l i er compl ementaritY. " ( p . 30i
(50 ) DwYer :
Southwestern Mande
H
L /\
M
L
+ Low tone l oanwords
From Anderson ( 1978) we � i nd that Stalhke notes that the �our l evel 1 gede
tone system "seems to have devel oPed from an ori 9i nal two level system. by the
spl i tt i ng of each l evel i nto two di sti nct re9i sters" (p. 171 ) .
-- -_ . _._ --------
64
(51 ) Stalhke:
1 gede
H
L
\
/
/
\
Cl ements ' ( 1 9S1 ) formal i zati on of tonal f eatures ( as a revi sion of ViP ' s
( 1980) theorY) ref l ects the theorY of h i storical tone-spl i tti ng.
Fi rst . he
notes that i n certai n d i al ects of Ewe, the High , Mi d , and Law tones do nat
stand i n symmetri cal rel at i onship to each ather .
Rather the Mi d and Law t.ones
"al ternate i n h i gh l y Productive Patterns whi l e nei ther tone al ternates Product i vel Y wi th the High tone. " (p . 57 ) . Thi s. Cl ements demonstrates. can be ref l ected in a system of tonal features whi ch consi sts of two Pr i marY re9i sters whi ch
can be spl i t to create sYstems of three or four regi sters. " Thus. we cou l d saY.
( i n synchroni c terms) that the Ewe system i nvol ves a spl i t of the l ower
register i nto a h i gher and a l ower subregi ster . normal l y desi gnated as "Mi d
tone" and "Law" tone. respecti vel y. " (p. 57) Cl ements rePresents the Ewe l aw tone
spl i t as gi ven bel ow:
(52) Cl ements: Ewe - three waY spl i t
h
I
/
\
h
1
( p . 58)
A four tone sYstem wou l d natural l Y invol ve the spl i tt i n g of bath the h i gh and
low tone registers.
(53) Cl ements: four waY spl i t
h
1
/
/
h
\
\
--------�- - ---- ------
I
h
1
------
65
studies i n other l anguages such as Lendu ( Tr i � kovi c , 1 977 ) have l ed to
hYPotheses that three tone and �our tone l an guages evolved �rom two tones
through the Process o� tone spl i tting.
Th i s tone spl i tt i ng maY have come about
through the Process � product i ve tone al ternati ng rules devel oPing i nto
phonol ogi cal tonal contrasts and through the i ntroduct i on o� l oan words that
hel Ped to estab l i sh new tonal l evel s. The i mpl i cat i ons of these hi stor i cal
devel oPments �or synchroni c anal Ysi s can be seen in Cl ements ' ProPosed tonal
.feature system.
Clements i ntegrates thi s tonal .features ProPosal i nto the �ramework o.f
autosegmental phonol ogy by pl acing t�e .features in rows. The toP row incl udes
the tones o.f the Pri marY regi ster . whi l e the bottom row consists o.f tones
assigned to the "subregister wi th i n the Pri marY regi ster det i ned by the entrY
in the .f i rst row . " Hi s rePresenht i on o.f a M-H-L tonal sequence in Ewe is gi ven
as .fol l ows:
( 54 )
I
h
h
I
I
cv cv cv
The .features above i ndi cate that Mi d tone is a resu l t o.f a spl i t at the
Low tone register. The Hi gh tone regi ster , on the other hand , d i d not undergo a
spl i t , and thus i s rePresented onl Y by a si ngle teature gi ven i n the toP row.
In Suci te , we have suggested that Mi d and Low tones maY have had a common
ori gi n . thus l eadi ng us to opt tor the not i on o.f a hi stori cal tone spl i tt i ng at
the Lower tone re9i ster . The teature system ProPosed by Cl ements then Pred i cts
that Mi d tone as .found on the verb wi l l be rePresented by the .features � and
Low tone wi th �. For PurPoses at readi ng ease. the Pri marY regi ster tone i s
- ---- ------- -----
66
represented by a caPi tal whi l e the subre9i ster tone i s i ndi cated by a smal l
l etter . In add i t i on . instead of pl aci n9 the two rows of features above the
se9ment. the � eatures wi l l be Pl aced bel ow the se9ments wi th the Pri marY
re9ister tone c l oser to the se9ment than the subre9i ster tone. as shown bel ow.
cvcv
I
L
I
h
Previousl Y we ProPosed that the under l Yin9 tone of the i ncompl eti ve suf f i x
was Hi 9h tone.
Si nce, at thi s poi nt . there i s no aPParent tone spl i tt i n9 of
High tone. the si n91 e feature. �. i s suf f i cien t . If the Mi d tone verb. bein9
anal ysed as under l Y i n9l y Ln. is fol l owed by a H suf f i x , i t cou l d Potent i al l Y
tri 9ger the Low tone sPreadi n9 rul e, si nce the Low tone sPreadin9 rul e has no
tone sPec i f i ed on the subre9i ster tier of the Low tone (see (33» . Theoreti ca l l y , then , ei ther L h o r LI tones cou l d sPread onto Hi 9h tone as shown bel ow.
( 56 )
x
1.
L
X
...
I
1
H
h
The possi b l e consequence of Lh tone sPreadin9 onto a Hi 9h tone i s the format i on
of a Mi d-High contour tone on the suff i x . Th i s , unfortunatel Y , i s not an
acceptabl e tonal shape 'for the i ncomPl eti ve suff i x . I f . however .
we
al l owed a
Lh verb to sPread onto a Hi9h tone suff i x . but then moti vated a ru le del etin9
the subre9i ster h i 9h tone, the correct surface form wou l d be Produced . In
add i ti on , thi s Process would hel P to expl ai n whY a Mi d tone verb i s Lowered to
High tone before a Hi gh tone suf f i x . Bel ow
----�- - .-- ..
----
we
-- - -- - - - -_. .
see an ex amPl e of thi s suggested
67
Procedure.
su - U
(57)
L 1
L
...
�
-
> sil - u
C be buYi ng '
l -- 1H
H
L
I
6)
L SPREAD
H DELETION
I� h i stor i cal l y . LI and Lh were one si ngl e tone. caPab l e o� sPreadi ng onto h i gh
tones. then even a�ter the spl i tt i n9 o� the Low tone regi ster . i t is concei vabl e that this spreadi ng conti nued to occur . but that i t requ i red subregi ster
Hi gh tone del et i on.
It wi l l be seen . i n ChaPter 4. however . that Lh sPreadi ng onto Hi gh tone
is not al l owed across word boundar i es . and it can be Permi tted across morpheme
boundar i es o� a noun and verb � i � subregister High del et i on takes Pl ace.
These l i mi tati ons wi l l SU9gest that on l Y those Low tones not speci � i ed on the
subregi ster t i er �or Hi gh tone can tri gger Low tone spreading. Once evidence of
this probl em i s presented . adj ustments to the Low tone sPread in9 ru l e wi l l be
made.
An al ternati ve anal Ysi s is to moti vate a rul e del et i ng the subre9i ster
Hi gh tone of a Lh verb. Once thi s 5ubregi ster High tone is del eted . the Low
tone then spreads onto the �ol l owi ng Hi gh tone as shewn bel ow.
(58 )
su - U
I
L
I
I
H
®
H DELETION
-
>
sil -
u
t/ 1
c be bUYi ng '
LOW SPREAD
Thus. i � �or some l ex i cal reason . the subregister h i gh tone i s b l ocked �rom
----- - -- -
- -- - --
---- ---- --- ------
68
deletion. Low tone sPread i n9 i s also b l ocked t rom aPpl i cat i on . The i mPortance
ot orderi ng the High Del eti on rul e betore Low tone Spreadi ng wi l l be made more
cl ear i n the tol l owing chapters si nce at this Point . sut t i c i ent evi dence is
I ac/ d ng .
The subregi ster High tone del etion rul e can b e tentat i vel Y stated as
f ol l ows:
(59) SUBREGI STER HIGH DELETI ON : Del ete the subregi ster H i gh tone of a Lh tone
when i t is tol l owed by a H i gh tone.
x
LI
®
X
�
As has al readY been noted . thi s rul e aPpl i es to the majori ty of Mi d tone verbs.
However . the smal l group of Mi d tone nouns whi ch do not l ower to Low when
fol l owed by an i ncompl eti ve sut t i x do not al l ow for the aPpl i cat i on ot the Hi gh
del etion ru l e .
V. CONClUSION
In summarY. then. the posi ted tour rul es are l i sted below .
( 46) Low Rai si ng
(59) Subregi ster Hi gh tone Del et i on
( 33 ) Low tone SPreading
( 37 ) Hi gh Del i nk i ng
We have al readY suggested that Hi gh Del et i on must take Place before Low
-----
--- _ . _ ._ ..
69
tone SPread i ng . so that those Lh verbs whi ch have undergone High del eti on can
al so tr i 9ger Low tone SDreadi ng. Low Rai si ng, l i kew i se. must take plnce betore
Low tone Spreadi ng but t er the oPPosi te reason : i t must bloc k Low tone sPread­
i ng trom taking pl ace.
In other words, both the Hi gh Del eti on and the Low
Rai sing rul es are tone teature changing rules wh i ch attect the appl icat i on ot
the Low SPread rule. The t i nal rule. Hi 9h Del i n k i n g . was seen to take pl ace as
a resul t of t.he Low SPread ru l e and therefore i s obl i gatori l y ordered aHer the
Low SPread rule.
The major questi on addressed i n thi s -chapter was how to anal yse a Phonet i c
Mi d tone i n Suci te. Cl ements ' tone feature system was ProPosed al on9 wi th the
su9gesti on that Mi d tone was an hi stori cal spl i t f rom Low tone. ci ting as
evi dence the smal l number ot Mid versus Low tone mi n i mal Pai rs . as wel l as the
rather producti ve al ternati on of tone between Mi d and Low tone. According to
Cl ements ' system then , the Suc i te Mi d tone verb is underl Yi ngl y Lh tone.
There are other possi b l e anal Yses t or the Mi d tone. however . that need to
be consi dered here. One possi b i l i ty is that the Mi d tone is under l Yin9l y
toneless.
If t h i s i s the case. then Mi d tone woul d be assi 9ned to the tonel ess
segments at some poi nt i n the derivat i on. In addi t i on . a rule assi gnin9 a Low
tone to toneless se9ments whi ch are fol l owed by a H i 9h ton� i ncomPl etive sut t i x
woul d have to take the place ot the Present H i gh Del et i on rule. Th is is a
potenti al l Y Pl ausi b l e hYPothesi s t or the Suci te verb . However , i t wi l l be seen .
as data is Presented i n l ater chaPters. that this hYPothesis runs into ser ious
probl ems.
A second al ternati ve hYPothesis i s that Mid tone verbs are under l Yi n9ly a
contour tone consi sti ng at a Low and Hi9h tone. These Low-Hi9h tones wou l d then
be si mpl i f i ed to Mi d tone on the surtace. The troub l e wi th this anal Ysi s i s
----- -
----
-
-- " - -
---- ----
-------
" - ---
-
70
that theoretical l y , a d i sYl lab i c Law-High verb shou l d have a Law tone l i nked to
the � i rst Tau and the Hi gh tone l i nked to the second TBU. I n actual i ty , there
are no such Law-Hi gh verbs. Mi d tone verbs are Mi d tone in comPl eti ve t orm
regardl ess Ot the number at tone-bearing uni ts . Therefore the hYPothesis that
the Mi d tone verbs are under l Y i ngl y Low-Hi gh tone cannot be accepted as a
vi ab l e anal Ysi s .
We are l et t . then wi th our ori gi nal anal ysi s that Mi d t�ne i s a spl i t from
the Low tone, with i ts features gi ven as Lh . Later chapters wi l l reveal other
types Ot Mi d tones tound on nouns and verbal parti cles wh i ch requ i re d i t t ering
anal Yses .
NOTES
1 . It i s Possi b l e that these med i al nasal s were hi storical l y tone-beari ng or
sYl l ab i c , and as a resu l t sti l l retai n the tYPe at sut � i x i ng requi red t or
tri pl e TBU verb torms.
2. In skimmi ng the verb l i st i n the aPPendi x , the reader wi l l note that nasal s
on pre-nasal i z ed consonants occur on both disYl lab i c and tri syl l ab i c verbs . At
this Poi nt , it does not aPPear that Pre-nasal s on verbs are tene bear i ng or
sYl l ab i c , thus a verb with three TaU ' s can al so al l ow a Pre-nasal i z ed conso­
nant .
3. A l ->n rul e can possi b l y be moti vated el sewhere i n the l anguage. In ChaPter
J, where a dist i ncti on i s made between noun roots with nasal i z ed vowel s and
those wi th a ProPosed under l Yi ng t i nal nasal consonant. the l atter i s seen to
cause nasal i zati on ot the i, where the t ormer does not . It is possi b l e that the
verbal sut t i x , :01 i s deri ved t rom :li in the same waY . However . at t h i s poi nt ,
not enough research has been done to permi t such a det ini tive ProPosal .
4 . In his wri t i ngs en SuPyi re. Carl son gi ves verY l i ttle attenti on to the tone
et the incomPl eti ve verbs. From h i s descri pt i ons and data. it aPPears that .
according to h i m . there is no general l y no change i n tone between the comPle­
t i ve and the i ncompl eti ve t orms .
5 . It shou l d be noted here that noun cl ass cl i ti cs varY tonal l Y themsel ves .
TheY can be Hi gh . Mi d . or Low tone dependi ng an the tonal envi ronment . Atter
High tone verbs . cl i tics are al ways Hi9h tone. and they are also High tone
at ter incomPlet i ve Law tone verbs. For more intormat i on concerni ng the tonal
nature at the noun cl ass cl i ti c . the reader i s asked to rater to Chapter 6.
------ _ .---- -------
71
CHAPTER 3
-
THE NOUN
I . INTRODUCTION
The Precedi ng chapter deal t with the morPhol ogy and tone o� the verb . The
exami nati on of the tonal behavi our o� the verb and the incomPl et i ve su� f i x
Yiel ded several tentat i ve rul es .
It wi l l be seen i n thi s chapter on the noun
that same of the tonal behavi our i denti f i ed on the verb is also found on the
noun . For ex ampl e , it was ProPosed in Chapter 2 that the Low tone of the verbal
root sPread onto the Hi gh tone of the compl et i ve suff i X . Li kewi se, i t i s
proposed i n thi s cnapter that certai n nomi nal su� f i xes whi ch are Hi gh i n i t i al
are l owered to Mi d tone through the process of Low tone SPread . Another poi nt
o� si mi l ar i ty i s the fact that nominal roots w i th certai n types of tone l ower
to Low tone when fol l owed by a part i cu l ar k i nd of Hi gh i n i t i al suff i x . j ust as
Mi d tone verbs l ower to Low when fol l owed by the High tone i ncomPl etive suff i x .
Other i ssues i n thi s chapter concern the mel odi c nature of the noun and a
compl icati on in aPpl Yi ng the Assoc iat i on Conventi on of Left to Ri ght Li n k i ng.
The matter of l i n king tones to segments is further compl i cated by the struc­
tural behavi our of certai n nominal suff i xes . One nominal suf � i x wh i ch . dePend­
i ng on several factors. can undergo var i ous tYPes of segmental del et i ons. poses
probl ems � or the rel i n k i n9 of tones whi ch have l ost thei r se9ments to del et i on .
These and other i ssues, such as the under l Yi ng tone of the various nomi nal
su��i xes. wi l l be the f ocus of di scussi on i n th i s chaPter . The di scussion of
the underl Yi ng tone o� the nomi nal roots themsel ves wi l l . however . have to wai t
unt i l ChaPter 5 where a �ul l er di scussi on of the noun Phrase as a whole wi l l
enable one to exami ne nominal tonal behavi our i n the context of the Phrase .
Thi s chapter wi l l f i rst surveY the general morphol o9ical and tonal structure
of nouns as wel l the di ff2rent tYPes of nomi nal suf f i x i ng found in Suci te. It
72
wi l l then exami ne each tYPe oi su�� i x . Provi d i ng a descr i pt i ve account o� i ts
•• gmental
behaviour b.�ore descri b i ng and analYz i ng the tonal behaviour .
A. Noun structure
Non-complex noun roots are normal l Y comPosed � a noun root and a suii i x .
Noun roots are ei ther monosYl l abic or d i syl l ab i c and contai n . at the most . two
vowel s. The syl l abi c sequences al l owed on noun roots are noted below:
(1)
a.
CV
ji
' son l
b . CVCV
tol� ' owner . chiai , head at
c. CVV
tii
' Python I
The i n 1 U al consonant at a noun root maY be Pre-nasal i zed .
d . NCV
ndl
toad
Hrom
I i ' to
e . NCVCV
"gura-xo
smoke-suf� i x
(irom
w�
eat I )
" to b l acken ' ?)
B . Noun CI ..... Ind Suffixing
Al l nouns i n Suc i te are grouPed i nto noun cl as.es whi ch are most trequentl y
marked by a sui�ix . There are 8 noun cl asses i n Suci te, three singular . three
Pl ural . and two mass
/
col l ecti ve cl asses. Each cl ass has an i nd� i n i te and a
def i n i te suf f i x . For the PurPoses of analYsi s. these cl asses are 9roUPed i nto
two cata90ries ( l abel ed Type I and TYPe I I ) , accordi n� to the Phonol09i cal
shape of the i ndei i n i te sui f i xes. Below are examPles at dei i n i te and i ndef i n i te
nouns ior each noun cl ass wi th the suifi xes bei n� underl i ned .
73
(2) Class
c.
TYPe Indef i ni te
Oef i n i te
Engl i sh
' WOIItln '
1
I
c..-1Id.
ce"'!la
2
II
gba-alA
gba-i::bi ' ri vers '
3
I
gba-u.
gba-�
' hause '
4
I
gba-n
gba-an
' houses '
3
I
gba-U,
gba-�-aa ' -F ereh ead '
6
II
gbl-2ilA
9b�-:za:Id. ' -Foreheads '
7
I
su�
si)-a
' main d i sh '
8
I
si-U
si--m-ba
' ai l '
New"
Ipne
Sucite nouns exhibit nine d i -F-Ferent tonal pattarns. Al l excePt one can be
-Found an Cl ass 1 nouns wi th a 0 su-F-F i x . The ni nth . Low-Hi gh tone. can be -Found
onl y on nouns that Pos...s a cl a.s su-F-Fix.
(3)
Hi gh <6 >-
wtrt
' maney '
Hi gh-Mi d < 16>
-F Ycla
' f i sh '
Hi gh-Law <5>
j�
' Pecket '
Mi d
gba
' ri ver '
Weak Mi d <39)
caan
' market '
Mi d-Law
canB
' Younger sibl i ng '
Mid-Lcw III < 42>
ji
' son '
Lew
c�
' chi l d '
gbOn-a
' 9r"anarY '
< 42>
<7>
<77)
Lcw-Hi 9h <22>
Al though there are a vari ety o-F tonal .haPes an nouns. ward -F i nal tone i s
- <
> . number of examPles in a data samPle o-F simple non-compl ex nouns
a-F al l cl asses.
-----
- - - . - . - . ._--
74
ei �her High , Mid or Low tone.
It wi l l be seen l ater i n Chapter 4 that each o�
�h.5. three tone. a��ects the �ol l owing verbal el ement i n d i �� erent waYs. On
the sur�ac. there are also onl Y three l avals o� tone word i n i t i al ly. However ,
i � wi l l b. seen i n Chap�er � that the i ni ti al tone o� nouns exh i b i ts a lour waY
contrast. The l abels, High , M i d , Weak Mid and Low rePresent thi s �our-waY
contrast, whi ch beccmn evident when the noun i n questi on i s Preceded by
another nominal in a noun phrase.
There ara three types of Hi ih initial nouns , Hi gh , Hi gh-Mi d . and High-Low.
Al though al l o� these nouns can trigger �onal ru l es . �hei r own �one never
changes. Almost al l Hi gh and most Hi gh-Low nouns are l oan words. High-Mi d nouns
seam to ba more i nd i genous to Senu�0 1 . One character i st i c of the l a�ter is �hat
�heY seem �o requ i re two tone bearing uni ts. Altogether High in i t i al nouns
account �or on l Y 27 nouns i n the data samPl e ol about 255 nouns. The questi on
that i mmediatel Y comes to mi nd is, why such a smal l number? Th i s questi on wi l l
b a deal t with i n ChaPter � when we discuss the underlYi ng tone ol nouns.
A d i sti nction is made between weak Mi d nouns and Mid nouns because, al though
they have the same pi tch i n c itati on �orm. they di�ler i n tonal behavi our i n
other contexts. The weak Mi d nouns as wel l as the Mi d-l ew W nouns. are more
suscept i bl e to certain tonal changeS than
are
Mid and Mid-Low S nouns. Thi s
wi l l b e made cl ear i n Chapter 5.
Thera are two tYPes o� Low i n i ti al nouns. Low and Lcw-Hi gh . Low tone nouns
�orm the l argest grouP in the data samPle <about n nouns) . Low i n i ti al nouns
are sub ject to a Hi gh SPreadi ng rul e. which wi l l be descri bed and di scussed in
chapter 5.
Since most nouns Possess a su�� i x of some tYPe, further di scussion of
nomi nal tone can be found i n section I I . B.
----
------
-
----
--
-- -
---
-- - -
--- - - - - - - -
-
-
---- ----
-- - - --
75
II. TJ£ INDEFINITE SUFF I X
A.
-
TYPE I
&trudur-
As w�s ment i oned above. there are two types ol i nde� i n i te 5u� � i x es. TYPe 1
ind� i n i te suff i x i ng i s the si mpl est . Its basic �orm i s
-eve
The consonant
vari es accordi ng to c l ass afl i l i �t i on (See chart (2) above) and the vowel i s
ei ther the s�me o r verY si mi l ar to the vowel ol the noun root, reg�rdl ess al
class a�f i l i ati on . The onl Y vowel s not al lowed on the suff i x are the h i gh
vowels. 11 1 and 11.11. It aPPears, lram l ooking at the ex�mPl es below i n (4) .
that the suH i x vowel i s e.senti al l Y a coPY o� the root vowel except when the
reat vowel is [ + h i 9h l , at whi ch Poi nt the suf f i x vowel is [-h i 9h l , but i t
acquires the same feature f or [ + or - bac k ] as the root vowel (see (4f , g)
below) . The onl Y feature that seems to be consi stent �or the TYPe I suff i x
vowel , then , i s the [-h i gh ] feature.
(4) a. gba-xV
->
gba-xa
" house '
b . cln-xV
->
CE n-XE
" sauce '
c · gb�-I V ->
gbdn-1 53
" 9ranarY ,
d . fd-XV
->
fd-xd
" corn '
e. ki-rV
->
ka-r4
" meat '
f . 50-I V
->
s6-ld
• H ear '
g. cl'-I V
->
ci-Ie
" th i gh '
Wh.ther the TYPe I cl ass su�� i x vowel i s under l Yi ngl y �eaturel ess or whether
it does Possess the [ -h i gh l le�ture i s an issue that cannot be �ul I Y addressed
here, wi thi n the scoPe of the thesi s . However , i nvest i gati on ol the d�ta i n the
Noun Lex i con , wh i ch i s l ocated in the aPPendi x . wi l l reveal the patterns al
behaviour verY bri � I Y sketched above.
---_ . . ---
- .- .
---_ ._--- ---- -------'--
76
Al l the nouns of Noun Cl asses 1 , 3, 4, 5, 7 and S Possess the TYPe I i ndef i n i te
suffix . As was mentioned above, the basic shape of the suff i x i s -CV. However ,
not al l TYPe I nouns bear this basic shaPe. Same aPPear to have no suffix at
al l .
The l eftsi de column of chart (5) indi cates that three c lasses have
examPles of suff i x l ess nouns. Whi l e onl Y the mi nori ty of nouns i n Cl asses 3 and
e are suff i x l .. s, the major i ty of Class 1 suff i xes are i n thi s grouP. One
possib l e reason f or this i s that the -CV suff i x for Cl a�s 1 nouns,
-wV, was
h i stor i cal l y reduced to a vowel and then f i nal l y deleted . However , at thi s
stage, there is no evi dence of an ear l i er -wV suf f i x on most suff i x l ess Cl ass 1
nouns (but
see
d i scussion of di syl l abic noun roots, p . 79) . Because there i s no
aPparent i ndef i n i te suff i x on this set of nouns, i t i s d i f f i cu l t to ascertain
at this Poi nt to Nh i ch cl ass they actual l Y bel ong. However , in chart (90 ) i n
section IV, on the def i n i te suff i x , cl ass af f i l i ation i s made cl ear b y the tYPe
of def i n i te suf f i x used.
( S)
MonosYl l ab i c Noun Roots
o SuH i x
-cv SuH i x
CI . 1
ji " san ' (33)··
c:e-....
CI . 3
ni " Hre ' (3)
b -d ' Pl ace' <33>
•
•
...aman
- (N ) CV Suf f i x
' (1)
d n-I')i
•
...Ye-I')�
" l eaf ' <25>
"'Yen ' yi
•
antel ope ' < 1 >
Cl . 4
0
t!: -Yi
CI . S
0
ci-l� · thi9h ' (37)
SE -nE
• sU ng ' <5>
CI . 7
0
su-r� ' main dish ' < 19>
k��-n�
" caHan ' < 1 >
ta-be ' medi cine ' < 1 >
sa-m�
" mi 1 1 et beer ' ( 10)
Cl . S
juu • sPeech ' (2)
Pl aces ,
l eaves '
•• Numbers in angled brackets indi cate the number of l i ke examPles in the
data sample of simP l e non-comPlex nouns, rePresented by the word in the chart.
For example, jl <33> means there are apProx i mately 33 monosYl l ab i c Cl ass 1
nouns, i n a l ex i con of about 255 simpl e monosYl l ab i c: and di sYl l ab i c nouns.
77
There i s another set o� nouns wh i ch have pri mari ly nasal i nde� i ni te
su��ixes.
Al though data on Def i n i te su� f i x i ng (see chart (90»
Provi des
cl earer evi dence for cl ass aff i l i at i on , the ri ght si de col umn of chart (5)
provi des examPl es of nasal i z ed i ndef i n i te suf f i x es for each cl ass. What seems
to be hapPeni ng i s that there ex i sts a set of noun roots whi ch Possess a � i nal
under-lYing nasal consonant . When thi s consonant i s fol l owed by an i ndef i ni te
suf � i x i t assi mi l ates to the i ndef i n i te suff i x , whi ch i n turn , becomes [ + na­
saI l . The two coal esce and become a singl e nasal consonant , as shown i n (6)
below .
( 6 ) �uN-xV -> fu?-xV - > � u�-� - > fu�V
-1-1-> fu��
' i nside '
Si nce there i s no such thi ng as a word that ends i n a nasal consonant i n
Suc i te . i t maY b e debatabl e whether one can Posi t an underl Ying nasal consonant
i n these cases. An al ternat i ve anal Ysi s i s to suggest � i nal nasal i z ed vowels,
which are i ndeed Plent i � u l i n the l anguage. However . the eXamPles bel ow , (7) ,
indicate that nasal i zed vowel s apParent l y do not tri gger the nasal i z ati on o�
i nde� i ni te suf � i xes:
(7) a. CEn-XE
' sauce '
*CE �E
b . 9bon-l� ' f i rePl ace ' *9bonj
For thi s reason , we ProPose that i t i s an under lYi ng f i nal nasal consonant
which causes the nasal i zati on of i ndef i ni te su� � ix es . Further research needs to
be done, however, on the nature of nasal i ty in Suci te.
----- -
_ . _ ._ •.._--
78
Disyl l ab i c roots �ol l ow the same Patterns of suf f i xat i on . The reader wi l l
recal l that the types of consonants al l owed
i n i t ial sYl l ab l es) are ex tremel Y l i mi ted .
en
unstressed sYl l ab l es ( i . e. non-
As a resul t , the consonants al l owed
on the second sYl l ab l e of nouns are restri cted to the ones 9i ven below in Row
of chart (8) . Noun roots whi ch are terminated by a nasal are 9i ven i n Row b .
••
(8)
a. -1-
-r-
-?-
-x-
b. I -VN
r-VN
?-VN
x-VN
CI . 1 a· f oB <22>
• owner ,
b.
svu < 10>
· bee '
c*"Hr < 1 >
' orPhan '
CI . 3 a. 9b.I �x� <7>
' wel l '
b.
;'9ura-xo < 12>
' smok e '
n k.r�-I);;' <2>
, f al l ow I and '
CI . 4 a. 9b.I � -Y�
• wel l s '
b.
;'9Ura-YO
k�n-ya
' smokes '
' vi l l ages '
nk�r l -Y;;'
mr n?r n-nY�
' fal l ow l ands '
• stories ,
CI . 5
ku-d� < 1 4)
' chai r '
a.
b.
CI . 7 a.
cl . 8 a. no examPl es
----- ------
k�n?� <6>
' vi l l age '
mEn?E n-l)i <6>
' storY '
!i�?�-U < 1 >
' l arge basket '
s'?'-nr < 1 >
' Pal m nut '
k�?�-r� < 1 >
' dance '
b.
b.
fY�xu <2>
' earr i n9 '
fera-mE <2>
· ur i ne '
------
tuxu-r� <2>
' l oad '
ndt)x a-n� < 1 >
• seeds ,
79
A coupl e of Cl ass 1 di sYl l ab i c roots shown i n chart (9) have a f i nal h i gh
b.cked vowel . It was menti oned earl i er that the ProPOsed underlYing suff i x for
Class 1 i s -wV, whi ch . i n manY cases aPPe.rs to be total l Y del eted . In the
exampl es gi ven .bove, however , it aPPe.rs that the -w- of the suf f i x maY have
caused the rai si ng of the f i n.l root vowel before bei ng del eted . as shown
bel ow:
(9) sarV-wV -> s Wou-wV -> wu
•
bee '
In Cl ass 3 of chart (9) , the noun roots that Possess . gl ottal .toP aPPe.r
to have no suffi x . I t i s possi b l e that the suf f i x coal esces wi th the gl ottal ­
i z ed sYl l abl e. resul ting i n a si n91 e sYl lable ( kAn?A - xA
-
>
kAn?A) .
When the
root i s marked for a f i nal nasal . thi s coal escence does not take Pl ace:
( 10)
*mEn?�
mt n?t N - w V -> m'n?E �t
' stor i es '
Cl ass 5 ( I i ) has a number of nouns where the second sYl l abl e of the root i s
underl Yingl Y �. However, the conson�t of thi s second sYl l ab l e coal esces wi th
the suf f i x consonant , -1- . Produci ng . surf.ce -d-. 3
( 1 1 ) kurV - I V
-->
kur
-I V
-->
kud�
' chai r '
We know that there i s an underl Ying -r- by l ooki ng at the plural c lass ( Cl ass
6) of this grouP of words. The i ndef i n i te Pl ural of ' kud� ' is · k�ra-I o ' .
--. --- ,�---- .
80
I, The Tpn.} NatYre of Indefinite Npyn.
-
Tvpe I
In i solat i on , the TYPe I i nde� i ni te noun has the �ol lowing tonal Patterns :
( 12) KeY. (
) CI ••• number .
a. Hi gh <6>
(L)
LoanwordJ
<
> Number of examPl es in data
1 Syl l abl e
2 SYl lables
3 SYl l ab l es
o
wirt ( 1 ) <5>
H.l a-xi (3) < 1 >
C moneY (U '
b. Hi 9h-Mi d < 16>
�Yia ( 1 ) (4)
' li sh '
c. Hi gh-Low (5)
d, Mi d
<42>
' Packet '
C H aar '
e. Weak Mid- (39) c..n ( 1 ) <6>
' market '
<7>
C strength (U '
9ba-xa (3) <36>
C dream ,
' house '
sa-xe (3) (29)
.f ere-me: (8) (5)
' ur i ne '
C bush '
conB ( 1 )
0
' orPhan '
' bee '
56-1 0 (5) (3)
' ri ver '
� . Mi d-Low
saru ( 1 ) (9)
j! ( 1 ) ( 1 )
gba ( 1 ) <9>
c rock ( U '
o
' Younger si b l i ng '
9, Mi d-Law W*(42) ji ( 1 ) <7>
' son '
h . Low (77)
c� ( 1 ) ( 1 8)
' chi ld '
i . Low-Hi 9h (22)
0
.fu-I"):5 (3) (30)
' i nsi de '
tuxu-ro (7) (5)
C l oad '
Pil-l o (5) <50>
C body '
gbon-l! (5) ( 1 9)
C mat '
nd�r�xg ( 3 ) (3)
' YaIII '
There are manY fewer tonal mini mal Pairs on nouns than there are on varbs.
• Mi d Weak nauns di f.fer .from Mi d tone noun. i n that they are mare
suscept i b l e to certai n tonal changes . whi ch wi l l be di scussed i n chaPter 5.
81
Thi s i s l i kel Y partial l y due to the �act that there i s mare o� a vari ety of
ton.l shaPes on nouns and that the Pl ural i ty o� noun c lasses al ter the se9mental shaPe. The most common mi n i mal Pai rs seem to i nvol ve a Low tone noun. Hi9h­
Mi d nouns are the onl Y Hi gh tone nouns i nvol ved .
( 13) a. Low vs. Mi d-Law
kt)d�. k�-ne
" seat. the seat '
kud�. kil-ne
" road. the road '
n�
" co.., '
n3
" mather '
� . sam-b.
" oi l '
sami . sim-b. " sorghum beer '
b . LON vs. Hi9h-Mi d
"1.l t . se1.-ne • ••1��i . s.1e-�-9f " basket . the basket. baskets. the baskets '
5'1'"£ . s'1.-n'. s'1�i . s'1e-�-9f " pal m nut . the P. n . , pal m nuts. the p . n . '
c.
Low vs. Low-Hi9h
I t)l � . l �t)-ne
" bi le. the b i l e '
I t)16. I t)�-n'
" sh •• nut . the shea n . '
b.l�. b�-ne
" seed . one o� '
b�l t. b�ne
" ground nut . the 9r . pea '
d . LON VS. Weak Mi d
nd�K •• nd�k.
" root . the root '
e. Mi d-LoN vs. Mi d
k�ra-x�. k�re-k.
" i nheri tance. the i nheri tance '
brax:::h bra-k'
" br i c k mol d . the br i c k mol d '
� . Weak Mid vs. Mi d
saxe. sa-ke. nd� se-ke
" bush. the bush . mY bush '
saKe. sa-ke, nda sa-ke
" �.ather , the �eather . mY �eather '
A tinY hand�ul a� mi nimal tri pl ets have been �ound whi ch i nvolve morPhol 09i cal
tone:
-----
--
-
. _ . _ - ----
92
m�n@
' a sweet ground nut '
Law High
m�n'
' the sweet ground nut '
Law Mid
une
' sweet ground nuts '
h . Law Mi d
sU n
' peopl e '
Mi d-Law
sUn
' rel ative , f ami l Y '
Hid-law Mid
s1'i n
' Parents '
g. Law-High (Fa l l >
Note that there are no minimal Pai rs invol ving Law tone and Hi d tone, though
there i . one contrast ing Pai r of Low and Weak Mid tone nouns. Nate i n ( 1 3f >
that Weak Hid tone nouns are mare suscept i b l e to tonal changes than are regu l ar
mi d tone nouns.
These d i fferences wi l l be di scussed in ChaPter 5 .
1 . Th. ton. of the Indef i ni t. Suff i x
-
TYPe I
The f i rst questi on that must be asked concerns the under l Y i ng tonal nature
of the i ndef i ni t e suf f i x . UPon exami nation of the examPl es in chart ( 12) , one
sees that the suff i x , whi ch is separated from the rest of the ward by a hyphen ,
can have a Hi gh , Mi d ,
or
Law tone. The tone an the fi nal sYl l ab l e of the root
does not seam to be a factor in determi ni ng the tone of the suff i x ei ther 7 for
a Low tone suff i x can b. Preceded by a Hi gh , Mi d or Low tone root . A Mi d tone
suf f i x can be Preceded by a High or Mi d tone root , whi l e Lew and Hi gh tone can
precede a High tone suff i x . Si nce there i s such var i ab i l i ty for the tone of the
suf f i x , i t is rather d i f f i cu l t to di scern anY underl Yi ng tene for the suf f i x .
We are then faced wi th the possi bi l i ty that the i ndef i ni te suf f i x maY nat be
marked for anY particular tone. I f one surveYs the tonal Patterns of i ndef i n i te
nouns, one di scovers that the mel odi c Patterns seem to i ncl ude the indef i n i te
suf f i x . If a noun i s Low tone, one tonal feature, Low, can be used to l i nk to
83
al l the TBU ' s ( tone-beari ng u n i ts) of the noun , i n c l udin9 the i ndef i ni te
suH i x .
( 14)
c�
� ch i l d '
I
L
p�-l b
� body '
'(
If the noun has a contour tone. such as Mi d-Low, the fol l owing Pattern emerges.
On a noun with a singl e TBU, the Mi d and the Low tone are l i n ked to the same
TBU:
ji
A
� son '
ML
When a noun has two TBU ' s. the Mi d tone l inks to the f i rst TBU. whi l e the Law
tone l i nks to the f i nal TBU. regardl ess of whether that f i nal TBU is an
i ndef i n i te suffi x or not :
' Younger sibl i ng '
conB
I I
M
fu�j
I I
M
L
' insi de '
L
A noun wi th three TBU ' s normal l y consists of a d i syl l ab i c noun root and an
i ndef i n i te suff i x . I f the tone of the suffi x were simpl y consi dered to be a
tonal coPY of the f i nal tone of the noun root , one mi ght exPect a Mi d-Low-Low
Pattern. Instead , a Mi d-Mi d-Low p�ttern emerges:
tuxu-rb
V /
M
L
In fact there are never anY c ases of a Mi d-Mid-Lew tonal pattern to be found on
non-complex nouns. Since al l nouns whi ch carrY a Mi d tone and a Low tone have a
Pred i ctab l e waY of l i nki ng to the se9ments of the noun . one can suggest that
Suci te nominal tone i s mel odi c i n nature .
The behavi our of the other contour tones such as Hi 9h-Low. Low-Hi 9h , and
----- ----
94
Hi 9h-mid �urther suPPorts this mel odi c hYPothesis. Al l o� them have a Pred i ctable waY o� l inking tone to segments and al l o� them l i nk tone to segments
accordi n9 to the same pattern described above for Mid-Low nouns. That is. if a
noun root with two TBU ' s as wel l as an i nde� i n i te suf � i x Possesses a contour
tone. the second tone o� the contour l i nks onl Y to the f i nal TBU o� the word .
Thi s i s shown bel ow f or al l contour tones.
( 15) tuxu-rb
\I I
M
L
' l oad '
c'r6-lje
V I
H
• orphan '
nd�r�-x�
V I
M
L
' yam '
H
2. Assaci.tion conventions And the Ind.f i ni t. Noun
Now that a mel odi c Pattern for these Indef i n i te nouns has been isol ated . i t
i s aPPrOPri ate t o d i scuss the conventions or rul es needed to associ ate the
tones to the segments in a predi ctab l e waY.
Pul l eYbl ank ( 1983) proPosed the fol lowing version fer the l i nki ng ot tene to
tone-beari ng uni ts on the segmental tier :
( 16) " ( 14) Assoc i ati on Conventions :
Map a sequence
Ot
tones onto
a
sequence at tone-beari ng uni ts.
a) �rom l e�t to ri 9ht
b) i n a one-to-one relati on . " (p. 3 1 )
Any le�tover tone-beari ng uni ts. he conti nues. wi l l be assi gned tones accordi ng
to language sPeci f i c rul es onl Y and anY l ef tover tones wi l l be assi gned a TBU
onl Y i f sPec i � i ed by a l anguage speci f i c rule. Thi s apProach is a l i ttle
di �ferent from authors such as Wi l l i ams ( 1971 ) who proPose to incl ude the
l i nking o� extra tones and TBU ' s as Part o� the uni versal Association Conventi ons. At thi s poi nt, there does not seem to be anY need to posi t seParate
rules fer thi s extra l i n king i n Suc ite. Thus. anY extra TBU ' s wi l l be
----- -
-- - - -
- -
------- --- ---- ------- -------
85
associ ated to the adjacent tone, whi l e anY extra tones wi l l be l i nked to the
.djacent TBU, as shewn bel ew.
( 1 7)
0.
' mat '
JA
' son '
i'lL
j�
l
' pocket '
Let us consi der the convention of Left to Right Linking. If we, aPpl y Left to
Ri ght l i nking to nouns with contour tones.
we
i mmed i atel Y run i nto Probl ems.
It was stated above th.t the f inal tone of the contour is found onl Y on the
l .st TBU of the noun . Li nki ng tones from left to right across the word,
however , would i ncorrectl y Predi ct that the second tone of the contour is
l inked to both the second .nd third TBU of a three TBU word. From the examPle
wi th three TBU ' s above ( 17) , i t is cl ear that the second tone of the contour i s
agl l inked to the second TBU of the noun . Consi dering that the l .st TBU of a
three TBU noun i s a tonel ess i ndef i ni te suffi x , one could devise adjustment
rul es in which the second tone of the contour would also l ink to thi s f inal
TBU. and then the f i rst tone of the contour would sPread onto the second TBU;
f i nal ly, the second tone of the centour would be del i nked free the second TBU,
produci ng an acceptab l e tonal Pattern for the three TBU noun. Thi s ProPosed
sequence of rul es i s i l l ustrated by the examPle gi ven below.
( 1 8) tux�-ro -> tux�-r� -> tuxu-r�
I �/
i'l L
Association
\tV
1'1
L
SPreadi ng
�
1'1
L
C l oad '
Del i n k i ng
Thi s seems to be a cumbersome waY to deal wi th what seems to be a rather simPl e
Pattern . However , before we di scard this apProach and seek better al ternati ves,
it is i nteresti ng to note that the neighbouring Senufo d i al ect, SuPYire, seems
----- ------
------
86
to have evi dence sUPPorti ng the rul e o� spreadi n9 o� the � i rst tone o� the
contour onto the second TSU and mot i vati ng a rul e del i nk i ng the second tone o�
the contour �rom the second TBU. In the SuPYire case, however , the f i rst tone
o� the contour continues sPreadi ng to the � i nal TBU o� the word as wel l , and
tri ggers the del inki ng o� the � i nal tone o� the contour, such that the sur�ace
outPut of the noun Produces no tonal contour . In �act, there are no sur�ace
contour tones on i nde� i n i te nouns i n SuPYi re. However , tonal behaviour i ndicates that certai n nouns do have underl Ying contour tones.
Let us consi der one exampl e o� thi s type o� sPreadi ng in SuPYire. What are
cal l ed Low-Hi gh nouns i n Suci te are referred to as Low-weak Mi d by Carl son
( 1985) in SuPYire. He moti vates a total Low SPreadi ng rul e where a Low is
sPread onto the fol l owing TBU whi ch is l inked to a weak Mid tone.
Thi s weak
Mi d tone i s then del i nked as a resul t o� Carl son ' s Low-Mid Si mpl i f i cati on Rul e .
Th. LOW-SPreadi ng and LM SimPl i � i cati on Rul es are then rePeated �or anY
remai n i ng TSU ' s i n the word. unti l al l TSU ' s i n the word are l i nked to Low
tone.
( 1 9 ) a. tUU-90
I V
L
Mw
-->
tUU-90 --> tuU-90 -->
�V
L Mw
L-SPread
�
L Mw
LM-Si mpl i f i cati on
tuu-� --> tUU-90
\L /
(
\
Mw
L-SPread
�
L
Mw
UM-Si mP.
Carl son al so shows how this Pattern o� rule appl i cati on works �or Mi d-Low
One wonders, however . whether this i s a viab l e anal Ysi s �or Suci te. I� we
moti vated these rul es �or sPreadi ng and del i nkin9 i n Suc i te. we wou l d have to
b l ock thi s SPreadi ng and del i nkin9 �rom aPPIYi n9 to the � i nal TSU of the noun .
for unl i ke SuPYire. the fi nal tone o� a tonal contour is Preserved on the f i nal
- �-- -.--- ----
87
TBU o� the noun . The secand Prabl em wi th this apProach invol ves data that wi l l
b e deal t wi th i n Chapters 4 and s. Since a Mid tane sPread i ng rul e and a Low
tane sPreadi ng rule can be mati vated el sewhere i n the language, i t i s canceivabl e that they cauld also be moti vated ward i nternal ly. However , a · High tone
sPread i ng rul e cannot be moti vated in Suci te (thaugh i t can in SuPYi re) ;
ther�are i t woul d be somewhat cumbersome to al l aw a Hi gh sPreading rul e word
i nternal l y �or Hi gh-Mi d and Hi gh-Law nouns whi l e b l acking i ts aPPl i cati an
el sewhere i n the language.
An al ternati ve sol uti an is to �are9O the l i nk i ng o� tanes to the segments
unti l the addi ng a� the i nd� inite su� � i x � and then ta l i nk the tanes �ram
right to l e�t acrass the ward� as seen below.
'J
tuxu-rd
M
I
c l aad '
L
'� I
nd�r�-xg ' Yam '
L
H
This apPraach a� Ri ght to Le�t Li nking seems to be a much mare e�� i ci ent waY
to deal with basi c tonal patterns a� nouns i n Suci te. It el i mi nates the need
�ar a series a� rul es ward i nternal lY� and al lows the natural tonal Pattern a�
nouns to be rePresented i n a simPle and uncomPl icated waY. In add i t i an , the
arguments Presented here wi l l be suPParted by mare evi dence in the ensu i ng
chaPters.
3. Ton• .nd Pr.-n...l iz.d Cansonants
It was menti oned i n ChaPter 1 that there ex i sts a set a� nauns wi th eca:
nasalized bgnsgnants. Care�ul scrutinY o� the tonal behaviour � nouns with
Pre-nasal i z ed cansanants revealed that some at these cansonants bear a Low tane
whi l e athers do nat seem ta b� marked �or anY parti cular tone. The di st i nctian
----�- --- ----------.
- . - - - ---- ------
88
between those that carrV a Law tone nasal and those which do nat is barel v
Percepti bl e i n ci tation �or=. However , i n connected sPeech , thi s d i stinct i on i s
made clearer . The l aw tone o� a nasal i s o�ten l inked to the � i nal svl l ab l e of
the Precedi ng ward (see 2 1 a and c ) . whi l e those nouns that do nat carrV a Law
tone pre-nasal have no aPParent e�fect an the tone of the Precedi ng ward (b and
d) .
(21 ) a. nda �k6nA -> nd� n k�nA
' mv waaden bawl '
b . nda m9bf n@
' mv bamboo mat '
c . ndi va �k6n� nvAA -> ndi v� nk6nl nvAa
' I am seein9 a bawl '
d . ndi va m9bf ne nvAA
' I am seei ng a bamboo mat '
Ward i ni ti al nasal consonants are al sa sameti mes �ound to be tone beari n9.
Thi s i s rePresented bv doubl i n9 the nasal in same cases. thou9h i n real i tv .
l on9 nasal s are nat alwavs percepti ble. Below are l i st � examPles showi n9 that
a Law tone nasal can be found precedi n9 Mid and High i n i t i al nouns.
(22) a. L-Mi d S
b . L-Mi d W
c . L-Hi 9h-Mi d
I1IPi (2)
' rabb i t '
I1Ima ( 1 )
' 9i H '
llIbi (8)
' Hour '
Ma-ra (7)
�nva ( 3 )
' 9rass '
'')m::l-b (5) ' knite '
"nvo (3)
' mouth '
�da-xe (3)
' ear '
Ma ( 1 )
' scorPion '
�n6-lu (5)
' 9ui nea hen '
' ryU ( 1 )
' twi n '
iftpd-lu ( 1 )
• sPi der ,
d. L-Hi9h
'z'b@ ( 1 ) ' 9Dod luck charm (Loan ) ,
e. L-Hi 9h-Lew
"kana (3)
•
' l and '
wooden bewl '
If one aPpl i ed the Ri ght to Le,t Linking Conventi on to Law initial werds
89
with prenasal ized consonants, however . an i ncorrect surface form would be
Produced� as shown bel ow.
(23 ) *"j�'ne
\1 / I
L H /II
·"U de
rather
VI
"tide ' bat '
L M
Thi s probl em cou l d b. easi l y remedi ed wi th the suggesti on that tone-beari ng
nasa l s be sPecif i ed for Low tone and that thi s Low tone i s l i nked to the nasal
b�ore the appl i cation of the Assoc i at i on Conventi ons. The l ow tone is l i nked
to the nasal and the remai nin9 tones are l i nked from ri ght to left.
4. Hi;h final naun.
The Preceding naun charts have i ncluded Hi gh f i nal nouns. However , i n
ciatati on form or i n Phrase f i nal Posi t i on these Hi gh f inal i ndef ini te nouns,
namel y, High and Lew-Hi gh tone nauns, exh i b i t a f i nal fal l i ng tone.
( 24) a. nd�r�x�
' yam '
' rock '
Indef i n i te nauns which acquire a f inal Hi gh tone through rule aPpl icati on al so
exhi b i t a f i nal Hi gh fal l i ng tone.
b. soxo
' mortar '
' man ' s mortar '
Poru s6x6
' daughter ' s mortar '
Thi s fal l i ng tene di saPPears, however, when the hi9h tone i s not in Phrase
H nal Posi ti on .
----�- -�-
---
----- ------ -------
---_ .
90
(25) waa nd�r�x� wee
waa nd�r�x� nY�
' he l ooked at a yam '
' he saw a yam '
In contrast, Hi gh tone verbs and Postposi tions, and Hi gh � i nal de� i n i te nouns
have no f i nal fal l i ng tone. The natural first assumPti on that one i s l i kel Y to
make is that fi nal Hi gh f al l i ng nouns actual l Y have a f i nal Low tone. In order
to test thi s Possi b i l i ty, one must comPare the behavi our of these nouns with
those that are known to have a Low f i nal tone. Low � i nal nouns are known to
tri gger Low tone sPreadi ng onto Hi gh tone verbs (see ChaPter 4 � or detai l s) :
(26) a. waa m�l � wee -> waa m�l � w.e
However . fl14xa and
nd�r�x'
' He looked at r i ce '
do not tri9ger Low tone sPreadi ng:
b. waa nd�r�x� wee -> *waa nd�r�x� w�e
' he l ooked at a yam '
Therefore. one i s l ed to concl ude that the �al l i ng tone exhibi ted on Hi gh fi nal
nouns i s a Phoneti c Pecu l i arity whi ch is mani fest onl Y when a Hi gh f i nal
indef i n i te noun i s i n Phrase f i nal Posi tion8• I n order to characteri ze thi s
Phrase f i nal tonal adju5tment :
a
Low tone i nsert ion rul e maY b e f ormul ated :
(27) LOW TONE I NSERTION: Insert a Low tone to the f i nal TBU of a High fi nal
noun when it is i n Phrase f i nal posi t i on .
Thi s Low tone Insertion woul d effecti vel Y create a fal l i ng tone on a Hi gh fi nal
-- -
-
.- - - -- - -
---- .---- ---- ------
noun:
�
�� -> ���
H
91
" rack '
\
H L
I I I . THE INDEFINITE SlFF I X - TYPE II (Cb.... 2 ."d 6-)
A, structure
We hAve just examined the tanal behaviour o� nouns whi ch use the TYPe I
i nde Hni i:e suff i x . The nouns o� Cbsses 2 And 6, however , use a di Herent tyPe
o� suf f i x , l abel ed here as the TyPe I I i nd� i n i te su� fi x . As plural cl asses,
they have the same noun roots as Cl asses 1 and 5, resPecti vel y . Al though thei r
indef i n i te su�f ix es are underlYi ngl y disyl l Ab i c , the surfAce farm is often
monosYl labi c .
Tonal ly, the two class su�� i xes behave i n the same waY. The
ini tial tone � both suff i xes al ternates between Hi gh , Mi d and Law tane
dePendi ng an the tonal envi ronment, whi l e the � i nal tone tends to be a mare
stable Mi d tone. Because o� the cOmPl exi ty o� bath the se9mental and tonal
Processes. I have chasen to di scuss the segmental ChAngeS f i rst be�ore deal i ng
wi th tone.
S . Cl ••• , Indefinite Buff i N .
in SuPYire. i t i s :iil1 or
I n Cebara. the Cl ass 6 su�f i K i s :SIla. whereas
�. In Suci te, we hAve a vari ety o� su��i x i n9
whi ch probabl Y can be attributed to the same underl Yi n9 morpheme. -xVI V. In
certai n cases. descri bed below. the vowel i s h i 9h . How vowel hei ght can be
accounted �or usi n9 the Present underlYi n9 rePresentat i on . -xVlV. wi ll nat be
di scussed here.
(28) CLASS 5
ExamPles with the �ul l di sYl labi c suf� i K are gi ven bel ow:
CLASS 6 <24>
a. Pil-l�
P�x al o
" bodies. trunks '
b. ci-It}
c�-xal e
" thi9hs '
c . nci -I e
nc� -xal e
" bal aPhans '
92
Someti mes the fri cati ve vel ar is gl ottal ized :
(29) CLASs 5
CLASS 6 < 1 1)
a. co-l �
c�-7al o
' clay Pots '
b. ��-l�
��-?al �
' debts '
ManY times. however, the d i syl l ab i c su� � i x i s Part i al l y del eted or Practical l y
di sappears al together .
A �ew nouns l ose the � i nal sYl l able o� the sut� i x . �
i n a Process that shal l be cal led SUFFI X FINAL DELETION.
When thi s haPPens.
the sut� i x vowel i s always high.
(30 )
tLASS 6 <4) SFD
a. k�r� - xvl v ->
ti - xVlv
->
k�r�xi
' seat. chairs '
ti t-x i
' cock ' s combs '
In certain cases. thi s shortened 5Ut � i x i s al so nasal i zed . Note that nasal i za­
tion is not tri ggered necessari l y by a nasal environment :
CLASS 6 < 1 2>
->
m�d-ryi
' hi l l s '
ntan - xvlv ->
nt��-ryi
' courtyards '
b . mPu - xV1 V
j3r3 - �vl v -> j�-r�ryi
' breast s '
It i s i nterest i ng t o note that when sut � i x t inal del et i on takes pl ace,
singl e Tau roots comPensate for the l oss o� a syl l ab l e by lengtheni ng the root
vowel to two TaU ' s (see (31a> , whi l e roots wi th two underl Ying TaU ' s do not
change (31b > .
(31 ) a. Sin91 e Tau roots
mP�-d-ryi
C hi l l s '
ti-t-x i
c cock ' s combs '
nU-�-ryi
' courtyard '
93
b . Double TBU roots
j�r�-�i
' breasts '
s�7�-�i
' bAsket '
s'76-�i
' Pal m nut '
The � inal resu l t i s that al l o� the above �orms Possess three TBU ' s.
A
second l ook at the data reveal s that al l Cl ass 6 noun roots wi th twa underlvi n9
TBU ' s seem to requi re some kind of su�+ix del eti on , i n order to maintai n the
l imit o� three TBU ' s lor a TVPe I I noun, whi l e sin9l e TBU roots wi th Partial l v
del eted su��i xes require a l en9thened vowel to keep uP a three TBU mi nimum.
SUFFI X INITIAL DELETION is another waV to reduce the size o� the su�fi x .
Some di svl l ab i c noun roots wi th a second svl l ab l e of the shaPe, �, tri 9ger
the del eti on of the � irst svl lable o� the su� � i x i nstead of the second.
(32) CLASS 6 (8) SID
kir� - xVlv ->
kl-ra-le
' countries '
c�r� - xVl v ->
c�-ra-le
' e99s '
There are also a tew examples where the enti re i ndef i n i te Plural suf f i x i s
reduced t o a sin9l e vowel ( SUFF I X REDUCTION) :
(33) CLASS 6 <4> SUFFI X RED
nvi - xvl v -> nvl-i
VE - xvl V
-> Y�e
��n - xvl V -> f�-un
' eves '
' Years '
' peanuts '
Nate that thi s set o� nauna does not requ i re a f i nal outPut of three TBU ' s. as
is the case for ather �orms � the Cl ass 6 suff i x .
---- �� - .-- ---
------
94
Fi nal l y , there are a �ew CAses where the enl Y indicati en e� pl urAl i ty i s the
tenal change. In the examPl es bel ew , the Class S, er si ngular �erm, i s cemPared
wi th Class 6:
(34) CLASS S
CLASS 6 <3)
mane
' sweet greund nuts '
bal e
" greund nuts '
We wi l l net attempt te �ermul ate rul es here te acceunt �er .u��ix reductien and
P�t i al su� � i x del eti en . Seme Senu�c d i al ects maintai n the entire su� �i x , whi l e
ethers reduce i t t e a min i mal uni t . There maY b e seme synchrenic Phenel D9i cal l Y
cendi tiening rul es �er 5u� � i x reductien , but , �rem these eXamPles, i t i s net
clear that anY such rules ex i st .
Hewever. i t wi l l be seen shertl Y that the
� i nal tonal shaPe e� a word wi l l dePend en the type e� su�� i x del eti en .
2. CI ... 2 Ind.finit. Su�f i x .
The Cl ass 2 i nd.� i n i te ( pl ural ) suf f i x i s
hi sterical l y disyl l ab i c alse. but i n Sucite. the � i nal eutput is menesYl l ab i c .
In Cebara, e� IverY Ceast , the pl ural ferm i s bala
•
I n SuPYire, the Cl ass 2
suf f i x is ei ther -I i . er -mi l i . In Suci te, the mest cemmen �erm e� su�fi xat i en
i s -IV (PerhaPS threugh SUFF I X INITIAL DELETION) :
(35) s6nl u - CVI V -> s6n l u -
I V -> s6nla-l�
" parakeets '
Balew are ether examPl es i n compari sDn wi th their si ngul ar ceunterParts e�
Cl ass 1 .
( 36) CLAsS 1 CLASS 2 <38)
P4an-I a
' al l i gaters '
fy a-l a
" f i sh '
--------�- ----- ---------
95
s6n l u
s6n l a-lj
' parakeets '
Poru
PDr'-lo
' daughters '
Nouns wi th singl e Teu roots exhi bi t a l ang vowel .
The second TaU o� the l ang
vowel maY be a resu l t of comPensatorY lengtheni ng of the root vowel or it is
Possi b l e that i n these cases, onl Y the in itial consonant was del eted .
(37)
ja - Cvlv
-> ja -
IV
-> ja-V-Vl v -> ja-a-l a
SUFFI X INITIAL DELETION
ar
VOWEL LENGTHENING.
ja -cVl v -> ja - Vl V -> ja-ala
a. j�
j66-lj
' packets '
b . ji
jatl- l a
' sans '
CONSONANT DELETION
For reasons that maY seem arbi trarY for the moment, I shal l chaa5e the rul e of
Su�f i x Ini tial Del eti on where bath the consonant and the vowel are del eted .
If
we chase Consonant onl Y Del eti on , the noun roots wi th twa TeU ' s ( 36 ) , wou ld
require an add i t i onal rul e o f vowel del etion .
There are examples indicat i ng that the under l Ying ( or h i storical ) farm of
the suf f i x maY have been :mili or �.
These nouns have droPPed the � Part
of the suf f i x < SUFFIX FINAL DELET ION) , but retai ned the f irst Part i n the farm
of ::m1
•
(38) CLAss 1
a·
CLASS 2 < 1 0>
SFD
"nn.-mi
' scorPi ons '
b. ctnr')t
cUn-ai
' antel oPes '
c. carar')£
car�mi
c orPhans '
i\naa
Agai n . as i n Cl ass 6 above , there are a few cases where the onl Y i nd i cat ion of
indef i n i te i s the add i t i on of a tone-beari ng vowel (SUFF I X REDUCTION) .
----�- - --- -------
---- -------- - - -
---
-----
96
(39) CLASS 1 CLASS 2
a. n3
nH
SUFFIX RED
" mothers '
" cwners, ch i e� , head c�
c. nc�
nctla
' sheep '
It shou l d be ncted that i n Kan9ala, a vi l l age situated 5 ki l ometres �rcm
Kctcura. the speakers have nct al lcwed Suf f i x Reducti cn .
Here, i nstead c�
saYi ng £ia ' cllWlers ' , they ret:ai n the :Ul suf f i x : :£Bl..R.
3. au..arY.
The fol l owing chart. Provides a summarY of the di�ferent tYPes cf
suf f i x i ng fcr TYPe I I Indef i n i te Nouns:
(40)
SyffiX TVPe
elas$ 6
Cl ass 2
Fu l l
pc.-xa l c <24> ' bcd i es '
-------
cc.-?al o < 1 1 > ' d ay pots '
----
Suf f i x Fi nal DEL
t H -x i
<4>
' ccck ' s combs '
--
---
---
ntU-l')i < 12> ' courtyard s '
d � n-mi ( 1 0) ' antel cpes '
k� ra-I e <8>
' countri es '
jatl-Ia <38>
Suf f i x Reducti on
nyl- i <4)
' eyes '
nl-i
Tone Change On l Y
m�-ne (3) ' sweet ground peas ' --------
Nasal
SuH ix Ini U al
' sons '
Del et i cn
' mcthers '
Si ngl e Teu noun roots can retai n the enti re suf f i x as wel l as undergo anY
tYPe of suf f i x del eticn . Nouns rccts with twc TBU ' s obl i 9atcr i l Y under90 ei ther
Suf f i x Fi nal Deleti on or Suf f i x Ini tial Deleticn but never Suf f i x Reduct i cn .
Other than these general 9u i del i nes , hcwever , there dc nct seem tc b e anY
Phonol ogical reasons 90verni ng the choi ce of the shape cf the suffi x .
.- - . � .- ----- -----
97
B. TM. of TYpe
II
Indeftnit. Suffix"
The two Type I I Inde� i n i te 5u�� ixes share the same tonal behavi our and thus
seem to have the same under l Yi ng tane. There are several �actors that contri ­
bute t o t h e tonal changes o � the su�� i x . Fi rst o� al l . t h e tone at the noun
root does attect the tone Ot the sut? i x .
Secondl y . the segmental changes on
the sut ?i x at?ect the waY tone is l i n ked to the word .
Fi nal l y , i t wi l l be seen
that the segmental nature at the sutt i x actual l Y contri butes to tonal change at
the noun root.
The i nterpl ay at these three tactors can create a rather
compl i cated tonal si tuat i on .
The �ol lowi ng i s an attempt t o d i scuss each
seParatel y and al so i n con juncti on with the other tactors.
1. Ton.l SIIh.viaur oF the Suffi x
Let u s f i rst exami ne how the tone at the noun root at?ects the tone at the
TYPe II suf � i x . Basi cal l y , it the root is Low tone, the sut t i x tone is Mi d . It
the root i s High. Mid . or Low-H i gh . then a High-Mid shaPe 9eneral l y evolves.
Atter Mi d-Low roots the tonal shape at the ward i s Mid-Low-Mid-. In the chart
bel ow, the si n9u l ar t orm at each noun i s also gi ven , under the label , TYPe I .
The si ngul ar torm Ot the nouns gi ve
a
clearer i dea at the underl Ying tone ot
the noun root:
(41 ) Root tone
-----
--
TYPe I
TYPe I I
Engl ish
' body, bod i es '
a· Low
p�-l�, P�-xal o
b . Low-Hi gh
gbdn-1 8, 9bOn-x'l o
' granarY, 9ranar i es '
c · Mi d
gba. 9ba-'la'"'
' ri ver , ri vers '
d . Hi gh
m9bf -n@, m9b! -n'le
' bamboo mat , bamboo mats '
e· Mi d-Low
j i, ja-U ae
( san. sons '
_ . _ ._
. . _--
------
98
In observi ng the examples in ( 4 1 ) one di scovers that the onl Y envi ronment in
which a Hi gh-Mi d tonal shape i s not found i s when the f i nal tone of the root is
Low tone. in whi ch case the tone of the suff i x is M id tone. If an under l Ying
High-Mi d suf f i x is Posited . then a rule l oweri ng
a
Hi gh tone to Mi d tone must
be sough t . In Chapter 2� a rule sPread i ng Low tone onto a f ol l owi ng Hi gh tone
was proPosed . whi ch i n certai n cases. resulted i n a Low-Hi gh contour si mpl i fyi n9 to Mid tone. Thi s same Low tone SPread rul e (33 ) can be used here.
Consider the exampl e� pb=xalg ( 41 a) . If the underl Ying suf f i x tone i s Hi 9h-Mi d �
Low tone can then b e moti vated t o spread onto the High tone of the suff i x . as
shown i n the deri vati on below.
t j j -> Pt:xfl , -> P�-xal o
( 42) P -x l
L
H ili
L
' bodies ·
H ili
L SPREAD
The lack of Hi gh tone in ( 4 1 e ) can al so be eXPl ained by the aPPl i cat i on of tha
Low SPread rul e .
The noun 9b�n-x'lg ( 4 1b) aPPears to have a Low tone on the noun root .
However � a l ook at the tone of the root in i ts singu l ar form reveal s a Low-High
tone. The resul ting surface pattern can be eXPlai ned if we apply the Hi gh
Del inking rul e (37) ProPosed i n Chapter 2. where the Hi gh tone of a Low-Hi gh
contour i s del i nked i f i t i s fol l owed by another Hi gh tone. The aPpl i cation of
th i s rule i s i l l ustrated below.
------ - ----- - -----
---- ------_ . _- _ .
--
-_
. .. .
- -- _ .
..
_ -
99
H DELINKING
Segmental del et i on � the su�� i x compl i cates the anal Ysis scmewha� . however .
i n that scme of the su��ix tone i s l i nked to segments of the ncun root. Th i s
maY b e con� us i ng when trYing to determine the d istinct i on between the under l Yi ng tone cf the noun root and the tone o� the suff i x . The f ol lcwing di scussion
wi l l hel P to clar i fy these amb i gui t ies and wi l l al so attern�t to establ ish a
�ormul aticn �or l i nk i ng tones to ncuns wi th partial l ¥ del eted inde� i n i te
suH i xes.
The chart below Provi des examPl es � what haPPens when the var ious tones of
the noun rco�s meet uP wi th the vari ous segmental tYPes of suff i x i ng. Sinc� the
the number of TBU ' s on the root is a factor a�fecting �he tonal behaviour.
examples of noun roo�s wi th single TBU ' s and doubl e TBU ' s are gi ven. An
as�eri sk indi cates tha� there are no accePtabl e examPles for that particu l ar
categorY. whi l e a dotted l i ne indi cates that whi le i t i s concei vab le that there
ex i sts an exampl e. no exampl e has been found to date. In addi tion . this chart
shows that some noun roots are l owered �o Low tone in certai n envi ronments.
Thi s phenomenon wi l l be di scussed l ater in the chaPter. These l owered noun
roots are marked in bol d .
---- --- - - -- -
---- ------- - - --
--
1 00
(44) Tone
#TSU
FULL SUFFI X
SUF INI DEL
SUF F IN DEL
SUF RED
LOW
1 TSU
P�xal o
co-o-I o
I)m��-I)i
ncA-a
' bodies '
' nets '
' corners '
kira-I e
j �ra-I)i
' countri es '
' breasts '
•
2TSUs
LOW-HIGH
lTBU
gbOn-x'l o
-
-
---
*
-
---
mPC)-6-l)i
.f:�-un
' hi l l '
' granM"ies '
2TBUs
' sheep '
mM6-l a
' peanuts '
pA16-mi
' el ePh�nU asi s ' ' bucket '
MID
lTSU
la-x'la . U-x.l.
' Pregnanci es '
2TBUs
•
gbaal a
' ri vers '
cal 6-1 a
.£-i-I)i
-
- -
-
-
' sU ngs '
---
--
-
--
' Pi gs '
WEAK MID
1 TBU
.f:o-? l o
---
--
-
-
-
-
-
---- -
-
' debts '
MID-LOW
l TBU
2TSUs
HIGH
2TBUS
d-xal.
j a-�-l a
' th i ghs '
' sons '
*
n j i ra-Ie
ku-c)-x i
' tongu e '
' roads '
m9b{n�le
-
*
-
-
--
-
n1-1
' mother5 '
--
-
f�.
' ch i eofs '
-
-
*
' bamboo mat '
HIGH-MID
2TBUs
*
fri.-l a
car6-mi
' f i sh '
' orPhans '
*
In the d i scussion of TYPe I Indef i ni te noun tone, it was su99ested that the
TYPe I i ndef i n i te suff i x be added to the noun root before the aPpl i cation of
101
the Associ at i on Conventi ons , so that the f i nal tone o f the root cou l d l i nk
d i rectly to the tonel ess suf f i x . TYPe I I suf f ixat i on can al so take Pl ace before
the aPpl i cati on of the Associ at i on Conventions. The crucial questi on to be
asked here is. however , shou l d se9mental del eti on a lsa take Pl ace before the
aPpl i cati on of the Assoc i at i on Conventions? For manY cases, thi s is a verY
Practi cal approach for assi9n i n9 the correct tones to se9ments. After the
deletion of the vari ous se9ments. it is a simpl e matter to l i nk the tones from
ri 9ht to l eft in a one to one fash i on across the word . Hi9h . Low-Hi 9h , and Mi d
tone nouns are espec i al l y amenabl e to thi s approach , as shawn i n the rul e
deri vations bel ow.
(45) a. Hi 9h tone root - suff i x under90es Suff i x Ini t i al Deleti on
' bamboo mats '
SUF INI DEL
Ac (ASSOCIATION CONVENTIONS>
b. 2 TBU Mi d tone root - suf f i x under90es Suffix Ini tial Del et i on
cal a -CVlV
M
-
> cal a -
H M
M
I e ->
H M
SID
c. 1 TBU
ca
U
-
la
� t I
AC
Mi d tone root - suf f i x under9Des Suf f i x Final Del eti on
' sti n9s '
SFD
V LENGTH'
AC
102
d . 1 TBU
Low-Hi gh tone root - suffix undergoes Suf f i x Fi nal Del eti on
mptl
-�VIV
-> mPtl - �f -> mptl u �f ->
LH
H M
LH
H M
LH
mPtld�i -> mpud�i
Al l
HM
AC
V LENGTH
SFD
41 1
LH H M
LH H M
H DELINKING
Note in (45d ) that the rule of Hi gh tone Del i n king al so takes Pl ace. si nce.
after the appl i cat i on of the Assoc i at i on Conventions. a Low and a High tone are
l inked to the same TaU and are fol l owed by another High tone.
Low tone noun roots whi ch have undergone Suf f i x Ini t i al Deleti on al so
conform easi l y to l i nk i ng tone to segments after segmental del eti on of the
suffix . Note in the examPl e bel ow. that Low tone sPread is tri ggered once the
tones have been l i nked .
e. 2 TaU
Low tone root - suf f i x undergoes Suf f i x Ini tial Deleti on
k � r� - CVl v -> k � r� - I e -> k� r�-le -> k � ra-l e
L
H M
L
H
I I
M
L,1
L H
I
1'1
L SPREAD
Low tone root - suf f i x undergoes Suf f i x Ini tial Deletion
c� - CVlv
L
M
AC
SID
f . 1 TBU
I
L H
• countri es ,
H M
--> c� -1 0 --> c�
L H M
SID
L
0-
-
1 0 --> c�-o-lo -> cool o
H
M
V LENGTH
I I /
L H M
AC
�1 I
" nets '
LH M
L SPREAD
Certain Low f i nal nouns. however . have Probl ems with aPplYing the Associ ation Conventi ons after segmental del eti cn . The deri vati ons below show how such
a rul e ordering produces i ncorrect resu lts.
----- - --
-
--
-
-
- - - - -- -
-----
- - - - -- ---
-------
-
- -- -
--
103
(46 ) a. 2 TBU
Low tone root - su�� ix undergoes Su�� ix Fi nal Del et i on .
' countr i es '
L
H 1'1
L
Rather: jM�-"i
H I'I
AC
SFD
b . ct n - mVIV -> C E n - mi
L
H M
L
L SPREAD
H M
SFD
L
H M
L
L SPREAD
AC
' sheeP. pl . '
H M
ML HM
SID
Rather :
cttnmi
Rather : nc4a
At
d. ja Cvl v -> ja -la -> j a a la -> j i'l a ->*jaal a
MI.
HM
LA M
L HM
SUF RED
L H M
LENGTHENING
A\
' antel opes '
c t m
H M
c . nca - CVI V -> nca- a ->*nc:aa
I.
1 , j -> .ct�t
-> ci-En-mi ->
ML
HM
LENGTH
Ai I
A\I
ML HM
MLH M
At
L SPREAD
Al l o� these counterexamPles consi st o�
AC a�ter segmental del eti ons Produces
an
a
' sons '
Rather: j a4l a
Low � i nal root � the aPpl i cati on o�
i ncorrect Mid tone on the penul t i mate
TBU, rather than the approPri ate Low tone. It might be suggested that the
correct sur�ace �orm coul d be arr i ved at by using a High Del inkin9 rul e a�ter
Low tone sPread , as shawn bel ow.
(47)
jM�-"i
�4 I
L H
M
The Prob lem with this proPosal , however , i s that there i s alreadY a Hi9h
Del i nkin9 rul e (37) , wh i ch works i n a verY restri cted envi ronment . The rul e
---- ----- - --- - --- --. --- ------
104
sti pul ates that a Hi9h at a Low-Hi9h contour is del inked it it is tol l owed by a
Hi 9h tone ( See Chapter 2, p. 54) as shawn i n ( 4Sa) bel ow. It was al so shawn that
betore Law and Mi d tones the High at a Low-Hi 9h contour was Prohibi ted tram
del i nkin9 ( 4Sb ) .
�66
vt V
(49) a. wu Ya x, k ��n
I
I
M
I
M
H
LH
' He i s 9ivin9 i t to h i m '
H
b. wu Ya x, k�an l a
\
I
M
I
M
H
�1
' Is h e 9i vi ng i t? '
I
LH
M
There�ore, i t one tried to moti vate Hi gh Del i nk i n9 i n the setting i l l ustrated in ( 47 ) above, this attemPt wou l d contrad i ct the restrict i ons set tar
the High Del i nkin9 rul e .
It , however , t h e Association Conventions aPpl i ed b�ore segmental delet i on .
the correct surtace torms woul d be Produced t or the examPles bel ow.
(49 ) a. k��-�vl v -> kar�i
I
L
I I
I
H M
AC
L
I
-
SFD
I I
L
H M
I
L
SFD
c . nC
L
H M
L SPREAD
I
-> c�-t n-mi
H M
I
L
H M
L HM
SUF RED
I
LH M
L SPREAD
---- ---- - -- -- --.-- --- ------
-
H M
LENGTHENING
j - CYl ! -> nCi- )\ -> n/�
L
AC
l--1
H M
b . c�n - mVI V -> c�n - mi
I
> k�r�-ryi
>
c��nmi ->
�'� 1
L
#
H M
L SPREAD
' sheep. pl . '
c££n-mi ' antel opes '
�
L
HM
105
Si nce orderi ng AC before Segmental Deletions seems to work so wel l i n these
cases. l et us test this ordering on other TYPe I I nouns. I n general . i f tones
are l i n ked before segmental del etion . once segmental del eti on and subsequentl y .
vowel l engtheni ng take Place. there are free tones and TBU ' s that wi l l requ i re
l i nk i ng.
Although the manner of l i nking i s def ini telY predi ctable. the rul es
needed to moti vate correct l i nk i ng are not immed i atel Y cl ear and the tonal and
morphologi cal si tuat i on is comPlex .
One reason for the compl ex i ty of ten.l Patterns i s the morphel ogi cal nature
of the suf f i xes.
Neuns wh i ch have undergone SID l i nk thei r tones i n a sl i ghtl y
different waY than nouns whi ch have under9Dne SFD. In addi tien . Mi d tene nouns
whi ch have undergene SFD, behave in a d i fferent waY than SFD Lew tene nouns.
Fi nal l y, i t i s neted that Patterns isel ated for the Previ ous greuPs ef neuns
are vi el ated by certai n nouns whose reot tone is a contour tone.
The anal Ysi s bel ow attempts te account for these varyi ng behavieurs.
It
shoul d be neted that Hi gh-Mi d and Hi gh-Low neuns have been excl uded from this
Present anal Ysi s because ef thei r somehwat unPredi ctabl e behavi our . A descr i Pt i on of their behavi our wi l l be gi ven fel lowing the anal Ysi s.
Let us f i rst consi der these neuns whi ch have undergone suf f i x Initial
Del eti on . Bel ow are examPl es ef nouns which have al readY undergene S I D and
Vowel Lengtheni ng but have net yet had tones and TBU ' s reI i n ked . The f i nal
surface f erm is gi ven alongsi de each examPle.
(50) a. 9ba-a-l a -> gba� a
J
M
I
H M
c · ki ra- I e -> k� ral e
/
L
' ri vers '
I
H M
b . cal a- l a -> cal al a
V
M
' countri es '
I
H M
d . ce-o-l o -> c�el o
,
L
' Pi gs '
I
H M
' Pots '
106
e. mgbi na- Ie -> mgbf nal e
/
H
I
c bambee mats '
H M
In each case_ we must deal wi th a hi gh tene wh i ch has l est the se9ment te whi ch
i t was l i nked . In the eXamPl es (a) and (d) . an extra TBU has been created
through Vewel Lengtheni ng. Since beth a free tene and a free TBU are feund
adjacent te each ether_ the Asseciatien Cenventiens can be reaPpl i ed at this
Pei nt. l i nking the twa.
(51 )
gba-�l a
I � I
M H M
The ether exampl es have ne free TBU ' s_ hewever .
Judgi ng frem the f i nal
eutput ef al l ef the eXamPl es_ it is cl ear that Hi gh tene dees net l i n k te the
f i nal TBU. Al l f i nal TBU ' s are l i nked enl Y te a Mid tene.
In C50b ) there i s
cl ear evi dence that the Hi gh tene i s l i nked t e the secend TBU.
The deri vati en
beleN shews that the Mid tene must al sc be del i nked from the second TBU i n
erder te si mpl i f y the Mid-Hi gh centeur.
(52) caU-l a
� I
M H
M
At thi s Pei nt. I wi l l net di scuss the rule ef Mid tene Del inking excePt te nete
the M. bei ng an the l eft s i de ef the conteur del inks frem a TBU l i n ked te Hi gh
when i t al readY l i n ked to the Precedi ng TBU.
(53) MID TONE DELINKIN6:
x
X
M
H
�
1 07
The sur�ace �orm � the examPl e i n ( 50c > does not show a High tone on a
second Tau, but rather a Mi d tone. Thi s can be expl ained i f the �ree Hi gh tone
i s l i nked to the second Teu and the Low tone i s agt del i nked . as shown bel ow:
(54)
Recal l that in ChaPter 2 a Low-Hi gh contour whi ch was created by means of a Low
tone sPreadi ng onto a High tone. si mpl i � i ed to a Mid tone on the surface.
In the examPl e in (50d ) , the Hi gh tone i s l i n ked to the �ree second Tau by
the uni versal Pri nci ple of tone Associat i on . The f i nal surface Mi d tone on that
TBU can be eXPl ained by tri ggeri ng Low tone to sPread onto the Hi gh tone TaU.
as shown bel ow:
(54) c� 610 -> c� al a
I I I
�1 I
L H M
L H M
LOW SPREAD
Final l y. the free High tone of the examp le i n ( 50e) can al so be l i nked to
the second Tau, though in this case, the l i nking i s hardl Y necessarY. since
there i s al readY a Hi gh tone from the ncun root l i nked to i t .
(55) mgb! na-l e
l/. MI
H H
Al l f i ve of these examples, then, undergo a Process where the free High tone
l in ks to the second TBU. Si nce thi s i s not. i n al l cases . Predictab l e by waY of
the A$soc i at i on Conventi ons. a rul e must be formu l ated . speci fYi ng the l in k i ng.
In attemPti ng to formulate a rule, one maY Pose a quest ion as to whY the free
High tone l inks �o the l ef t rather than to the r i ght. It has been suggested in
--- ------ -- -- --
-------
--- -
-
109
the l i terature (abtained through Persanal communi cati on wi th
c.
Ki sseberth )
that tane wi l l gravi tate i n the di recti an of the tri gger af the segmental
delet i an ru l e . In thi s case, the l eft sYl lable af the suf f i x was del eted .
As a
resu l t , the Precedi n g TBU shoul ders the resPansi bi l i t y af carrYing the TBU of
the suf f i x .
Taki ng i nta cansi derati on these observati ons, then , the rule can
be stated as fal l aws :
(56) SUFFI X H IGH LINKING: Link the free Hi gh tone af the TYPe I I suf f i x ta the
f i rst TBU ta the l ef t .
X
\
H
X
I
M
The secand set of nauns to di scuss are these whi ch have undergane Suf f i x
Fi nal Delet i an .
I n these Part i cul ar examPl es <57) , i t is the Mi d tane rather
than the Hi gh tane whi ch l ases i ts se9ment .
Unl i ke the Hi gh tane o f the
Previ ous exampl es, the Mi d tone here has no choi ce af segments to l i nk to. and
thus i t l i nks ta the same segment as the Hi gh tane.
a. sE -E -�i -> sE € �i
( 57 )
/\
I
M
' st i ngs '
H M
b . �me-e-ryi -> �m�e�i
I
"
L
' carners '
H M
c . jara-�i -> jara�i
I II
L
' breasts '
H M
We knaw, hawever , that the f i nal outPut daes nat al l aw a HM contaur on the
f i nal TBU. sa samehaw, the High tane must be del i n ked from the f i nal TBU. The
surface forms af examPl es (a> and (b ) shaw that Hi gh tane of the suf f i x end� uP
an the f i nal TBU af the naun roat . Thi s can be explai ned by waY of Posi ting a
----
-
- -
-
-
- •.- --- ---- -
1 09
rul e label ed Hi gh tone Shi � t , stated as �ol lows:
(59) HIGH TONE SHIFT: Gi ven that ' sh i � t ' means del in kin9 a tone from one TBU
and rei i nk ing i t to an adj acent TBU, shi ft a High tone of a TYPe I I suf� i x
l inked to the same TBU as a Mi d tone � the su�f i x , t o the f i nal TBU o f the
noun root ( i . e. the second TBU of the word ) .
Xl
X
'\
-
>
H
Xl
X
' ... .,A
H M
Such a rule then , can be aPpl i ed to the noun gi ven i n (57a) above, as
fol l ows:
(59)
a. s£-'�i -> s£€�i
I
M
/
' st i n9s '
H M
H SHIFT
Before jumPi ng to the possi bl e concl usi on that thi s proPosed Hi gh Shi ft rul e
and the Suf f i x Hi gh tone Link rul e ( 56) , which l inks a free Hi gh tone to the
TBU on the l ef t , can be general ized i nto one singl e rul e formulat i on , the
reader is asked to consi der the exampl es in (57b) and ( 57c ) . In these exampl es,
it is cl ear that Hi gh tone does agi shi f t to the Precedi ng TBU.
the reason for thi s?
What mi ght be
One thing these two examples have in common i s that they
both have a Low tone noun root . Instead of al l owing Tone Shi f t , i t aPPears that
these two nouns tri gger the Low tone to sPread onto the fol l owi ng Hi 9h tone
su� f i x , as shown in (60) bel ow.
----- --- - -- -- -- - --- ----- ---------------
1 10
Once this haPPens, the Law and Hi9h are si mpl i i i ed ta Mid tane, with the
i i nal autput remai n i n9 an acceptabl e Mi d tane.
One waY ta Prevent Hi9h tane Shi i t �ram taki n9 Place an these Law tane nauns
i s to order the Hi9h tane Shi i t rul e � Law tane SPread .
Ii Law tane SPread
accurs, as i n (60) abave, there are two reasans �or the Hi 9h tane nat ta shi � t :
1 ) the si mpl i f i ed Law-Hi gh tane l i nked t a the same Teu resu lts i n a surtace M i d
tane and thus, si nce there i s n a surface cantaur tane, there i s n o reasan �ar
the Hi gh tane to shi f t ; and 2) Hi gh tane ,aDDot , by virture a� the wel l farmedness candi t i an whi ch states that the Assaciat i an l i nes cannat cross, l i n k
ta the Preced i ng TBU wi thout crossi n9 the Associat i on l i ne l inkin9 the Law tone
to the �i nal Teu.
I� the Hi 9h tane Shi ft rul e must take Place a�ter Law tone SPread and the
Suif i x Hi9h tone Linki ng rule ( 56) takes place befgr, Low tane SPread , as was
i l l ustrated i n ( 54 ) , then i t becomes cl ear that i t i s theareti cal l y not vi ab l e
t o trY t o make ane rul e f armu l at i on for the two Processes.
Nouns that under90 Suif i x Reducti on do not Produce anY additi anal campl icat i ons far anal Ysi s.
When a suff i x i s reduced ta a si n9l e vawel , the on l Y tane
al l owed an the raot i s Law tane.
In the exampl e bel aw (61 ) . we see the Law
tone sPreading onto the �ol l owing High tone, creati ng a Law-High contour tane
wh i ch si mpl i t i es ta Mid tane:
(61 ) ncA-a
//1\
[ HM
The rul es Posi ted so iar , however . sti l l do not caver al l examPl es in the
data.
We have purposel y l e�t the nouns wi th cantaur tanes unti l l ast .
mast cammon contaur tones found on nouns are Law-Hi 9h and Mi d-Low.
----
---
-
---
--
-
- - - - - -- ----. - -- -- -- -- ---
---
The two
Low-high
111
nouns do nat Pose a probl em for the anal Ysi s, as 9i ven thus far .
In the fi rst
examPl e bel ow, Hi 9h Li nking takes pl ace once the i n i ti al Part of the suf f i x i s
deleted, whi l e i n the second exampl e, Hi gh Shift takes Pl ace after Suf f i x Fi nal
Del eti on .
( 62) mar' - CVI V - > m�r' - l a - > mar'-la
L� ��
L� H�
L �'H�
Ac
SID
H LINK
AC
SFD
H SHIFT
' el ePhantiasi s '
The fal l owing Law-hi gh noun ( 63) has onl Y one TBU i n the root .
Vowel
Lengthening after SFD creates an add i t i onal TBU, which acqui res a Hi gh tone
after Hi gh tone Shi ft .
A Law-High contour fal lowed by another Hi9h then
tri ggers the Hi9h Del i nk i n9 rul e , i ntroduced i n ChaPter 2.
11 ' -1\
(63) mpu-u-�i -> mp�-G�i
LH
HM
H SHIFT
A \I
LH
' hi l l s '
HM
H DELINKING
The fol l owi n9 Mi d-Law noun (64) , causes Problems, however .
Si nce i t
under90es SID, one mi 9ht exPect Hi 9h tone Linking to occur, after which Law
tone SPread wou l d Pl ace take Pl ace.
Thi s unfortunatel Y wou l d resul t in the i n-
correct surface tone of ML-M-M.
--- - - -- . - -- - -
------ .
--
--
(64)
1 12
�-i�l i ->* j�7�-li
I'1L
H M
H LINK
ML H
' sons '
Rather : ja�l a
M
L SPREAD
It i s conceivab l e to suggest that si ngl e TBU noun roots wi th cent our tones
are excePtions to the stated rul es .
Let u s SU9gest then . that i f a contour
tone ( l i nked to a Si ngl e TBU) i s fol l owed by a free TBU. the rel i nkin9 of the
second tone of the contour to the fal l owi ng TBU takes precedence aver anY ather
Let us cal l thi s rul e the Contour Sh i ft rul e ( C Shi f t )
l inking possi b i l i t i es.
(65) CONTOUR TONE SHIFT:
Gi ven that � shi f t ' means del in kin9 of a tone and l inki ng i t to an adj acent
TBU. the second tone of a contour tone l i nked to the same TBU shi f ts to anY
free TBU to the r i ght.
Tl
does not equal Tz
Thi s rul e is agi part of the Association Conventi ons.
It is a rul e that
al l ows tar the r el i nkin9 ot contour tones for the PurPoses of si mpl i fY i n9 the
contour and 9i vi n g each tone i ts TBU. Below is an exampl e of a deri vati on usi n9
the C Sh i f t rule.
(66)
ji
�
ML
AC
-
Cvl v
I I
H M
-
>
ji
�
-
la
I
ML H M
SID
-> jat\ a la\
ML
-
HM
V LENGTH
> ja � l a -) ja � la
�
I
M L HM
C Shi f t
I l,. '"
HM
M L
L SPREAD
Si nce the second tone at the contour i s now l i nked to the second TBU. one maY
1 13
wender to whi ch TBU the tree Hi gh tone ot the sutt ix maY be l i nked . It the High
tone Li nk rul e i s al lowed to oPerate after the C Shi ft rule. there i s nothi ng
to keep i t trom l i nking to the second T9U. too. Thi s . untortunatel Y wou ld Yi el d
an i ncorrect surface torm: *jaal a.
1/\ I
ML HM
H LINK
Therefore. Hi gh Linking must be Prevented trom l inking atter the C Shi f t rule.
I f i nstead . it occurred before C Shi f t . Hi gh Li n k i ng woul d i ncorrectl y el im inate the envi ronment for the C Shift ru l e� *jaal a.
:4I! j
M' LHI'!
i
HIGH LINK
We see. then . that High tone l i nking can be al l owed nei ther before or after the
C Shi ft rul e . but rather . when the C Shi ft rul e aPpl i es. it excludes the � i ght
for Hi gh tone l i nk i ng to aPpl y. even though the condi t i ons for ru l e aPPl i cation . out l i ned i n the formu l ati on of the High Linki ng rul e. are met . As a
resu l t . i n order to Predict a correct outPut. an add i t i onal condi tion wi l l have
to be i nserted i nto the formul ation of the rul e - Below i s a restatement of the
rul e (56) with the new condi ti on.
( 67) SUFFI X HIGH L INKING: Li nk the free Hi gh tone ot the TYPe I I suff i x to the
t i rst TBU to the l ef t . on condition that the Contour l i n k i ng rul e has not
al readY l i nked a tone to that TBU. 18
X
I
H
x
I
M
The tree High tone of ii4l&. then i s not al l owed to l i nk to the second TBU
through the High Li nking rul e. The onl Y opt i ons lef t to it are 1 ) to l i nk to
the f i nal TBU� at whi ch Poi nt . the Low tone SPread rule woul d be triggered .
sPreadi ng the Low tone onto the Hi gh tone. thus creat i ng a Low-Hi gh Contour
1 14
whi ch si mPl i � i es to M i d tone (see (68a»
or 2) not to l i n k at al l (see ( 68b » .
In ei ther case, the correct sur�ace �orm wou l d resu l t . MY Pre�erence i s to l i nk
the Hi 9h tone, i� possible, si nce in general , the Hi 9h tone tends to be l i nked
to at l east some TBU.
( 68) a. jaU a
b . j aU a
ML HM
ML HM
It 1\
1/
I
LOW SPREAD
The other contour tone word i n thi s data samPle Poses no Probl ems for this
new C Shi f t rul e . Below i s a deri vation o� mpu6�i .
( 69) mPu-CVI V -> mpu-u-�i -> mPu u �i -> mPu 6 �i -> mpu 6 �i
!\ HI MI
LH
A " HM
1\
LH
SFD � V LENGTH
AC
A/ HM"
/ /" HMI
LH
LH
C SHIFT
H SHIFT
The behaviour of su�f i xed High-Mid nouns i s somewhat probl emati c . When
SUFFIX FINAL DELETION occurs, two possible shapes sur�ace: HHM or HMM. The
f ormer i s more �requent .
( 70 ) a . HHM
vlnlu
vUnmi
' cr ic kets '
caral")£
c'r'mi
' orPhans '
' pal m nuts '
sli7lin£
b . HMM
t6u
r\jliline
t6umi
' caterpi l l ars '
' stone
When SUFFIX INITIAL DELETION takes pl ace, a9ai n both HHM and HMM are possi b l e
1 15
tonal shapes of the noun � though i n this case� the l atter i s more f requent .
(7 1 ) a. Ht1t1
f �al a
' f i sh '
k'el E
' monkey '
s6n l al�
' parakeets '
b . HHM
mP(il u
' sP ider s '
k�nlS
' beads '
what i s haPpeni ng here i s that two Hi gh Mi d sequences are vying for the three
avai lable TBU ' s. Possible reasons for a l ack of an adequate anal ysi s are 1 ) the
tonal nature of Mid tone i n a Hi gh Mi d naun root is unknoNn . 2) l ack of
accurate transcri pt i on . 3 ) arbi trarY, l ex i cal exceptions. or 4) si mpl y free
vari at i on on the part of the SPeakers.
The two Hi gh-Law nouns in the data samPl e behave different l y from each
other.
One opti onal l y mai ntai ns the Low f i nal root tone. the other does not .
(72) a. jS
' pockets '
j661�
s6K�lo. s6x'lo l l
b . s(il �
' f l oors '
It shou l d be noted that since al l Hi gh and Hi gh-Mid tone nouns Possess two
TBU ' s. they are al l ei ther subject to Suf f i x Fi nal or Suf f i x Initial Del eti on .
There are n o i nstances where the enti re suf f i x has been retai ned or reduced.
In summarY . then . i t has been estab l i shed that the Associ at i on Convent i on s
must aPpl y before the segmental delet i on rul es . A s a resu l t . several n e w ru l es
•
----
-
AccuracY of tone transcript i on uncertain .
- --
-
-
-- - ----
- - --
--- - -- ---- --- -----
1 16
are requi red to Provi de �or the reI inking of �reed TBU ' s or tones. Accordi ng to
the d i scussions abovep i t has been seen that these rul es aPpl y i n the �ol l owing
order :
Assoc i ation Convention s
Segmental Deleti ons: SU1� i � I n i t i al Del eti on . Su�� i x Fi nal Del eti on . Suf f i x
Reducti on
Vowel Lengtheni ng
(6S) Contour tone Shi � t
(33) Low tone SPread
OR
( 67) Suff i x High Li nking
<Ch . 2)
(53) Mid tone Del i n k i n 9
<59) Hi gh tone shi f t
(37) Hi gh tone Del i nk i ng (Ch . 2 )
3. Root ton. IONrin9 (Hi 9h o.l .Uon)
One i tem that comPl i cates the analYsi s of the tonal behavi our of nouns wi th
TYPe I I suf f i x es somewhat i s the f requent l oweri ng o� the tone of noun roots
when the suf f i x i s added . Al l types of Mid i n i t i al nouns as wel l as Law-Hi gh
nouns can al so be subject to root tone l owerin9. whi l e Hi gh i n i tial noun roots
a.waa::. l ower . Below are elCamPles of nouns with l owered root tone:
TYPe I
TYPe I I
Mi d
nci - l e
nd-xal e
' bal aPhon . bal aphons '
Weak Mi d
f o-b
.f�-?ol :::l
' debt . debts '
Mi d-Law
U -d�
tar-al e
' l i ana. l i anas '
Low-High
n k�n-Ia
nk�n-?al a t tooth. teeth '
(73) UnderlYi ng
Root Tone
1 17
In order to analYze the behavi our of Root tone Loweri ng, both the tonal and
segmental envi ronment must be consi dered . It wi l l be noted i n the fol lowi ng
discussi on that a H i gh tone suftix seems to Pl aY a rol e in the root tone
l ower i ng ot both nouns and verbs. In addi t i on � examinat i on Ot the data reveals
that root tone l ower i ng i s most common on nouns with ei ther ful l or reduced
TYPe I I sutf i xes , whi l e verY l i ttle root tone l ower i ng occurs on nouns wi th
parti al ly deleted sut f ixes ( i . e. those which have under90ne ei ther Suttix
Ini tial or Sut f i x Fi nal Del eti on . ) .
Let us f i rst consi der the types of tones whi ch have a tendency to lower to
Low tone and attempt to determine whether an under l Yi ng general ization can be
made about them. The examPl es above in (73) i nd i cate that Mi d , weak Mi d , Mi d­
Low and Low-High nouns can al l undergo root tone l ower i ng. One possible waY to
motivate the l oweri ng of the Low-Hi gh tone to Low tone is to si mpl y Posit a
Hi9h del eti on rule:
H -> 0 . When the Hi gh tone is del eted , the Low tone
remai ns. In Chapter 2 , i t was PrOPosed that Mi d tone verbs were underlYi n9l y
Lh, that i s , they Possessed a Low tone on the PrimarY t i er . whi le being sPeci ­
t i ed on the 5ubregi ster t i er tor Hi gh tone. It was sU9gested . there. that Mid
tone verbs were l owered to Low tone through the Process Ot subregi ster H igh
tone del eti on :
h - > 0 . The appl i cati on of thi s rul e then resul ted i n a
remai nin9 Low tone on the Pri marY tier . If the Mi d tones of weak Mi d . Mi d . and
Mid-Low nouns cou l d al l be Posited as Possessi n9 a Low tone on the Pri marY tier
and a High tone on the subregi ster tier . the rul e Ot subre9i ster Hi 9h tone
del eti on cou l d a l so effecti vel Y aPPl y to each Ot these tones to Produce a Low
tone. It must be noted . however . that at thi s poi nt . the underl Yi n9 tone Ot Mi d
tone nouns has not been anal Yzed; theretore the hYPothesis here remains
tentati ve unti l a thorough i nvestigation Ot Mi d tone nouns is made in ChaPter
1 18
5. Assumin9 that the hYPothesis is correct. however . we see that the 1 0wer i n9
of both Low-Hi 9h and Mi d i n i ti al nouns can be tri 9gered by a Hi 9h Del eti on rul e
for the former t h e del eti on of the Hi 9h tone on the Pri marY tier . whi le the
second set under90es the del eti on of the subre9ister Hi 9h tone. Si nce these twa
Processes paral l el each other i n behavi our . l et us ProPose a sin9le rul e to
cover for both. l abel ed si mPl y. the Hi9h Del eti on rule.
Thi s Hi 9h Del eti on rul e wi l l not onl Y i nd i cate that the Hi 9h tone to be
del eted can be on ei ther ti er . it must al so i ndi cate another fact that al l of
these prOPosed under l Yi n9 tones have in common . namel Y a Low tone. In al l
cases. a Low tone i s found on the Pri marY t i er ei ther ad jacent to a Pri marY
tier Hi 9h tone or l i n ked by a Hi9h tone on the subre9i ster tier . Wi th this
i nformat i on . the f ol l owi ng rul e i s PrOPosed :
(74) HIGH DELETION: Delete a Hi 9h tone on the Pri marY or subre9i ster tier i f a
Pri marY Low tone i s found to the left of a pri marY Hi 9h tone
or
l i nked to a
subre9i ster Hi9h tone.
< H. h > -> 0 I L
___
L
I
The examPl es 9 i ven bel ow show how thi s rul � woul d work :
M : nci-dle
I
L
J
®
ML:
U ral e
'"
L L
V
®
Once the root tone i s l owered to Low tone. i ts tonal behavi our i s i denti cal
--- ,----- ------- ---- -------- ---, -,
----
119
to that o� under l Y i ng Low tone roots i n that the Low tone o� the root spreads
onto the Hi gh tone of the TYPe I I suf� i x . as shown in the examPl e bel ow .
(76)
nci - xale -> nc � - xale -> nc� - xale
I I
,
I I
I
L , "' l
L
H M
L
H M
L
H M
I
I
" bal aPhons ,
I
®
h
AC
L SPREAD
H DELETION
(77) nk�n - ?al a --> n k�n - ?al a --> nk� - � a --> nk� - ?ala
�
� -�
AC
t 1�
{® � �
" teeth '
....
L-SPREAD
HIGH-DELETION
Si nce Hi gh Del eti on does Provi de the envi ronment �or Low tone SPread . i t
must then b e ordered before the Low tone Spread rul e. Thi s rul e order i ng i s in
contrast to the Hi gh Del i n ki ng rul e i ntroduced i n Chapter 2 . where a Low tone
Spreadi ng onto a Hi gh tone TBU contri butes to the envi ronment needed f or High
Del i nki ng. Recal l that when an i ncompletive suf�ix has been sub j ect to Low tone
sPreadi ng. the Hi gh tone i s del i nked i f i t i s fol l owed by a Hi gh tone ncun
c l ass cl i ti c . as i s shown i n the example bel ow :
wu Ya xa k�-an ryda -> wu Ya xa k�-�n ryaa
(78 )
I
M
I I
M
H
�'1
L H
LOW SPREAD
V
H
I
M
I
M
I
H
V\ V
L
' He is gi ving i t to hi m '
H H
HIGH DELINKING
The two examPl es gi ven bel ow. have the same under l Y i ng tonal shaPes. Yet one
undergoes High del eti on (a) . whi l e the other . for unknown l ex i cal reasons. i s
- ----
-
---
--
----
--- ---- -- --- -
120
exempt �rom Hi 9h Del etion . Instead , i t under90es Hi9h Del inkin9 < b ) .
( 79) a. n k�n - ?al a --> nk�n - � l a --> n k� - ?'l a --> nk� - ?ala
A
LH
/\
L@
I I
H M
I I
H M
HIGH-DELETION
b . 9b�n -xal o -> 9b�n -xal o
1',
LH
1 /
H M
"
LH
I I
L ., ' l I
L
" teeth '
H M
L-SPREAD
" 9ranarY '
H M
H DELINKING
These two rul es c l earl Y Yi el d d i � t erent resul ts. In the t i rst . the t i nal
output i s LMM whi l e in the second . i t is LHM. It Hi9h Del eti on were ordered
atter Low tone sPread. the der i vati on wou l d Yi eld the same resul ts as Hi 9h
Del inkin9. i l l ustrated i n ( 79b ) above. I n this set at examples. then . the
Pri marY ditterence between Hi 9h Del i nk i n9 and Hi gh Del eti on is where they are
ordered in resPect to Low tone SPread i n 9 . Hi 9h Del eti on takes place at a
l ex i cal l evel at the der i vati on . whereas Hi 9h Del i nk i n9 can take Place at both
the lex i cal and the Phrasal l evel .
The above di scussion has centered around how the tonal nature ot Mi d i n i t i al
and Low-Hi9h tones can contri bute to the phenomenon o� root tone Lower i n9. now
known as Hi9h tone Del et i on . There are . however , envi ronmental �actors, both
tonal and se9mental . whi ch al so seem to be Present when the root tone o� the
noun is l owered to Low tone. The t ol l owi n9 di scussion wi l l examine each of
these factors in an attemPt to determi ne whether they shou l d be consi dered i n
the formu l ation ot the Hi 9h Del eti on rule.
Let us consi der f i rst the tonal envi ronment tor the Hi 9h Del eti on rul e . Hi 9h
Del eti on occurs on nouns when the noun root i s tol l owed by a Hi 9h i ni tial TYPe
----_ . _--_..
-
.-
_.------
121
I I su�� i x . When one recal l s that Hi 9h Del eti on on verb roots al so takes Pl ace
when �ol l ow.d by the Hi 9h tone i ncomPl eti ve su��i x as i n (80) , one be9ins to
susPect that PerhaPs a Hi gh tone suf � i x i s a cruci al �actor in the aPpl i cati on
o� High tone del etion .
ka- an - > k�-� --> k�-an
( 80 )
I
L
I
\
I I
H
V\
L H
L
I
' gi ve - i ncompl eti ve J
H
®
h
H-DELETION
L-SPREAD
The ProPosed revi sion o� the �ul e wou l d then i ncl ude the sti Pul at i on that
Hi 9h Del eti on takes place when � ol l owed by a Hi gh tone su�� i x , as shown below:
( 81 ) HIGH DELETION: Delete a Hi gh tone o� the Pri marY or subre9i ster t i er i �
a
pri marY Low tone is �ound to the l eft o� a Pri marY High tone or l i n ked to a
subregi ster Hi gh tone, and fol l owed by a Hi gh i n i t i al suf f i x .
{H, h > - > 0 / L
___
L
1
[suH i x ]
Note agai n that the envi ronment f or Hi gh tone deletion i s surPr i si n9l y si mi l ar
to that requi red tor Hi gh del i nk i ng. In both cases, the High tone i s del eted or
del inked when f ol l owed by another Hi gh tone. As menti oned above. however . Hi gh
Del eti on is l i mi ted to aPPI Yin9 at the word l evel , whi l e Hi gh Del i nkin9 can
take Pl ace across word boundar i es and the two are ordered d i ��erentI Y with
respect to Low SPread .
Examinat i on o� the data shows that not � words with Mid i n i t i al or Low­
Hi 9h tones are subject to Hi 9h del et i on when fol l owed by the Hi 9h i n i tial TYPe
----
----
-
--
--
- - --
---- -
- - -- - -- --- - -
---
---
-
---- ----
122
I I su�� i x . Ei ther the choice �or High Del eti on is pri mari l v arbi trarv or else
there i s another envi ronmental �actor to take i nto consi deration . The data
gi ven an the �ol l owi ng Pages shows that the segmental envi ronment seems to Pl av
a rol e i n determi n i ng whi ch Mi d i n i tial and Low-High tones are sub ject to H i gh
Del et i on .
I t was noted i n the i ntroduc t i on to thi s sect i on that Root tone lower i n g
( now high Delet i on ) occurs al most wi thout excePti on a n nouns wi th reduced
su� � i xes and on nouns with �ul l su�� i xes. whi l e tone l ower i ng is l ess l i ke l v
on nouns w i t h part i al l v del eted su�� ixes. The three subsections bel ow describe
(a) Tone l oweri ng wi th Reduced Su�� i xesp ( b ) Tone l ower i ng wi th tul l su� � i x and
#
( c ) Parti al Su� � i x Del eti on and resi stance to tone l oweri ng.
A-
Hith o.l.ti an wi th Suffix �uctian
When
Tvpe II c l ass su� � i x under9Des Su� � i x Reduction . the root tone i s
a
al ways Law tone. Anv Mi d . weak Mi d . Mi d-Low. or Low-Hi gh nouns whi ch undergo
Su� f i x Reducti on are also subject to Hi gh Del et i on .
(82) Mi d-Low
C l ass 2
Cl ass 1
a. n3
n � -i
' cow. cows '
b . P3n
p�-un
' dog. dogs '
c. to
B -i
' t ather. fathers '
d . ceewi
ce-e
' woman . women '
e. toB
te-e
' chie� . chi eh '
Mi d-LON
Cl ass 6
Cl ass 5
Weak Mi d
----- ----
-
----
-
' eye. eves '
ny�-i
� . nveU
Cl ass 6
-
----
No Su� f i x Reduction
-----
---- ---
-- - - -- ------
-----
123
No Su.f .f i x Reduct i on
Mid
Low-Hi9h
Cl ass 5
Cl ass 6
9. s�l�
s�-o
- mi l l et s9. and pl . '
h
.fu-un
- Peanut . peanuts '
i . baa
b�-l e
' 9round Pea. 9round Peas '
j . man@
lIa-ne
' sweet ground Pea. sweet 9round peas '
•
.f �n l a
Bath Cebara and SuPYi re experi ence root tone l ower i ng on Mi d Low nouns
whi ch have reduced su.f.f i x es.
Interesti ngl y. Mi l l s ( 1 984) and Car l son ( 1 980 )
have chosen the same examPles to i l l ustrate thi s l ower i ng. Root tone l ower i ng
(Hi gh Del et i on ) al so takes Pl ace i n the Sucite cognates o.f these words. as seen
below:
Cebara
SuPYi re
Suci te
Engl i sh
a. P:dn. P:hn:::J
PPun. ppu-un
P�n . pUun
" dog. dogs '
b . c:::J I :::J� . cabal a
cae-we. ci-e
c�. c�e
' woman . women '
c . si kaa. si kaal a
si ka. si kxa-a
si ki. si kla
" goat . 90ats '
(83)
In compounds, onl Y roots i n
The l atter ex ampl e i s comPound i n structure-
contact with the su.f .f i x are suscept i b l e to tone l ower i ng.
Carl son ( 1 980)
states that in SuPYi re. most o.f the Mi d Low nouns exPeri ence Root tone l ower­
ing. Mi l l s ( 1 984 ) cal l s root tone l oweri ng " i rregul ar " . but states that manY
"lll. c:lass and some i!LU. c l ass nouns" acquire a Low-Mi d pattern , wi thout
i denti.fYin9 the ori 9i nal tone o.f the root . Her exampl es show Hi gh . Mid. and
Mi d-Low noun roots that have exPeri enced tone l owerin9.
----
-
----
-_.
--
-
- - --- -
--- ---
-- - -_. _ -
-
--_._-- -------
1 24
b. Hi gh D.I .tion with Ful l Su��ix
Hi 9h Del eti on al so tends to occur on noun roots wi th the �ul l 5U�� i x .
(94) Mi d-Low
Cl ass 6
a. ci l t}
d -xal e
Weak M i d
Cl ass 6
" th i gh , thighs '
b . ')m:lb
')m�-?:Jb
" kni �e, kni ves '
c . �ob
��-?ob
" debt , debts '
Mi d
Class 6
d . nci l a
nci -xsl e
" bal aphon , bal aPhons '
e. l al a
U-xal a , h-xttla
' PregnancY, Pregnanci es '
� . IlImal a
IlImi-?al a
" bud. buds '
9. Pel E
P�-xal£
" bowl , bowl s '
Low-Hi gh
Cl ass 6
h. l ill 8
l �-xal o
" shea nut , shea nuts '
i . nkin I a
nkin-?an l a
' toot h , teeth '
except i on :
j . 9b�U
9bdn-x'1 0
' granarY, granar i es '
Al l weak Mi d nouns (except �or a COUPl e of possi b l e contradi ctorY cases )
take the � u l l i ndef i n i te 5Ut� i lC and al l ot them undergo Hi9h Delet i on . There
are no weak Mi d Cl ass 2 nouns. Cebara has one example, i n i ts l i st Ot i rregu lar
Plural s , of a cognate o� a Suc i te weak mid noun wh i ch l owers when a Class 2
suH i x i s added :
Cebara
(95)
'):ln� . ')�?�n�
Suci te
Engl i sh
')m:l l � , ')m�?al o " kni �e. kni ves '
It is not known i � there i s a tonal categorY o� nouns i n Cebara whi ch
----- - ----
-
--
-
---- -----
----- ------
125
corresPonds to the ' weak Mi d ' categorY of Suci te. Weak Mi d nouns do ex i st i n
SuPYi re. In fact , i t was Carl son who i ntroduced the term Weak Mi d . Of the few
Weak Mid examPles that Carl son Provi des. onl Y one one d i d not undergo root tone
Lowering.
(86) SuPYire
Cl ass 1
Cl ass 2
f ya
.fy�-a
' f i sh . pl . '
shi n
shi -i n
' Persons '
Class 5
c.
SEn-I:
sil')-i i
' sti ngs '
l a-a
U-h i i
c Pregancies '
Partial Suffix n.l .ti an and Resi .tance to Hi gh Del eti on
It has al so been observed that when a suf f i x has undergone ei ther Suffix
Ini t i al Deletion or Suf f i x Fi nal Del eti on . the noun roots are l ess l i kel Y to
undergo High Del eti on . In the examPl es below, the few nouns wh i ch do undergo
High Del eti on are marked i n bol d .
( 87) a. Mid-Low Cl ass 2 nouns
ji
jaU a
' sons '
sHn
sH n h
' fami lY. rel ati ves '
kal t
kal j}l t
' gods '
b . Mi d-Low Cl ass 6 nouns
kud�
ku <x ) tlx i
' roads '
nj i dj}
n j i r�l e
' tongues '
njedi
nj*".le
' ! iver. '
i:id�
tr.l e
' U an•• '
----
-- - --
- -------- ----
-------
1 26
c . Mi d Class 2 nouns
gba
gba-aI a
H in
f i { nl e . f i €nmi ' bl i nd Persons '
cal au
cal 'l a
' Pi gs. pork '
Paru
por'l o
C daughters '
' ri vers '
d . Mi d Cl ass 6 Nouns
led.
l ir.l,
' u .... '
nYen,
nv""i
' horns '
tile
t i < x ) 'K i
C crests o� cocks '
SE nE
sd,)i
c st i ngs '
nti de
nteral e
C bats '
mpudo
mPorala
c horn trumpets '
•
•U"i
e . Law-Hi9h Cl ass 6 Nouns
mgbi l @
mgb i { ')i
C threshing or beating st i c ks '
mpill e
mP�6')i
Chills'
ntUn I a
ntMn,)i
c baskets (f:i ght l y woven ) '
ar�
nr'l a
c wi nnowi ng baskets '
p.u �
p,U'mi
' pai l s '
Previ ous to f:he di scussion of the segmental envi ronment . it was menti oned
f:hat High Del ef:i on takes Pl ace before Low tane SPreadi ng.
so
that the deri ved
Low tone can al so tri gger Low tone SPreading. Now we need to ex ami ne the rul e
ordering of segmental del eti ons and High Del ef:i on . I n the above descri pti on i t
was assumed that High Del eti on fol l owed s�gmental deletion . However . before
argu i ng for thi s rule orderi n9. l et us take a lock at the vi ab i l i ty of order i ng
High Del eti cn before segmental del et i ons.
----- ---
-
----
- -----
--- -- -- ------
----
127
Most nenderi ved Lew tene reots take Part i al l y del eted suffixes. whi l e most
deri ved Low tone roots take f u l l or reduced suff i xes. If Hi gh Del eti on were
ordered f i rst . there wou l d be no waY to dist i ngu i sh deri ved Low tones frem Low
tone roots. and thus no waY to Pred i ct that the deri ved Lew tone roots tend te
ept for ful l er reduced suf f i xes. whi l e underl Y i ng l ew tene roots prefer
Parti al l y del eted suf f i xes. In add i t i on . i f Hi gh Del eti en occurred f i rst .
decidi ng whi ch Mi d . Mi d-Low . er Lew-Hi gh tone reot to l ewer to Low tene wou l d
be Primar i l y an arbi trarY dec i s i on .
On -the other hand. order i ng Hi gh Deletion after segmental del eti on wou l d
bri ng some Predi ctabi l i ty t o t h e rul es. Whi l e the tYPe of segmental del eti en
wou l d be Partial l y an arbitrarY dec i si on . once the del etions are made. High
Del eti en wou l d be ebl i gatorY on anY Mi d i n i ti al or Low-High noun wi th a f u l l
suff i x or a reduced suff i x , and rare on such neun roots wi th Part i al l y del eted
suffi xes .
With the segmental Del et i ons rul e ordered before High del et i on . then . one
can now use segmental informati on i n the formul ation ef the High Del eti on rul e.
The revised Hi gh Del etion rul e gi ven bel ow in (as) wou l d new i ncl ude the
i nformat i en that High Del eti on occurs on nouns wi th ful l or reduced suff i xes.
(88) HIGH DELETION: Delete a Hi gh tene
on
the Pri marY or subre9i ster t i er if a
Pri marY Lew tene i s f eund to the left of a Pri marY Hi gh tone or l i nked to a
subregister Hi gh tone. and fol l owed by a High i n i tial suff i x . If the suf f i x i s
l --'\+
a nomi nal suff i x . i t must have undergene ei ther n o segmental al terati on or el se
have undergone Suf f i x Reduct i on .
<H. h } - > 0 I L
L
_I
----
-
---
.-
---
H
(suH i x - i f N. then ful l er reduced )
--_ ._- --
--------
_._-
------
128
Thi s rul e maY seem somewhat odd in that i t i nc l udes not on l Y tonal i nformat i on
but al so se9mental and morphol ogical i n�ormati on as wel l . However . at thi s
Poi nt , these are Precisel y the �actors that seem t o govern Hi gh tone del et i on .
Below i s a H nal examPl e i l l ustrati ng the ordering � Hi gh Del eti on after
segmental del .t i on and b�ore Low tone SPread .
(89) sO - xal o -->
I I
"
LH
H
M
' mi l l ef: '
siS
A
LH
-0
f\
HM
SUF RED
--> sCi 6
A t\
t.® HM
H-DELETION
-> sCl6 -->
t' l\
sCio
L HM
L-SPREAD
Thi s compl etes a lengthy di scussion of the TYPe I I i ndef i ni te suf � i x . whi ch
are found on the two Plural noun cl asses. 2 and 6. We have seen that there are
several factors affecting the tone of nouns wi th TYPe I I i ndef i n i te suf f i x es.
Fi rst of al l . the tone of the root can alter the tone o{ the suf f i x . SPeci fi cal l y . the Low tone of the root can sPread onto the Hi gh tone of the suff i x .
Secondl y , the tYPes of segmental del et i ons that take Place not on l Y hel P to
determi ne how the remai ning tones and TBU ' s can be reI i nked ; they can al so Pl ay
a rol e i n tri gger i ng Hi gh tone del eti on (or Root tone Loweri ng ) of the noun
root tone.
IV. THE DEFINITE SUFFIX
Th i s secti on di scusses the structure and tonal behavi our of the Def i n i t e
suff i x . Si nce the structure of the def i n i te suf f i x of the TYPe I nouns i s
somewhat d i f� erent f rom that of TYPe I I nouns. they shal l be di scussed seParatel Y .
Thei r tonal behavi our . however . i s si mi lar enough that i t shal l b e
d i scussed together i n one subsecti on .
---- -- - -- -------
--- .----- --
129
A.
structure
TyPe I
-
The De� i ni te �orm � TYPe I nouns, that i s. nouns whi ch take the TYPe I
i nde� i n i te su�� i x . i s deri ved by repl aci ng the i nde� i n i te with the de� i ni te
suff i x . In the chart bel ow, the def i n i te �orm of the noun i s gi ven beneath the
i ndef i n i te form . Those nouns wh i ch have a 0 i ndef i ni te suf f i x are gi ven i n the
f i rst row, whi l e. those wi th -CV and (N) CV su��i xes are gi ven i n the succeedi ng
rows .
Noun Cl ass
( 90)
Suf f i x
1 ( wi' >
3 ( ki )
4 ( Yi )
5 <l i )
7 <H )
0
ji <33>
ni <3>
na-Y.l
o
o
ji-l')e
" sCin '
ni-ke
" H re '
ni-nY£
" f i res '
ce-w� < 1 >
b -xt <33>
te-Y�
c i -a <37>
su-ro< 1 9)
ta-be < 1 >
H-ke
" Pl ace '
i:e-nY£
" Pl aces '
ci i -ne
" th i gh '
su-te
" mush '
ta-be
" med i c i ne '
s£-n£ <5>
koo-no < 1 >
s£-n'
' st i ng '
koo-nde
" cot.ton '
CV
ce�l')e
' woman '
<N) CV c�n-"� < 1 >
-----
c�n"e
' antel ope '
wYe-,,� <25>
wYil")-ge
" l eaf '
wYen ' y�
wyinY£
' l eaves '
juu <2>
j uub'
" speech '
sa-m� ( 10)
sa-mbe
" sorghum beer '
The TYPe I def i ni te su� f i x is comPosed of a consonant. i ndi cat. i ng noun c l ass
and de� i n i t.eness and a Mi d f ront vowel . General l y . the consonants of the
i ndef i n i te and def i n i te suff i x of the same noun cl ass are at. the same Poi nt. of
arti culat i on . whi l e the manner of articulat i on maY varY.
For examPl e. the
consonants i n Cl asses 3 and 7 suff i xes are converted from [-stop) to [ +stop)
(x -> k. r -> t ) .
Thi s cont.rasts with the d i al ectal variat i on f ound i n some
nei ghbouring vi l l ages < Kol oko> as wel l as <to the west ) across the border i n
Mal i . where Cl asses 3 and 7 def i ni te suf f i x consonant.s remai n the same as those
of the i ndefi n i te suff i x .
---
-
---
--
.-
- -
----
- - - -- - - -- ------
1 30
Dial ectal vari at i on
(91 ) Kotoura Sucite
gba-xa� gba-k' (3)
gba-xa� gba-x'
" the house '
su-rO, s\l-t:e (7)
su-ro. s\l-re
" the mush (main di sh ) ' -
Noun stems with � i nal nasal s cause voi cing o� voi cel ess consonant suf f i x es
o� Classes 3 and 7:
( 92) �uN ke (3)
--> �a�-ge
kOoN-te (7) --> keen-de
' i nside '
' cotton '
Aside �rom the nasal in� l uence of some noun roots. nasal i ty seems to be a
feature for the def in i te suffixes of Cl asses 1 , 4 and 5. Instead of a [ +stopl
consonant rePl aci ng a [-stop] consonant� as i s the case for Classes 3 and 7, a
nasal consonant i n the def i n i te suff i x is at the same poi nt of art i c u l ation as
i ts i ndef i n i te counterPart. Thi s is i l l ustrated bel 0... .
(93)
Cl ass
Inde H n i t:e C
Exampl e
Def i n i te C
Engl ish
1
w
�
ce-...d. ce�-�e
• woman ,
4
y
nY
te-yt . ti-nYe
· Pl aces '
5
1
n
ci-a� cU-ne
" thigh '
When a Cl ass 5 noun is suff i x ed for def i niteness. the vo...el of the root is
l engthened . It i s Possi ble, in thi s case. that the i nd� i ni te suf f i X was n ever
total l Y del eted; with the add i t i on of the def i nite suff i x , the -1- droPPed out
creat i ng a 1 0n9 vowel 12• In SuPYire, this i ndef i n i te -1- never does show uP on
the surface.
(94)
Sucit:e
SuPYi re
Indef i n i te
9ben-1 8
9bu-un
' granarY '
Def i ni te
gbOOn-n'
gbuun-n�
" the granarY '
Vowel lengtheni ng does occur sPoradical l y i n the defi n i te suf f i x at i on of other
131
noun cl asses.
However. there does not seem to be anY predi ctable pattern as i s
found i n the Class 5 nouns.
The d i sYl l ab i c roots fol l ow the same Pattern of defini te suffixat i on .
The
onl Y excePti on i s i n the case of Cl ass 5 nouns whi ch have the extended -rV­
root .
Unl i ke monosYl l ab i c Class 5 nouns whi ch seem to retain some sembl ance of
the i ndef i n i te suf f i x when addi n9 the def i ni te suff i x . these nouns droP both
the f i nal sYl l able of the noun root. -�-, and the i ndef i n i te suf f i x before
addi n9 the def i ni te suff i x .
(95) k�de [ kUr�-I�J ->
k�-ne
' the chai r ' *k�-�-na
*k�r�-ne
Below is chart ( 96) with the deH n i te forms of disYl labic nouns. Pl ease refer
to (8) fqr En9l i sh 910sses.
1 (wi )
(96)
-1 - IND fol� (22)
DEF foU-l')e
-r-
r-V (N)
5 (l i )
7 (b )
9balax� <7)
9b�la-ke
�9uraxo < 12>
k�d� < 14>
sara-I')�
�9ura-k€!
k�-ne
c�r�l'), < 1 >
nk�ral')� <2>
feramE <2>
c�ra-I')€!
nk�ra-1')ge
fera-mb€!
?-V (N)
kan?a <6>
s�?�l � < 1 >
kCl?ClrCl <1 >
kan?a-ke
s.?e-ne
kCl?CI-te
nYa?al')a (6)
se?enE < 1 >
nYa?�-1')ge
se?e-ne
fYQx� <2>
tux urCl <2>
.fyQx�-')e
tux�-te
x-V <N)
nd�xan� < 1 >
nd�xa-nde
-----
._--_.
-
8 (Pi )
saru < 1 0>
-?-
-x-
3 ( ki )
.--
.-
.- - ------
-'--'- -- -- -- ._- ---
1 32
B. structure
-
TYpe II
npun.
The Def i n i te Suf t i x es of TYPe I I nouns are si mi l ar i n structure to the
def i ni te suf f i x of TYPe I nouns in that the i n i t i al consonant of the suf f i x i s
a t the same Pai nt 0+ art i culat i on a s the consonant a t the i ndef i n i te sutti x .
Thus tar class 2 . the det i n i te suf f i x i s b i l ab i al . as shown below i n ( 97a) and
t or Class 6. i t i s vel ar .
(97) Class Indef i n i te C
Det i ni te C
Indet .
Det i n i te
a. 2
m. b
->
b
"n�-mi. -> ?lnaa-m-bi ' sons '
b. 6
x
->
k
P�18l.a. -> P�-lC�-1d.
' bodi es '
In ci tation form. as gi ven i n ( 97) . i t apPears that the det i n i te suf f i x at
TYPe I I nouns i s monosYl l ab i c .
However . when tol l owed by a vowel i n i t i al
morPheme. such as the verbal parti cle, l. whi ch coal esces to the t i nal vowel at
the subject. one observes the aPPearance of an -1-. as seen below.
( 98 ) Cl ass 6
nYU -1d. ' eyes '
nYU -k11.a-.l wU y �
' the eYes hurt hi m '
" the goats have gone aut '
Thi s observati on l eads to the hYPothesi s that the underlYi ng shaPe of these
suff i x es are; Cl ass 2
-
bill and Cl ass 6
-
k1li13 •
Instead of rePl acing the i ndef i n i te suf f i x wi th the def i n i te suff i x . as was
the case for TYPe I nouns. TYPe I I def i n i te nouns are f ermed by add i ng the
def i ni te suf t i x to an i ndef i ni te suf f i xed noun stem. Thus. for the noun al:L
' eyes ' . the def i ni te form i s nl-l -ki . However, when the i ndef i n i te suf f i x
consists of two TBU ' s . the add i t i on of the def i ni te suf t i x causes the reduction
of the two TBU suf f i x to one TBU, as shown i n ( 99) .
---_ .
-- -
.-
.- - ---
-----
1 33
(99) p� - xalo - k! -> p� - x� - k{
Ind
Root
" the bod i es '
De-F
The e-F-Fect i � t.hat de-F i n i.t:e TYPe I I nouns consistent l Y have onl Y three TBU ' s.
the -F i rst TBU bei ng reserved -For the noun root . the second tor the i nde-F i n i te
su-F f i x . and the thi rd fer the def i n i te suff i x . Below are examPles o-F waYs the
i ndel i n i te suf -F i x of Cl ass 6 nouns is reduced to one mora when fol l owed by a
def i n i t e suffi x .
( 1 00)
Cl ass 6
CL 5 IND
CL 6 IND
CL 6 DEF
a. p�l �
p�-xolo
P�-x�-k!
" bodY. trun k '
b . col �
c�-?ol o
c�-?�-k!
" cl ay Pot '
c. j i de
j�r�-I')i
j�r�-I')-g! " breast '
d. sE nE
s£i-I')i
sE f-l')-g{
" sti ng '
e. t i l e
tH-x i
t i -x i-k!
" cock ' s crest '
f . H da
kira-I e
H r-�-k!
" countrY '
9. kud�
ku�-l< i
ku-x�-k!
" rule. road '
h. cedE
cer�lt
cer-i-k!
" cal abash� gourd '
i . nYel a
nYi -i
nYi -i-k!
" eYe '
Whatever
-Iv
suf f i x i n9 there was i n the i ndet i ni te torm i s del eted wi th the
addi ti on ot the del i n i te sutt i x .
However. the i n i t i al sYl lable of the i ndef i ­
nite sut t i x tends t o b e mai ntai ned ( examPl es a, b ) . I n the case ot the nasal i z ed
i ndef i n i te suff i x . the nasal i s retained and as a resul t . i t causes voi cin9 of
the Cl ass 6 defi n i te sut f i x consonant ( c, d ) . The extended -rV- roots tend to
- ---- ------- -------
-----
134
retai n thi s extensi on . causi ng the segmental del eti on o� the ent i re i nde� i ni te
suH b ,
(� . h ) . Therc� i s , however , one instance oF the -rV- del et i ng. al l owing
the � i rst sYl l ab l e o� the i nde� i n i te suf� i x to remain (g) .
Cl ass 2 nouns undergo the same tYPe of segmental reduction Processes. as
seen bel ow:
( 1 01 )
Cl ass 2
Cl l IND
Cl 2 IND
Cl 2 DEF
a. j 9
j66-b
j6a-b!
' Poc:ket '
b . fY;(a
fyaa-I a
h-aa-bf
' H sh '
c . PUn
P�an-I a
p��-b!
' al l i gator? '
d . Poru
Por6-l o
Para-bi
' daughter '
56n l a-b
s6nl a-bf
' parakeet '
f . �n'a
"n""-mi
"n�a-m-b{
•
g. n3
n i -i
n i -i -b f
" mother '
a.
s6n l u
scorPion ,
c. D!finit. Syffix Iqn.
The tone of the def i ni te suf f i x vari es according to the noun oF the root .
For both TYPe I and TYPe I I nouns. the def i n i t e su�� i x i s Mi d tone when
Preceded by Low f i nal and H i gh tone roots and High tone when Preceded by a Mi d
f i nal or a Low-High noun. Examples for TYPe I def i ni te nouns are gi ven bel ow in
( 101 ) . Note that the ent i re contour of Mi d-Low nouns i s l i nked to the noun root
when fol l owed by a def i n i te suff i x ( b ) , whi l e Law-hi 9h nouns l i nk onl y the Low
tone of the contour to the root . Thi s contrast i n behavi our wi l l be explai ned
shortlY.
._-_.
-
.-
_ . _- _..
---
--_. _-- -------
135
( 102) TYPe I Nouns
Root tone
IndeH n i te
-->
DeH n i te
m�l a-I')e
' ri ce '
.f:u-I')� -->
.f:iln-ge
' i nside '
c . Hi gh-Low
sCt-l� -->
slJCt-ne
< .f: l oor '
d . Hi gh
.f:'l'-d ->
f.l ..ke
' rack '
e· Mid
gba-xa -->
gba-ke
' hause '
.f. Mi d III
sa-xe -->
sa-ke
' bush '
g. Hi gh-Mi d
.f� ->
f �a-I')e
' H sh '
h . Law-Hi gh
9b�n-l g -->
gbililn-ne
' granarY '
a. Low
m�B
b . Mi d-Low
In certain cases to be d iscussed i n Chapter 5, a Law tone root becomes Mi d
tone when Preceded by another Mi d tone ward . When thi s happens, the def i n i te
' Your rice. '
Recal l that TYPe I I def i n i te nouns are formed by add i ng a de.f: i ni te suf f i x to
an i ndef i n i te suff i xed noun . Si nce al l TYPe I I i ndef i n i te noun stems end i n a
Mid tone, the def i n i te suff i x , when added to TYPe I I nouns. i s Predi ctab l Y Hi gh
tone. The examPles i n ( 1 03) . ( 104) , ( 1 05) , and ( 1 06) make thi s Poi nt clear . In
each set of exampl es. the i ndef i n i te si ngular < of Classes 1 and 5) for each
Type I I noun (Pl ural classes 2 and 6) is gi ven . fol lowed by the i ndef i ni te form
of the Type I I noun . and f i nal l y in the r i ght hand col umn . by the def i n i te TYPe
I I ncun .
The examPles i n ( 103) are nouns wi th a Mid tone noun root. The Hi gh-Mid
tones of the i nde.f i ni te suf f i x are bath l i nked to the second TBU of the
def in i te noun. In the structural descri pt i on of the TYPe I I def i n i te noun i t
was shown that the noun root . the i ndef i n i te su.f.f i x . and the def i ni te suf f i x
136
are each 9i ven a si n9l e mora. In the examPl es bel ow. i t wi l l be noted that
there are no segments that cou l d be l abel ed as bel ongi n9 to the i ndef i n i te
suff i x .
Yet . the tone of the i ndef i ni te suf f i x sti l l shows uP on the second
TBU. The same is true for the nouns wi th Low-Hi gh noun roots found i n ( 1 04) .
( 1 03) M-HM -> M-HM-H
Ind 99.
Ind . Pl .
Def . Pl .
a· 9ba
9baal a
gbaibf
' r i ver '
b . ntide
nter'l e
nterSH
' bat '
c . cal ou
cal'l a
calSbf
' Pi g '
a. m9b i l @ mgb i f�i
m9b) l�gf
' threshi n9 sti ck '
b . f�ra
f�ribf
' wi nnowin9 basket '
( 104) L-HM -> L-HM-H
f�r'l a
Hi 9h-Mi d nouns i nvar i abl y have onl Y a Mi d tone l i nked to the second TBU.
( 105) H-HM or HM-M -> H-M-H
a. mgbfn@
ngbin'l e
m9bf nabf
' bamboo mat '
b . jS
j661 �
j60bf
' pocket '
c . f�a
f�al a
fy'abf
' fi sh '
d . se?enE
se?el')gf
Low tone noun roots exh i bi t sl i 9h t l y different behavi our . Recal l that the
Low tone Spreadi n9 rul e SPreads the Low tone of the root onto the High tone of
the i ndef i n i te suff i x . creati n9 a surface Mi d tone.
When a def i ni te suff i x i s
added to such a noun stem. as shown bel ow i n ( 106) , the def i n i te suff ix i s
PredictablY Hi 9h tone. However , the tone of the second TBU i s ogi Mid tone, as
--- - - --- - -- -- ---
------ -- --
-
1 37
mi ght be expected, but rather Law tone. The reader is asked to refer to ChaPter
5 for a ProPosed anal Ysi s of thi s behavi our .
( 1 06 )
L-MM
or
LL-M -> L-L-H
a. d
c�ob
c��b{
" net '
b . "m� U
"m��"i
"m��"g{
" carner, angl e '
c · k l d�
k l ral e
k�dk{
" countrY '
d . l lll �
l �x ol o
l �x�k£
" bi l e '
e. ceewt
c�e
c�b{
" woman '
f . njed�
nj�rale
nj�dk!
" tongue '
9. gbonB
gb�n?:Jb
9b�n?�k{
" fi rePl ace '
h . fob
f�?ob
f�?�k{
" debt '
i . nci l e
nd xal e
nd d k1
' balaPhon '
j . n k�nI a
nk�n?an l a
nk�n?�nk{ " tooth '
The und.rI Yin9 tone 01 the d� i n i t. suffi x i s not at al l strai ghtforward .
Al thou9h the def i ni te suffi x tone i s ei ther High or Mi d tone on the surface, i t
al so seems t o Possess a f i nal f l oati ng Low tone whi ch never l i nks t o the
suffi x . Thi s is suspected because i t tri ggers the same type of tonal behavi our
as other Low f i nal nouns. I t wi l l be seen i n ChaPters 4 and 5 that Low f inal
nouns tri gger Law tone sPread onto adjacent High tone verbs and weak Mi d and
Mi d-Law nouns. Al l def i ni te suffi xed nouns also do thi s regardl ess of whether
the surface def i n i te suffix tone i s Hi gh or Mid. The examPles bel ow shaw that
the def i n i te suf f i x ed noun causes a Hi gh tone verb to become Law-Hi gh .
( 1 07 ) a .
wa� gbak� P�r€ /Plr€/
b . waa m�l a"e P�r€
c.
/p€rl l
waa gbllunn� P�r€ Ipi ri/
" he sol d the house '
' he sol d the r i ce '
' he sol d the granarY '
----�- --�- ---- . ----- . ---. --- -------
1 38
Early observati ons reveal ed that the def i n i te suf f i x tone was one uP from
the f i nal root tone and one down trom a h i gh tone root . I t was c l ear . too. that
the def i n i te suf f i x never had the same tone as the f i nal root tone.
If we were to SUggest that the def i n i te suf f i x tone is Hi 9h CLow) . then the
Presence of a Mid tone after Hi gh tone and Low tone nouns woul d then have to be
expl ai ned . We have al readY ProPosed a Low tone spreadi ng rule in other contexts
where a Low-Hi gh contour was simPl i f i ed to Mid tone. Migh t a Mid tone suf f i x
atter Low tone noun root be a resul t of Low tone sPread onto High tone? Such a
Possi bi l i ty i s i l l ustrated by the examPle below.
' the r i ce '
LOW SPREAD
An observant reader maY recal l that Hi gh tone del i n king takes pl ace i n Phrase
f i nal Pos,Hi on and betore Hi gh tones. The l ack of anY tYPe of High tone
del i nk i n9 tak i ng pl ace here can be eXPl ained by the Pervasi ve Presence of the
ti nal fl oat i ng Low tone.
Low-Hi gh nouns in the det i n i te form Possess onl Y a Low tone root on the
surface.
They are d i st inguished from real Low tone verbs . however . by the fact
that the det i n i te suf f i x is Hi gh tone and not Mi d tone:
( 109)
Ind
Det
Low-Hi gh
bC}-I@ ->
bc}-ne
' ground nut '
Low
bC}l �
bc}-ne
• seed ,
->
Thi s can be easi l y eXPlai ned by the tact that Low-Hi gh roots are not Low f i nal
and therefore do not tri gger Low tone sPreadi ng onto the suff i x . The Low-Hi gh
examPl e i n C l09) i s al so subject to Hi gh tone del i nking rule ( 37 ) i n order to
---- -----
-----
139
simpl i f y the Low-Hi 9h contour before a Hi9h tone. as shown bel ow:
' 9round nut '
b�-n€!
A I
L H H
Thi s Process i s t o be exPected here because both the Low and the Hi 9h are
l i nked to the same TBU. However . the mot i vati on for Hi 9h del inkin9 is not quite
so obvi ous on Low-Hi gh nouns wi th two TSU ' s. such as nd�r�-k'. Soth left to
ri ght and ri ght to l ef t l i nking conventi ons wou l d l i n k nd�r�ke i n the same
manner and Produce the form. nd�r'-k'. However . the f i nal surface form i s not
nd�r6k' but rather nd�rak'. It aPPears then. that i n add i t i on to the l i nking
conventi ons that some morpheme i nternal Low tone sPread ing has been takin9
Place. fol l owed by Hi 9h del inki ng:
( 1 10 )
nd�rp-k€! -> nd�r�-k€!
t// /
L H
H
L SPREAD
V1: /
L H H
' the yam '
H DELINKIN6
Hi gh tone nouns create a Probl em. however.
l ower t o M i d after another Hi gh?
Why woul d a Hi 9h tone suf f i x
There are a couPl e o f cl ues.
In SuPYire of
Farakala (Mal i ) . there i s a verY Productive downsteP rul e. stati n9 that when
two adjacent Hi9h ' s are adj acent to each other . the second automati cal l Y
down stePs to mid (Carl son . 1993) .
We do not have thi s same producti veness i n
Suci te but there are a few hi nts of such a downsteP phenomenon i n word +ormation Processes. Ear l i er . we observed that the truly Senuto (non-l oan ) Hi gh
nouns general l y adopted a HM contour. In addi t i on . Mi l l s ( 1994) states that i n
Cebara. HM i s an al l otone o f Hi gh tone nouns.
Secondl y . there are var i ant
Pronunci at i ons in some i ndef i ni te Hi gh tone Cl ass 4 nouns.
Normal l y. the tonal
Pattern i s HHH but i n some cases, i t maY be HHM. Sel ow is an eXamPle of the
variant tonal Pattern :
------
-
--
- - - - -- -
---- - - -- -
140
mPa�-Ya
�
t.obaccos ' ,
•
Porri dges ,
rat.her t.han t.he expect.ed s�r { -ya
The wards t.hat. accePt. t.hi s var i at. i on are � orced P l ural s . t.hat. i s. Pl ural s o�
wards t.hat. are not. normal l y Pl ural i z ed .
What.ever t.he mot.i vat. i on maY be. t.here seems t o be a k i nd of downstePPin9
Phenomenon (or l ower i n9 of t.he second Hi 9h t.one) in the def i n i te suffi xat i on
Process.
A second al ternat i ve anal Ysi s is to su9gest that the def i n i te suf f i x i s
underlYi n9ly Mi d t.one. I t. has al readY been ProPosed that. Mi d t.one i s a comPosi t.e of t.wo �eat.ures Placed on seParate but. l i n ked t i ers. Thi s wou l d be a
rel at. i vel Y simpl e sol ut.ion for Hi9h and Low tone nouns si nce t.he M i d tone
remains unchanged.
( 1 12) m� a-"e
" t.he r i ce '
V/
L
M (L >
( 1 13) fa l lt-ke
V I
H
" rack '
M (L>
However . aft.er Mi d t.one nouns and Low-Hi9h Nouns. this Mi d tone becomes Hi9h
t.one.
( 1 14 ) 9ba-ke --> 9ba-k�
nd�rlt-ke -> nd�r�-ke
" the rice '
" t.he yam '
Perhaps i f Mi d t.one consi st.ed of a comPl ex � Hi 9h and Low tone f eatures t.his
aPParent. rai sin9 phenomenon cou l d poss i b l y be eXPlai ned by same tYPe of Law
tone del et.i on . Earl i er i n ChaPt.er 2. the Lower i n9 of Mi d t.one verbs to Low tone
was ex plai ned by the Process o� Hi9h delet i on o� the comPl ex Lh tonal feat.ures.
---- ---- - ---
- - - -- ---- ----- -- -- --- -
141
It is possible that some type of Low del eti on Process cou l d be moti vated for
the def i ni te suf f i x . However . at thi s Poi nt. this apProach can not be ade­
quatel Y defended . Therefore . the Problem of the def i n i te suf f i x wi l l be taken
uP agai n when the general tone anal Ysi s of Suc i te has been further devel oped i n
ChaPter 5 .
V.
CONCLUSION
Thi s chapter has been a d i scussi on of noun morPhol ogy and tone.
of i ndefi n i te suff ixes were i dent i f i ed .
Two tYPes
The TYPe I Indef i n i te Suff i x was shown
to Possess no underl Ying tone of i ts own whi l e the Type I I suffi x was posi ted
as havi ng a Hi gh-Mid tone.
Each suff i x tYPe brought wi th i t Probl ems of
assoc i ati ng tone to segments.
mel odi c . i t was gi ven
�
Having establ i shed that nomi nal tone was
seParate t i er . Discussion of the Type I i ndef i n i te
nouns reveal ed the need to change the di recti on of assoc i at i ng tones and TBU ' s
from the conventi onal Left t o Ri ght Linking to Right to Left Li n k i ng.
The vari ous tYPes of segmental del et ions of the Type I I i ndef i nite suff i x
brought u P the i ssue of when tones should be associ ated t o TBU ' s. I t was
establ i shed that the Associ ation Conventions be ordered before the Segmental
del eti ons. As a resu l t . adjustment rules were requi red to l i nk l eftover TBU ' s
and tones. The reader maY refer to p. 1 16 for a l i st of these rul es.
In add i t i on to the probl ems encountered concerni ng the assoc i at i on of tones
to the segments. tonal variation on both noun roots and suff i xes was observed .
The l oweri ng of a Hi gh tone def i n i te suf f i x ( 1 15a) and the Hi gh-Mi d TYPe I I
suf f i x ( 1 1 5b ) to Mi d tone before Low tone roots was explai ned b y ProPosi ng the
Low tone SPread rul e of ChaPter 2 (33 ) . Thi s Low SPread i n9 is i l l ustrated
bel ow.
- --- --------
142
( 1 15)
a. PLlLl-nJ!
It "' I
L
" the body '
b . pa-xal o
�"1 I
L
H
" bodi es '
H M
The Hi gh tone Del i nk i ng rule of ChaPter 2 ( 37) al so found its aPpl i cati on i n
nouns, sPecifi cal l y i n Low-High nouns whi ch were fol l owed b y a Hi gh i n i ti al
def i ni te suff i x ( 1 16a) and TYPe I I sutf i x ( 1 16b ) .
( 1 16)
a. ba-ne
A I
LH
" ground nut '
b . gban-xalo
A
LH
H
I I
" granaries '
H M
Fi nal l y, i t was observed that the root tone Ot some Mid i n i ti al and Low-hi gh
nouns changed to Low tone when fol l owed b y the Hi gh tone TYPe I I suff i x . It was
al so seen that the Mi d tone verb l owered to Low tone when fol l owed by a Hi gh
tone i ncompleti ve suff i x . A tentati ve sol uti on for both nouns and verbs
i nvol ved the use of a doubl e ti ered aPProach for tone and the Posi ting of a
High Deletion rul e. whi ch i ni t i al l y was formul ated i n Chapter 2 as del et i ng a
H i gh tone on the subre9ister ti er when l in ked to Low tone on the PrimarY t i er
( 59) , but revi sed i n ChaPter 3 to al so i nc l ude the del eti on Ot High tone on the
Pri marY t i er ( SS) .
It was acknowl edged . however , that thi s ProPosed rul e
remai ns qui te tentati ve pending a more thorough anal Ysi s ot Mi d tones i n
ChaPter 5.
NOTES
1 . Mi l l s noted that Hi gh tone nouns i n Cebara maY be fol l owed by a t i nal Mi d :
"Al l otones [ ' ] and [ ' -] are features of the grammati cal class Ot nouns. The
f inal mi d tone fol l owing h i gh or r i si ng tones occurs onl Y on noun suf f i xes. on
some noun stems, and on adject i ve stems. Thi s cou l d be extended to noun
phrases , as some adjecti ves bear the h i gh-mi d al l otone. " ( 1 984, p. 1 17)
2. The word t i nal vowel tends to be l owered sl i ghtl y atter High vowel roots.
cf-I V
ca-I V
-> ci-l � -> ci -l e
-> co-Ia -> co-l �
' th i gh '
' cl ay Pot '
Low vowel s remain as they are:
---- ----- -- --- -- ---
-------
143
c�n-rV
' ashes '
-> c�n-r�
Si mi lar behaviour i s �ound i n other Senu�o l anguages such as Cebara.
3 . See a brie� desc r i pt i on o� a simi l ar tYPe o� coal escence i n ChaPter 2 .
4 . In SuPYi re. there i s a set o� Mid-Low nouns whi ch . i n the i nde� in i te �orm.
are real ized on the sur�ace as Mi d tone nouns. It is onl Y when a def i n i te
su��ix has been added that the Mi d-Low contour sur�aces:
SuPYi re
Suci te
Inde� i ni te
si ka.
si ki.
De� i n i te
si ki-ryi
si ki-�e
' goat . goat-DEF '
' goat. goat-DEF '
5. There i s a set o� compound-l i ke nouns exh i b i t i ng a Hi gh �al l i ng tone on the
� i nal noun root whi ch do behave l i ke Law f i nal nouns. however . Perceptual l y
there i s no tonal d i ��erence between the pi tch o� the under l Yi ng fi nal High
tone and the tone o� the � inal sYl lab l e of thi s set o� nouns. However . l i ke Low
�i nal nouns. they tri gger Law tone sPreadi ng onto Hi gh tone verbs. as shown
below.
waa n��an w"
> waa n��n w.'
' he l ooked at a brick '
wa� kurugba w" -> wa� kurugb� w.'
' he looked at a shelter '
-
These nouns are Pri mar i l y l oan wards. They behave l i ke comPound nouns tonal l Y
and segmental l y i n that they are composed of twa stressed comPonents. each
Possessi ng i ts own tonal mel odY. I f the l ast component of the ' COmPound '
Possesses onl Y one TBU and has a Hi gh-Law tonal mel odY. thi s Hi gh-Low tone
bei ng l i nked to a si ngl e TBU Produces a High fal l i ng tone on the sur�ace. as
shown i n the two examples . bel ow.
kuru-gba
V
A
' shel ter (grass overhang) '
HL
M
UmA-tt
V A
' tomato ' (French. tomate)
HL
L
When a Hi gh-Low tonal mel odY i s assi 9ned two TBU ' s. each tone l i nks to a
TBU. The second comPonent o� the comPound nouns gi ven bel ow i l l ustrate this.
' Senu�o basket '
l et-i H
I
II
H
HL
�?�
1/
HL
' water python '
•
' Porr i dge ' (Dioula. baga)
144
6. Cebara fol l ows a surpri si n91 v si mi l ar pattern . Observe the examples bel ow.
Hi gh
Mi d
Low
Mi d-Low
bdrd=bele
t jari =gele
B : gel e
ko-bi : =9�l e
' bread ' (pi )
' calabashes '
' meal s '
' Paths '
Mi 1 1 s ( 1 984)
7 . In SuPVire, the Hi gh of the High-Mi d suff ix shi fts to the root of a Mid tone
noun , wi th the resul t that the Mi d tone of the root is compl etel v del eted .
Bel ow are a COUPl e of examPles wi th corresponding words i n Suci te:
Supvire
Suc i te
Engl ish
a.
c�{-l i
cal'-l a
' Pigs '
b.
s€ �-i i
• st: i n9s •
s£ € -f')i
8. SuPVi re al so has a set of underlYing Mi d-Low nouns corresPondi ng to the same
group i n Suc ite, but thi s ML contour is simpl i f i ed to Mi d when add i ng i ndef i­
n i te suffixes. As a resu l t , when adding TYPe I I suff i xes, the outPut is a 1'11'1
sequence i nstead of MUM. ComPare the SuPVire and Suci te example bel ow:
SuPVi ra
Suc i te
Engl i sh
cE:En=l i i
ci � n-le
' YOunger si b l i n9s '
�
V
M L 1'1
II
M L
\
1'1
9. V LENGTH refers to a rul e not di scussed i n this
haPPens that i f the suffi x i s parti al l v del eted , a
wi l l l enghthen i ts vowel . Thi s Process seems to be
attemPt to maintain three TBU ' s on nouns with TVPe
thesi s. I t frequentl v
noun root wi th a si ngl e TBU
a Part of a more general
I I indef i n i te suff i xes.
1 0 . Thi s rul e refers t:o the deri vational hi storY of the word i n Hs formula­
t i on . Al though certai n authors have used deri vational hi storv i n the formula­
ti on of thei r rul es, this apProach has been contested i n the l i terature
(through Personal communi cat i on , C. Ki sseberth ) . Whi l e acknowl edgi ng the
controversi al nature to this apPrua�h , I shal l keep thi s formul ati on of the
Suffix High Li nkin9 rul e unti l such time that a mare sati sfactorv sol ution maV
be -Found.
1 1 . The same i nformant gave bath forms i n the sPace of a couple of minutes.
Bath were Pronounced in isolat i on .
1 2 . I n fact, i t i s possi b l e that hi stori cal l v , def i n i te suffi x es were suff ixed
to indef i n i te noun stems. Whether this kind of informati on wou l d be hel pful t er
svnchron ic anal vsis remai ns to be seen .
1 3 . Cebara def i n i te suf f i xes for these same cl asses are b i svl l ab i c ; Cl ass 2 bel e, and Class 6 - gel e.
------- ----- ------
145
CHAPTER •
-
TONE IN 11£ SUCITE VERB PHRASE
I . INTRODUCTION
Th. Preceding two chaPters di scu••ed the tonal behaviour
of
noun and verb
root. wi th thei r su��i xes. Several rules �ere proposed, includi ng Low tone
SPraadi ng
(33
-
Ch. 2) , Hi gh Del inking (37
-
(88
Ch . 2) , and High Del etion
-
Ch.
3) , which were �ound to applv to both nouns and verbs.
The Purpose o� thi s chapter is to examine the tone behaviour o� verbs across
ward boundaries.
The di scussi on wi l l be �ocused on anal Vzing how the tone of
the verb and verbal particle are a��ected bv the tone o� the Preceding nominal
and verbal el ements.
It wi l l be seen that two rule. which operate across
morpheme boundaries ward i nternal l v , also occur across word boundarie •• Low
tone SPread and High Del i nki ng. However, wi th the i ntroduction o� new data, the
�ormulation. of the.. two rules as wel l as the Association Conventi ons wi l l be
be requi red to undergo mi nor revi si ons.
This chaPter wi l l �irst review the domains wi thin which verbal tone maV be
al tered, and then procead wi th a descripti on and anal vsi s o� how the �inal tone
of
noun object. can aHeet the tone
of
the verb. Once the ruin have bean
�ormul atad and thorough l v di scussed , the tonal behaviour o� verbal parti cles
wi l l be examined . reveal i ng that rules alreadv ProPOsed can also appl v to
verbal Parti cles.
Qpmti o of y.rb TRo. lIh.yi OUf
In ChaPter 1 , we l earned that tonal chan9as take pl ace between elements
a verb Phrase. It was al so stated that the noun Phrase
(NP)
of
immediatel v
preceding the verb Phrase a��ect. verbal tone. There�ore, as i l l ustrated b.low.
the tone
----
--- - -
-
--
of
the sub ject
NP
a�fact. the tone of the �ol l owing verbal Particl.,
----- ----- - -- ---- -------
- --
-
146
whi ch i n turn . can in�l uenc. tonal chang. an the verb.
( l ) a.
SUbject + Verbal Particle + Verb
--
�
I� a str i ng o� verbal .l ement. is spl i t UP by the i nsartian o� a direct ab ject.
that di rect abject wi l l al so a��act the tone � the i mmediatelY �al l awing
verbal .l ••ent . In contrast . however . the tone o� the verbal el ement cannot
a��ect the tone � the naun abject . Thi s barrier to tonal change is i l lustrated
by the use a� square brackets bel ow.
b.
[SUbject + Verbal Particle] + [Naun object + Verb]
"--"'"
"---"
I I . NOON OBJECT TONE AND n£ VERSI DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS
A. Qncriptt m
Let us � i rst l ook at how the tone � the noun object a��8Cts the tone a� the
We have al readY s.en that a verb i s .i ther Hi gh , Mi d . or Law tone. Nouns
verb .
have a vari ety a� tonal shaPes: however , i n exami n i ng their behavi or with
v.rbs � theY can b. cata9ari zed i nto thr•• grouPs accordi ng to thei r ward � i nal
tane. Hi gh � i nal , Mi d � i nal , and Law � i nal nouns and Pronouns a��ect the verb
i n d i ��erant waYs .
Law tone verbs undergo one tonal change. When a High
Dr
Law H nal naun
Precedes i t , the Law tone verb undergoes no change. However . a�ter Mi d �i nal
nouns a Low tone verb becomes Mi d-Hi gh .
(2) a. L
+
-->
L
L
L
' augi a man '
b. H
+
L
�al file':' ibad
---- .--
- . --- ----
-->
H
L
' 1III&i a rac k '
147
L
->
M
M
PerU tt
-->
Peru
tl
---
Peru
gb�rl
+
c. M
Paru
ibk1
poru k.k�1'll
>
Peru
->
H
' � a daughter '
/
kral)a
' maat a daughter '
'
�
a d�ughter '
It i s i nteresti ng to note how thi s resulting Mi d-Hi gh tonal contour i s l i nked
to verbs wi th v�rYi ng numbers
of TBU ' s . If a verb has onl Y one TBU. both tones
re l i nked to that si ngl e TBU. If there are two TaU ' s. each tone l i nks to
sePar�t. TBU ' s. whi l e on � three TBU verb. the High tone of the Mi d-Hi gh
contour is l i n ked onl Y to the f i n�l TBU of the verb.
Mi d tone verbs rllll�
l i n Mi d after M and L nouns but are l owered to Low after H
f i nal nouns when the verb i s i n sentence f i nal Posi t i on .
+
(3) a. L
+
Peru
'_
M
�
I
-F�'Mi
I
' ... a daughhr '
->
M
f eil 'lea
,
Dl!&
a man '
M
->
Dl!&
+
c· H
M
Dl!&
nAA
b. M
L
->
M
II
WA II
fal '� h.? l, II
H
L
--> .faUx£
nY.
'_
--> .ftl,KA
tllxCl
' � a roc k '
a rock '
--> fiuKi" c.'i'.U ' i nsuIt a rock '
When the Mi d tone verb i s no l onger i n phrase-f i nal Posi t i on , this tone
l ower i ng rul e is bl oc ked -From appl Ying.
·waA
b • waA
-FiU.
' Di d h.
IRR
a rock? '
nyA l a
f.t'l 'xa t.t.wl
Ia
' Di d he � a rock? '
-----
148
Hi gh tone verbs remai n Hi 9h excePt when Preceded by a Law � i nal noun. Any
noun wh i ch end. i n a Law tone i nc l ud i n9 Mi d-Law. High-Low and al l def i n i t e
suf� i xad nouns. whose f i nal Law tone i s never l in ked to the su� � i x i tsel f (see
th. 3) . sPreads i t. f i nal Law tone onto the Hi 9h tone verb lower i n9 al l tonebearing units of the verb excePt the f i nal uni t o� mul tiPle TBU verbs. A si n91 e
TBU verb i s si mP l y l owered to L i n Phrase f i nal Posi ti on .
+
(�) a. H
->
H
H
H
f;U '__ etd.
b. M
+
' ull. a rock '
H -->
H
gbaxa etr:t
c• L
+
•dB
' aall a house '
H ->
U I#
m�B .
.dB eta.
L
L
>
H
.dB B
' tua r i ce '
-->
�B w.'
' l,ggk at ri ce '
-
�B
' Wl, r i ce '
-
>
ndB ksfi'd ->
P�ri
ndB kU�d
' aegU rice '
When in nan-phrase final posi t i on . a l owered si n9l e TBU Hi9h verb i s general l y
Mi d (as seen i n (6b-d ) , whi l e mu l ti -sYl l abi c verbs remain Law-High .
However .
examPle (6e) shows that i t remains Low if a noun class clitic �ol l ows.
(6) a. waa m�B li
' He tggk. r i ce '
b . Waa m�B U l a
' Di d he take ri ce? '
c. wea m�B U nll")Ull
' He took r i ce from the man '
I
d. waa ndB U fc1l'kull
' He took r i ce from the rock '
e. wea m�B li ')66
' He took r i ce from hi m '
IncomPletive verbs whi ch are formed b y suf � i x in9 an underlYin9 Hi gh tone
- - _ . _ . _ - . _--
------
149
morpheme to the COmPletive stem. are subject to the same tonal phenomena as
camPl eti ve verbs. Recal l that on the surface, the i ncamPlati ve suffix i a Mid
tone a�ter Law and Mi d tone varbs and High after Hi �h tone verbs.
(7) a.
--->
M
tH
-->
gbaxa
M
-- >
H
L
->
-fIlI'NI
Ud
+ H
->
L
LH
!!dB 11
--->
�B
B
' e.ting r i ca '
m�B W
--)
ndB
l �ci
' taking r i ca '
M
gbaxa
b.
H
L-M
+
+
fal 'K� Uti.
c.
L
MH
ta'
' ,hgwing
a housa '
' placing
a rock (an) '
The.e. then , are tha basic tonal changes on verbs. Each tonal cate�orY of
v.,.b. i s affected by one tonal changes
L (noun ) H ( verb)
--- >
L
L H
M (naun ) L (verb)
---->
M
M H
H ( naun) " (verb )
--->
H
L
The fol l owing d i scussi on invol ves the axami n at i on and anal Ysi s of each one
of these tonal changes. It aPPears that the f i rst two al ternati ons represented
above i nvolve sPreading rul es. wh....as the l ast one se... to di sPl ay a type of .
di ssimi l ation phenomenon , whi ch operates onl y i n Phrase final Posi tion.
B. An.l Y1Ii I
1 . Law SPrHdin9 Rul e
Th. f irst tonal chan� to b. d iscussed her e i s th e matter o f the High tone
verb acqui ring a Low-Hi gh contour when Preceded by a Low final noun. In
----- ------- - --- - - - --
1�
ChaPters
2
and 3,
a
simi l ar Phenomenon was observed where a High tone suH ix
became Mi d tone wh en Preceded by a law tone noun or verb raat . Thi s loweri ng to
Hid tane was anal Yzed to be the resul t of the law tone o� the noun root
sPreadi ng onto the Hi gh tone of the su�fi x , creating a law-Hi gh contour which,
in mast cases. si mPl ified to Mi d tone. Thi s law tone SPread rul e was stated in
Chapter
( 33)
2
as fol l ows.
lOW SPREADING
-
When
a
law tone i s fol lowed by a Hi gh tone acro•• a
morpheme boundarY, the law tone spreads to the right .
Thi s rule as stated . can also appl y across word boundari es. A. a resu l t , one
can propose that the law tone o� the noun sPreads onto a �01 1 owi n9 Hi 9h tone
verb. Thi s i s parti cul arl y cl ear an sin9l e TBU verbs. such as the one shawn
bel ow.
' take rice '
lOW SPREAD
If a Hi gh tone verb which has undergone low tane SPread . has onl Y ane TBU and
i s �ound i n phrase final Posi tion. the conditions for High tone Del inking are
met . Raeal l that the Hi gh tone Del inkin9 rul e. as formul ated in Chapter
2.
states that the Hi9h tone of a low-Hi gh contour tone l i nked to a singl e Teu
wi l l be del inked i f found i n Phrase final Posi tion or i f fol l owed by another
High tone. In .ffect , thi s i s what haPPens to si n9l e Teu Hi9h tone verbs, as
shown i n the examPl e. bel ow.
--- - - -- ---- ------
151
b.
l � II.
m�l �
HIGH DELINI<ING
�
L
H
High Del inkin9 al so takes Pl ace a�ter naun cl ass cl i ti cs� whi ch are� i n thi s
parti cular envi ranment , Hi gh tane. When a singl e
TBU
verb i s subject ta Law
tene SPread , the deri ved Law-Hi gh cantour i s fal l awed by anather Hi gh tane. As
a resu l t , High Del inkin9 9Ces i nto e��ect del i nkin9 the Hi 9h a� the cantaur
tone.
c.
weaa 'II� I � B ')66 - > waa ndB B
V
I V
H H
L
")dCi
� "' lH HV
L
L SPREAD
-> waa nd B B
�
L
r')CiCi ' He tack rica
V
H H
fram h i m '
H DELINKING
Hawever, i f anything but a Naun class c l i t i c lol l ows. the resul ting Low-High
contour en the High ten. verb i s si mPl if i ed an the surface to Mid tane. Thi s
Mi d tone could b e explai ned by the �ai lure af the Hi gh tane to del i nk i n nanPhrase � i n.l Position .
waa m�l � l� l a -> waa m�l � l� la
V
L
...
..
\
I
' Di d h. take rice '
H M
L SPREAD
The abave anal Ysi s of Law tane SPreadi ng inval ved the nouns whi ch are Law
tane. It has al so been suggested in bath Chapters 2 and 3 that Mid tane be
anal Yzed as rai sed Low tene. A distincti on af twa tyPes
o�
Law tene leads ta
a
daubl e tiered approach ta tanal anal Ysi s where bath tYPes a� Law tane are gi ven
a Low tene an the Pri marY t i er whi l e the rai sed Law tene (ar Mi d tene> i s
posi ted with a Hi gh tane an the subregi ster tier and the Law tane. wi th a
- ---- ------- -----
1 52
subre�i ster Low tone, as shown below:
(9)
x
Low
Mi d
I
X
I
L
L
I
1
I
h
Therefore. i � both o� th.s. ton..
Pos ••••
a Low tone on the Pri marY tier. then
theoreti cal l y both .houl d be abl e to sPread onto Hi gh tone verbs. since the Low
tone SPreading rul e as stated above. does not sPeci�y a tone �or the subre9i ster ti.r. The .xamPl. below i n ( 10) i l l ustrat •• this theoretical possi bi l i ty.
Howev.,. . as the deri vati on
an
shows.
a lh tone sPreadi ng onto a Hi gh tone Produces
incorrect sur�ace �or •• In �act. no tonal al ternati on occurs on High ton.
verbs when preceded by a Mi d tone noun •
( 1 0) waa gbaxa l � ->
V
L
I
h
\
H
•
� Rather I wa� gbaxa l �
""L ..�H
' h. took a t a hous. '
I
wa� gbaxa
I
h
LOW SPREAD
Because Lh tone must b. b l ocked �rom sPreading the Low tone SPread rule must
be r�ormul ated to al l oN the sPreading o� onlY Ll tones onto High tone nouns.
Thi s revi sed Low SPreadi ng rul e i s restated b.low.
( 1 1 ) LOW SPREAD
When a Ll tone i s �ol lowed by a Hi gh tone across a morpheme boundary, the
Low tone sPreads to the righ t .
Xl X
...
...
1
L H
I
1
----
153
Let us now consider Low tone sPreadi ng on Hi gh tone double TSU verbs. In the
.
�ol lowi ng deri vati on ( 12) , the Low tone spread. onto the �irst High tone l i nked
TSU.
Thi s re.ults in a Low-Hi gh contour on the �i rst TSU o� the verb, whi le the
�inal TSU i s sti l l l i nked to the Hi gh tone, thus creating the environment
needed �or the del inking o� the High tone o� the Law-Hi gh contour .
( 1 2)
� V
waa �l� Plrt -> waa m�l � pJ�l -> waa m�l � ptrt
V
V
L
H
�H
...
L
L SPREAD
H
' He sol d r i ce '
L
H DELINKING
The setti ng �or Hi gh Del inking i n ( 12) i s sl ightly di��erent �rom the
si tuations described earl i er (see (37 ) , Ch. 2) . In the ear l i er i nstances, the
second High tone, whi ch , in e��ect , tri ggered High Del inking, was l i nked to the
�ol l owing word or morPheme. In thi s ca•• , there is no seParate Hi gh tone l i nked
to a di��.rent morpheme. Rather , the same Hi gh tone i s l i nked to both TSU ' s: to
the one with the Low-Hi gh contour and to the �ol lowing TSU. There�ore, the Hi gh
Del i nki ng rul e can be general i zed to incl ude the del i nking o� a Law-Hi gh
contour which i s �ol l owed by anY TSU which is also l i nked to a Hi gh tone
regardl ess
�
whether that Hi gh tone belongs to another morphame or not . Sal ow
i s a r�ormulation o� the Hi gh Del inking rule.
( 13) HIGH DELINKING - Del ink a Hi gh tone which i s Preceded by
a
Law tone l i nked
to the same TSU, and 1 ) i s �ol l owed by a TSU whi ch i s al so l inked to a High
tone, or 2) i s i n sentence �inal Posi tion .
or
X
A/
L H
-_._ . _ ._ ----
-------
Xl
154
Tripl e TBU verbs Pose A b i t o� a problem. As the deri vAti on bel ow shows,
simPly APPl Yi n9 LON tane SPread and Hi 9h Dal i nkin9 does nat produce the correct
sur�ace �orm.
L-SPREAD
H DELINklNG
In order to Produce the cOl"'rect surfAce �orm of
Wii
m�l� k.lAx£ , one HOul d
hAve to apply LON tone SPread and Hi�h Del i nkin9. a s.cond tl .. . A S .hown
' He sPoi led rice '
LOW SPREADING
L-SPREAD
H DELINKING
H DELINKING
However , al ieNing Law SPreAd and High Del inking to aPply a second time, in
ather wards , i terativel Y, seems somewhat cumbersome. In addition , i � i terati ve
SPreading were al lowed, there i s nothi ng in the rules to Prevent Law tone
SPread And Hi gh Del i nking to APpl y to the l ast TBU as wel l . thus Producing a
LON tane an al l three TBU ' .. In �ACt , the �inAI TBU o� a tHO
01'"
three Teu verb
i s � Law tone in anY WMvironmant2• Ther�ore AnY i terati ve sPreadi ng And
del i nking rul es woul d have to be constrai ned with the condi tion that SPreadi ng
and Del i nkin9 do nat occur an the � i nal TBU o� a mul tiPle TBU noun.
---_ . . _- _ .
_
-_ . _--
._-_._--- ---- ------
155
An al ternAti ve sol uti on would be to l i mi t the aPpl ication of the Assoc i ation
Conventions by having each tone l i nking to onl Y one TBU. Such a restrai nt would
require the fal lowing reformulation of the Associ ation Conventions:
( 16) ASsOCIATION CONVENTIONS
MAP a sequence of tones onto a sequence of free tone-beari ng uni ts
1 ) from ri ght to left
2) i n a ona-te-ane rel at i on until al l tones have been l i nked .
Recal l i ng that in Suc i te. tone. are l i nked from ri ght to left. a three TBU Hi gh
tone verb would then initial l y have onl Y the final TBU l i nked to the Hi gh tane.
as shawn bel ow:
( 17)
kal AKi
I
H
Del aYing the l inking of the ather TBU ' s to the Hi gh tone would al l ow mare
freedom for the SPreadi ng of the Law tone across the ward. As the deri vati on
below shows. the Low tane SPreadi ng rule as stated above ( 1 1 ) . has the Law tone
spreadi ng and l i nking to the final High tone l i nked
i ntervening TBU ' s:
TBU
as wal l as al l of the
( 19) waa �l� kal .xf -> waa �l� kal axl -> waa �l �
I
L
I
H
' He sPoi led rica '
L,; �" l
H
r
L-SPREAD
---- - - -- -
-
--
- ----
L
->
waa m�l �
H
�� �x{
� I
L
H
L DELINKING
Si nce it al readY has been stated that
final TBU of a mul tiPle TBU verb .
����
�I
we
a
Hi gh tone cannot be del inked from the
know that Hi gh Del i nking cannot aPpl y
--- - - - -- ---- ------
---_ .
156
here. TO . Prevent Hi gh Del i nkin9 �rom taki ng pl ace, a rul e del i nkin9 the
�
� of the resul ting Low-Hi gh contour must be �ormul atad.
First o� al l , Low Del inkin9 i nvol ves Del i nkin9 the tone on the l e�t si de o�
the contour rather than on the right sid. as i s the nature
of
the High tone
Del i nkin9 rule. It must be noted that Low tone does not del ink �rom a Low-High
l i nk.d segm.nt i� it is l i nked to onl Y one TBU ( 1 9a) or i� it has sPread to
onl Y one TBU ( 19b ) .
( 19) a. 9bon-ci,,� ' 9ranarY-9oad '
1\ .vL
t�
' h. rice took? '
b. waa m�l � l � l a
1/1
L H
It d.l i nk. onl Y i f the Low ton. i s al l owed to l i nk to other TBU ' s wi thin the
word that has been subject to L sPreadin9, as i l l ustrated bel ow in (c)
c.
waa m�l
�
L
H
Ther�ore, LOW DELINKING can b. stated as fol l ows:
(20) LOW DELINKING
D.l i nk a Low tone from a Low-Hi 9h contour when the Low tone has alreadY
l in ked to other TBU ' . in the word:
[ X
Xl
l/\
L H
There are a few environments whare both Low tone Del inki ng and Hi gh tone
Del i nking can be moti vated accordi ng to the sPec i f i cations 9i ven above. For
eKamPl e. i f a multipl e TBU verb whi ch has been subject to Low tone spread i s
-- -
- -_ .
'f
157
Also �ol l owed by the High tone noun ClASS cl i t i c , whi ch, as we hAve al readY
•
seen, tri 99ars Hi gh ton. Del inking o�
Preceding Low-Hi gh contour, which rul e
takes Precedence? Such a di lemmA i s i l l ustrAted below.
'He
mad. on. �or him '
In order to make the correct Prediction, one must order Low Del inking be�ore
High Del i nking. However, when the Hi gh tone verb consi sts o� onl Y one TeU. Hi gh
tone deli'n king bkes PlAc •• AS ..., i n
(22)
b.l ow. Why? We sea thAt the
conditions for Low tone del i nking cAnnot ba m.t - Low tone hAS spread to onl Y
on . TBU of the word - thara4or. High tone del inking CAn take Place.
(22)
waa w� B
�Ci
V1 V
L H H
In conclusi on , the anAl Ysi s ProPosed hare requi res the reformulation o� the
Low tone SPreadi ng rul e ( 1 1 ) , the Hi gh Del inking rule ( 13) , And the Association
Conventi ons � or SucHe ( 16) , as wel l AS the Addition o� the Low Del i,lk.in9 rul e
(20) . The naw Law Del i nkin9 rul e WAS s••n to be ordered a� ter the Low tone
SPreAdi ng rule but ba4or. Hi9h tone Del inkin9.
2.
Hi 9h Ton. SPr••ding
The second tonal Process to be exami ned here i nvol ves the rai sin9 o� Law
tone verbs to Mi d-Hi9h tone when Preceded by A Mid tone. Thi s process can be
more easi l y anal Yzed on Low tone incomPleti ve verbs thAn on compl eti ve verbs.
Recal l that Low tone i ncomPletive verbs consist o� a Law tone verb root
�ol l owed by a Hi gh tona incomPletive sui�i K ' as saan bel ow i n (23) . The most
158
obvious sol uti on would be to moti vate a tYPe of Mid tone sPreading rule. whi ch
woul d spread the Mi d tane onto the Low tone root . Since there i s no trace of
a
Low tone an the verb after thi s Mid tone SPread , ei ther the SPreadi ng would
automati cal l Y have to tri gger del eti on of the Low tone. or a seParate Law
Del eti on rul e would have to be formul ated .
(23) a. CV CV-CV
l., � 1 I
@ H
M
The dif�erlnce between Mi d SPreadi n9 and Law SPreadi n9 i . that when a Law
tane spreads onto
a
Hi gh tone, that Hi 9h ton. can sti l l effect tonal changes an
fal lowing wards, whi l e Mi d SPreadin9 onto
a
Law tan. obl i terates anY Power that
Law tone maY have had to tri gger tonal chang••• Thus w. saY that Mi d sPreadi ng
tri99ars Law tane del .ti on , whi le Law SPreading, an the ather hand cal l s f or
d.l i nkin9
of
the High tone onlY when certain condi�ions are met .
We run into Probl ems, however, when trYing to aPpl y the Mi d SPreadi ng rul e
as stated above. to Low tone ,gmpl.tiv. verbs. I t was stated earl i er that a Low
ton. verb becomes Mid-Hi gh when preceded by a Mi d tone noun. For incomPl eti ve
su�fi xes, al l we had to do was to moti vate a Mi d tone SPreadi ng rul e onto Law
tone. The resulting Mi d tone verb tol l owed by a High tone
suffix
resul ted i n a
Hi d-Hi gh tone an the verb. There is, however , no Hi gh tone suffix an a comPleti ve verb . As a resul t , si mpl y sPreadi ng Mi d tone onto a Low tone comPletive
verb would nat Produce the desired Mi d-Hi gh tone, as shawn b.low.
(24)
cv cvcv ->*cy J;�V
� ,--" "!
�
M
M ©
Poru gb�l
-> ·poru gbara
rather' Peru sbar
M SPREAD
It wi l l be seen that Mi d SPreadi ng onto Law tane nouns Yiel ds the Predi ct-
- --- ---
. -----
,.
159
abl e result of a si mpl e Mi d tone, so why a Mi d-High contour would surface an
Law tone verbs i s somewhat Puzz l ing. The fi rst attempt at a solution would be
to establ i sh whether a compl etive verb has a tonal structure consi sti ng of a
root tone fol lowed by a tonal morPheme. One Possib l e historical eXPlanation i s
that the compl et i ve morPheme did contain a Hi gh tone at one stage. I n Chapter
2,
we
suggested that a Mi d tone comPl eti ve verb maY have been a raised Low
tone. If
we
speculated that the farmer Law tone was rai sed by a Hi gh tone
ComPleti ve morpheme, than we can extract a tinY bit
of
evi dence that thi s Hi gh
tone came from a hi stori cal High tone comPl etive morpheme, whose trace can
sti l l be sean i n the aPPl ication
of
a Mid tone sPread rul e. Whether thi s theorY
holds anY val idity or not , however. does not real l y bear uPon a sati sfactorY
sYnchroni c sol uti on , because in al l other environments, Low tone comPl eti ve
verbs never behave as though they have a final Hi gh tone. For exampl ., they
contrast with Low tone incomPl eti ve verbs <whi ch do have an underlYi ng Hi gh
tone suff i x ) when fol lowed by a Noun Cl ass cl itic. In (25) below. note that
both verbs are Low tone on the surface. However . the cl i ti c i s Mi d tone
<underlined ) when Preceded by a comPl etive Low tone verb <a) and Hi gh tone
after an incomPl.ti ve Law tone verb <b) . The eXamPle in <c) i ndicates that the
cl itic i s also High tone after completive and i ncompi eti ve High tone verbs.
<2�) a. Compl et i ve Low tone verb
wa� wu w�l �
�
11
' he took <C) i t off of hi m '
b . Incampl etive High tone
toW
Ya Hn� � 11
' he l i ed <C) an hi m '
c. ComPl eti ve and Incompl etive Hi gh tone.
waa w� l � �
' he took <C> i t from him '
' h. is taki ng < IN> i t off of hi m '
----
160
Low tone comPl eti ve verbs. therefore, contrast wi th Hi gh f inal verbs i n
behaviour. and a s a resul t , cannot b e consi dered t o bear an underlYi ng Hi9h
Hnal tone.
Since Posi ting an under lYing Hi gh tone suff ix morPheme i s not feasible, same
tyPe of rul e wi l l have to be moti vated to al l ow �or a Mid-Hi gh contour. One
possi ble sol ution i s that , i n addi tion to Positing a Mid tone SPread and Law
Deletion rul e on a Low tone verb, a High tone in.erti on rule i s al so introduced
to insert and l ink a Hi gh tone to the ?i nal TBU of the verb. Thi s parti cular
development would al so reClUire the rule a? Mi d tone Oel inking (53) . al readY
introduced i n Chapter 3 (p. l06) , i n order to simpl i fy a Mi d-High contour on a
singl e TaU. Thi s tentative series o� rules i s i l lustrated bel ow.
(26)
C...VC�V
me
k�r;}r)tl
tv
;V
I
I-:�� -
1'1
1'1
I
->
me
kar.., a ->
me
karat) '
-> cy t;vg�� -> cy t;V��
� f
_� H_,
M
M
H
SPREAD
H INSERTION
C
guide You I
M OELINKING
Another Possi b l e soluti on i s to take advantage of the suggesti on alreadY
made i n thi s thesi s that the underlving features a? Mi d tone are best rePresented on two tonal tiers, with Low tone Posi ted on the PrimarV t i er and High
tone on the secondarv or subregi ster tier , as shown bel ow in ( 27a) . Al though
Cl ements did not introduce the i dea of l i nking the two tiers nor the Possi b i l i ty of l inking a subregi ster tone to more than one tone on the primarv tier .
(as shown i n (b» . nor the unl i kel Y suggesti on that tones
of
the subregi ster
tier maV al so l in k directl y to the segmental tier (c) . the �ol lowing anal Vsis
wi l l ProPose that these i deas are not onl v ?easi ble. they al so Prove to be verY
practi cal for thi s particu l ar anal ytical Probl em.
-- _ . _ - ----
-----
161
(27)
a.CVCV
V
I I
L
L L
h
h
I
c. CVCV
b. CVCV
V
V
h
If we al low mul ti pl e l i nking of the subregister ti er . then l ogi cal l y tone
sPreading rules could also be mati vated at this level . Returning to Mid tone
SPreading an i ncomPl eti ve verbs. one can see how the sPreadi ng of tane on the
subre9i ster tier can create the effect of Mi d tone sPreadi ng.
SUBREGISTER HIGH SPREADING
When the High tone of the subre9i ster tier sPreads to the fol lowing Low tane.
i t tri ggers the del eti on of the subregi ster Low tone. The reason for thi s
del etion
is
that the l inking of twa subre9ister tones t o one PrimarY regi ster
.
"
..
tone cannot b. al l owed by vi rtue of the fact that such a construction has no
concei vable surface real i zation. If. historical ly. Mi d tone was consi dered a
raised Low tone. i t i s conceivable that a rai sed Low tone could rai se the tone
of subsequent Low tones. Thus the l ower l evel � rePresents this ' rai si ng '
Phenomenon through , the spreading to fol lowing Low tones.
Let us now consi der the mare comPl icated case of Mi d tone sPreading onto
compl.U ve verbs where Mi d tone sPreading ."esu I ts in a Mi d-High contour. If the
subre9ister n spreads onto PrimarY re9i ster tones. would it also be possible
for the n to also i ndePendentl Y l i nk to the se9mental t i er?
High contour could be moti vated .
---_. . _- -_ .. -
- -.---
If so. then a Mi d-
(29)
r
162
c cv,
L
INDEPENDENT SUBREGISTER SPREADING TO SEGMENTAL TIER
I '.
L
I
V
,'
...
h
'
It seems that the lower register high tone not onl Y rai sed the Low tone
through the Process of · sPre.ding ' , i t conti nued that rai sing effect by l i nking
i ndependentlY to the segmental tier. The effect of independent l i n ki ng creates
a cantour tane. The questi on i s whether thi s i s just a fancY mechanism to
descri be
an
otherwi se i nexpli cable deri ved contour tone or whether thi s
aPPraat:h can be moti vated elsewhere in the language or even in other languages.
In SUPYire, a nei ghbouring dial ect in Mal i , Mid tane does not sPread anto
Law tane verbs (al though a Mi d tone sPreading rule oPerate. on nouns in the
exact same waY as i t does in Suci te) . Instead, Law tane verbs acqui re an Hi9hLow contour when Preceded by Hi gh final or Mid fi nal nouns.
(30)
u nYYE na f�un
5h6� /sh��/
he TA TA Peanuts buy
u nYYE na mP� sh��
he TA TA sheeP buy
· he i s bUYing Peanuts '
Suci te:
wu Ya f�un sua
· he i s buYing a sheeP '
Sucite:
wu Ya nc� 500
Thi s sl i ghtl Y di fferent phenomenon coul d be eXPl ai ned by the inde�endent
l i nking of the subregi ster Hi gh tone to the Low tone segment wi thout l i nking to
the Law tane i tsel f , and thereby creati ng a Hi gh-Low contour .
(31 ) f�un shdo
---- -----
cv
I
cv
/1
I
�I �
L
-,-
L
· buYi ng rocks '
· buYing peanuts '
cv
I
H
V/
h
tv
-1
/ L
I
1
--'--_._---- '---- -------
'"
163
In his anAlYsis of SuPYire tone, CArl son refuses to Posit an underlYing tone
for thi s set of verbs, because Law became. Hi gh-Lew i n so manY envi ronments.
The aPProAch presentad Above can moti vate an underlYing Law tone verb which has
been subject to indePendent sPreadi ng of the subre9i ster hi9h tone.
Therefore, , independent subre;ister Hi gh tone sPreAdin9 does recei ve same
suPPort i n SuPYire3• Hawever , this description sti l l does nat explain why
i ndePendent spreAdi ng of a subre9i ster High tone to a segment shoul d take Place
an verbs but nat an naunsThe quesU an also remains 'fas ta wh.ther thi s naUan of indePendent l i nking
of the subre9istar tane
CAn
be defended wi thin the theoretical framework of
autasa9mental phonol ogy. The nation of l inki ng and sPreadi ng of the subregi ster
level to the Pri mArY regi ster l evel i s a rather navel idea in itsel f . It has
bean Proposed that this subre9istar l evel i s an a sePArate tier f rom the tone
an the Pri marY regi ster tier . However , i t was Painted aut that i n accordance
wi th ' the tone feAture system as prOPosed by Clements. thi s subre9i ster tier is
Si mpl y a fi ne-tuni ng of the Pri marY regi ster tone, exi sting onlY as a functi on
of the Pri marY re9i ster tane. Wi thi n the Clements system, the subre9i ster tane
does nat oPerate AS a seParAte and ful l tone itsel f . Therefore, wi th these
l i mitati ons i n mind , it would be somewhat Probl ematic conceptual l y, to 9rant
indePendent l i nking al the subregi ster tier to the segmental tier .
One Possi ble aPPr oach i s to el eVAte the status of the subre9i ster tone.
Cl ements based his model an the concePt of tone-spl i tting. WhAt i f the nation
�
tane spl i tting could b e further stretched theoretiCAl l y with the canceP� a�
fusi n94 tones from two seParate but indePendent tiers?
164
( 32)
FUSION
CV
I
�
The no�ion o� h i erarchv would bv necessi �v s�i l l remain. !� no�, �hen
HI and
Lh
would no� be di s�ingui shable wi thi n the model . In ChaPter 5. �he necessitV o�
thi s distinction wi l l be demonstrated . Yet the notion o� �usi on o� two tones
woul d al low Possi ble l i nking o� the lower level tone to i ndependentl v l i nk in
certain l imi ted environments. One maV be tempted to specul ate that thi s
svnchroni c �usi on Process was Preceded hi storical lv b v the Presence o� a
�
sequence
tones that eventual l v �used into one. I t has al readv been stated
that no preci se statements can be made at thi s time about the histori cal
evol uti on o� tone in Suci te.
For the PurPoses o� thi s thesi s. we shal l pl ace the second tier o� tones
bel ow the � i rst and vet al l ow the second or subregi ster t i er to l i nk to the
se9mental tier bv Process o� trans�ormation o� the subre9i ster tone to a
pri marv regi ster tone as i t passes through �he fi rst �ier as seen in ( 33)
bel ow.
( 33)
x
I
L
I
h
->
x
"
,
L H
,,'"
h
The ��ect i s �hat o� rai sing a tone to �he extent that i t l eaves the Low �one
regis�er and moves i n�o the Hi gh �one regi ster .
Returni ng �o the Suci te examPl e. then . let us examine the envi ronment o�
subre9ister Hi 9h tone l i nking.
The subre9i ster Hi gh sPreads to the PrimarY
----- -- - - - - - - ----------- ---- --- ------
165
tier Law tone of the verb as wel l as to the segmental tier onl Y when that
subregi ster Hi gh is l exi cal l Y l inked to a Law tone i tsel f . as .hown i n (34a) .
If the subre9i ster Hi gh was l ex ical l Y l i nked to a Hi gh tone then no Hi gh
spreadi ng woul d take Place (34b ) .
(34) a) X
X
I
L
LI
h
I
b) *X
I
f'
X
1\
1):)
h I
V: '
Thi s i s in contrast to SuPYire where indePendent Hi gh SPreadi ng occurs on Low
tane verbs from bath Hh and Lh final nouns (see (31 ) above) . At thi s stage
then. a subre9i ster h i gh sPreadi ng rul e woul d be stated as fol l ows:
(35)
HIGH SPREADING
A subre9ister high. l ex i cal l Y l i nked to a Low tone. sPreads to a fol l owi ng Low
tone. thus del eting anY subre9i ster tone formerl Y l inked to that Law tone.
X
X
L
L
h
CD
I
I
L. , 1
A seParate rul e must be devi sed for independent Hi gh sPreadi ng.
(36) HIGH SPREADING TO TBU
SPread a subre9i ster h . l exical l Y l inked to a Law tone. to the f i nal TBU of a
Low tone verb .
cv
I
cv
[ \)
V-.1
L
-----
166
Thi s assumes that High tone h.s alreadY sPread to the Law tone. del eting the
subregister Law tone. Below i s an examPle showing both Hi gh Spreadi ng rul es.
(37 ) Poru
U
-> Poru tl
L
L
L L
h
ID
I
1
1
� ..
h (i)
(.. ... 1
H SPREAD
r\
J
H SPREAD TO
TSU
It wou l d b. more convenient , Perhaps, to state these two rules in ane rul e.
si nc:e 'l both o.f: them are tri ggered by the same envi ronment and one is a .f:ol l aw-uP
o.f: the other. It wi l l be seen. however . that the .f: irst . but not the second rule
aPpl ies to nouns. Ther�are. at thi s juncture. Hi gh sPread to the Pri marY tone
Low tone verb. with mare than one
Teu
whi ch are subject to High SPreading
require some addi t i onal adjustment rul es in order to l ink the tanes to al l the
TBU ' s. From the d i scussion on Low tone SPreadi ng it was deci ded that the
Associ ation Canven�j ons l i nk tones .f:rom Right to L�t , l inking a tane to onl Y
one TBU. There.f:ore. the Law tone is l i nked to the .f: i nal Teu a.f:
doubl e TBU verb . as
shown
i n the deri v.ti on in
(38) .
a
Law tone
The High tone SPreadi ng
rule sPec i � i es that the subre9i ster High tone sPread. to the PrimarY tier Low
tone a.f: the verb . Note that i .f: i t was al l owed to spread to anY se9ments
precedi ng the Pri marY tier Law tone. a incorrect Hi gh-Mi d tone would evolve an
mul tipl e
Teu
verbs Cb) . There.f:ore. the subre9i ster Hi gh tone i s restrained to
sPreading initial l y to the PrimarY Low tone. Secondly. we observe the rul e o.f:
s�eadi ng the High tone to the .f:inal TBU
o.f:
the verb and l i nking it to the Teu
a.f:ter the Law tone of the verb. Thi s now resu l ts i n
•
Mi d-High contour tone
l inked to the .f: i nal TBU and no tone l i nked to the � i rst TBU. In order to
._- _ . _ . _ --
---_ . _ - -- ---- ------
167
correc� �hi s Problem, some l inking adju5�men�s wi l l have �o be made. A rule
cal l ed Li nking mus� ba formul a�ed (see (39) below) �o l ink �he remai ning TBU ' s
of the verb �o �he verb �on• • Whe�har �hi5 i s done befQra or after Hi gh �one
SPread is no� cruci al � bu� such a l inking Process mus� �ake Pl ace af�er Low
tone SPread so �ha� �he Low �one can have �he freedom �o sPread �o �he ri gh�mos� TBU (see Precedi ng di scussi on on Low �one Spread ) . Af�er Linking �akes
pl ace, �hen � �he Mid-high contour �one i s si mpl i f ied
by del inkin9 �he Mi d �one,
�hat i s, �he �ona on the l ef� si de of �he con�our.
(3e) a . wa� Poru gb�r�
1/
I
I
Mf_
L
->
II
Ml..
L
L - "'1
h
<D
H SPREAD
\{Lj
wa� peru gbara -) wa� Poru gbara
I
L
I
.-"""_""
r--
r,
L
..
J
H SPREAD TO TBU
II
ML
L
Ii
LINKING
->
V�
waa poru gbara
"
ML
L
L
h
MID DELINKING
b . *wa� Poru gb�ra
II
ML
I / I
L
L'
h
I
L
I
1
(39) LINKING - Li nk anY free TBU ' s �o �he �one of the morpheme to whi ch i t
belongs.
[x
Xl
" J
T
The rul e label ed Mid Dal i nking i s verY si mi lar �o �he Low Del inking rul e
(20) s�ated above. I n both cases. �he l ef� si de of �he con�our tone is del inked
when that �one i s al so l i nked �o another preceding TBU wi �hin �he morPheme
boundarY. For �hi s reason. I proPose a more general rule to cover bo�h Mi d �one
---
---_.
---------- --- -
168
Del i nk i n9 and Low �one Del i nk i n9 - Le��side Del i nkin9 (LS Del i n kin9) :
(40) LEFTSIDE DELINKING
Del i n k the tone trom the l ett si de ot a contour tone when �he l ettsi de �one
has al readY l i n ked to o�her Preced ing TBU ' s i n the word.
In examPl e ( 39a) above, we have see how LS Del i nk i n9 aPPl i es to verbs. In
Chapter
5,
i� wi l l be shown that LS Del i n k i n9 i s equal l y appl i cabl e to nouns.
The anal Ysi s ot Hi gh tone sPread anto Low tone verbs produced the compl i cat i on of �rYi ng to determi ne how Hi gh tone sPreadi ng cou l d Yiel d a Mid-High
contaur . Two rul es were ProPosed �o cover t er thi s phenomenon , ,I:he High SPread
and the Hi gh tone SPread to TBU. Althou9h the Hi gh tone SPread 'co TBU rule maY
seem to Pose some theoreti cal Probl ems, and thus stand
wi l l b e seen i n Chapter
5,
en
a shakY ground , i t
that the notion at l i n k i ng a subre9i ster tone
i ndependentlY �o a se9ment can be fur�her subs�antiated .
Because the Associ ation Conventi ons as stated i n the di scussi on on Low tone
SPreadi n9 l i mi t the l i nkin9 of tones to TBU ' s , an add i t i onal rule i s requi red
to l i nk anY remai n i ng free TBU ' s to tones a�ter the appl i cati on o� the spreadin9 rul es. Thi s ru l e , stated above. has been cal l ed the Linkin9 rul e (39) .
Fi nal l y , i t was consi dered necessarY to revise the Low Del inkin9 rule to
incl ude the del i nk i n9 of anY tone on the l eft side contour tone gi ven the
condi t i ons in the rul e ( 40 ) .
In summarY, then , �he rul es are 9i ven below:
---
----
- -- -- ------
169
(35)
HIGH SPREAD
(36)
HIGH SPREAD
TO
TBU
(39 ) LINKING
(40) LS DELINKING
3. Mi d Ton. Loweri ni
The � inal rul e we shal l discuss wi lh in thi s secti on i s a sentence final
rul e invol vi ng Mi d tone verbs. A Mi d tone verb i s lowered to Low when preceded
by a Hi gh final noun
(4 1 )
M
-
> L I
H
___
01'"
Pronoun and �ound to be i n sentence .f i nal position.
II
ev CVCV## -> CV evcv##
I
H
V
M
I
V
Wil�
�' tv -> waA � t�
H
H L
M
H
L
' He carried a rock '
Why a Hi gh tone would force the lowering of a Mi d tone i s uncl ear at thi s
Poi nt. At the outset i t aPPears to be a type of a di ssi mi l ation Process. A �ew
Paral lel s can be drawn with other sentence final Phenomena. Fi rst of al l .
recal l from ChaPter 3 that Hi gh final indef i n i te nouns exhibit a fal l i ng tone
Phoneti cal lY when in sentence final Posi tion ( see (42a) bel ow) . A phrase fi nal
Low tone In••rtion rule ( 27) was ProPosed. It seams that this tendency for a
High tone to fal l i s transferred to the Mid tone verb, which col l apses from the
weight of the fal l and becomes Low tone (42b ) . Not. that the Hi gh final noun .
which would normal l y exhibit
a
�al l i ng tone i n sentence final Posi tion. no
longer fal l s when fol lowed by a Mid tone verb or anY other el emeni: . Thai: fal l
is transferred to a Mid tone verb . however . onl Y as l ong as the verb itsel f i s
----- �- - . -..- . ---
---
- -- -- --
�--
---- -
170
i n sen�ence �inal Posi �ion . As soan as same�hing else �al laws �he verb . no
�al l ing phenomena �akes Pl ace. as shawn in ( 42c ) .
' rack '
b . wa�
UUxa
hxo -> wa� � � aK.{ bnc�
c . wa� ��l '�a �uxo l a
On.
' He carri ed a rack '
' Di d he carrY a rack? '
may ask why a Mi d tone verb wou l d b. susceptible to thi s tal l but not a
Hi gh tone verb. tor examPI •• It a Mid tone verb i s Anal Yzed as a rai sed Law
tane. as has al readY bean suggested . thi s taI l i ng Phenomenon could be descri bed
as Pushi ng the rai sed Low tone back to Low. or i n terms a� �eatures. as n
(43)
CV cvcv
J
I
H
L
I
:t­
h
h
Such a Hi gh Del i nking rul e maY be tormul ated as tol l aws.
(44) SUBREGISTER HIGH DELINKING: Del ink a subre9i ster High tone �rom a Pri marY
level Low tone when Preceded by a Hh tone and i n Phrase �inal Position .
x
X II
H
L
I
I
h
I
*
h
The moti vation ot this Hi gh del i nking i s nat enti rel y cl ear . however. Recal l .
---
-
- -
-..
-.
----
--- ---
.- --- -- ------
----- .
171
al so. Another Phrase � inal rule. al so labeled Hi gh Del i nking. but whi ch
invol v•• the del i nkin9 a� a Pri m�Y tier Hi gh tone i n Phrase � i nal Posi tion
when i t shares a TBU wi th a sPreading Low tone. as shown bel ow:
(45)
CV CV II
l,./1
L
H
Al though the Lh �eature bundle is not a sequence
�
tones and there�ore. not a
contour . it i s Possible that some �eature simPl i � i cation Process not unl i ke
contour si mPl i f i cation of d.l i nking a Prim�Y Hi gh tone
�
a
Low-Hi 9h contour .
i s taki ng Pl ace an Lh verbs. triggering the del inking o� the subre9i ster Hi gh
�roll the L.ow tone.
The �al l i ng o� the Hi gh � i nal noun in sentence � i nal posi tion and the
lowering o� Mi d tone verbs a�ter High �i nal nouns in sentence �inal Posi tion
maY al so lead one to susPect that these two Processes are moti vated by the same
underl Yi n9 �eature. A �al l i n9 tone an a Hi gh �inal noun can be represented
through the insertion
�
a Law tone �eature in sentence � i nal Posi tion :
However . i� one i nserted a �i nal Low tone after a Mi d tone noun . a Mi d-L.ow tone
rather than Law tone i s produced. as shown below.
nYi ..
/"' ....
L t
�
I� the Law tone was inserted b.tween the noun and the verb. a Low-Mi d __ant our
-- -
-
.-
.-..
---- ----- ---- ------
172
would resul� on the verb. In ei ther even� . High Del inking would sti l l have �o
be motivated . i n order �o del i nk the subregi ster Hi gh tone.
In sPi �e of the paral l el that can be found between the behaviour of �he Hi gh
final noun and Mid tone verbs which are Preceded by Hi gh final nouns. there
does no� seem to be a clear waY to capture thi s general ization in a si ngl e
rul e.
The rul e of subregi ster Hi gh Del i nking i s also verY simi l ar to the rul e of
Hi gh Deletion. i ntroduced i n ChaPter 2. Both rules ei ther d.l et. or del ink the
subre9i star Hi gh tane
�
a Lh verb and both have the same effect
�
l oweri ng a
Mi d tone verb to Low tone. However . they occur in di fferent envi ronments and at
different stages i n the deri vation . High Del etion takes Pl ace early i n the
deri vation before Law tone SPread wi thin word boundaries. whi le High Del inking
takes Place in a speci f i c Phrasal envi ronment . Thus High Deletion aPPears to be
a l exi cal l Y based rul e whi le High Del inking takes pl ace at the Phrase level .
Thi s Hi gh Del inking rule. then. i s simi l ar to other �onal Phenomena found i n
the l anguage. It take. Pl ace at the same stag� o� derivation as the PrimarY
ra9ister Hi gh Del inki n9 rul e and the Law tone insertion rul e. and it al so
Produces the same surface form as Hi gh Del etion. Any possi bi l i ty of making a
general ization covering al l of these simi l ar character i stics wi l l have to wai t
for further research .
- " -- ----
T
173
I I I . THE VERBAL. PARTICLES
Thi s sec�ion exami nes �he �onal na�ure
of
�h. verbal Par�i c l es i n addi � i on
�o discussing how their �on. a��ects the tone o� the verb . As the tone o� the
verb i s sensi t i ve to the tone o� the Precedi ng NP, namel Y the objec� ,
50
the
Verbal Particle is subject to tonal rules tri ggered by the tone o� the preced­
i ng Subject NP. Verbal Par t i c l es are tYPical l y never � ound i n i solation ; thei r
underlYing tone can onl Y be determi ned i n the contex t o� the verb Phrase and
5en�ence. An a��empt at anal Ysis i s turthar comP l i c ated by the tac� that even
though Verbal -Parti cl es Possess onl Y one� or at the most � two� tone-bearing
uni ts, theY aPPear to be tonal l Y comPl ex . Thi s studY wi l l attemPt to di scover
what the underlYing tones mi ght be, and outl ine an anal Ysi s that would account
tor thi s compl ex i ty .
A. Order Within th. y.rb pbr...
� ore going on �o d i scuss tone� i t might be hel P� u l t o examine br i ei l Y the
nature at thi s Verbal Parti c l e ' sl ot ' wi thi n the verb phrase. A variety o�
verbal parti cles can be i nserted i n this Posi t i on i mmedi atel Y Precedi ng the
verb. A di rect object� by i ts Posi t i on in the sentence, however . �an seParate
al l o� these Parti c l es from the mai n verb . No nominal el ements can be i nserted
among the verbal particles . The terms, Tense, Aspect , Modal (TAM) markers,
would not adequatel Y cover tor al l at these Particl es � because the negati ve
marker i s also i ncl uded, and there are a COUPl e o� par t i c l es Precedi ng the TAM
markers that I si mpl y reter to as Pre-tense markers� tor l ac k o� a better
l abel .
Precedi ng even the negat i ve marker . whi ch normal l y precedes al l Verbal
Parti cles, Pre-tense markers seam to be somewhat adver b i al i n tuncti on . Sel ow
i s a schema o� the al l owed order ot these parti cles . Tense and Modal markers
----- -
-- --..
-
-- - ---------- ---- ----_._--- --- _ ._--
-
1 74
are nHen marked for ei ther Compl etive <C> or IncomPl eti ve < I ) AsPect <A> .
(47)
PRE-TENSE NEGATI VE - HABITUAL-A
TENSE-A
MODAl-A
� "
saa.' gO ' <U>
nH PAST <C>
Yi
' agai n '
i
'"
m
na PAST <U)
' also '
PAST <C>
,
saa ' gO ' < I >
ca� PAST <C)
caa PAST ( I >
,
b;aa' come ' <U)
Unmarked for asPect
=
<U)
st FUT (C)
(normAl l y indi cates cOmPl eti ve>
COmPl eti ve
=
IncomPl eti ve
baa • come ' < I )
s! da FUT ( I >
(C)
Ya PRES < I )
=
na?i PRES < I >
,
(I>
Though thi s l i st contai ns most verbal particles. i t i s not exhausti ve. Wi thin
narrati ves. a number
o.f
these parti c l es also carrY di scourse functi ons. combi n-
ing i n numerous waYs. It i s not wi thin the scoPe of this thesis to discuss the
semantics and di scourse ProPerties of these particles. The purPose i s to
present most of the parti c l es and examine thei r tonal behaviour wi thin the
simpl e sentence.
,
(48) a. mo na
Bel ow are some Possible combi nati ons of parti cl es.
ca�
S:l'i';l
' You had cooked '
You PAST <U> PAST <C> cook <C>
b. mo na
caa
s��d
You PAST (U> PAST < I )
c . mo m�?a s!
cook ( 1 )
P�r€
You HAB FUT (C> sel l <C>
---_ .- . _-
_ . _ ._ -
' You had been cooki ng '
' You wi l l sel l habi tual l Y '
T
1 75
d . rna n U
saa
' You went to sel l
PirU
I
You PAST <C) M ' gg l < l ) sel l < l )
e.
me
sen?' n { �
' You have came agai n l
Pan
You a9ai n PAST <C) came <C)
� . mo m '
yl
ni l
min ' You d i d nat came ei ther I
pan
You al so NEG PAST (C) came (C) NEG
Nate that the translations o� these Parti cl •• are nat Precise . For instance. I
have nat i nd i cated at what Points i n the Past each Past tense marker i s used
�or . Determi nat i on o� the .xact meani ngs o� these particles i s rather comPl icated and requi res a rather rigaurous studY o� the di scourse behavior .
B. Awew:t in the Ver b Phr'M
CalnPl .U v. asPllCt an TAM markers i s sDRl8ti mes unmarked . that i s . Possessi ng
no se9menta1 or tone features. More �requent l Y . however. the comPl eti ve asPect
i s characteri zed by a �i nal l ow tona someti mes associ ated wi th tha vowel
-
1
.
The incanPl .tiv. asPect . on the ather hand . i s consi stentl y Mi d tone and
someti mes associ ated wi th the vowel
:&.
Sal ow are same eXAmPles � unmarked and
marked completi ves i n contrast to their in comPl eti ve counterParts.
(49)
Inc;gmpl.tiv,
COmpl eti ve <Unmarked)
,
"
wu na s� sb?b Iso?ol cook
wu n-'
sa
pi r€
wu
I
' he had cooked? I
-
---- ------ ------
sbbd IsoDl"'i l
' he had 90ne to be cookin9, se1 l i n9 1
Inc;gmpl,tiye
COmpl etive (with L tone)
"
,
sel l
' he had 90ne to cook . sel l
wu nei. ca-a so?o 1 a
'"
na sa-iI,
cook
,
wu n� ca-a soari l a
' he had been cooki n9? 1
176
AsPect is marked on connecti ves between verbs in a verbal chai n . as seen in
the examPles bel ow.
( �0 >
ComPl eti ve
a. wu l ptrt
l k�
-->
waa pir�� k�
' he � i n i shed sel l ing '
--> waa w� l �� Pan
' he brou9ht i t '
C f i n i sh
he C sel l
b . wu l wu
(C>
l Pan
H
C come
he C i t take
c · wu l twd
' He vomi ted too much '
he C vomit
d . nde l wid
I
l Y� r � --> ndaa wir�� Y�r�
' I got uP ear l y '
C get uP
C be ear l Y
(51 ) I ncomPleti ve ( IN >
a· wu YA wtrU
DA
IN 90 ( IN )
he IN be ear l y
b . wu YA �yU �
h. IN hurrY
(52) ComPl et i ve
' he i s hurrying �u 90 '
5'
aa
�
m a.
' He i s hurrYing and comi ng '
IN come UN)
+ IncDlRPl eti ve
a. wu l k6
he C .f in i sh
b . wu l k6
he C .f i n i sh
aa
P€r { { --> wa� ko na P€r { {
' He f i ni shed sel l i n g '
IN sel l
IlA soori --> wa� ko na sO�d
' He � i n i shed cook i ng '
IN cook
1 . The IncOllPl eti ve AsPect
The IncomPl eti ve asPect marker consistentl y mani� est5 a Mi d tone. As a
resu l t , one wou l d exPect i t to be consi dered underlYin9ly Lh and thus tri gger
Hi gh tone sPread onto Low tone verbs, si nce thi s i s the behaviour � Mid � i nal
1 77
nouns. However . as the examPle i n (33a) shows . such Hi gh tone SPreadi ng
Produces an i ncorrect sur�ace �orm.
( 33) a. wu � t� � i --> .wu Ya tUK i (
' he i s vomi ting '
Rather: wu Ya t�xi i .
However . the i ncomPl eti ve tone behaves i n the same manner as a Hi gh � i nal noun
by l oweri ng Mi d tone verbs to Low tone in phrase �inal Position . as shown
below:
b. wu n SDOI"i --> wu U s�i
' He i s cooking '
c . wu sf ai4 SDDri ->
wu
d . wu ca-� saari -->
wu c� soori
sf Q1a saari
' He wi l l be cooki ng '
- He had been cooking '
Thi s observati on l eads us to susPect that the i ncomPl etive marker is underl Yi n91 y Hi gh � i nal . I� we ProPose that the underl Yi ng shaPe o� the incomPl eti ve
marker i s a combi nati on o� a Low tone and a Hi gh tone. the l i nking o� both
tones to one tone bear i ng uni t WDul d create a Mi d tone on the surface. Thi s
Hi gh � i nal parti c l e would then tri gger High Del i nking on a fol lowi ng HI verb .
as shown below .
(34)
wu
ca-&
"
�ri II -> wu c a-& saar l II
I
LA
L
Ih
h
II
I
A
LH
II
Ih
I
L
t
h
H DEL INKING
Thi s di scuss i on . then . shows that there are at l east two tYPes � Mid tones
i n Suc i te. the Lh tone tentati vel Y posi ted for nouns and verbs. and the LH tone
for the i ncomPl eti ve asPect . The Lh tone can tri gger High tone SPreadi ng whi l e
--- ----
1 78
a LH tone cannot . On the ather hand. the LH i ncompl et i ve can tri gger Hi gh tone
Del i nk i ng an a �ol l owing Lh verb in Phrase f i nal Posi t i on . Whi l e the Lh tone
can be subject to tonal change. through such rul es as Hi gh Del etion or Hi gh
0.1 i nki ng. the LH tone o� the i ncomPl eti ve never undergoes tonal changes. It
does nat even under9a the PrimarY regi ster Hi gh Del in king rule when fal l owed by
•
Hi gh tone verb . Recal l that H i gh Del i n k i n9 takes Pl ace on a Law-High contaur
when it i s fal l owed by another Hi gh tone. The eKamPle below shows that Hi gh
Del i n k i n9 wou l d Produce an i ncorract surface farm.
(55) wu Ya pir f -� -> *wu Y.\ p(rf -{
"
I I
A "JH HI
LH
H H
LH
Ih
h h
lh
11
II
I I
I I
Rather : wu Ya P€r i i
h h
H IGH DELINKING
Ther�ore, i t i s necessarY t o b l ack the LH tone o f the i ncompletive from Hi gh
tone Del i n ki ng. Since mast Law-High contours found el sewhere in the l anguage do
under9a High Del i nk i ng. it seams that the onl Y al ternati ve here is to l ex i cal l Y
mark the LH incomPl eti ve to refrain from Hi gh Del i n king.
2. Th. ComPl.ti ve AsPect
Mark..
Earl i er . i t was noted that the mast sal i ent �eature o� the compl eti ve asPect
was that i t was Law tone. and that i t was often associ ated wi th the vowel �.
Si nce i t i s vowel i n i t i al . i t coal esces with the vowel of the Precedi ng ward ,
be i t a verbal Parti c l e (56a ) , naun or Pronoun ( b ) , or verb (c) .
(36) a. wu ca-& Pan
� he had come I
b . wu � !)an -> wa-& pan
' he came I
c· wu-& NO l � & pan -> wa& wu l �-� pan
' h. taok i t and came l
1 79
Li ke Law � i nal nouns. the Law tone a� the comPlet i ve aspect marker al so
tri ggers Law tone SPreadi ng onto the � ol l owi ng verb . Thi s i s i l l ustrated i n the
examPles below. In (57b > . note that the cOmPl eti ve asPect i s l ocated in two
Posi t i ons in the sentence. the � i rst i mmed i atel Y a�ter the subject. and the
second as a connecti ve between the two verbs. Both tri gger Law tone sPread onto
the � ol l awi ng Hi gh tone.
kJrj.
lr� " 1
(57) a. wu ca-a
L
H
I
h
I
�
L
I
1
LOW SPREAD
1,': ' I Ls.,; ..
H L
I
h I
I
I I
LOW SPREAD
H
I
h
LS DEL INKING
t ->
b . wa-a w€rJ -a kir
L
" He had gone '
-> wu ca-a kad
H
I
h
wa-�
��i-� karf
�I �
L
H L
H
I
I I
I
I
h t
" He went earl y '
h
LS DELINKING
The above deri vati ons. however . are not yet quite COmPl ete. When the
comPl et i ve marker is �ol l awed by a Law tone. the Law tone an the marker i s
i tsal � dal i n ked and i t assumes the tone o� the ward t o wh i ch i t has coal esced .
Thi s hapPens regardl ess a� whether the Law SPread has takan place or not .
There�are. i � the marker has coal esced to a ward whose sur�ace tone i s Mi d tone
(58a and c > . i t becomes Mi d tone, and i t becomes Hi gh tone a�ter a Hi gh � i nal
ward (58b . d. and e) .
(59) a. wu
" He had gone '
---- ------ --- - -- - -
---
-
--
-
180
b . wa-� wir f -f k�rf -> waa wirf f k�rf
' He went earl y '
I
�'V H�'V
a:.
H
.11 l
I
I I
I
h
h I
I
" He aweed '
d . nd. "' w�rf 4 �i ri -> nd� na wir.aa Yi r �
1I-' f
H
e. ibake � p.l i ->
gbaka� p.l i
l
I
" I got u P ear l y '
l
" the house i s b i g '
After law tone wards, however , there i s a sl i ght devi at i on f rom the pattern
gi ven above. As a connecti ve, i t remains law ton� ( 59a) , but when i n verbal
particle Posi t i on , after the subject, i t acqui res a Mi d-law tone (b and c ) .
(59) a. waa t�Ki l s��ri -> waa t��4 s��i
b . w��
yal a
na b!
gbddn
• He vami tad tao much I
" We shou l d h i t them '
we-TA shou l d I N them hi t-IN
c . n��-&
yal a m� Kal e t��n wd
man-TA shoul d
__
y6
' Man shoul d l ove God '
God pl ease hi m sel f-to
Thi s Mid-low contour shows uP on l Y when Preceded by a Law t i nal nomi nal
subject. It i s entirel y possi b l e that in thi s Posi t i on , the se9ment . 4, i s
morPhol ogical l Y compl eK , contai n i ng the comPl etive marker as wel l as PerhaPs
some
i ndi cat i on at tense, and thus maki ng A mare tonal l Y comPl eK . The reason
for this sl i ght compl i cati on , however . remai ns unknown at thi s parti cular stage
at research.
let us return to the d i scussi on of the compl eti ve law tone del i nk i n9 when
fal l owed by a low tone. The i ssue fac i ng us here i s how to formu l ate a rule for
-----
-
_ . _ ._
.._--
-----
----
191
thi s tonal behaviour. Thi s type o� Law tone Del i n k i ng aPPears to be the same
tYPe o� contour si mPl i � i cati on rule as Hi gh tone del i nk i n9 i n that both tri 9ger
the del i nk i n9 o� the ri 9ht side o� the contour tone when the �01 1 0win9 tone i s
the same tone as the r i ght s i de contour tane. Thi s Law tone del i n ki n9 i s
compared wi th Hi gh tone del i n k i ng i n the examPles bel ow.
(60 ) a. Law Del i n k i n9
waa 9b&r&
�l
VL
I'lL
b . High Del i nk i n9
waa w& l � �66
� V
L
H
H
I� one made a 9eneral i zed rul e del i nk i n9 the r i ght si de
of
a contour tone
when the �01 1 0win9 tone is the same as the ri 9ht s i de contour tone. then the
twa tonal Processes i l l ustrated above in (60) can be col l aPsed i nto one rul e .
The on l Y compl i cati on that ari ses i s that Law Del i nk i n9 i nvol ves a contour tone
an a l an9 vowel . whi ch in Suci te. rePresents twa tone-beari n9 uni ts. whi l e Hi gh
Del i nkfn9 i nvol ves onl Y one TBU. Even wi th thi s Prob l em. however . it wou l d nat
be di l � i cu l t to ProPose a si n9l e rul e lor bath Processes. Thi s rul e , label ed
Ri 9htside Del i nk i n9. i s stated below:
(61 ) RIGHTSIDE DELINKING: Del ete the ri ghtside at a tonal contaur ot ei ther a
1 0n9 vowel , composed at 2 TBU ' s or a si n9l e vowel . when
1)
i t is t ol l owed by a
surtace tone whi ch i s the same as the r i 9htsi de tone of the contour. or 2) when
it is i n sentence t i nal Posi t i on .
(v. W)
,,- -
- -- -
----- ---- ---- ------
1 82
Thi s ru l e wou l d work wel l �or the examples 9i ven above. Unfortunatel y.
however . thi s rul e does nat appl v in al l cases· In (62a> bel ow. a Mi d-Low tone
an a sin9l e TBU does nat undergo RS Del i nk i n9 when fal l owed bv a Low tonee ,
whi l e i n (b> , a noun with a contour tone on a 1 0n9 vowel i s does not submi t to
the rul e .
( 62) a. wa� j� 9b�r�
A
VL
i'lL
b . wa� �Vaa nVa
II
I
HM
t he met a son '
t he saw a f i sh '
M
Both � these counter examPl es i nvol ve nouns, and nei ther i nvol ve a Low-hi 9h
tone. Therefore. i t aPPears that thi s RS Del i nk i n9 has a fai r l v l i mi ted
appl i cati on - del i nk i n9 the Hi9h of a Low-Hi 9h contour (th i s has been attested
on nouns as wel l as verbs> . and the del inkin9 of a ,gmpl.ti ve Low tone when i t
i s fol l owed b v a Low tone. These Probl ems brin9 i nto doubt the feasibi l i ty of
moti vati n9 the RS Del i nkin9 rul e. However . despi te i ts controversial posi t i on .
thi s rul e shal l b e used �or the PurPose of convenience .
It was menti oned i n the RS Del i n k i n9 rul e that the tone o� the f ol l owi n9 TBU
must be the same on the surfaci
as
the Right si de tone o� the contour . Thi s
means that i f a comp l et i ve Low tone i s fol l owed bv a Low-Hi9h contour wh i ch has
si mpl i f i ed to Mi d tone. then no RS Del inkin9 takes Place. Thi s can be seen i n
the exampl e bel ow.
(63) wu � l � la -> wa� l � l a -> wa� l � l a
I
1'1
l
I
H
I
i'l
l 1
L
..
H
I
1'1
LOW SPREAD
RS DELINKING N/A
t Di d he take? '
183
However , i� RS Del i nk i n9 a� the Law-Hi9h contour an the verb takes place, as
.hawn i n (64) . then the comPl eti ve Law tone, wh i ch i mmed i atel Y Precedes thi s
Law-Hi9h contour, al so undergoes RS Del i n ki ng.
(64) a.
WA�
II
l� ry�� . -> waa l� ?d�
I
H
ML
V
H
10 V
ML
H
H
It i s cl ear from the above examPl e that the RS Del i n k i ng of the Law-Hi 9h
contour must take Pl ace before the Del i n k i n9 of the comPl eti ve Law tone. Th i s
maY l ead · ane t o raise the questi on that these twa tone processes might be
better stated i n twa di ��erent rules. and that the one. Hi9h tone Del i n k i ng. be
ordered to appl Y be-Fare the ather, Law tane del i nk i n9. However . anether waY to
approach the Probl em i s te suggest that RS Del i n k i n9 appl i es �ram right to l eft
acress the senience. Thus. i � H i gh iane i s del i nked from the Law-High centaur .
a sur�ace Lew tane resul ts. creat in9 a sui tab l e envi ronment fer the del i nkin9
ef the compl et i ve Lew tone, situated te the l e�t e� the Law-Hi 9h centaur .
c. TID••• Mpdal , and ethIC pvHc:ln
1. Th. NA Pvticl.
Th.
Q&
Parti cl e i s a Past tense marker , but i t d i ffers i n use from the
simple recent Past :i. di scussed abeve. Carl son 9i ves an aPt descr i ption of
f or SilPyka, whi ch seems to aPpl y equal l y wel l te SilcHa: liThe funct i on of
oa
Eli
i n si tuat i n9 events relat i ve to each ether maY have somet h i ng to do with i ts
devel oPment i nto a Past tense marker . As a TIA marker. its CDmIIICI1l1St use i s te
set the tense in the f i rst clause of a narrat i ve .
II
( 1985. p. 12) H e 90es an t e
/
saY that Di i s nat used i n subsequent cl auses. Th i s i s al so true far Silc i ta . In
"
addition , he saYs "Another -Funct i on a-F ail i s emphat i c . Ii; i s used te lissert
----- -- -
-
--_ .
---_
1 84
stron9l Y that somethi n9 did take Pl ace ...hen doubt has been exPressed . "
Al though a& �aY be accomPani ed by a comPl eti ve La... tone marker ( 65a) . i t i s
often occurs al one ...i thout anY other verbal part i cle. When i t occurs al one . aa
i s consistentl y f ol l o...ed by verbs i n the COmPl eti ve asPect (b) .
(65 ) a. ...u ni� k�{
' he went '
' he ....nt '
Its tonal behavi or i s i denti cal to the tonal behavior of Hi9h tone verbs. When
preceded by a mi d or h i 9h tone subject.
aa
is High ton., as sho...n i n the
examPles b.l o... .
(66) a.
' He has 9cn. '
n4 �rf
wu
b . mo � k�r(
' You have 90n. '
c · Peru "" kid
' A daughter has 9one '
d . f al �� n� kar(
' a rock has 90ne '
When Preceded by a Low f i nal subject , the Low tone sPreads onto
�
creat i n 9 a
Lo...-Hi 9h contour, as shown bel owo Th i s contour tone then simpl i f i es to Mi d tone
if i t is fol l o....d by a non h i gh tone verb (67a ) . However , if fol l owed by a Hi 9h
tone verb, the envi ronment for RS Del i n k i n9 i s created resu l tin9 i n a surface
Low ton. -For
aa
<b > .
(67) a. n�.l nEt 9b�;.l -> nA� n� 9b.lr.l -> n�� nil
I
L
I
I
H
1,, ' 1
L
L
H
I
'V1
L H
L
n�
L
H
I
k�rf -> n��
I
I
H
na k'r{ -> n.l� n� kQrf
1 ., 1
r H
I
H
LOW-SPREAD I NG
. _-_.
-
--
.- . ---
- -
-'Jl.
--- ----
' A man a9reed '
L INKING
L-SPREADING
b. n��
9bclr.l
\M V
L
H
' A man has 90ne '
H
LINKING & RS DEL INKING
-- -- ------- -
--
-
185
�
Since
i s Hi gh tone, it tri ggers the l ower i ng a� Mi d tone verbs in �i nal
Position through subregi ster Hi gh Del i n k i ng ( c ) . even when i t has been subject
to Law tone SPread Cd) .
c. wu nS Pan -> wu n! PMt
I
H
I
' he came '
I I
H
L
L
� t
� �
HIGH DELINKING
d . n�� � Pan -> n�� n� Pan -> n�� na p�
1.. ... 1
L
H
\1/1 I
I
L
L
H
L
1
h
h
I
I I I
I h h
' A man has came '
I f
LINKING , HIGH DELINK I NG
L-SPREADIN6
2. Th. NI l Particl.
The a11 part i cl e si gnal s Past tense. The Prec i se semant i c �uncti an a� thi s
parti cl e i s net known at the Present t i me. When used wi thout ather verbal
Particles. i t i s al waYs accomPani ed by a comPlet i ve verb .
(68 ) wu nU Pan
' he came '
� i s comPosed ai a High pl us Law tone. It i s bel i eved that thi s Law tene
i nd i cates the Presence a� a Law tone COmPl eti ve marker . Thi s Law tone tri ggers
Law tone sPread ante High tone verbs, and then . i s i tsel f subject to RS
Del i nk i n9, as seen bel ow.
(69) wu n { � �r{ -> wu n { l k�r{ ->
I
M
/ LL"'�H1
H
L-SPREADI NG
----- --- - -- -----
I
M
I \P"1
H L
H
LS DELI NKING
NU
I
M
n { { k�r{ -> wu n { { k&r{
'''*JL
H
I
' He went '
H
RS DELINKING
--- ---_. _-- -------
---_ .
186
When nit i s Preceded by a LON tone. i t is also subject to LaN-spreadi ng. The
resul ti ng LH contour on D11 i s simPl i � i ed to Mi d tone�
n11 n { � Pan -> n11 n i � Pan -> n11 ni � Pan
(70)
I
/ II
L
L
H L
L
L
I
h 1
h
1
I
I
I
J
...
I
� A man came '
I
1 \
H L L
I
I I
h I h
LOW SPREADING
3. Th. Futur. T.n••
The �uture ·tense mOrPheme i s characteri zed by a H tone segment . at (a ) .
Because o� the � i nal nasal o� the morpheme, the consonant o� anY verbal el ement
i mmediatel Y � ol l owing the �utur e marker i s nasal i zed :
•
I Ni 1 1 l ook ' .
However . i � an abject i ntervenes. the nasal di saPPears�
nd� 5£ x� we'
� I wi l l l ook at You ' .
When a �uture tense morpneme i s marked �or comPl eti ve asPect . a LON tone i s
l i nked t o the parti c l e . creati ng a HL contour .
(71 ) mo st mPan .
�
� YOU wi l l come '
Thi s � i nal L tri ggers Law tone sPread onto Hi gh tone verbs and i s subsequent l Y
subject to RS Del i nk i ng .
(72) NU st n kar{
I
M
�
HL
I
H
->NU st n k1rf ->
I
M
�':" 1
HL
H
L-SPREADING
NU
I
M
st nk�rf -> NU 5£ nk�f
I\.P1
H L
H
LS DELINKING
I
M
IV
H L
1
• a man Ni 1 1 90 '
H
RS DELINKING
When 11 i s i t••l f subject to Law SPread by a Precedi ng Law tone. the resu l t i ng
LHL tonal contour is si mPl i � ied to Mid-Law. as seen bel oN.
_- - -
_
._ .
----- ----- ---- ------
187
(73) n�� st mPan -->
!� L
n�� st mPan -> n�� s� mPan
I
t / 1\
HL
L
L
I
' a man wi l l come '
I
h
h
LOW SPREADING
When the � uture tense marker i s used with the i ncompl et i ve asPect , i t i s
�ol l owed by the i ncamPl at i ve asPect parti cl e , t4. Thi s �arti c l a i s apparent in
i ncomPletive i mPerati ve �orms o� the verb :
' be 90i ng l '
ta wi !
' be l ook i ng !
1
When �ol l awed by the �uture tense Parti cle, the t i s nasal i zed , produc i ng the
Phonetic lorm,
[ ddal o� Inta/ : wu s{ nta sa
' he wi l l be goi ng " . The particle,
iA is Mi d tone an the sur�ace and is never suscept i b l e to anY tonal changes.
However , as with other i ncomPl eti ve Parti cl es. tA trl �. the High Oel i nkin9
o� Lh verbs and there�ore has been posi ted as bei ng under l Yi n9ly Low-H i gh . The
deri vati on bel ow shows how this underlYi ng Low-High tone tri9gers H i gh Del inki ng on the Lh ver b .
(7�) wu s{ nta soari ->wu s{ nta sOor� -> wu s{ nta soor� ' he wi l l be cooking 1
1
H
A
LH
I
L
I
I
H
"
LH
h
LINKING
�
L
f
h
H IGH DELINKING
The �uture tense Parti cl e , Ii, i n conjunction wi th the i ncompl eti ve aSPect
particle, conti nues to be sub ject to Low SPread when Preceded by a Low � i nal
subject. as shown below. In thi s case. the resul t i ng Low-Hi gh contour i s
si mPl i f i ed to Mi d tone.
----�- - - --- ----. -----
---- ------ --- - -- - - - -
--
1 88
" a man wi l l be comi ng '
L SPREAD
The i ncomPlet i ve Progressive part i c l e .
�
i s also marked far the i ncom­
Pl et i ve LH tone. The l atter i s attached to the f i nal tone-bearing uni t of
creati ng a HM contour
�
an
�.
the f i nal Teu:
" He i s coming '
(77) wu n
H LH
H
�
�
When � i s subject to L-sPraadi n9 . the fol l owing take. pl ace l
(78) n�� n"?a ma. -> nU n.l�
/
I� \
L
L.;,;'/�
H LH H
L
ma
I
-> n�.l .�?
H LH H
L
L-SPREADING
s.
mi. -> nU n�?i
HI:.
H
LS DELINKING
Th. CA Particl.
The mean i ng of
�
seems to i nd i cate acti on further i n the Past than the
tocal Poi nt at the narrati ve. I t i s trequentl y combi ned with the � past tense
marker . The parti c l e
do ' . The verb
QR
�
maY have been deri ved from the verb
and the Part i c l e
�
�
meaning ' to
are both Mi d tone. ca is nat subject to
anY tonal rul es. I t i s not known whether
Lh . si nce
Qi.
�
i s under l Yi ngl y Law-High tone or
i s al wavs � ol l owed by an i ncomPlet i ve or a comPI.tive mar ker .
whose tonal behavi our do not reveal anY cl ues as to the possi b l e underlYi ng
When fol l owed by a camPl eti ve Law tone. the resu l t i ng comPlex part i c l e. �.
--- - - - - - -
-
--
---
---- - ---- ---- ------
199
�ri ggers Low �one SPreadi ng on�o Hi gh �one verbs. as shawn i n (79a ) . When
fal lowed by �he LH i ncomPlet i ve mar ker . High Del i nk i ng �akes pl ace an anY
fal l owi ng Mi d �ane verb (90b ) .
( 79) ComPleti ve
a. wu caA so?o
' He had cooked '
b . wu ca-A kar{ -> wu caa k1r�
' He had gone '
(L SPREADIN6 )
(90) IncamPl e� i ve
a.
wu
' He had been going '
caa H
b . wu caa saari -> wu caa s��r�
' � had been cook i ng '
(H DEL INKING )
6. Th. Hel tu.l a?
When �he Habi �ual marker i s i n a cOmPle�i ve Phrase i t i s no� marked wi �h �he
comPlet i ve Law �one. In fact . in mast envi ronments, �he d i f ference between �he
ComPl et i ve and i ncomPle� i ve farms i s no� Percepti b l e. The examPles given below
shaw tha� in bath comPl e� i ve and i ncomplet i ve Phrase. � �ri ggers Hi ih �one
Del inki ng an bath farms of the Mi d �one verb. �hus l ower i ng a Mi d �one verb to
Low tone.
(91 ) COMPLETIVE
wu m1?a sj?j lso?ol ' He cooked habi tual l y '
INCOMPLETIVE
wu mA?a s��r� Isoori l
' He is cooking habitual lY '
However . when fal l owed by a Hi gh tone verb . the compl etive and i ncomPl eti ve
Phrases exh i b i t di fferent behavi our . In the comPletive Phrase. � is com­
Pl etel Y Law tane (92a) whi l e i n (b ) i t remains Low-Mi d .
(92) a . COMPLETI VE
b . INCOMPLETIVE
wu
m�?� kar�
wu m�?a s'
' He usual l Y went '
' He was usual l Y goi ng '
----- ---- --- ------
1 90
I� one posi ted the underl yi ng tone a� mAZa to be underlYi ngl y Law-Hi gh , wi th an
i nternal Law tone SPreadi ng rul e sPreadi ng the Law of the f i rst TBU onto Hi gh
tone of the second TaU, the � i nal sYl l abl e of ma2A can then be l i nked to bath a
Law and a Hi gh t ane, creati ng a f i nal Mi d tone, as shawn i n the f i rst Part a�
the der i vati on i n (83) . Once the Law SPreadi ng takes pl ace, a Law-Hi gh contour
�al l awed by a High tone verb is the envi ronment needed for RS Del i n k i ng.
' He usual l Y went '
LINKING & RS DElINKING
LOW SPREAD
However , when the LH i ncamPleti ve tone is aSSOCi ated to the U nal TBU of m42a,
RS o.l i n ki n9 i s bl acked because the sequence of twa Hi gh tones requi red for the
appl i cati on of the RS Del i nk i n9 rul e an Law-hi 9h contours, has been broken uP
by the LH marker. Thi s is i l lustrated below.
Subj ect tone does nat seem to a�fect the tane a� m424. One mi ght exPect Hi gh
tone sPreadi ng to take Pl ace when the habitual marker i s Preceded by
a
Mid
� i nal subj ect. Thi s , i n e�f ect , does nat take pl ace.
(85)
mu m�'i'a
I
I
m i.
�,� I
H
I I " I
L
L H LH
h
I h lh
LOW SPREAD
h
*mu ma'i'i
1
L
I
m�
� ,
' Yau are usual l Y comi ng '
L H LH H
I
h <D h l h h
L,"1 f "
HIGH SPREAD
The ComPl et i ve Law tone i s also i mPervious to Hi gh tone sPread . as shawn bel ow.
------- ----- ----- ------
---_ .
19 1
(86) IOU � Pan --> moa Pan .
*1000 PAn
' YOU came '
PerhAPs i t i s pecul i ar to verbal particles that they are not suscepti bl e to
High tone SPread . The reason �or such an excePti on i s un known At the Present
t i me.
Th, Mgdals
Modal s never occur al one i n a verbal Particle stri ng. A TA Particle al ways
Precedes a modal .
7. The l1adal SA
The l'Iodal ,
D is
deri ved �rom the Hi gh tone verb . sa. meani ng ' to 90 ' . In a
complet i ve Phrase. � i s unmarked �or asPect . Below Are two charts �aci l i tati n g
a quick overview o� the e� f ect of d i �ferent combi nations o� tone wi thi n the
comPl eti ve sentence on the modal . In (87) . a Hi gh tone verb is used whi l e the
examPles in (SS) f eature a Mi d tone verb. A bri e� gl ance At the two charts wi l l
reveal that sa al ternates between a Law and Hi gh tone when a High tone verb
fal lows whi l e i t al ternates between Mi d and High tone before a Mi d tone verb.
I t is al so seen in ( SS) that a Mid tone verb is al ways Law tone after
i n d i cati ng that i n al l sett i ngs
&i has
�.
an underlYi ng Hi gh f i nal ton•• EACh of
the charts has th�ee raws and two columns. Each raw �eatures a d i ��erent TA
marker . whi l e each col ulDn f eatures a d i Herent subject. Nc'Cr4 that the tone of
the medal vari es accordi ng to the underlYi ng tone of the preceding verbAl
particle. The Presence of the two columns shows that whi l e the tone of the TA
marker maY varY accordi ng to the tene o� subject. the tone of the medal whi ch
f al lows the TA marker. remai ns unaffected by the tene of the subject.
---
_
.- ._--
---_ . _ - --
1 92
(87) TA Marker ' he
_
aa sal l '
' a man
aa .el l '
_
i
A. waa a4 Pirf
b . n�a � Pir€
s1 < n )
c . wu s f � ptrt
na
e. wu na d pfr€
d . n�� si � Pfrf
(88) TA Marker ' he
_
sa cook '
c . wu 51.
�
' sel l '
' a man went to sel l '
t . n�� n�
� Pfrf
' a man
s� cook '
_
p€rt
' a man i s 9ai n9 to sel l '
' A man Nent to sel l '
5:21::1
' cook '
.��
t . n�a
e. ·wu n� do .��
n� Ii. s��
' a man went to cook '
I t one Posi ted � a. bei ng underl Yi ngly Hi gh tone. the tonal al ternati ons
gi ven above can be easi l y explained . The � i rst two TA markers i n each chart .
bei ng LON f i nal . woul d tri gger LaN tone SPreadi ng onto
ai.
which . once havi ng
acqui red the LaN-High contaur . undergoes RS Del in king i � �ol low.d by the High
tone verb . but i s simPl i f i ed to Mid tane i t �ol l owed by a Mid tone verb. The
deri vati ons ot (87a) and ( 88a) are gi ven bel ow to i l l ustrate how the tone o�
bath the verb and the Precedi ng verbal parti c l e atfect the surface tane at
(87a) wa� si ptr€ -> wa� s� Pfrt
I(
ML
I
H
I
1
H
�"1
ML
H
I
H
LOW SPREAD
-
> waa s� P€r€
1,t/1 '�
ML
H
H
LINKING & RS DELINKING
(88a) wa� s-&. so10 -> Na� � 5010 -> wa� H 5010 -> wa� sa 5010
II I
H
I I
ML
1
h
I �"1
I
I
ML
H
L
ML
H
h
1
h
h
I
h
1 I
I
I
LOW SPREAD
----
._---
-
._.-
1 1/1
L
. _ . - - -.-
I
:f
h
HIGH DELINKING
.. ...
---
I
I
L
--- --
RS DELINKING N/A
�.
193
For the incomPl et i ve ai sa, the LH i ncompl eti ve suff i x ,
�,
is add.d . Si nce
i t tao is Hi gh fi nal , the i ncomPlet i ve farm of saa also tri ggers Hi gh Del i nk i n9
ai Mi d tone verbs. The eXamPles bel ow. shaw the i ncampl eti ve saa wi th (89a) a
Hi 9h tone verb , ( b ) a Mi d tone verb, and ( c ) a Law tone verb .
(89) a.
ma
na s1-& PirH
" YOU Past 9oi n9 a9reei ng '
b . ma .n s-{-& � � lsaari I
" YOU Past 9oin9 cooki ng 1
c . mo n{ sa-a gb4r� l
" YOU Past 90ing agreeing 1
When the i ncampl.ti ve saa i s Preceded by a Law tone, i t i s natural l Y subject
to Law ton. SPread . Hewevl!I"" , i t no l onger undergoes RS Del inkin9 when fal l owed
by a Hi9h tone verb , because the i nterveni ng i ncamPl ati va suf f i x destroYs the
environment far RS Del i n k i ng. The resu l t i ng surface tone far the i ncamPl et i ve
saa i s M i d tone. Thi s can be seen i n the deri vati on below.
(90) wa� .a-a Pirf f
I
L
I "
H LH
I
H
-> wa� sa-a Pirf f
� "1 1\ \//
L
H LH
" he was (9oi n9) sel l ing '
li
LOW SPREAD & LINKING
8. The BA l1ad.l
The Modal . bA i s probabl Y deri ved from the Mi d tane verb, ean. It i s
consistentl Y Mi d tone an the surface, though underl Yi ngl Y, i t i s d ear l Y Hi gh
f i nal . si nce it triggers Hi gh Del i nk i ng on Mid tone vl!I""b s. Thus, ba appears to
have the same underlYi ng tone as the i ncampl eti ve aspect . LH. The fact that ba
aPPears to have deri ved from a Mid tone verb whi ch is anal Yzed as bei n g
under l Yi ngly Lh ( that i s a rai sed Low tone> maY i ndi cate that there is same
h i stor i cal connection between a Law-Hi gh contour tone and a rai sed Law tone.
---- � -- -
�-
�-
----- - - -- ---- ------
194
When used i n a comPlet i ve Phrase. ba ramains unmarked for asPact. When the
i ncomPl et i ve suff i x .
�.
i . addad . i t remains Mi d tone an the surface but i s
undarlYi ngly Hi gh f i nal . Selow i s a chart showing b4 i n combi nation with
vari ous verbs and verbal parti c l es . both in the comPl eti ve and the i ncomPl eti ve
form. In al l cases. ba remai ns Mi d tone. Th. sentences i n (91 b ) and (g ) shaw
that both the comPleti ve and i ncomPl .ti ve farms tri gger Hi gh tone Del i nk i ng of
Mi d tone verbs.
IncomPlet:i ve
( 91 ) ComPl .ti ve
a.
wu
na ba Pir€
f . w u n a ba-a P€r£ !
" he
____
sel l '
b.
wu
n� ba s�?� 150701
g . wu ni. ba-a �d lsaar i l
c he
__
cook '
c.
wu
ne. ba gb"�
h . wu n2. ba-a gb�U
c he
__
agree '
d . wa� ba gbM�
i . wa� ba-a gbuU
C he
__
agree '
e. wa� ba P€r€
j . wa� ba-a p€rH
" he
___
sel l '
9. Th. Pr.-Tan•• PArticla
Pre-Tense Part i c l es aPPear at the beginning of the Verbal particle stri ng. I
have i denti f i ed two such parti cl es : Iin2R means c a9ai n ' i ndi cating that the
act i on of the verb Phrase has bean repeated a second time. The partic l e �
seems to have a c l oser connection wi th the subject. i n that i t means " al so ' .
The subject. i n addi t i on to another Previ ousl y menti oned subject . commi t the
same act . It aPPears that thi s i s the onl Y Posi t i on i n the sentence where
ei ther Part i c l e i s al l owed .
Both � and
� maY
be combi ned wi th numerous other tense and modal
particles both i n the i ncomPl eti ve and comPlet i ve aspect . They are nat marked
for asPect themsel ves. Si nce they both end in an underlYing Hi gh tone they
behave as tYPical Hi gh f i nal wards in that they tri gger the Hi gh tone Del i nking
---- -----
-
---
-
- -
---
----- --
----
195
o� Mi d tone verbs. Both are susceptible to rul es tri ggered by the tone o� the
subject.
�
Let us take a l ook at
As eXPected. when Preceded by a Mid tone.
�
remains High · Csee (92a > , but when Preceded by a Low tane. Low tone Spread i ng
goes i nto eHect and a LH contour resu lts (92b and c ) . Because
mii" hAS
two
TBU ' s. the LH contour does not si mPl i�Y to Mi d tone.
( 92) a.
' YOU al so are cooki n g '
maa Ya s�i
me
'
A
man i s also cook i ng '
' a woman i s also cooki ng '
The parti c l e i8n2a ramains Low-Mi d on the sur�ace ( 93a and c ) unt i l i t i s
Preceded by a Mi d tone el ement C d > . When thi s i s the CAse, the parti c l e i s MidHigh in tane. Thi s behaviour can be eXPl ai ned i� iaD2& is posi ted as havi ng An
under l Yi ng Low-Hi gh tane with an internal Low tone SPreadi ng ru l e. Thus, the
Low tone woul d SPread onto the second TBU o� the Particl e creAti ng a Low-Mi d
tone. Thi s i s i l l ustrated i n Ca> below. When i8n2R i s �ol lowed by a Hi gh tone
.
.
verbal part i c l e . as in ( b > , it undergoes RS del i nki ng, Producing a sur�ace Low
tane on the � inal TBU 0+ the Parti cl e.
Ca man is coming agai n '
( 93) a. nU s�n?e Ya ma
I
L
� ; 1 !\ I
L
H LH
H
LOW SPREAD
j
b . naa s�n?e n ' karf -> naa s�?� na karf
.,
L
�"1
L
H
H
LOW SPREAD
._--
-
_ .-
---.----
I
H
VL LV1H HI 'JH
LINKING & RS DELINKING
C a man has 90ne again '
196
"a rock i s comi ng agai n '
When Preceded b y a Mid tane however , i t aPPears that Hi gh tane sPreadi ng takes
Pl ace be�ore Low tone sPreadi ng has a chance to aPpl y , as the deri vati on below
shows. thus Produci ng a Mi d-High tone.
d. mo un?e Ya moS: ->
I
I
L
L
I A
H LH
I
H
I
sen?' Ya ma
'h
'h Ih
me
L
� 1 I II I
h (!) h l h h
L
V
...
I
I A I
H LH H
I II 1
" YOU are comi ng here '
h
LOW SPREADING N/A
H SPREADI NG
11. Th. Ndati 'le Particl.
The ne9at i ve part i c l e has been deal t wi th l ast. but this is not because i t
i s parti cu l ar l Y compl i cated. I t i s a simPl e Low tone which tri ggers the Low
SPread rul e i � the condi ti ons have been met . and oPti onal l y vulnerab l e to Hi gh
tone SPread . Hi gh SPreadi ng onto the Negati ve parti c l e seems to be a matter o�
�ree vari at i on among sPeakers � S�cit'. � comes a�ter the Pre-tense Parti c l es
menti oned above. but be�ore anY other particles. The Negative sentence i s
�ormed by the i nsertion of � i n tha verbal Particle stri ng and b y Pl acing the
morPheme mfn at the end � the sentence. The onlY other element that is al l owed
to come a�ter mtn i s the Yes-no questi on marker. lao Here. then . are some
assertive sentences with their negati ve counterparts :
----
( 94) Asserti ve
Negati ve
a. mu m-a3 n� p�
b . mo ria � na Pan m!n.
" You also d i d not come '
c . mu maa mA?a s�?�
d . mu ma-a � m.l?a S::l?{
" YOU al so di d not Hab . cook
e. wu n � � kAd
� . wi t ni i k.lr�
" he did not
--
_ . _
_ . ---
-------
mtn
90 '
1 97
In ( 94) � . � coalesces wi �h �he 5Ub jec�: wu Yi -> wi i .
Wi�h the recent Past
particle, i and the presen� i n compl eti ve parti c l e , �, the tonal presence o� �
i s l ess Percepti b l e :
( 95) Asserti ve
Negati ve
a. wa� Pan
b . wu � Pan mto.
' he d i d not come '
c . wu Ya Sddd
d. wu � sccri aWl
' he i s not cooking '
Below i s an examPle � �ree var i at ion concerni ng the use o� the Hi gh sPreadi ng
rul e l
( 96) a. mu n -a P�n
' You have come '
c . mui na Pan min
b . mui na Pan min
I ��1
L L
I
H
h
I
1\
I
L
LL
H
I
V
I
\
H
L
I
' You have nat come '
H
h
h
h
I
HIGH SPREAD
LOW SPREAD
In ( 96b ) , Law SPreadi ng occurred because Hi gh SPread ing was nat i n e�tect. I n
( c ) , however , Hi gh SPreadi ng has Preceded Low SPreadi ng thus blocking the
l atter tram appl Yi ng.
The sentence t i nal negati ve morpheme, mto!,. oPerates tonal lY. much l i ke the
det i n i te su�t i x . I t is Hi gh tone atter Mid tone verbs and Mid atter Hi gh and
Law verbs:
( 97) wu yi Pan min
' he d i d not come '
' he did not gO '
wu Ya k�d mE n
Ya gb�r�
NY
wu Ya 9b�ri-{
�1
L H
-
..
-
-
.
- -
mE n
I
' he di d not agree '
-> wu Ya gb�i-i
L4
L H
H
min ' he i s not meeting '
I
H
RS DEL INKING
LOW SPREAD
---_ . __....
-> wu Ya 9b�t
mEn
.
--- ---
----...
---_
.
. . .-
._.
---_ .
1 98
I n the l atter examPl e , the i ncomPleti ve form of 9bara Possesses a fi nal
underl Yi ng Hi gh tone i ncomP l et i ve suf f i x whi ch i s subject to Low tone SPread
and f i nal l y to Ri ght Si de Del i n ki ng.
IV. CONCLUSION
The di scussion i n Chapter 4 h�s l ed to the reformu l at i on of several rul es as
wel l �s the i ntroduction of new ones . Low tone SPread requ ired onl Y mi nor
revi sion ( 1 1 ) , whi l e the anal Ysis of Low tone SPread onto multiPl e TBU verbs
l ed to the the reformul �tien of the Associ �tion Cenventi ons ( 1 6) al l owing, i n
the i n i ti al l i nki ng of tones t o TBU ' s. the l i n k i ng of a tene to ne mere than
ene TBU. The rul e of Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 ( 37
-
Ch . 2 ) w�s renamed RS (Ri9htsi da)
Del i n k i n9 ( 6 1 ) to i nc l ude ether contour .tones whese ri9htsi de tone del i n ks in a
spec i f i c envi ronment. In addi ti on . the rul e of M id tone Del inkin9 (53) i ntro­
duced bri ef l y i n ChaPter 3. and the del i nk i ng of the Low tene i n a Low-Hi 9h
centour , were found te take Pl ace i n the same 9eneral envi ronment. Thus. the
rule of LS ( L.eftsidg) Del i nk i n9 (40)
�s
formul ated to i nclude beth Processes.
The new rul es i ntreduced were Subregister High tone Del i nkin9 (44 ) , Subre9�
i ster Hi 9h tone SPread ( 35) , Subregi ster Hi 9h tone SPread to TBU (36) , and
Linkin9 ( 39) . The f i rst three empl oyed the use o� the subre9i ster tier te
formul ate rules dePi ctin9 resPecti vel y 1 ) the l ower i n9 of Mid tene to Low tene
i n Phrase f i nal envi ronment , 2) the rai si n9 of Low tone to Mid tone after Mi d
f i nal nouns. and 3 ) the creat i on of a f i nal Hi9h tone on Low verbs which had
been rai sed te Mi d tane, resPecti vel y . The rul e of L i n k i n9 invol ved a l i nki n9
Procedure usual lY assumed to be Part of the Assoc i at i en Conventi ens, and that
i s . the l i n ki ng of l ef tover TBU ' s of � merpheme to i ts tenes after the aPpl i ca­
ti on of other rul es such as Hi 9h tane SPread .
---.
-
'- '
--_ . _ -- -------
---_
199
These rules . whi ch were formul ated i n the di scussion on the tonal behaviour
of the verb were al so tested for use on verbal Parti cl es. Wh i l e i t was observed
that verbal par t i c l es cou l d tri gger Low tone SPread as wel l as be subject to
the same rule. they tend to nei ther undergo nor tri gger High tone SPread onto
Low tone verbs. Si nce they are never found in Phrase f i nal Posi t i on . they were
al se never subject to subre9i ster Hi gh tone Del i n k i ng.
Si nce the Mi d tone verb behaved sl i ghtl y differentl y from the Mid tone
verbal Part i c l e , i t was PrOPosad that these two Possessed d i fferent under l Ying
tones. The Mi d tone verbal Particle, whi ch tri ggered Hi gh tone Del i nking was
posited as being under l Yi ng l y Low-High, wh i l e the Mid tone verb was consi dered
to be a rai sed Low tone, Lh .
Al though not al l questi ons cou l d be resol ved i n these di scussi ons. i t wi l l
be seen i n the f i nal chapters of this thesis, that the rules ProPosed here can
be used el sewhere i n the l anguage. The fol l owing i s
a
summarY of the rul es i n
order of thei r aPpl i cati on .
( 16 ) Associ at i on Convent i ons
( 1 1 ) Low SPread
(35) Hi gh SPread
(36) High SPread to TBU
(39) Li n k i ng
(40 ) LS Del i n k i ng
(44) High Del i nk i ng
(61 ) RS Del i n k i ng
._---
_
._ _
._ --- _._----
----- -- -- ------
200
NOTES
1 . One maY su9ges�, as a general i z i ng fea�ure, �o i nvoke �he Obl i ba�arY Con�our
Pri nc i pl e, whi ch simPl i f i es a ser i es of l i ke �ones i nto one and then to Posit a
rul e such as �he one bel ow, i . e. , del i n ki n9 a High tone whi ch i s l i n ked �o �he
same TBU a Low �one and is al so l i nked �o �he fol lowin9 TBU. X X
IV
L H
It wi l l be seen i n ChaP�er 5 , however , �hat OCP can aPply on lY i n a verY
res�ri c�ed envi ronmen� . AI �hough more research maY need �o be done, i t was not
deemed feasi b l e �o invoke �he OCP i n thi s situat i on .
2. Spreadi ng of tha Low tone t o al l TBU ' s of a High tone verb i s actual l Y wha�
haPPens i n SuPYi re (Carlson , 1983, 1 985) . Low tone spreads onto High tone verbs
and del i nks Hi9h �one from al l TBU ' s. As a resu l t , �he Hi gh �one word , N{ { ,
acquires a surface Low tone 'when fol l owed by a Low final noun , as shown below.
baaga wi {
V I
Mw L
V
H
-> baaga wH
V V"
Mw L
" i t ' s a house '
H
3. The use of the doubl e ti ered aPProach for anal Ysi s i n SuPYi re i s not used by
Ca1i son , hi mseH , though he does attempt a more tradi't ional autosegmental
aPProach .
4. KaYe e t al ( 1985) i n�roduce the n ot i on � fusi ng two vowel s l ocated on two
separate ti ers.
5 . Thi s s�atemen� i s debatabl e. Data wi l l have to be scrutinized more cl osel Y
to ascertai n whether RS Del i n k i ng does take Pl ace on Mi d-Low nouns or not .
6 . A brief note should be made of the phonol ogical behavi our of the fi nal
negat i ve marker . When a verb ends i n a Hi gh vowel (no� tone ) , i nc l ud i ng a
di phthon9i zed verb ending i n a High vowel , mtn remai ns intac� (see 1 . ) .
However , i f �he verb ends i n a non-Hi gh vowel , �he m i s del e�ed and the
remai n i ng vowel coalesces to the vowel of the verb ( 2 ) . Al most al l i ncomPl eti ve
verbs end i n i or �, and therefore d o no� tri gger m del et i on . Conversel y, mos�
comPl eti ve verbs end i n a non hi9h vowel , causi n9 assi mi lat i on of the ne9a�i ve
morPheme �o �he verb .
1.
Hi9h f i nal
" he is not mee�in9 '
a. wu Ya 9b�d min
(from d i phthon9 " paon ' ) " he d i d not come '
b . wu Ya Pan min
2.
non High f i nal
a. wu Ya gb�a mEn -> wu Ya gb�E
b . wu Ya w�e mE n
-> wu Ya w�ee
----
" he d i d not a9ree '
" he d i d not l ook '
-- - -_. - --- --- ----- ---
201
CHAPTER S
-
TONE IN THE SUCITE NOUN PHRASE
I . INTRODUCTION
UP u nt i l now, we have l ooked at the tone and morphol ogy of the noun <Chapter
3 ) , and have seen how the f i nal tone of the noun al t ers the tone of the verb
and verbal part i c l e < Chapter 4 ) . It has been observed that Hi gh f i nal nouns
tri gger the l ower i n g of Mid tone verbs to Law tone < subregi ster Hi gh Del i n k­
i ng ) , whi l e Mi d f i nal nouns rai se Law tone verbs to Mid tone <subregi ster Hi gh
tone Spread i ng ) , and f i nal l y , that Law f i nal nouns tr i 9ger the sPread i ng of
thei r Law tone onto Hi gh tone verbs < Law tone SPread i n9 ) .
However , there has been no d i scussi on so far about whether and how nomi nal
tone can b e affected by ather const i tuents in the sentence, ex cept in Chapter
1 , where it was noted that nomi nal el ements are nat sensi t i ve to the Preced i ng
verbal el ements.
Thi s chapter focuses an how the tone of nom i nal el ements w i t h i n the noun
phrase af fect each ather .
I n addi t i on , i t was noted i n Chapter 3 that the
under l Y i ng tone of nouns cou l d nat be adequatel Y exami ned out of contex t of t h e
noun Phrase . Therefore, the d i scussi on o f the tonal i nteract i ons w i t h i n the
noun Phrase wi l l al so i nc l ude an i n dePth studY of under l Yi ng nomi nal tone.
Fi nal l y , the di scussi on of the data in thi s chapter wi l l l ead to a more
comprehensi ve exam i n at i on of the orderi n9 of tonal r u l es in Suc i te .
The d i scussi on wi l l Proceed wi th a n i ntroductorY secti on , menti on i ng that
the seman t i c cohesi veness of the noun Phrase aff ects tonal Patterns and 9i vi ng
a general overvi ew of the d i f f erent tonal shaPes of the noun . The next sec t i on
w i l l d i scuss the tonal Patterns that occur on a re9ul ar basi s across word
boundar i es , as wel l as across morPheme boundar i es wi t h i n the comP l ex noun . Th i s
sect i on wi l l i nc l ude a thorough di scuss i on of the underl Ying tonal nature of
----
-- - --
-- --
202
the various type. a� Mid tone i n the lan�uage. a. wel l the dilemmJ of ordering
the rul .. that are PraPa.ed. The anal Ysi s PraPO.ed wi l l l ead to a re-exami na­
tion
of
the underlYi n� tone of the Definite noun . Final l y, the tonal b.haviaur
restricted to comp I .x naun structure wi l l be discussed . Since these tonal
al ternati ons occur at the l ex i cal level rather than at a Phrasal l evel , a major
issue to be discussad here i s what theoretical framework for rul e ordering i s
suff iCiently adequate for the proposed tonal rul es i n Sucit• •
A. The Effect pf New" !hr'M structure
M
TM.l BIIh.yi quc
The studY of tone i n the naun Phra.e i . r ..tri cted to the studY of tonal
interaction. within a strin� of nominal , Pronomi nal , and nominal i zed al ements.
Just a. the entire the.i. i. restricted to the studY of tone in si mPl e sentence
structure. l i kewise comPlex noun phrase structure is not wi thin the scoPe of
thi s chaPter.
A
descri ption of simple noun Phra.. . tructure maY be f ound i n
ChaPter 1 .
A string of nominal elements and their suff i x .. oPerate a. a tonal uni t i n
Suci te. Thi s means that the various consti tuent. of the Phra.e can affect each
other tonal ly. Pul l eYbl ank ( 1983) and others have observed that Phonol ogi cal
rule. oPerating at the l exical l evel are .ubject to mare excePtion. than rul es
operating at the post lex i cal l evel . Thi s type of v.neral i zati on aPpl ies to the
Suci te noun phrase i n that the mare closel Y l i nked the nomi nal comPonents are
semantical l y, the �reater the VAri ety of tonal change. wi thin the Phrase.
The mast ti9htl y kni t noun Phrase i s the comPl ex noun that Possesses a
si n91. noun cl ass suff ix at the end
of
the word. Two or mare morphemes Are
strung together before a suffix is added . These morphemes maY be nomi nal ,
verbal , or adjecti val i n ori gi n . The noun in ( 1 . ) Pas.e.sRS two morphemes: the
---
- - -_ . _-- -------
203
fi rs� one i s nominal and �he second i s verbal J the second morPheme at the noun
i n ( 1b ) is adjecti val . In each case. the suff ix is underl i ned.
(1)
Det i ni tl!
Engl ish
nYIl-tb-�
nYil-tb-1ll
(head-cover > hat
nk�-c�-!li
nkil-c.-!lIl
(chicken-good) good ch i c ken
Indl!fi n i te
Certai n type. of noun comPoundi ng are more productive than other•• Tho.e whi ch
are more Productive exhi b i t a MOre .tabl e Pattern of tonal chan;e •• Exampl •• of
th.se changes wi l l b. seen a. the tonal rul •• are di scussed .
The next l evel of comPlex noun. consi sts of two
or
more comPonents where the
f i rst nominal comPonent retains i t. i ndef i n i te suff i x . but def i ni ten ••• i .
marked on l Y at the end of the word. The i ndRf i n i te suf f i x i . underl i ned i n the
col umn of i ndl!f i ni te forms in ( 2 ) whi l e onl Y the def i n i te suff i x is under l i ned
i n the second col umn . Note that the i ndef i n i te suff i x is sti l l retai ned on the
f i rst morpheme even when the enti re word ends i n a def i n i te suff i x .
(2)
IndRf i n i te
Det i n i t.
a. nYIl-!lJl-fbl '
nYil-"il-fbl ��
(head-chi ef ) boss, chamPion
b . ca-!l4-nY.-lt
ca-";)-nYt � -c.&
(daY-eYe) sun
c. c E n-u.-Yar6-d
cr n-xa-rir6-ki
(.auce-thi n;.) sauce i ngredi ents
Thi . grouP aPPl!ars to exh i b i t sl i ghtly more tonal stabi l i ty. though there are
sti l l a number of l .x i cal ano.al i es.
Other constructi ons found in the noun Phrase are .are l ao.. ly l i n ked, bei n g
composed of two or marl! separatl! nouns, each wi th thei r own noun cl ass suff i x .
Tonal chan;•• wi thi n the• • Phrases are qui te re9ul ar and form patt er ns ea.i l y
defi ned b y ru les . Gen i t i ve constructi ons and Noun + number construc�i on. fal l
------ ---- ---_._----
204
wi thin thi s categorY, a5 shawn i n (3) .
( 3 ) a. n��-� iba-kA
' the man ' . hou.e DEF '
b . gba-� soonf
' twa house. INDEF '
c . gba-ax,i .CI��!lR
' the two houses DEF '
Thi . chapter wi l l f i rst deal wi th the more regu l ar tonal behaviour found
across ward boundaries as wel l a. across morpheme boundaries wi th i n the comPl ex
noun . Tonal behavi our whi ch i . re.tri cted to comPlex noun structure. wi l l be
d i scu••ed in the fol l owi ng secti on .
B. Newtn.l Tme
It was observed that verbs exhi b i ted three l evels of tone, High, Hi d, and
low tone. Hi d tone on verbs was analYzed , wi th the hel p of two tonal tiers, a.
lh . Nouns were also .een to have three l evel . of tone. However , tonal comPosi ­
t i on of nouns aPPears t o be mare compleM than that of verbs. Fi rst of al l ,
contour tone. are qui te frequent. To date, these contour tones have been
l abeled Hi gh-low, Hi gh-Hi d , Hi d-law, and law-Hi gh . Second l y , i t was menti oned
i n Chapter 3 that there are two dif�.rent tvpes of Hid tane behavi our and two
different tvpe. of Hi d-low tonal behavi our . At that poi nt, al l Hid tone. were
gi ven the tentati ve rePr..entati on gf lh. It wi l l become cl ear hare. however ,
that different under l Vi ng rePre.entations are requi red for each tYPe of Hi d
tone. A. a bri ef review, the tone Patterns al l owed an simPle naun. are gi ven
below:
(4)
---- ---_ .
wtr t
High
-
Hi gh-Hi d
-FYia
Hi gh-law
j�
Hi d
gba
--
- .. - - -
---
' monev '
' r i ver '
---
-- --
------ . .
--
.-
20S
Mi d Weak
caan
' market '
Mi d-Law S
canB
' Younger .i bl i ng '
Mi d-Law W
ji
' san '
Law
c1
' chi l d '
Law-Hi gh
gban-l �
' granarY '
I I . TaNAL BEHAVIOUR WITHIN TIE NOUN pHRASE
In thi s .ecti an the behaviour of each tone is di scu.sed .eParatel y. Since
Hi gh and Law tone naun, present the l .a.t comPli cation., th.y wi l l be di .cu••ed
-F i r.t .
A, Hi gh Ion. Npuow
Hith i ni tial noun. are never su.cePti b l . to tonal chang.. regardl e.s a� the
tane a� the Precedi ng naun. The examPI .. below .haw that the Hi gh tane naun�
f'14-ke. ramain. H i gh tane when preceded by Law, Mi d � and H igh � i nal nouns.
(3)
' he saw the rack '
a. wa1 ��l'ke nYa
b.
me
fa1 4ke
' Your rack '
c.
wu
Ya w6 fa l'ke nY��
c he i s seei ng his rack '
DePending an thei r ward fi nal tone, Hi gh tone nauns can tri gger di��erent
tonal changes an the fal l owing ward. Recal l that Hi gh-Mid nouns tri gger
subregister Hi gh tone SPreadi ng onto Law tane verb •• Hi gh-Law nouns tri gger Law
tone sPread onto High tone verb • • wh i l e simPle High tone verbs tri gger subre­
gister Hi gh tone La....ri ng.
(6)
Hi gh-Mid
wa1 fv.aa t�xl
-> wa1 fyaa tux !
C he rack saw '
Hi gh
�--- ��.
-
- -
-
' he � i .h vomi ted '
-�-
- � - ---
� - - --�
-
--- -� --
206
8.
19w
Tgn. NguOI
Whi l e High i n i ti al nouns are nat susc�ptible t� tonal changes, Law tone
nouns do became Mi d when Preceded bv a Mi d tone. Thi s i ncl udes anV noun that
be�ins with a Law tone, �5ther Law tone or Law-High . There are no Law-Mid tone
nouns.
�l� -> ma m� l �
' Your rice INO '
b . ma nd�r.x� -> ma ndar.x�
' Your Yam INO '
(7) a.
me
c . �ba-Y. s��n!
-> ;ba-VB soon! '
' twa houses '
Thi s tonal chan�e take. Pl ace Pr i mari l y acras. ward boundar ies. There is onl y
ane known i nstance where the same Process takes Place w i th i n a comPl ex noun
whose � i rst consti tuent retains the i nde� i n i te su��ix :
-> s.Ka-ka� ala�a
(8) a. s�xa + kl��nl a-�l
' zebra, l i t . bush donkey '
In Chapter 4, we ProPosed that Mi d tone was comPosed a� the tonal feature
Lh. Pl acing the Pri mArV and secondarY �.atures
on
twa seParate but l i nked
tiers, it was PrOPosed that a Law tone verb becomes Mid tone by simpl y sPreadi ng the secandarv �eature. n � the Precedi ng Mid tone onto the fal l owi ng Low
tone (High SPreading ( lS » . Th i s was fal l owed by a rul e spreadi ng the subre9istar High tone di rectlv onto the segment (High Spreading to TBU ( 36» , creating
a surtace Mi d-Hi gh tone. as shown below.
(9) wal
me
I
L
t� -> wal
L"
I
L
h
H SPREAD
me
I
L
tl
t,
' h. showed YOU '
L�
V-'
h
H SPREAD To TBU
The exampl es gi ven i n (7) and (8) show that a Law tone noun becomes Mi d tone
--- ----. .- --
207
after a Mi d f i nal el ement and not Mi d-Hi�h. as is the ca.e for verbs (sae (9» .
If one moti v.ted the Hi gh SPre.d rul e for nouns, but l i mi ted the Hi�h Spraad to
TBU as a rul e that aPpl i ed on l y to verbs. the spreadi n� of the subregi ster Hi gh
tone to the fol l owi ng Low tone woul d effecti ve lY Produce a surface Mi d tone, as
shown i n the examples i n ( 10 ) .
( 10 )
mo
I
� l � ->
I
L
L
I
mo
I
L
m�l �
1, ... .. ...
h
h
' Your rice IND '
I
L
'
H SPREAD
s��n1 -> gbaYiI sooni
I
I
L H
1
L
I I
' two houses '
L H
1 "/
h
H SPREAD
mo
I
L
I
m�B-"e
I
L
' Your r i ce DEF '
I
H
h
H SPREAD
c. Mid IQa. Noun.
Actual l Y there are at l east f i ve tYPtB of Mi d tone behaviour in Suci te. In
ChaPter 4, i t was sean that the tonal behaviour of the varbal particle, bA,
differed from that of the Mid tone verb . It w.s never subject to tonal change
and i t tri9gered d ifferent tonal rul es than ei ther M id tone verbs or M i d f i nal
nouns. Thi s Mi d tone parti c l e was ProPosed to be under l Yi nglY [Low-h i gh ] , wi th
the square brackets i nd i cati ng that the comPlex tone is .1waY, si mpl i f i ed on
the surface as M i d tone.
208
It has al readY baen menti on.d that th.re are two tYPe. of Mid tone nouns.
Both behave the sam. i n that theY both trigger Hi gh tone spreadi ng onto Law
tone verbs. However , when preceded by a nami nal element, the one tYPe normal l y
d o.. not c:hange whi l e the weak Mi d nauns bec:o,.. Hi gh tane H Preceded b y a Mi d
or Hi gh f i nal noun or Pronoun, and Low-Hi 9h i f Preceded by a Law f i nal word.
Thi s is i l l ustrated bel ow e
(11)
Precedin g Tone
none
Mi d
Low
Ala
' Your '
wur� ' hi s ,
emPhat i c '
Mid tone noun
Weak Mi d noun
gba-k'
cEn-k'
me
' hou.e-DEF '
' sauce-DEF '
mo cin-ke
gba-k'
' Your house-DEF '
' Your sauce-DEF '
wur� gba-k'
wur� ctn-k'
' hi s-EMP hause-DEF '
' h i s-EMP sauce-DEF '
Al thaugh there are no Mid-Hi 9h tone nouns, there are a number of Mi d-Law
nouns , most of whi ch undergo tonal change., whi l e a few undergo no tonal
chan�s. Those Mi d-Low nouns whi c:h undergo tonal changes behave verY Simi l ar l y
to weak Mi d nouns. As a resu l t , they wi l l be di scussed al ong wi th Neak Mid
nouns bel ow. Mid and Mi d-Low nouns and Neak Mi d and weak Mi d-Law nouns tri gger
tonal changes an fal l owing wards i n accordance wi th thei r ward f i nal tone. Mi d­
Law nouns tri gger Law tone sPreadi ng onto Hi gh tone verbs, whi l e Mi d tone nouns
SPread thei r subregi ster Hi gh tone onto Law tone verbs. Below are a coupl e of
.Hampl es shawing these tonal al ternati ons:
( 12 ) Mi d-Low
tri ggers L SPread onto H verb
wa� con l b wee -> wa� can l b w�e
' he l ocked at a Younger brother
or si ster '
--- "-"
"----"
-
--
-
"- - ----- --- �
209
Mi d
tri ggers H SPread onto L verb
WA� Poru 9blr� -> wa� Poru gbar�
There is
a
' h. met a daughter '
third type of .ur�ace Mi d tone, however . It does nat shaw uP an
simPle nan-comPlex nouns� but rather. on a couPl e o� � i rst Person Pronouns and
wi thi n cerbin compl ex noun structures. Thi s tyPe o� Mid tone nat on l Y tri ggers
a �ol l owing weak Mid tone to becoma Hi gh tane, i t also lowars to Low tone i n
th i s envi ronmen t. The under l i ned vowel s i n the examPl es below i l l ustrate thi s
behaviaur .
( 1 3 ) �da clnk' -> �d i cinke
' my sauce-DEF '
gbg,-lik' -> ibj),-U ke
' ol d 9ranarY-DEF I
Thi s Prel i mi narY descr i pt i on o� the varying Mid tones i n Sucite does show
the necassi ty � undertaking the anal Ysi s � Mid tone �eatures. Usi ng a doub l e
ti ered approach � or tone �eatures, HYman ( 1985) suggests �our waYs t o rePresent
Mid tane:
Tonel e•• - that i s, segMents not marked �or tone are assi gned Mid tone as a
de�au l t tone:
X
,
M
Lh
- where Low tone i s i n the Pri marY register and Hi gh tone i s on the
secondary or subre9i ster t i er :
x
I
L
I
h
HI
- where Hi gh tone is a Pri marY regi ster tone and Law is �aund an
the subre9i ster ti er :
----�- ---- ---�----
X
I
H
I
1
·
21 0
LH
-
wh.�e bath Law tone and Hi gh tone a�e �ound an the p�i marY
�a9i ste� t i e� and l i nked to a si ngl e TBUI
X
"
L H
Let us, than , expl o�e thi s Mid tone behaviou� i n an attempt to determi ne
whether these Possi b l a unde�l Ying �eatu�es maY be �easi ble �or Buci ta. The
� ol l owi ng sub.acti ons di scus. and anal Yze seParatel y the b.haviou� o� Mi d and
Mi d-Law nouns, weak Mid and weak Mi d-Law nouns. and the tYPe of Mi d tone found
an o U rtlt Persan P�onoun •• In anti c i Pati an of the anal Ysi s, it has been ProPosed
that thi s l atte� tyPe � tone i tl unde� l Yi nglY Low-Hi gh .
D.
Mid and Mid... CW 'CIW Nmos
The fi �st set � Mi d tone noun. to b. di scussed a�e tho•• whi ch are simpl y
l abel ed as hav i ng a Mid tan.. These are the nauns whi ch trigger High tone
s�.Ad onto LON tone v.�bs and nouns but which themsel ve. are .el dam i n� l uenced
by the tonal .nvi �onmant. I� A Mid tone noun does alte�nAte in tane, i t sh i �ts
to Law tane. but neve� to Hi gh tone3• Li kewise Mi d-Low nauns in thi s categorY
a�e nat subject to tonal �ul •• • Selow a�. soma exampl es o� Mi d tone nouns
showing the l Ac k � tanal change re9ardl ess o� whAt p�eced"l
( 14)
'00:
_
Mid-Law nouns
Mi d tone nouns
' Your hause '
mo conla-�a
' Your Younger si bl i ng '
' th i s EMPH hausa '
wur� conl �-�e ' h is EMPH y. sibl i ng '
bObd conl &-� ' a dea� mute ' s y. sib l i ng '
I n Chapter 4 . i t was tentat i vel y P�opo.ed that al l Mid tone nouns were
underl Yi n91 y Lh. The �ecedi n9 di scussion has shown that it woul d not be wi se
----- ----- - .- -.-- -
--- -----
21 1
to posi t the sama underl Yi ng tone for al l tYPes of Mid tone nouns. The question
faci ng ua hera i s . what i a the under l Yi ng natura of thi s type of Mid tone? In
Chaptar 3, an exami nati on of nominal mi n i mal Pairs ravealed that no mi n i mal
Pai r. contrasti ng Mi d and Low tone nouns had been found ( see pp. 81-2) . I n
Chaptar 2 . the fact that a verY smal l proPorti on of minimal Pai rs contrast ing
Mid and Low tona verbs were found . was used as evidence in sUPPorting the
hypoth.sis that Mi d tone � 1rbs and Low tone verbs were hi storical l y of the same
tone (see pp. 61ff ) . It ha. al so b ..n seen that Mi d tone nouns and verb. both
al ternate with Low tone i n certai n environmants. They are both caPabl a of
l owering to Low tone when f ol l owed by
•
Hi gh tone suf f i x (by means of the Hi gh
Dal etion rul e (88) ( s.. Ch . 3. pp. 1 17-127 ) , where•• nei thar alternate wi th Hi gh
tone. The hYPothesi s that M i d and Low ton.. maY hava had the same hi stor i cal
ori gin l ed to the devel oPment of tonal f eatures that rePresent.d a hi stori cal
tonal spl i t of Low tone. where Ll was th� lowered Low tone and Lh . the rai sed
Low tone. Although i t i s d i f f i cul t to di scus. tha tonal f aaturas of M id tone
wi thout discussing i t i n rel ati on to the other tvPes of Mid tone, we shal l
tentativelv posi t the M i d tone noun ( i . e . the tvpe of Mid tone that rarel v
changeS tone) as undarl Yingly lh .
Thi s Lh nou n . then , can verY easi l v trigger Hi gh tone Spreadi ng onto Low
tone nouns and verbs. The exampl e bel ow shows tha subregister Hi gh tone of
noun spreudi n9 onto the Low tone of a verb as wal l as onto the f i nal Teu
of the verb.
( 1 S ) wal Poru tt -> wal poru t, -> wal Poru tl
I
,,
l
Ml
I
h
I
l
II
ML
I I.
l
L
1, ... '
h
HIGH SPREAD
---- -----
-
--
-
--
II
Ml
I
r\
' He showed a daughter '
l�
� ...
l
h
H SPREAD TO TSU
------ - ---- ---- --- - -- - - ---
a
lh
---- -
212
The Mi d-Low noun, accordi ng to this analysis wou l d be LhL, underlYi n9l y , as
shown bel ow.
( 16) conB
,
L
I
' Younger sibl ing '
,
L
h
One maV suggest that H i gh SPreadi ng should al so take Place ward i nternal l y,
creat i ng a surface M i d tone noun . Thi s , however , do•• not happen . Hi gh SPread
must be l i .itad then , to spreadi ng across morPheme boundarie •• As LON ? i nal
nouns these Mi d-Low nouns do tri gger Low tone SPread onto High tone verb., as
i l l ustrated by the der i vati on below:
( 1 7)
wa� con l � w"
II I I
ML L L
I I
h
I
H
-> wal con l � ��, -> wa� conl �
1. 1 I J,�!.1
ML
1
L
L
h
I
I I
H
LOW SPREAD
�,
JI I �
ML L L
H
I I
h
' he saw
a
Younger
si b l i ng '
1
LSI DELINKING
E. we.k Mid .nd Mid-LAW tAn. Noun.
W.ak Mid ( Mw ) and weak Mid-Lcw (ML) nouns can have a vari etv of tonal shapes
dePendi ng on the tonal envi ronment. Because of the comPl eK 1 ty o� thei r behavi our, thi s secti on i s somewhat lengthy, i nc l udi ng not on l Y an anal ysi s of
underl ving tone, but al so the formu lation O? rul es and a di scussi on o� rul e
order i ng.
----
-
.- . .- -- -.-
---
- --
213
1 . DllSc:ri ptian
weak Mi d and weak Mi d-Low (hence�orth re�erred to as Mid-Low-) are di scussed
together here because o� the simi l ar i tv in thei r tonal behavi our . In �act , the
onl Y t i me thev d i ll er in tonal structure is in i n i t i al Fasi t i on o.f a noun
Phrase as wel l as i n ci tation �orm. Thei r di ��er i ng tonal structure in these
Posi tions al so l eads them to tri gger d i ��erent ru l es . In tha examPl es balow.
not. that the Mi d-Low noun , �, tri ggers Low tone SPreading onto High tone
verbs ( 18a) , whi l e the weak Mid noun ,
�
aPPears to tri gger subre9i ster
Hi gh tone sPreadi ng onto Low tone verbs ( 1 8b ) , as do al l Mi d � i nal nouns.
( 1 8 ) a. Mi d-Low
karl
' m.at '
' he chewed meat '
' he i s chewing m.at '
b . W.ak M i d
wa�
c£nx£
c£ nx£ tl
' Huce '
It�1
' she showed sauce '
' she is showi ng sauce '
However , when subject to tonal changes, ....ak Mi d and Mid-Law nouns undergo
the same changes in i dent i cal tonal environments. Thes. changes, tentativel v
l abel .d Rai sing and Low tone SPreadi ng, are descri bed bel ow. A f u l l anal Vsi s of
these al ternati ons wi l l fol l ow the descript i on i n the di scussion i nvol vi ng the
anal Vsi s o.f the under l Ying features for w.ak Mi d and Mid-LON ton.s.
( 1 ) Raising: The f i rst tonal change to be descri bed here is what is tenta-
t i vel v cal l ed Rai si ng. When Preceded bv weak Mi d . Mi d , or Hi gh f inal nouns,
-----
• Weak Mid-Low noun. bai ng much mare numerous than reiu l ar Mi d-Low nouns,
d i scus.ed in the precedi ng secti on , wi l l be referred to as si mPl y Mid-Law from
now on , whi l e the re9U l ar Mi d-LON nouns wi l l not be re�erred to again in thi s
thesis.
-----
-
---
--
--
- -- -- ---
- - - - - -- - -
--- -
---
- --- - -- - - - - -
214
both weAk Mi d And Mi d-Low nouns are Hi gh tone, as can be observed i n the
exalllPl es bel ow:
' A dAughter ' s mortar IND '
( 19)A. Peru SG-xo -> Poru s6xEl
M
M
+ Mw
H
b . Peru kA-r" -> Poru kara
M +
c . taxil
mut
Mw +
H
M
tiL
' A daughter ' s meat I ND
-> taxa iii xt
Mw
ML
' A tru ' s name '
H
Mw + MW - No examPI ..
d . 9b�n l � + .d -> gbbnH mid'
L H +
L H
ML
' granarY ' s name '
H
(hoe + smal l tree>
LH
' hoe handl e '
H
The same Rai sing behaviour can b e found i n ComPlex nouns . The examPles below
shew that i f the f i rst roet ef a comPlex neun is weak M i d , Hi gh er Mi d tene, .
i t wi l l rai se anY i mmedi Atel y foi l ONi n9 Neak Mid or Mi d-Low noun root ta Hi gh
tane.
( 20) a . �mE I , + juu -->
Mw
+
voice
Mw
mejd-I S
M
H
sAVl ng, words
b . gba-x a -b.l � --> gbab a 1 8
M ..
---
• sPeech ,
---
ML
M
. -----
H
' ream ef a heuse '
21�
-> ntaraf61 �
c . ntara + foB
I'1w
' l and ch i ef '
ML
d . ern-xI + Yare-x a -> crnxayir'xa
Mw
' sauce i ngred i ents '
Mw
sauce
thi ngs
Thi s derived Hi gh tone affects the tone of fol lowi ng morphemes in the .ame
waY as anY other High fi nal noun . Thus anY rule or dering would have to ref l ect
the fact that this ' Raisi ng ' takes Pl acm on a morpheme be-Eore the tone of that
morpheme tri ggers anY rul e. on fol l owi ng morpheme •• Several exampl es of such a
sequencing of tonal behaviour are shown b.l ow. In the fi rst .et of examPl e• •
(21 ) , the def i n i te suffi x b ecomes M i d tone aft er the d er i ved High tone (a and
b ) , just l i ke def i ni te the suf f i x becomes Mi d tone after .nY d er i ved High t one
k> •
(21 ) a. mo so-k'
->
ML H
M
->
b . mo kaU6
H M
mo
k�te
H
' Your meat-DEF '
M
-> faI a ke
c . fal a-k6
H
' Your mortar-DEF '
M
1'1
ML H
M
mo stlke
' rock-DEF '
-
H
After a deri ved Hi gh tone� other weak Mi d and Mi d-Low morphemes and nouns
wi l l al so become Hi gh ton e . Thus, as shown bel ow, Rai sing can occur i terat i vel Y
across the Phrase.
( 22) mo nYi m-b.l �-k'
M
Mw
ML
-> mo ny! m-bal a-ke ->
M
H
Rai sing
ML
rna
M
nY! m-bal'-ke
H
Rai si ng
H
' Your n i ght '
21 6
Mi d tone ve�b. are l owa�ed to Low tone i n Ph�ase f i nal Posi tion th�ough Hi gh
Del i nki ng, if p�ecedad by a de�i ved Hi gh tone ( 23a) , as they do fol l owi ng anY
Hi gh f i nal noun (23b ) :
( 23) a. wa� eo karA nYa -> wa� mo ka �' nYa
->
Rai sing
b . wa� l'l 'xa nYa'
wa� mo kar a nyA
" he saw Your
Hi gh Del i nking (�4) " meat '
-> waA lal 6x a nY�
" He saw a rock '
Hi gh Del i nkin9 (44)
(i t ) Law tane "-"ln91 L ow tane spreads onto H i 9h tona verbs. Therlt'fare,
one wou l d exPect that Low tane Naul d al so sPread onto H i gh tone nouns. Thi s
however . i s not the case, as shown bel ow:
( 24) wur�
fal6ka ->
.wur� f�l �ke
' hi s REF roc k '
rath.r : wur� fal 6ke
Hi gh tone on nouns i s one of the most stabl e tone. i n Suc i t• • I t i s never
suscept i b l e to tonal chAnge.
Low tone Spre.di ng occurs i nstead an NeAk Mi d and
Mld-Law
nouns. When a weak
M i d or a Mi d-Low noun i s Preceded by a Law � i nal noun o� Pronoun, the noun
acqui �es a Law-Hi gh ca,tau r , as i l l ustrated by the examPles bel ow:
(25) a . nAA
�
b. nU
->
n.�
�
'
. man ' s mo�tar '
k.&::I::.l -> nU kki
c . n�� k�rax� -> n1� k�r.x'
d . 9b�r�tila-xe -> 9b.� �t� l �-x'
' a man ' s meat '
"
. man ' . i nheri tance '
' toP of a door '
The examPles i n (26) shaw that Low SP�ead can al so occur ac�oss mo�pheme
boundaries wo�d i nternal l y . Wi thin COmPl ex noun structures. Low tone SPreadi ng
can occu� on Mid-Low nouns but no examples of Low SPreadi ng have been found on
---_
..
_---
-
_ ..
------ ------- ------------
21 7
weAk Mid nouns·
(26) I. + Mw
non. .f:ound
I. + Ml..
a. nll + nval . (mAn + .ve)
->
b . s�s1n + kud� ( b l ood + road )
->
c . k1n?l + .f:al � (vi l l Age + chi e.f: )
t1l. + Mw
n4nv�l t
' .f:r i end '
sas1nk�de
->
' vei n '
kan?l��I �
' vi l l age chi e� '
nane laund
Ml.. + ML
->
a. 'CAI)1 + nVeU (dav + eVe>
b . nve?� + lal� (lAC. + chi � >
c. c� + t6
(dav + cavar (vb . >
->
-
cA""v.1 8
' sun '
nve? ��l '
' al der brother '
> cint�?8
' umbrel l A '
When A naun ha. been subject t o I.aw tone spreAd , t h e resu l t i ng � i nAI High
tane (ol the I.aw-Hi gh contour) tri ggers the same rul es as anY Hi gh � i nAI noun ·
Agai n , as wi th Rai s i ng, rul es must b. ordered such that I.aw tone SPreadi ng must
occur on the ftIOf"Ph ... i nvol ved balere the tane al thAt morpheme can tri gger
tonAl chAngeS an anY � al l awi ng morPhemes. For examPl e, once Mi d-Law or weak Mid
nauns acqu i re a I.aw-Hi gh contour . the � i nal Hi gh tone can the� l ower the Mi d
tone verb to I.aw tone (Hi gh D.l i n k i ng) as do anY ather Hi 9h � i nal nouns. The
examPles bel ow shaw bath a weak Mid ( b > and a Mi d-Law < a > noun , havi ng acqui red
a l.aw-Hi 9h contour through I.aw SPread . l ower i ng
a
Mi d tone verb to Law tone i n
Phra.e l i na l Pos i ti on .
'
( 27) A. nl-nvel i - > nlnv�18
wAa n1nv�l l nva
b. n11
n11
-
saxa -> n11
s�x6 nVa
->
> waa nlnv� l l nvl
' he saw a fri end '
, hi s-REF /DOI"tar '
s�xe
n11
lriend '
'
s�x6 nv1
----- ----
· S.. h i s REF mortar ! '
218
In summarv, then � weak Mi d and Mi d-Low nouns tri gger High tone sPread and
Low tone sPread resPecti vel v when not a��ected bv tonal changes. However , when
both become Hi gh tone through what has tentativelv been CAl l ed Rai si ng, or Low­
h i gh bv meAns � Low tone SPreadi ng, thev behave as Hi gh � i nal nouns, l oweri ng
Mi d tone verbs ( Hi gh Del i nk i ng ) to Low tone in phrase f i nal Posi t i on , and
rai sing �ol l owi ng weak Mi d and Mi d-Low nouns to Hi gh tone. The anal vsi s gi ven
bel ow wi l l exami ne the rePercussi ons o� these tonal ch�nges more c l osel v and
attemPt to PrDPose a vi ab l e sol uti on .
2. Analvsi s
There are at l east two possi b l e waVs to analvze the behavi our o� weak Mi d
and Mi d-Low nouns. One i s to consi der them underl vi ngl v Hi gh tone si nce thei r
tonal behaviour i s verV s i mi l ar to that o� High tone verbs. A second Possi b i l ­
i tv i s to Posi t an under l vi ng Mi d tone of some tvpe that wou l d be subject to
Rai s i ng and LON tane sPreadi ng rules.
2&. ....
.rid /II.. .s �d.... lvin9lv HiG1 Tan.
The f i rst suggesti on i s that weak Mi d and Mi d-Low nouns are under l vinglv
High tane. but become Mi d or Mi d-Low tone i n certain envi ron..nts. Thi s i dea
was promPted bv the fact that their tonal behaviour i s verV si mi l ar to that o�
High tone verbs. Thev are both subj ect to Law tane SPread i ng and are Hi gh tone
i� al most anvth i ng Precedes them wi thi n the noun Phrase . The onl v t i me thev are
Mi d or Mi d-Law tone i s when thev are in i n i t i al Posi t i on � a noun Phrase.
Thi s l oweri ng � Hi gh tone maV, i n effect , be a nomi nal i z i ng �eature.
Evidence � thi s surfacas when Hi gh tone verbs are nomi nal i z ed . No Hi gh tane
verbs become a stab l e Hi gh tone when nomi nal i z ed . Rather , in (28) , thev are
----�- - -�- -,---
------
-- -- - - - --_
..
_.
- ---_ .
219
shawn to be l owered either to Hi d , weak Hi d or Hi d-Law tone:
(28) a. Hi d
b . Hw
"mS l !S
' sl eep '
->
1 6x6
' hear '
->
"dil-x e
' ear '
gt,6
' ki l l '
->
gbuun
' funeral '
'"
c. HL
' ''m:ll a-x:l
' n i ghtmare '
ya
' tt; be i l l '
->
Ya-m�
' i l l ness '
k�?i1n
' be UrG '
->
kan?a-r.l
' fati gue '
If we suPPose that weak Hi d and Hi d-Law nouns wara under !Yingly Hi gh tone
however , we imllHldi atal Y run i nto an. potenti al hurd l e . There AlreAdy .x i st. A
set of Hi gh tone nouns i n Suc i t. wi th the SAme pi tch l evel as Hi9h tone verbs,
which are never suscePti bl e to anY tonal rul es. As shawn in (29) , Hi gh i n i t i al
noun. never l ower to Hi d Dr' Hi d-Law, they do nat tri 9ger the l awerin9 of the
tone of
�
' mY '
( to be s..n shartl y as a matter of Right Si de Del inking of a
Law-High contou r ) nor are theY subject to the Law tone SpreAdi ng Rul e. al l i n
contrAst t o the behavi our
(29)
of
weak Hi d an d Hi d-Law tone nouns I
Hi lib Noyn'
ML
,nd Mw Ngyn,
kAUe
' the rack '
' the meat '
' the sauce '
&iil
feU 6ke
•
c.r:I1 kiate
mY rock '
adA
wur� fii16kp
,
cln ke
' my meat '
' IIY sauce '
hi 5 aFH rac k '
wur� �
' h i s EHPH sauce '
In effect , there seems to be a tonal barri er Preventi ng anY tonal rule from
APpl Yi ng to Hi gh tone nouns. It must be noted that these High i n i t i al nouns
make uP a verY smal l number of the data samPl e and thAt mare than hAl f CAn be
c l ailrl Y i dent i t i ad as Loan wards. Al l Purel y Hi gh tone nouns, wi th one possi b l e
----_ .
_- _ . _ . _ .
---
.--. .
. . _.
..,..
220
axcept i on . are Loan words. One Possi b l a h i stori cal devel opment i s that the
ori gi nal sat o� H i gh tone nouns l owered to Mi d tone i n certain environments.
High tone nouns i ntroduced to Suc i te, however , were not mada sub ject to thi s
tone l owering Phenomenon and as a resul t . a d i sctincti ve tonal contrast between
Hi gh and Lo�ad Hi 9h tona nouns devel oped .
Shoul d than , thi s set � l owered Hi gh tone nouns be rePres.nted as Hi gh i �
there i s al readY a set a� Hi gh tone nouns? I f these sur�ace High tan. nouns can
be sPeCi al l y marked so as not to undergo anY tonal rul es, weak Mi d and Mid Low
nouns .can then be posHad as underlYingl y High tone and as a r·esu l t , wou l d be
subJlCt to the Low tone sPreading ru l e i n just the same waY
as
Hi 9h tone verbs
are. Bel ow are examPl es � Low SPread an both a verb and a noun :
(30)
->
LtdB
Plrl
L
H
I
I
�B Pirl
��--1
L
H
-> �B Pj rJ
�
lOW SPREAD
I I
wur�
Jcara ->
I
M L
H
wur. k ".
I
1-:':..... 1
i'l L
->
H
LOW SPREAD
L
H
LS DElINKING
wur. klr �
, �
M L
C ull rice '
->
wur. klra
H
LS DELINKING
' V t\
M L
' hi s REF
1IlUt.'
HL
PHRASE F I NAL L INSERTION
After Mi d and H i gh f i nal nouns and Pronouns, thi s underlYing Hi gh tone wou l d
remai n Hi gh tone. just a s h i gh tone verbs ramai n Hi gh i n t h e same environment• •
thus el i m i nati ng the need for a Rai si ng Rul e. as shown b.l ow.
(31)
mo
I
lara ->
L
I
n
\J
lot
me
I
L
,
h
kara
V.
' Your meat '
H L
PHRASE FINAl.. L INSERTION
---- - - --
- . - - --
221
How then woul d one account for the loweri ng of thi s High tone to Mi d tone?
Recal l that thi s
•
l ower i ng ' Process takes Pl ace when an underl Ying Hi gh tone
noun is i n Phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on . One coul d suggest that there is a spl i t i n
the High tana regi ster at thi s Poi nt. Whi l e High tone verbs rema in Hi gh tone.
the nouns in Phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on are desi gnated to a l ower l evel of the
Hi gh tone re9ister . The spl i tt i ng of tha Hi gh tene register i s. accordi ng to
thi s aPProach. moti vated by th e fact that Hi gh tone nouns are i n phrase i n i ti al
Posi tion. Therefore a rul e woul d have to be devi sed to l ower Hi gh tane at thi s
Pai nt. Thi s Proce.s can be represented 'by i nserting a Law tone i n the subregi star tier . to be stated as fal l ows.
(32) PHRAsE INITIAL LOW TONE INSERTION
A Hi9h tone noun i n Phra.e i ni t i al position i s marked for Law tone an the
subra9ister t i er :
H - > HI /
a. I cenXE -> canKE
I
H
I
I
•
m
Phrase ini t i al Posi tion
sauce '
H
I
I
I t has been assumed unti l now that weak Mi d and Mid-Law nouns have the same
underlYing canf i 9urati on . The questi on remai ns. however . as to how to d ist i n9u ish between the two. so that when I -insertion occurs. the correct surface
farm can resu l t . One waY to deal with thi s d i l emma is to al l ow the subre9i ster
I ON tone to l in k to the se9mental t i er . thus creati ng a Mi d-Law tone. The
subra9i ster Low tone l i n ked to Hi9h tone creates a Mi d tone whi l e thi s sarna Law
tone l inked i nd�ndent l Y to the segment.l t i er creates a surface Low tane.
resulting in a Mi d-Law contour .
----- ---
-
--
-
--- - - - - -- ------ - - -- --
----- -
222
( 33)
I CV
ji
t,
H'
1',
H
,
I
I
I,
1./
A cartai n set � nauns. than. are l ex i cal l v marked for thi s l i n k i ng of the
subregi ster Law tone to the Se9mental tie� . whi l & are another set <the weak Mi d
nauns) are b l acked fram thi s l i nk i ng �acess.
The Probl em wi th this procedure i s th.t whi l e thi s subregister Law tene
l i nk i ng te a TBU is l ex i cal l v governed. the envi ronment wh ich Provi des tar thi s
Law l i nki ng (namelv. l i nk i ng . subregi ster Law tone to
•
Pri marV t i er Hi9h
tone) i s created bv waV of the Phrase l evel rul e. Law tone Inserti on . Thus the
phrase l evel r u l e must take Pl ace betare the l ex i cal lv marked Law tene l i n k i ng
can occur, as shewn bel ew:
( 34) wa1 � nVa -> wa� ja nVa -> wa1 ji nVa
II
ML
I
H
I
L
I
h
II
ML
I
I
H
L
I
h
I
I
LOW INSERTI ON
II
ML
f\,
I
H,
L
I
h
"
' he saw a san '
1
LOW LINKING TO TBU
Essanti.l l Y . there needs to be ·i nfarmati an i n the l ex i con that wi l l d i stingui sh between those whese Phrase i n i t i al tarm is Mi d and those wh i ch are Mi dLaw. However. i t does nat seem possi b l e that the l ex icon can Predi ct how a
subre9i ster Law tone can behave i f i t i s nat even spec i f i ed i n the l ex i con.
One Possib l e waV to sal ve thi s Probl em i s to Posi t a sl i ghtl v different
underlving farm tar Mi d-Law nouns: HL. Phrase l evel I-i nserti on woul d subsequentlv viel d the correct outPUt f or beth weak Mid and Mi d-l ow nouns. A
subregi ster Lew tone l i n ked to a High tone wou l d vi eld a Mi d tene whi l e a .
subre9i ster Law l i nked to a HL woul d vi el d Mid-Law. as shawn below .
---
-
--
- -- -
--- ----- ---- -------
223
cv
k
Mi d Lawl
cv
I
H
HL
V
I
I
I
That Mi d"'Law nouns are und.,.l Yi ngl Y Hi gh-Low i s not enti rel Y i ncancei vab l e
when observi ng the cognates o� Mi d-Low nouns i n certain ather Senu�o l anguages.
Althou9M numeraus other l an9Uages such as Cabar-a also exhi b i t thi s Mi d-Lew
centeur. Na�ara a� Bandau keu . whi ch aPPears te have an l Y a twe tene l evel
di st i ncti en . Previ des a Hi gh-Lew contour fer these same cD9nates.
(36) Suci te
Cebara
Nahra af Bondaukou
n j i d.
nYi ni
nUl
' tongue '
kud
k::JB
kit
' hand. arm '
f.,.�
": i r�
H r�
' excrement '
(Mensah , 1983)
I t i s Pcssi ble, ther"':ere, that Suci t e Mi d-Lew neuns are under l Yi ngl y Hi gh-Lew
tene. These underl Ying Hi gh-Law neuns weuld b e diHerent from the marked Hi 9hLaw ncuns whi ch never submi t te tonal rules.
Thi s Hi gh-Law repres.ntati an does create Prebl ems �ar rul e �ermu lat i on ,
he....v.r . The f i nal l aw tane weul d have t a b e del eted when.ver the naun i s
Preceded by anather nemi nal ef anY tone sa that these HL (Mi d-Law) neuns can
bacema COmPletel Y High tane. The ex amPl e, (37a) shews that thi s Lew Del eti en i s
required after Mi d tane neuns, whi l e ( 37b > Prevides an i l l ustrat i en ef Law
Del .ti on at the eutPut ef Low tene Spread .
(37) a . ma kSrA
,. "
L H L
---- . . ---
-> me teara ->
t
L
I
I
h
"
H CI)
h
LOW DELETION
_
._ ._---_.-
me
I
L
I
lear;{
V
H
h
LINKING
--- ----
' Your m.at '
224
nk�-�r� ->
Lor"
L
I
H L
LOW SPREAD
nku-kar a ->
I
L
l
H (D
I
LOW DELETION
n k�-k��a
VV
L
' chi cken meat ·
H
LINKING AND RS DELINKING
In �act , the on l � Place where the Low o� the suPPosed Hi gh-Law contour is �ound
i s when tha noun i s in Phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on , the verY same envi ronment i n
whi ch Phrase I n i t i al Law tone i nserti on ( 32 ) i s moti vated . Any time that the
Law tone i nsertion rul e is nat in OPerat i on , then , the Law tone o� the Hi gh-Law
Contour i s al so del eted . The obvious connecti on between these twa rul es
however , is nat made expl i c i t in the deri vati on o� the rul es. I� the subregi st.r Law tone and the Law tone of the Hi gh Law contour are Present or absent i n
the exact same envi ronments , Perhaps one mi ght specul ate that theY both maY
have the
same
under l ying source.
A second Problem for the under l Yi ng Hi gh tone hYPothesi s is the fact that
the.e High tones l ower to Law tone i n certai n l exi cal envi ronments. Recal l that
weak Mi d , Mi d-Law. Mi d , and Low-Hi gh noun roots were l owered to Law tone when
�ol l owed by a High i n i t i al TYPe I I su�f i x .
' th i gh. '
nci - xal e -> nc�-xale
' balaPhons '
' shea nuts '
It was suggested in Chapter 3 that thi s l ower i ng cou l d be accounted tar if
al l four tones Possessed bath a Hi gh tone and a Law tone i n the ir underlYi ng
con� i gurati on . The simple Process o� High del eti on wou l d then produce the same
outPUt far al l of these tones, as i l l ustrated below for Mi d and Law-Hi gh tones.
Hi gh Del et i on woul d l eave onl Y a Law tone l i n ked to the TBU.
----- ---- - -- ------
---- ----
22S
(39)
Mid
CV
Law-Hi gh
I
CV
�
L
I
®
If weak Mi d w�s Posi ted �s under l Yi ngl y High tone and Mi d-Low �s Hi gh-Low� the
rul e of Hi gh del et i on woul d Yi el d � Law tone for HL nouns. However , Hi gh
Del .ti on woul d Y i el d a toneless TBU for we�k Mi d nouns i f they are anal Yzed �s
underl Yi ngl y Hi gh tone at the l ex i cal l evel .
(40)
cv
Mi d-Law
...ak Mi d
4
CV
�
+
Thi s Probl em coul d Potenti �I I Y be overcame by i ntroduci ng a di ssimi latorY
rul e. wherebY a High tone on anY t i er is converted to Law tone when fal l owed by
a
<H , h > - > < L . I > I
High tone suff i x :
___
H.
Th i s rul e wou l d effecti vel Y
produce correct outputs for Mi d (Lh ) , Law-Hi gh , �nd weak Mi d (H) nouns (see
(41 » . Mi d-Low nouns. however . wou l d be bl acked f rom this l oweri ng bec�use
thei r Hi gh tones are not �dj acent to the High tone suff i x (41d ) .
(41 ) a. Mi d nci -x�l e -> nc� -xal e
I
L
I
h
I I
I
,
I
H L
h ->
I I
L
H L
I
h
b . Low-High
,
H
I
' i
H L ->
I
1\ \ \
LL H L
h
,
h
' she� nuts '
f o-?�l o -> f�-?olo
I
"
LH
' b�l aPhons '
c . Weak Mi d
l �-x�l o -> l �xalo
I
I
I I
H L
L
H L
h
I
h
I
� debts '
I
I
d . Mi d-Low c1-x�l e -> *c�-xal e
A
HL
, I
H L
,
h
' thighs '
� I
I
HL H L
I
I
I
h
L INSERTION
226
This entire approach conti nues to assume, of course, that the changel ess Hi gh
tone nouns are barred �rom the tonal rul e Processes and are there�ore not
susceptible to Hi gh tone Loweri ng.
Verb. also cOmPl i cate thi s di ssimi l ation rule. Recal l that Mi d tone verbs
are l owered to low tone be�ore the Hi gh tone i ncompl eti ve suff i x . The sol ution
ProPosed in ChaPter 2 i nvol ved the del .tion o� a subregi ster Hi gh tone of the
Lh verb .uf� ixed by a Hi gh t�n. morPheme. If the H->L rul e was i ntroduced
i nstead, the correct outPut woul d be Produced �or Mi d tone verbs (s.. (42a» .
However , this rule would al so i ncorrectl y aPpl y to Hi gh tone verbs, loweri ng
Hi gh tone verbs to Low tone before i ncomPleti ve su��ixes (42b ) . This, in
��ect, does not haPPen .
High tone verbs, as a general rule, remain Hi gh tone
when an incomPl eti ve su�� i x i s added .
(42) a. M verbs
CY
su-cJ -> s�-cJ
I ,
I I
L H
L H
I
L
I
h -> 1
b . H v8l"'bs
CY
,
H -> *L
I
h
' be buYing '
I
1
Pir! -f -> .Piri-f
I I
I I
H H
L H
' be sel l i ng '
Posi ting weak Mi d and Mi d-Low tones as underlYi ngl y Hi gh tone does create
some Problems for anal Ysi s . First of al l .
we
have to separate the changel ess
Hi gh tone nouns and mark them i nel i gible �or tonal change. Secondl y, the
Posi ting
�
a underlYi ng Hi gh tone Pos•• Probl ems in how to d i st i nguish between
weak Mi d and Mi d-Low tones i n the underl Ying structure and sti l l al low for the
formul ation of sat i sfactorY rules. Fi nal l y, the formul at i on of a H-> L rul e for
l oweri ng of weak Mi d and Mi d-Low noun roots to Low tone i s found to be lacking
----- - ---- - -- ------ -
--- --- ---- ------ -----
227
a �ul l general izat i on : High tone verbs must be excl uded �rom the rule aPPl i cation .nd Mi d-Low nouns whi ch should al so be l owered Pose dif�i cul ties �or the
formulation of the H->L rul e. Although these Problems could perhaps be accommo­
dated wi thin the underl ving High tone hYPothesi s. an al ternati ve soluti on i s
sought.
2b. !'IN ad "-
as
lkld.,1 Yin91 Y
HI
An al ternati ve to Posi ting an underl ving Hi gh tone i n the lex icon and
motivati ng a Phrase l evel rul e inserti ng a subregi ster Low tone is to mark the
subre9ister Low tone in the l ex i con. i tself . Mi d-l ow and weak Mi d nouns wou l d
now b e considered underl Yi ngl y � ( or a lowered Hi gh tone) rather than si mpl y
underlYingl v Hi gh tone. Where the Preceding anal vsis posi ted both the unchangeabl e Hi gh tones and the weak Mi d nouns as undarl Yi ngl v Hi gh tone. distingui shing the two onl Y bv blocking the unch.ngeable Hi gh tone nouns from undergoi n9
anv rul es. thi s particular anal vsi s di sti ngui shes the two tones bv Posi ting
different underlvi ng features for each . Thus the unchangeabl e High tone nouns
bear the feature. � that i s. High tone is posi ted on the Pri marv tier. as
wel l as on the subregi ster tier . The weak Mid noun . then . i s consi dered the
l owered High tone. � with a Low tone on the subregister tier . Both of these
desi gnations are i l l ustrated below.
(43)
Hi gh tone nouns
weak Mi d and Mid-Low
x
I
X
H
H
h
1
I
I
I
Thi s devel OPment now s... both the High tone and the Low tone register spl i t
228
into twa tonal l evels (see (44) below) . Recal l �rom Chapter 2. that Cl ements '
proPosed tane �eature system allows
far
thi s possi bi l i ty. HaNever. these sPl i ts
in Suci te do nat rePresent �our Phoneti c level s o� tone. as mi ght be suspect.d .
Rather. i t has been ProPosed that the regular Mid tane i s underlYingl y �.
whi l e weak Mid. whi ch i s at the same Pi tch level as the regular Mi d tone. i s
Posi ted as being Hl.
HY.an
( 1985) . ProPosed bath H I and Lh as Possi ble underlY-
ing rePresentations �or Mi d tone (se. p. 209-10> . Cl ements ' system (as shawn
below) does nat exclude thi s possibi l i ty
of
the twa underl Ying tones havi ng the
same phoneti c pi tch .
(44)
<
Cl ements ' Tone Feature sYstem
H
h- Ifl
I
-
U.
h
L
HI
/
� l - Ll
-
Furthermore. it i s entirel y possi b l e that the rai sed Law tone and the
lowered High tone were at one time in the historY of the l anguage. distinct i n
Pi tch, but that they l ast the Pi tch disti nction a s the tonal system of Suci te
devel oPed" .
Thi s ProPosed sol uti on wi l l requi re, however, the adjustment of tonal rules.
In addition to modifYi ng Law Spread so that i t wi l l sPread onto HI nouns as
wel l as Hi gh tone verbs, a rul e wi l l have have to be devi sed that wi l l rai se HI
tone to Hh tone when preceded by Hi gh or Mi d tone nouns. The issue of how to
disti nguish weak Mi d and Mi d-Law nouns usi ng the same underlYi ng representation
229
o� HI wi l l also be tested and discussed .
( i ) Law tan. !Prodi nSi
Let us �irst i nv••tiSl.t. how this new devel oPment al ters the �ormul ation o�
the Low SPreading rule. Previ ousl y, i t w.s stated that Low tone sPre.ds onto
High tone verbs (a) . Here
we
� i nd that Low tone sPreads onto HI nouns (c) but
not High tone nouns (b) , as shown below.
(4' ) a. ka(
L'
' to chew '
,'\
,
b. *��ljx",
I, ', ....
,� '
H
L'
I
h
' rock '
H
,
h
c . c,"x€
,"
I ,
L'
'1
' sauce '
H
,
I
Since Hi gh tone nouns do not .l low Low tone SPr••ding. theY must be b.rrad
from anY appl i cati on
�
the Low tone SPre.d rule. Once thi s constr.int i s
Pl aced on the rule, the e�l i er formulation o� the rule gi ven in Chapter 4
would sti l l aPpl y here. si nce, as shown below, the rul e does not sti PU l ate what
subregister tone must be l i nked to the Pri marY level Hi gh tone.
( 1 1 ) LOW SPREAD: When a
Ll
tone i s �ol lowed by a Hi gh tone .cross a morpheme
boundarY, the Low tone spreads to the right .
Xl X
\.,'\
L H
,
I
As a resu l t . both the HI and
Hh
tone words c� be subject to the Low tone
SPreading rule. However , whi le Hh verbs Present no problems �or the anal YSi s as
gi ven so far, the Low tone Spreading rule, as stated above does not . i n i tsel � ,
-----
- - - _ ._ ----------
230
Yi eld a correct output for HI nouns. Law tone spread i ng onto a HI tone Produces
a Law-mi d centeur tone. However. there are no Law-Mi d contours i n Suc ite whi ch
are a resul t of a Law SPread rul e. Recal l from examPl es i n (25) and (26) that
Law tone spreadi ng onto weak Mi d and Mi d-l ew nouns Yi el ds a Lew-Hi gh tone, the
verY same tonal contour whi ch resul ts when a Law tone is sPread onto a Hi gh
tene verb. A verY si mpl e waY of acquir ing a Law-Hi gh centour after sPreadi ng
Law tene onto a HI noun i s to tri gger a rul e del eti ng the subregi ster Law tone.
Thi s rul e wou l d be stated as fel l ows:
(46) SUBREGISTER LOW DELETION: Delete a subregi ster Law tone l i nked to a Hi gh
tone if a Lew tone from the l ef t i s l i nked to the same segm.nt as the HI tone.
x
X
L
H
v-1
t
I
1 <D
Once the subre9i ster Law tone i s del eted. the Hi gh tone is l eft wi th no
speci fi cati on of tone an the subre9i ster tier . Any tone whi ch is unSPec i f i ed at
the subre9ister l evel wi l l by defau l t . acqui re the same tone as found at the
Pri marY regi ster l evel .
Thi s shal l be cal l ed subre9i ster speci ficat i on <SS ) .
(47) SUBREGI STER SPECIFICATI ON
d H -> OCHh
In the der i vati on bel ow (48) , as wel l as i n succeed i ng deri vati ons of rul es ,
Subregister SPec i f i cat i on wi l l aPply automat i cal l Y whenever a rul e l eaves a
tene an the Pri marY t i er wi thout a subregi ster tone. Si nce the aPpl i cati on i s
----
� ---�
-
�--
�-
�--��
�
-
-----
- - --
--- ----- -
-----
231
automati c , i t wi l l not be necessari l y shown as a seParate step in the deri vation.
Therefore, a HI noun whi ch i s subject to the Law tone SPread rule would have
the fal l owi ng derivat ion :
( 48 )
wur. ClnXE -> WUI-� CE nXI -> �ur� CEnXI -> wur� dnxt
I
L.�'''''''1
I
�?4
M L
H
M L
I
I
1
1
1
H
I
I
LOW SPREAD
I V
, �
M L
H
I
I
(!)
1
M L
H L
I
h I
I
h
LS DELINKING
L DELETION
�
L
H
L
I
1
I
I
I
L SPREAD
I
H
I
<D
�
L
H
V
L
HL
I
h
I
hI
I
I
LS DEL INKING
L DELETION
I
' h i s EMPH sauce '
I I
L INSERTION
nk�-�ra -> nk�-k�r� -> nk�-k�r4 -> nk�-k�r a
��-1
1\
1\
' chi cken meat '
II
L INSERTION
The moti vation for Low Del etion is not total l Y clear at this Poi nt . Possi bly i t
is some tYPe of dissi mi l atorY Process, forcing a Pure Hi gh tone when i t i s
l i nked to the same se9ment as a Low tone.
At anY rate, subregi ster low
deletion must take Pl ace i mmed i atel Y fol lowing a Law tone sPreading rul e.
The second tonal al ternation that must be deal t wi th here i s what was
referred to earlier as Rai sing. Thi s is the case where weak Mid and Mid-Law
nouns became Hi gh tone when Preceded by Mi d
or
Hi gh tone nouns or Pronouns. If
weak Mid and Mi d-Low nouns are now consi dered underl Yi ngl y HI , motivati ng the
del etion
of
the subre9i ster Low tone woul d Produce, i n a verY si mpl e way, a
High tone. However , i n thi s ca.e. there is no Law Spreading rul e to tri gger Law
-- - . _ ._ ----
,----_
..
_-_ ._-- ------
232
del etion .
Therefore one i s compel l ed to determi ne the general i z �tion that
�l l ows for L del .tion a�ter both Mi d and High tones. In order to do thi s. l et
us l ook at the under l Yi ng tone o� Mi d and Hi gh tone nouns. It has �l ready been
seen that Hi gh tone nouns are underl Yingl Y Hh , whi l e Mi d tone nouns whi ch are
not suscept i b l e to tonal changes (�s are HI nouns) are consi dered to be Lh . In
exami ning both underl Ying ton•• • it is seen that both are spec i � i ed for High
tone an the subregi ster t i er .
(49)
' rock '
gbaxa
t
' hause '
L
I
h
I� pl ac i ng ei ther before a HI noun triggers Law del eti on , i t would nat be
di f f i cu l t to Postul at. that this Low tone del eti on was moti vated by waY of the
subre9istar Hi gh tone of a Hh or Lh noun spreading onto the HI tone. Such a
Process i s i l l ustrated b.l ow i n (50) . Si nce i t i s not feasi b l e to al low twa
subra9i ster tones to be l i n ked to a singl e tone an the Pri marY tier, the
sPreadi ng � the subre9i ster Hi gh tone wou l d automati cal l Y cal l for the
del eti on o� the subregister Low ton •• The rul e mi ght be stated as �ol l ows:
(S0 ) HIGH SPREADING: SPread a suhregi ster Hi 9h tone onto a fol l owing Pri marY
tier High tone and del ete the subregi ster tone l i n ked to that Hi gh tone.
x
I
X
I
H
T
..
... ... ... ,
h
t
Tit
=
anY tone
Thi s parti cu l ar Hi gh sPreadi ng rul e would have the fol l owing aPpl i cation :
----- -----------
233
(51 ) a.
mo clnxl ->
I
L
.. ..
J
H
�
' Your sauce '
clnxt
' V'.
L
H L
'/ I
h
h
H SPREAD
me
1
L INSERTION
LINK I NG
� Yam ' s sauce '
HIGH SPREAD
LINKING
L INSERTION
Recal l , however, �ha� �he rul e ol Hi gh �one sPread has already been i n�roduced. In �he envi ronm.n� where Low tone becomes Mi d tone a�ter Mi d tone nouns.
i t has been ProPosed ( earl i er i n this chapter as wel l as i n ChaPter 4 (35»
that the subregister Hi gh of the Lh tone sPreads to the � ol lowin9 Low tone. as
shawn below:
(52)
mo m�l � -> mo mol � ' Your ri ce '
\
L
L ...
h
\
... .
L
I n al l cases o� High sPreadi n9 described here. i t does seem that there is a
tendency for a rai sed tonal re9i s�er to rai se the re9ister of the tones that
�ol l ow. For exampl e .
a
rai sed Low (or Lh ) rai ses a l owered Hi9h tone as wel l as
Low tones. and a rai sed Hi gh �one (Hh ) rai ses fol l owi n9 l owered high �ones.
Thus it maY be P�5si h l e to pO$i �
a
general ized rul e, al l owi ng anY subre9i ster
Hi gh tone to sPread �o the fal l owi ng Pri marY tier tone re9ardl ess of what that
�one maY be.
---_
. _--
-
. - - ---- -
--- ---- .----- ------
234
Seei ng the val ue o� i mPl ementi ng a hi9h spread rul e i n the examples above,
i t i s necassary, then , to examine the sCOPe � the spreadi ng o� the subre9i ster
h igh tone onto primarV register tones. Selow i s a l ist o� poss i b l e environments
where the subre9i ster High tone cou ld technical l v sPread .
(53) a·1ID dn-k.
' You,.
....c. ·
b . 1IID f 'l 6-ke
• Your reck I
c • • dn-k.
'"y AIIc. '
d . "de U l a-ke
" my rock '
L
H
L
H
H
H
H
h
1
h
h
h
1
H1
h
h
L ... ... 1
e· 1IO II:Jl�
' You,. ri c. '
L
L. ... '1
f . 1IID gba-k'
" Your house I
L
1.. - ... ...,
h
I
L
L
h
h
L • .-. ...'
g . ild• .cl�
l .. ..... 1
'
.y
•
,.ic. '
1.. ... .-. -
h . "de gba-k'
" my house I
H
L
H
L
h
1
h
h
l .. .. ....1
L .. -"l
Above are al l the concei vab l e examPl es where a subregi ster h i gh tone cou l d
Possib l v spread on t o
a
fol l owi ng tone.
High tone sPreadi n g marked in bol d
wou l d e�f ect i vel Y change the tonal structure � the fol l ow i ng word . Those not
marked in bol d are redundant h i gh sPreadin9 Processes where no tonal change
wou l d take Place as a resul t of the sPread. The example i n (53g) shows one
envi ronment whare h i 9h tone sPread Produces an i ncorrect resPonse, however . A
subregi ster h i 9h tone must not be al l owed to sPread onto a Low tone i t that
subre9i ster h i gh i s not al readv l i nked underlYi ngl y to a Low tone. In other
words, a subregi ster h i 9h o� a Lh noun can sPread onto a Low tone (see (53e»
but the same of a Hh noun cannot . In order to al l ow for this ex cept i on , the
hi9h tone sPread rule must be revi sed as fol l ows:
235
( 54) HIGH TONE SPREAD: SPread anY subre9i ster Hi 9h tone onto the �ol l owin9
Pri marY re9ister tone, T2 and del ete anY subre9i ster tone Previ ousl Y l i nked to
TIt
=
anY tane
Condi t i on : I� T2 is Law tane, then T1 must also be Law tone.
It has been assumed unt i l now that weak Mi d and Mid-Law nouns have the same
under l Yi n9 tonal �eatures because o� the same behavi our they exhi b i t when
subject to both the Law and Hi 9h Spreadi ng rules. As a resu l t both have been
considered to be under l vin91 Y HI . However . we al r eadY knew that when nat
a��ected by tonal rul es themsel ves (that i s , when in r : .rase in i t i al Posi t i on )
weak Mi d nauns tri gger di ��er.nt rules than Mi d-Law nouns.
Somehow thi s
di ��erence must b e accounted �or i n the underl Yi ng representati ons o� the twa
tones.
( t v ) Mid-Law Tane and Ind�d.nt LON Tane Linkin9
It was Proposed earl i er that Mi d-Low nouns were under l Yi n9 Hi gh-Low. I � one
l ex i cal l Y l i nks a subre9ister Low tone to both , the � i nal tonal output wi l l be
Mi d-Low.
(55)
CV
"-
HL
V
I
The probl em wi th thi s ProPosed under l Yi ng rePresentati on i s that everY time
--- ---------
236
the subregi ster I i s del eted a�ter both law tone sPread and high tone Spread �
the Pri marY ra9i .tar l must al so be del eted, as shown bel ow i n (S6) .
Th is
makes one wander whether both the Law tone o � th e Pri marY regi ster and th e Low
�
on the 5ubre9i ster t i er are actual l Y one and the same tone.
La. tan.
'Pr�:
__
Hi 9h tone sPread
CD
cv cv
� G)�
h
wur� n3-�e -> wur� n�-�e
' hi s EMPH mather '
' Your mother '
Ona sU99asti on for the rePresentati on of Mi d-Low tone i s �o Posit a si mpl e
HI tone and then to ProPose a rul e l i n k i ng the subregister Law tone di rectl y to
the segmental t i er whenever the HI tone i s i n Phrase i n i t i al Posi tion . Thi s
� i nal indePendent l i nking ef�ect i vel Y creates a Mi d-Law contour tone� as shown
bel ow in (57a) . Weak Mi d nouns, on the ather han d , would al so Possess an
under l Yi ng HI tone, but they wou l d not be subject to thi s i ndependent l i nking
o� the subregister Low tone (57b) . Thus, Mi d-Low nouns wou l d be marked i n the
l ex i con � or thi s ex tra l i nking in Phrase i n i t i al Position , whi l e weak Mi d nouns
wou l d not . In thi s anal Ysi s. we shal l rePresent thi s marking by underl i n i ng the
subregister Low tone. Hl, then , re�ers to the Mi d-Low tone whi l e HI si 9n i t i e5
the weak Mi d tone.
( 57) a.
Mi d-low
CV
1\
H
•
1,, '
1
b.
weak Mi d
CV
,
H
I
I
Thi s notion o� i ndePendent l i nking o� the subre9i ster ti er to the se9mental
---_ .
237
U er has al readv been introduced earlier and brieH v di sscussed i n ChaPter 4.
Recal l that subr.9ister Hi gh tone SPreadi ng to the segment was i ntroduced to
create a Mi d-High tonal contour on under lying Low tone verbs < ••• pp. 161�� �or
di scussi on ) . The reason for ProPosing this tone � eature rePresentation here i s
t o b e abl e to somehow caPture the general i zati on that ex i sts between weak M id
and Mi d-Low nouns and vet sti l l account for their di fferi ng tonal shape i n
Phrase .i n i t i al Posi t i on . If both can be rePresented as H I < weak Mid as H I and
Mi d-Low as Hi) , then both can b. subject to Low sPreadi ng and high sPreadi ng as
wal l as undergo the subragi ster l ow tone del eti on i n the appropri ate anvironments.
If the underl Yi ng rePresentat i on for Mid-Low tone, Hi, can be l ex i cal l v
spec i � i ed t o l i nk the subregister low tone i ndePendently to the segmental t i er ,
del ati on of the subre9i star Low tone wou l d automat i cal l Y del ate anY trace of
Low tone o� the Mi d-Low contour because i ts source, the subregi ster Low tone
wou l d hava been del eted .
(58)
Thi s i s i l l ustrated bel ow:
CV
�
It was menti oned ear l i er i n ChaPter 4, that the Process of l inking the subregi ster Low to the segmental t i ar i ncluded Passing through the PrimarY register
tiar . Thi s � Passing through ' wou l d ��ectivel v transform the Low tone i nto a
pri marv regi ster Low tone: I -> L.
(�9 )
CV
1\.
H L
V'
I
__ .•.
- ..- ..----
238
Let us ProPose the �ol l owing rul e :
( 60 ) INDEPENDENT SUBREGISTER LOW TONE LINKING. Li nk the subregi ster Low o � a
marked
Hl
tone to the � i nal TBU of the morpheme when i t is i n phrase i n i tial
Posi t i on .
X
I
->
X
'# ' --
r.,
H
H
V
I
1
L
1
The appl i cati on o� the IndePendent Low Li nki ng rule on a sin91 e TBU i s a �air l Y
simPl e Procedure:
' son '
ja -> ji
1
1\
H
HL
L"
I
1
1
On a word with two or more TBU ' s . �urther l inking and del inki n9 rules are
requi red , as shown below:
kara
,
H
-> kari ->
karl
1\.
HL
I
'"
H L
V
1
Il'
1
1
L L INKING
LINKING
Wi th Ri 9ht to �t l i nk i n9,
HI
' meat '
LS DELINKING
i s f i rst l i nked to the f i nal TBU, then the
subre9ister 1 i s i ndependentlY l i nked to that same TBU.
HI
then l i nks to the
fi rst TBU and � i nal l Y the contour simPl i �icati on Process of LS Del in kin9 takes
Place and
Low tone.
HI
del i nks from the f i nal TBU to leave it to the i ndependentl Y l i nked
239
Once thi s Independent Law Li n k i ng ru l e takes pl ace. then . Hl nouns can
tri gger the Low tone spread i ng ru l e. as shewn bel ow:
(61 )
wd kartl � -> watl kar� ��
, �
I L.t" 1
H L
I
H
H L
,
1
' He saw meat '
H
1
LOW SPREAD
LS DEL INKING
Il Low Li nki ng d i d nat take Pl ace beler. Lew SPread. ne Law SPreadi ng waul d be
al l ewed after Hl neuns. As a resu l t . Law Li n k i ng m it take Pl ace H rst belore
Law tone Spreadi ng. The reader i s asked to reter to the subsection (vi ) on rule
ordering lar lurther d iscussion.
(v) We.k Mi d Tan. and F• •tur. Swi tch
An observant reader wi l l have noted that whi l e Lh neuns tri ggered subregi ster High tene SPread i ng. i t has been suggested that weak Mi d (or HI ) tone i s
al so responsib l e lor the behavi our that changes a lol l owin9 Lew tone t o Mi d
tone. or a weak Mid tone to Hi 9h tone; yet there is no Hi9h tone on i ts
subre9i ster tier to moti vate a Hi 9h tone Spreadin9 rul e . Thi s i s i l l ustrated
bel ow in ( 62) . where the l i rst HI component at a complex noun in ci tati on lorm
or in phrase i n i t i al Posi tion seems to be responsi b l e lor the rai si n9 ol the
lol l owi n9 HI component to Hi 9h tone.
(62)
weak Mid
CE nXE + Yaraxa -> c£nxE-�r 'x 3
I
I
H
H
I
I
I
' sauce i n9redients '
t
One possi b l e but enti rel y unconventional sol ution i s to swi tch the t eatures
240
o� the � i rst component o� the complex noun , demoti ng H to h and bri nging I to
the Pri marY t i er where i t gai ns the status o� L. Thi s i s not a total l Y crazY
i dea �or a l anguage where HI and Lh tones are at the same pi tch l evel and
therefore coul d easi l y be con�used by the speaker as � u l f i l l i ng some o� the
same functions. Conceptual l y, the HI woul d become Lh when in phrase i ni ti al
Posi t i on and then the Hi gh tone spreadi ng rul e wou l d gO i nto effect.
(63) CEnl(f: -Yarsxa -> CE nXE -yar'x a..
/
r
I
( �,
\J l
1
FEATURE SWITCH
I
,
L
H
h
I
""
L--
' sauce i ngredients '
H SPREADING
Hi gh tone SPread onto Low tone nouns or verbs can al so take Pl ace i f the
weak Mid noun undergoes the Feature Switch ru l e, as shown below .
(64)
Hi gh sPread
CEnx£
/
, �,
1
FEATURE SW I TCH
t:l SPREAD &c
LINKING AND LS DELINKING
H SPREAD TO TBU
It shoul d be noted that the same type of Probl em woul d surtace i f l owered Hi gh
tones were speci f i ed as underlYingl y High tone as i n the earl i er anal Ysi se It
an underl Ying High tone were in phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on and i t was tol l owed by
a Low tone noun or verb , as seen i n (65) , it woul d be f i rst subject to Low
Inserti on by virtue of the f act that i t i s i n Phrase i ni t i al Pos i t i on . Thi s Low
Insertion woul d not i n i tself provi de the envi ronment f or n sPread i ng . However ,
it Feature Swi tch took pl ace, the envi ronment for High tone sPreading would be
241
created .
(65) cinxi
I
H
B
I
-> crnlCE B
/
I
I
I
L
H
L
I
I
I
I
L-INSERTION
-> CEnlCE B
/
, ;,
I
?
- > crnxr 1 \
L
I
I
FEATURE SW
r',
/
h
L '
L
l. - ;-r '
CD
H SPREAD. H SPREAD TO TBU
Thar�are. re9ard l ess a� whether a w.ak Mid tone i s analYzed as under l Yi n9l y HI
or High tone. the unconvention al �eature swi tchi ng rul e i s sti l l requi red for
bath hYPotheses.
The �eature swi tch rul e then maY be stated as fol l ows:
(66) FEATURE SWITCH: Swi tch the �eatures of a HI tone to Lh when the morPheme
to ,,;hi ch it: i s l in ked i s i n Phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on .
HI - > Lh I*'
_
(vi ) Rul. DrdlH"in9
It i s cl ear � rom the deri vati ons in subsecti ons ( i v) and (v) that bath
IndePendent Low Li n k i ng (60)
(�or Mi d-Low nouns) and Feature Swi tch (66)
(for
weak Mi d nouns) must occur b�are weak Mi d and Mi d-Low nouns can tri gger
spreadi ng rules .
Let us consider IndePendent Low Li nking f i rst . If Low L in king was ordered
after Low tone SPread . as in (67a ) , � wou l d not be abl e to tri gger Low tone
Spread . Once Low Spread is ascertai ned to be not aPpl i cab l e, Low Li n k i ng wou l d
take pl ace creat i ng a Mi d-Low tone on �. Since Low SPread has al readY been
tested for appl i cabi l i ty. the deri ved Low tone cannot tri ggRr Low tone Spreading onto the fol l owin g High tone verb . producing • . as a resu l t . an i ncorrect
surface � orm. If . on the other hand . Low Li nking takas Pl ace f i rst (see 67b ) . a
--- ---- -- --------- --
��-
242
deri ved Low tone i s produced , whi ch. i n turn , Provides the environment �or the
Low tane SPread rule.
(67) a. wa� kara we'
I
r
I
'.I', ,�
H
H L
V
1
1
LOW SPREAD N/A
b. wa� karl "'"
1\
H L
�,.
1
I
H
IND LOW LINK ING
" he l ocked at meat '
->*waa kar� wee
H
LOW L INKING. LINKING � LS DELINKING
-> waa karl � ->
N..1
H L
V
1
wal karl
wee
¥1H
" he l ocked at meat '
H L
H
�
1
LINKING � LS DELINKING
LOW SPREAD
The same probl em woul d arise i � Feature Swi tch were erdered a�ter High tene
sPread . A weak Mi d neun weul d net be abl e te tri gger Hi gh tone sPread wi thout
Feature Swi tch . I� Feature Swi tch tack Pl ace a�terwards, then it weu l d be tee
l ate fer the swi tched �eaturas to tri gger High tone Spreadi ng, as seen i n
(68a) . The carrect sur�ace �orm can be deri ved rather . b y erder ing Feature
Swi tch be�ore High tene SPread as seen in �b) .
(68) a. wd clnxr t�d -> wal crnKI t�x � ->*wa� c£nx£ t�d
I
H
I
I
I
L
1
1
-H SPREAD N/A
I
rI
,�
I
I
I
I
L
,
I
h
'
FEATURE SWITCH
L
I
h
�,
/
L
I
I
LINKING
FEATURE SW ITCH
b. wal crnxl t�x i -) wa� c£ nxl t�K �
( H ,\
� 1/
I
/
->
I.. � �l!
(!)
L
L\
H SPREAD. H SPREAD TO TBU
LINK ING AND LS DELINKING
243
Thereiore. both Feature Switch and Law tone Li nking, bei ng Phrase i n i t i al
rul e•• must take Pl ace before the aPpl i cati on of ei ther the Hi gh tone SPread
rul e or the Law tone SPread rul e across the Phrase.
There i s a questi on as to whether Law tone SPread and Hi gh tone SPread need
to be ordered wi th respect to one another . Thi s i ssue as wel l as ather aspects
of rul e order i n g wi l l be di scussed in Chapter 6 when mare data has been
Presented .
E. LQW=Higb Nouns Md as Dlllinkini
The f inal set of nouns and pronouns which Produce a surface Mi d tone i n
certain envi ronments are Law-Hi gh nouns. We have al readY seen that a Low-hi gh
tone i s created as a resu l t oi a Law tone spreadi n9 onto a Hi9h tone TBU.
si mPl i f i ed to a surface Mi d tone if the High tone was nat del i n ked . Thi s i s
true Nhen the Low tone of a verb sPreads onto a Hi 9h tone i ncomPlet i ve suf f i x
(69a) , whan a Low tone of a noun sPreads onto a si n9l e TBU Hi 9h tone verb
(69b ) , and when the Low tone of a noun sPreads onto the High tone of the TYPe
I I suH 1:< (69c ) .
(69) a.
wa4 xa t� e l a
I
It
LH
b.
L
c.
M
waa w4 l � l a
L/1
pC-l<al o
l/1 I
.L
H
' Di d he show i t? '
I
' Di d h e take some? '
M
' bodi es '
H M
I t was al so d emonstrated that once Low tone Spread takes pl ace, the Hi gh
tone of the resu l t i n9 Law-Hi gh contour i s del i n ked when iol lowed by a noun
----
. ---
-
---
- --- -
--- ---- ---- ------
244
cl ass cl i ti c , wh i ch i s Hi �h tone i n thi s particular envi ronment . Thi s tonal
behaviour was l abel ed Right Si de Del i nking.
The eXamP l es bel ow show that this
i s true both for i ncomPl eti ve suf f i x es as wel l as for Hi 9h tone s ingl e TBU
verbs.
(70) wa� xa t.-� ���
C He showed i t f or him '
V'$ V
L H
waa w.l B
1/1
L
H
H
' He took same f or hi m '
���
I
H
It has alreadY been mentioned that the f i rst Person Pronouns Possess a f i nal
Mi d tone, (See subsecti on I I . C. ) and that thi s Mid tone not on l Y tri ggers
subre9i ster High tone SPreading onto HI nouns, i t i s i tsel f l owered to Low tone
in thi s environment (71a, b ) . The ex amPl es gi ven bel ow show that this i s the
onl Y environment in wh i ch this Mid tone is l owered to Low tone. When Wia i s
fal l owed by a Hi gh i n i t i al noun , however, i t i s not l owered t o Low tone
( f , g, h ) . Thi s l ac k of tonal change confor.s to the observat ion made ear l i er
that Hi gh i n i t i al nouns are nat subject to tonal change and i n thi s case, i t
aPPears they also do not parti c i Pate i n the change i nvol vi ng t h e l ower i ng of
the Precedi ng Mi d tone.
(71 ) a. HI
i\de soxo
->
i\d� s6x8
' mY mortar '
b . Hl.
i\d. k.r�
->
Ad. k rS
' my meat '
c. L
i\da m�B
' my rice '
d. LH
"d. gbm, I B
' my granarY '
e. Lh
i\da gbaxa
' my house '
f. H
i\da faUxi
' my rock '
g. H-Lh i\da f yaa
' my fish '
h . I-L
' my H oor '
"da s�l �
----- -,- - --- -------
245
Thi s l owerin9 of the Mid tone can be easi l y eKPlai ned i f ada. as wel l as
� are Posi ted as under l Yi n9ly Low-Hi 9h . with an in ternal Law SPreadi ng rul e
whi ch sPreads Law tone onto High tone resu l t i ng i n a Law-Mid surface tone.
(72)
�da
' my '
VI
Wr'a
" our '
V1
L H
L H
When fal l owed by a HI naun , the cond i t i ons for H igh tone SPread and subsequently for RS Del i n ki ng are met as shawn bel owe•
(73 ) "da
ka1-te -->
�1
I
L H
I I
1h
L H
1
I Ii
I L
L SPREAD
" my meat '
I
V1
H
I
kat-te-->
"da
H
�
QJ
.. ....
LINKING & RS DELINKING
H SPREAD
b . "da cln-ke-> �da c£n-ke-> �da cE n-ke-> �d� c€n-ke
k'1
VI
1
I
L H
H
L H
H
l h
1
l h
@
I I
I
r
LOW SPREAD
1.. .. 1
H IGH SPREAD
va l
VI I
L H
I I
L H
H
I I
I h
LINK ING
" my sauce '
H
l h
PI/A
RS DELINKING
An addi ti onal b i t of evi dence that the Mid tone o� "da is Low-Hi gh rather
than Lh. for example, i s that "da does nat tri gger Hi gh tone SPread onto Law
tone nouns or verbs as do Lh nouns and Pronouns. In the exampl e bel ow, the Lh
Pronoun ,
�.
can tri gger High SPread i ng ' onto the fal l owi ng Law tone noun whi le
moti vati ng such a rul e for "da woul d Yield an i ncorrect surface farm.
(74 )
mo 111:1 1:1-1)6
I
L
L. .... ...
I
I
L
H
h
,- ' -- ----
-----
246
·i\da m::Jb-I')'
VI
L H
, L. ... .... ....
1
I I
" my rice '
L H
h
Recal l that the Hi gh SPreading rul e doe. not al low the sPreadi ng of the
subregister Hi gh tone onto a Low tone i f that Hi gh tone is not al readY l i nked
As
to a Low tene.
a resul t . the subre9i ster Hi gh
cf
a Lh noun can spread onto a
Low tone. but the same of a Hh noun cannot . If the underlYi ng tone of � i s
consi dered as Possessi ng a fi nal Hh . than its underlYi ng representation
correctl y Predicts that i t cannot tri gg� Hi gh tone spreading anto LON tone
nouns and verbs.
SimPl e Law-High nouns in the i ndef i nite farm al ways consist of at l east 2
TBU ' s and as a result. the Low and the Hi gh tone are each l i nked to separate
TBU ' . (75a> . However. when a Low-High noun root i . p�rt o�
�
COmPlex noun . i t
maY have onl Y one TBU for both tone• • If fal l owed by a Low or Lh tone noun
root. the Lew-High tone i s simPl i f i ed to Mid tone. as shewn bel ow i n (�a, b > .
However , i f fol lowed by a HI tone. i t tri ggers Hi gh tone spread and i s subsequentl y subject to RS Del inking (c ) .
/
(�) a. gb�n-IS
t
" granarY-IND ,
L H
b . gban-no?o-lo -> gbonno?c-I o
It
LH
�
" di rty granarY-IND '
L
I
h
c . gbon-c�n-I')�
A
LH
------ ---
"
" geed
granarY-I ND '
L
- - -- ---- --
247
' an ol d granarY '
H SPREAD
B. Cgnc1uwipn
LINKING.
of Mid tm. bwb.yi A'r
L INSERTION & RS DELINKING
po
NQunw
In subsecti on I I . e • • HYman ' s �our ProPosed underlYi ng rePresentations �or
Mid tone. two o� whi ch use the double ti ered approach �or tone �eatures, were
Presented. In the succeedi ng di 5Cu�si on , al l but one o� these rePresentations
were ProPosed �or use i n Suci te. Mid tone as a de�au l t tone, to be l i nked to
ton�less TBU ' s . has so �ar not been considered as a possi b l e waY to rePresent
Mid tone i n Suci te. I t wou l d be d i � f i cu lt to consi der anY of the Mid tones
di scussed above as si mPl y tonel ess. to be assigned a defau l t Mid tone at a
particul ar stage of the der i vat i on . MY Presumpti on i s that tonel ess segments
are not disPosed to tri9gering tunal rul .s, since they themsel ves do nat
Possess anY tone. Yet, i t has been seen that those nouns wi th Lh or Law-hi gh
tone do ��ecti vel Y tri gger the Hi gh tone Spreadi ng rule . I � ei ther one were
consi dered tonel ess. i t wou l d have to acquire the Mi d tone be�ore the appl i cation � the rul esr even then , thi s d�ault Mi d tone wou l d not possess the
Properties requi red �or trigger i ng High tone SPreading6• I� , on the other hand.
one attempted to suggest that HI nouns were underlYi ngl y tonel ess. there wou l d
b e no waY t o expl ai n how thi s tonel ess noun becomes Low-Hi gh when Pr�ceded by
Law f i nal nouns. Thus it seems that each of the Mid tones di scussed here needs
to be �ul l Y sPec i H ed for tone so that tonal rules can be moti vated to tri gger
248
predi ctab l e behaviour .
I I I . THE DEFINITE SUFF I X REVISITED
A concern that must be deal t wi th here i s the tone o� the De� i ni te Su�� i x .
Recal l that the def i nite su� � i x i s M id tone a�ter Law f i nal and High tone noun
roots and Hi gh tone a�ter Law-Hi gh and M id tone noun roots:
( 76)
Noun root tone
Hi gh
fal '-ka
' the rock '
Low
m� l a�
' the rice '
Mi d-Law
kal-1R
' the meat '
Law-Hi gh
nd�r.-ki
' th. yam '
Mid
gba-ki
' the house '
Weak M i d
cc n-ki
' the sauce '
The possible nature of the underl Ying form of the def i n i te suff i x was
brief l y di scussed i n ChaPter 3. but wi thout the hel P of the subsequentl y
acqui red knowledge of the d i f� erent possi b l e �eature conf i gurations of Mi d
tone. The questi on was Posed at that ti me as to whether the de� i n i te suf f i x was
underl Yi ngl Y Hi gh tone or same tYPe of Mi d tone, essenti al l Y the same prob l em
posed for weak Mid and Mi d-Low nouns i n this chaPter .
We know for sure that
the def i ni te su� f i x is nat the unchangeab l e High tone belongi ng to
a
verY
restri cted set of nouns. because i t does al ternate between M id and High tone.
We also know that it has a f i nal f l oating Low tone which is never l i n ked to the
suf f i x i tsel � but can tri gger Low tone spreadi ng.
SuPPose. fi rst o� al l . that the ae� i ni te suff i x was underl Yingl y HI . Bath
Law tone sPread and High tone SPread wou l d produce sati sfactorY resul ts i n the
------- . -- - ---- ------ ------- ------- ------ ------
249
�ol l owing derivat i ons:
(77) �. m�l.-�e -> m�l �-�.
1.. -'1
L
H (L )
I
I
I
I
LOW SPREAD
L./I
L
I
I
H (L)
b . nd�r�-ke -> nd�r�-k'
V1
L H
I I
I h
LOW DELETI ON
I
L
I
(j)
c . gba-ke -> 9ba-k'
I
' the r i ce '
I
H (L)
I
<D
HIGH SPREAD
va
L H
I I
I
' the YAm '
H (L )
l h
RS DELINKING
C the house '
H (L )
���
H IGH SPREAD
After Hi 9h tone noun roots. the def i n i te su� � i x i s Mi d tone. A Hi gh tone SPread
rul e, however. wou l d i ncorrectly Produce a High tone on the suf� i x , as shown
below:
(78) ��l '-ke -> *fa l a-k'
I
H
I
H (L)
,., ....,
h
CD
HIGH SPREAD
If an under l Yi ng HI tone i s adopted for the def i n i te suf f i x . then somehow
the Hi gh SPread rul e must be bl ocked from aPpl Ying i n the setti ng as descri bed
i n (78) .
An al tern�ti ve sol ution i s to consi der the def i n ite suf � i x as underl Yingl y
Hi gh tone. The same noun tYPes that Posed no probl ems �or deri vati on above i n
(77) al so Pose n o Probl em here, as can b e i l l ustrated bel ow. Not• • however ,
----- - -- _ . _ ._ -
. _---_ . _ -- ---- ------
250
that i � the su� � i x i s consi dered under l Y i ngl y High tone. there i s no l onger a
need � or a High SPread rule. Thus. the noun i n ( c ) requires no rul es.
RS DELINKING
LOW SPREAD
c. gba-ke -> gba-k'
I I
L
H (L)
h
h
I
' the house '
I
Th e d� i n i te sut � i x as underl Yi ngl Y Hi gh tone. however . sti l l does not produce
a sati s�actorY resul t �or Hi gh tone nouns. In the examPle bel ow. the de� i n i te
su�t i x remains
an
i ncorrect Hi gh tone.
(80) .t�l�-k'
� I
H
H (L )
h
h
I
I
Al though posit i ng HI for the de� i ni te sut � i x woul d necessitate the b l oc k i ng
at the Hi gh Spread rul e �rom High tone roots to the det i ni te suf f i x . wh i l e
sti l l Permi tti ng i t with Low-High nouns. Posi t i ng an underlYing Hi gh tone wou l d
require t h e t ormu l at i on o� a new rul e i n whi ch t h e Hi gh tone suf f i x i s l owered
a�t.r Hi gh tone noun roots but not a�ter Low-Hi gh roots. Whatever the sol ution
maY be. i t does apPear that we are deal i n g wi th an excePt ion that does not
con�Drm n i cel y to the rul es al readY ProPosed thus far . For that reason . there
does not seem to be anY strong argument f or choosing one sol uti on over another.
251
I� ane daes chaase ta Pasit an under l Yi ng Hi gh tane. hawever . there i s a waY
of ordering the rules such that the � armu l atian a� a rul e ta lawer the Hi gh
tane su� � i x ta Mi d tane a�ter a High tane naun wi l l nat appl y ta Law-Hi gh
nouns. Let us � i rst �armul ate thi s Hi gh tane l awering rule to i nval ve the
i nserti an a� a Law tone an the subregi ster tier a� the Hi gh tone su� � i x . Thi s
rule. to b. cal l ed High tane DownsteP. i s stated bel ow.
�e 1 ) HIGH TONE DOWNSTEP:
Li nk a .subre9ister Low ,tane ta the High o� tene def i ni te suf f i x i f i t i s
Preceded by a Hi gh tone l in ked ta a TBU.
x
I
H
- X
I
I
h
Thus the noun
->
X -
I
X
I
H (Ll
H
H (L >
[DEFl
h
I
£ala-ke
I
I
wau l d have the fal l owing deri vation :
A Low-Hi gh noun. accordi ng the rul e � ormu l ation above. wou l d al so be subject to
the Down.tep rul e . However . i t is alreadY known that the def i nite suf fix does
not l ower a�ter Low-Hi gh nouns (see ( 79» . A sol uti on to thi s c.ontradi ction can
be faund if RS Del i n king i s ardered to take Pl ace before DownsteP and i� a
del i nked Hi gh tone i s b l acked from tri ggeri ng Downstep. Such a deri vation i s
i l l ustra�ed bel ow.
2 52
( 83) a. nd�r�-k� -> nd�r�-ke
� I
L H
V
L H
H
RS DEL I NK I NG
I
' Yam '
H
DOWNSTEP N/A
Thus. Pos i ti n9 an under l Y i ng High tone for the def i n i te suff i x does effecti vel Y Provi de for a vi abl e anal Ysi s . If one posi ted an underl Yin9 HI tone , i t
wou l d also b e possi b l e to Produce a correct surface f orm for Hi9h tones by
stati ng si mpl y that there is an excePti on to the High tone SPreadi n9 ru l e when
a Hi 9h tone noun ( and not Low-Hi 9h > i s fol l owed by a d ef i ni te suf f i x . For
PerhaPs arbi trarY reasons. I have chosen the anal ysi s where the def i ni te suf f i x
i s consi dered t o b e under l Yi n9l y Hi gh tone.
IV- TONAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE CCJt'IPLEX NOUN
The Previ ous secti on exami ned tonal i nteracti ons wi th i n the Noun Phrase.
It
was al so seen that the same tonal rul es that occur across word boundar i es al so
occur across morPheme boundari es wi th i n the comPlex nou n . Th i s secti on focuses
on the comPlex noun .
Two tYPes of tonal al ternat i ons wi l l b� ex ami ned : f i rst .
those wh i ch change as a resu l t of the tonal envi ronment . and second l Y. those
whose tonal changes seem to be governed Pri mar i l y by semanti c and structural
consi derati ons .
The l atter wi l l be di scussed under the head i ng .
' Lex i cal
Changes ' (see I V . C. > .
A.
Complex Nouns (HI + HI ) .nd the ObliiitorY contour Principle
When HI and Hi no�n roots are strung together i n a comPl ex noun. i nteresti n9
tonal al ternati ons take Pl ace. Fi rst of al l , the rul es wh i ch occur across word
boundar i es al so take Pl ace across morpheme boundar i es w i th i n a comP l ex noun .
253
•
)f . for l?l(amPl�: the f i rst mOI"'Phl!II'Ie
0';:
a comp l ex noun i s HI
.. . ..
< weak Mi d ) and the
second morpheme is HI or Hl < weak Mid or Mi d-Low ) , Feature Swi tch takes Pl ace
on the f i rst HI morPheme.
The resu l t i n9 Lh tone then can sPread i ts subre9i s-
ter Hi 9h tone onto the fol l owi n9 HI ton e , as shown i n the ex ampl es i n ( 84 ) .
(S4 ) a . cE n-X E + Yara-xa -> cE nxaYa'rtix 8
I
I
H
, �,
I
I
(sauce thi n9s )
H
.. ... ,
CD
h
I
' sauce i n9redi ents '
.... J
....,�
L
("
H I GH SPREAD & L I NK I NG
FEATURE SW I TCH
b . ntara+.j: ol :l -> ntara-fo l � -> ntara-f 6 1 5 -> ntara-.f6I :J'
I
H
I
I
I
I
,
1
I
I
( H ,\
\a I' /
H
H
H
h
1
L. ... .... 1
1'
meju-Ie
""
L
" l and ch i ef '
"
H
�
h
H SPREAD
FEATURE SW I TCH
c . mmE + j u u -->
t
L
.... �
L I NK ING
' speec h '
( vo i c e + SaYin9. words)
Low tone SPread i n9 can al so take Pl ace across morpheme boundari es wi th i n a
complex noun . I f the f i rst n ou n root i s a marked Hl noun root
(or Mi d-Low ) , Low
Li n k i n9 can take pl ace, fol l owed by Low tone SPread . as shown bel ow :
(S5 ) a . nye?e + f ob
/.
H L
V
1
I
H
I
1
I ND LOW L I NK I NG
� :t��
\'�' I
-> nYe?efol � -> nYe e
N 1
.....
H L
H
1
I
V
H L
,
I
H
' ol der brother '
( face + chi ef )
I
L I NK I NG. & LS DEL INK I NG
LOW SPREAD
& LOW DELETION
b . ca�a + nYe l t
c . carya + t6
----- --- - --- ----
< daY + eYe )
->
<daY + cover ( vb . »
-
ca��nyel �
' sun '
> canto�e
' umbrel l a '
-------- ---- ----
254
There i s a restri cted set ot HI and Hi complex nouns . however . that behave a
l i tt l e d i t t erentl y . I n stead ot the t i rst HI tri 9ger i n9 a Hi 9h or Low tone
Spread i n9 rule onto the t o l l ow i n 9 HI noun root . the ent i re noun takes on a Mi dLow contour .
Th i s means that the l ast TBU Possesses a Low tone wh i l e al l
Preced i n9 TBU ' s are Mi d tone . Ei ther noun root maY be HI
( weak Mi d > or Hi (Mid-
Low ) . Yet the resu l ti ng tonal structure is the same. Observe the ex amPl es
bel ow.
< S6 ) a. ceewil + PoB
Hi
Hi +
--
> c i PoB
<woman + husban d )
' 9room '
- > nyambal axe
<shade + un i t >
' n i 9ht '
Yataxe
< th i n9 + tree >
' nec k '
Hi
HI
n o examPl e�
b . nYi lll£ + bal e + x e
Hi
HI
c . Yarax a + taxa
HI
->
HI
d. nYamE + bal e + wa + 10 -> nyabal awol d <shade + un i t + b l ac k ) < dar kness '
HI
Hl.
Let us consi der H rst (S6 a ) .
The noun
c:ipgB i s c:omF'osed ot two Hi nouns .
S i n c:e these are mar ked tor I ndependent Low Li n k i n9. i t mi 9ht have been ex pected
that t i rst no�n root wou l d under90 Low l i n k i ng wh i l e the sec:ond wou l d be
sub jec:t to Low tone sPr ead . as we saw i n ( 85 ) above. However . in th i s case .
onl Y the sec:ond noun root undergoes I ndependent Low Li n k i ng . wh i l e the f i rst
remains HI :
(86) a . c:i -PoB
I
'.1\
i
1/
l.
H
I
H L
255
APParent l y some as yet unsPeci f i ed ru l e or cond i t i on must take Pl ace to b l oc k
the l i n k i n9 o f the f i rst subre9i ster Low tone t o t h e se9mental t i er . I n (86c ) .
we see a comb i nat i on of two
HI
noun roots, nei ther of wh i ch are mar ked f or
IndePendent Low Li n k i ng. and Yet the f i nal noun root i s sub j ect to I ndependent
Low Li n k i n 9 .
(96 ) c . Ya - tax�
I
H
I
I
\�\
H
V
I
L
A9ai n . i t seems aPParent that - some rul e Precedi n9 Feature Swi t c h . wh i ch wou l d
normal l y appl y i n th i s set t i n9. must tri 9ger the Low Li n k i ng on certai n compl ex
nouns consi st i n9 ot two
HI
nouns .
As w e be9i n t h i s anal Ysi s. i t must b e emPhasi zed t h at n o t al l
HI
comPl ex
nouns behave i n th i s waY and those wh i ch do seem to d o so f or unknown reasons·
Al though there aPPenr to be no Phonol 09i cal or syntact i c reasons f or th i s
behavi our . the f cl l owi n9 i s an attempt to provi de a anal yt i cal descr i pt i on for
thi s pecul i ar t YPe of tonal behavi our.
1 . The OCP Sol ution
One possi b l e sol ut i on i s tn i nt.roduce the Ob ! i 9a t�rY Contour Pr i nc i p l e as a
l an9uage
sPec i f i c
rule that wou l d aPpl y on l Y to th i s desi gnated set of HI
comPl ex nouns· The OCP wou l d col l aPse a seri es
at HI
tones i nto one . and as a
resu l t of that col l aPsi ng Process , the suc�agi ster Low tone wou l d be marked t ur
IndePendent Low tone Li n k i n9 . Th i s i s i l l ustrated i n the examPl e gi ven bel ow .
256
( 87 ) Ya
I
+
ta:<a -> Yata:<� - > yataxe
V
I
H
H
I
1
I
I
H
�
H L
l.
l.
,
OCP
( th i ng + tree ) ' neck '
1/
IND LOW L I NK. L I NK I NG . AND LS DELI NK ING
As a ru l e i n Suc i te. the OCP maY be stated as fol l ows:
HI
( 8S) OBLI GATORY CONTOUR PRINCIPLE: A seri es o�
def i ned un i t are col l apsed i nto one
H
I
I
-- -
n
>
HI
tones with i n a semant i cal l Y
tone.
H
I
1
Th i s OCP ru l e wou l d not work on those comP l ex nouns whose t i rst comPonents
tri gger rul es onto fol l owi ng comPonents as seen above i n ( 84) and <8S) .
If
these nouns submi Hed to the C:CP, i ncorrect T orms woul d resul t . as shown bel ow .
(89)
nYe?� + foB ( face + ch i ef ) ->*nye?E f o l �
/
H
/
H
l.
l.
I
I
I/i
H ,/
V
l.
L
' ol der brother '
Rather : nYe?etol :9'
< See (85b ) for correct f orm)
Theretore . the OCP must not be al l owed to appl y everYwhere .
Each noun t o
2 . Rul e Ordering �or the OCP
Those noun comPounds wh i ch do undergo OCP d o not al l ow Feature Swi tch or Low
Li n k i ng on the f i rst components of the comPoun d . Rather OCP goes i nto eff ect
and then i ndependent Low tone Li n k i ng aPpl i es on l Y at the end of the word
•
.- -- -----------_. _------
( 90)
I
nYi m-bal a-wo l o
I
I
H
H
H
I
1
1
,
->
nYi m-bal a-wol o -> nYi m-bal a-wo l o -> nY
�
H
,
I
I
�
H
L
I
1."
1
'"
I
-"!.
..
H
-1, .- ...
1
/
j
-
L
L I NK I NG � LS DEL I NK
I ND L L INK ING
OCP
�
257
There�ore. the OCP must aPpl y before the aPpl i cat i on of the Feature Swi tch
or the I n dependent Low Li n k i n9 Ru l e .
If e i t her appl i ed betore the OCP . they
woul d adjust the tone features i n suc h a waY that OCP woul d no l onger b e
Poss i b l e . The OCP. o n t h e other han d . must aPpl y obl i 9ator i l y i n thi s set t i n 9 .
and theretore must not b e b l ocked under anY cond i t i on by Feature Swi tch or
Independent Low tone Li n k i n9.
In add i t i o n , i t i s seen i n (90 ) that the ru l e at
Independent Low Li n k i n 9 i s requ i red atter the appl i cat i on of the OCP.
3. Hi 9h SPr••d i ng �d
OCP
When Hi 9h tone SPread i n 9 takes Pl ace on HI compl e:< nouns. they al l end uP
wi th the same resu l ts re9ard l ess at whether they were subject to OCP or not .
Hi 9h Spreadi n 9 on ComPl ex nouns wh i ch do not under90 the OCP i s i l l ustrated
bel ow .
In the e:<ampl e bel ow . the subre9i ster Hi 9h tone sPreads onto the
tol l owi n9 HI tone. The same Hi 9h tone then sPreads to the nex t HI tone.
( 91 )
wu Ya wu CE n:<, -Yaraxa suu
I
I
I
H
H
H
CD
I
L
-
h
-1
H I GH SPREAD
I
->
" .J
'�
wu Ya wu c€ nx€ -��ax� suil?
I
I� - - - -I
h
CD
H
H
H
HIGH SPREAD & L I NK I NG
Nouns whi ch have under90ne OCP are al so subj ect to Hi 9h tone SPreadi n9 and
produce the same resu l t as those nouns wh i ch d i d not undergo the OCP. as shown
bel ow :
---- . . -- �
_ . _ _. _--
------ -- ---- ------- -------
258
( 92)
mo Yai:ake -> mo yatake -> mo yatake
I
"'-J I
,
L
H H
L
H H
L H H H
&.. ... - .., I
I ' I
I V I
I I
I I
I
h
I 1
1
h
GI l
h
H I GH SPREAD & DOWNSTEP
OCP
4. LaM SPr.�i ng ."d the OCP
Non OCP compl ex nouns al so behave i n the same waY as OCP comPl ex nouns when
subjec t to the Low tone SPreadi ng rul e . F i rst . l et us l ook at nouns wh i ch do
not undergo the OCP. I n the examP l e bel ow . the � i rst comPonent of the comPl ex
noun wi l l . i n i sol at i on . undergo Feature Swi tch . and then tri 9ger High tone
spread onto the f o l l owi n9 HI comPonent .
( 93 ) a . me-juune-> me-juune-> me-jCi6ne
I
I
�J'I rI
I
H
,
L
H
h
I
I 'J I
H H
L
1/"1 I
I I
1. ... .. 1
H
1 I
h
L I NKING & DOWNSTEP
H SPREAD
FEATURE SW
' speech '
When preceded by a Low f i nal word ( as i n ( 94) . however . the f i rst comPonent i s
n o l onger i n Phrase f i nal Pos i t i on and thus cannot under90 Feature Swi tch .
Rather i t i s sub j ect to Low tone SPread . A Low-Hi gh contour resul t s . whi ch .
after b e i ng spec i f i ed on the subre9i ster t i er . then tri 9gers High tone sPread-
i n9
onto the fol l owi ng comPonent . Once the SPreadi ng ru l e takes pl ace . the
contour si mpl i f i cat i on Process of RS Del i nk i n9. del i n ks the Hi gh tone of the
Low-Hi gh contour .
wura mej uune->wura m�jcicine-> wura m�jciUne
I
... 1
V$ '�
L H H H
L H H H
L H H H
I
1,.......1
L,../ ,
h
h
( 94 )
1..
I I
I
t...--1
<D
(1) 1
L SPREAD & L DEL
---_
.. __ .-
-
'- '---
I
H SPREAD
-----
I
CD 1
L I NK I NG . RS DEL I NK I NG. &c DOWNSTEP
259
AI�hoU9h comPl ex nouns wh i ch under90 the DCP Y i el d the same resu l �s when
subject to Low tone sPread i n9 , �he manner i n wh i ch those resu l ts are arr i ved at
i s a l i t t l e d i f f eren t . Dnce the DCP has col l apsed al l the HI �ones i n�o one (as
shown i n ( 95 » . �he Low t on e sPreads onto the f i rst Hi 9h l i n ked TBU and Low
tone dei et i on takes p l ace.
S i nce t h i s subre9i ster Low tone is l i n ked to the
H i 9h tone wh i ch i s in turn l i n ked to al l �he comPonents of the comPl ex nou n ,
al l the component s are aff ected b y i ts del eti on and , a s a resu l t . become Hi 9h
tone. Th i s i s u n l i ke the case tor non DCP comPl ex nouns where Hi 9h t one sPread
mus� be mot i vated to �ri 9ger Low tone del et i on on the rema i n i ng comPonents Ot
the comPl ex noun ( see 94) .
( 95)
k�n-Y� ka-nkur� -) kanY� ka-"k urc - ) kcinY� k�-"kCirEl -> kanY�
I
I
L
,
H
I
I
H
I
L
"'./
H
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
" , -�
H
I
L
I
L SPREAD & L DEL
DCP
• H ve vi 1 1 ages '
(vi l l ages + f i ve )
s�m� sak a - > s�m� s�ka
I
L
I
I
H H
I
I
I
L
V
H
I
DCP
" f at 90at '
->
L�
I
I
I
h
L I NK I NG &
RS DELI NK I NG
(; ' V
s�m� s�ka
L
I
I I
cb
kci-"kurEl
H
I
I
L SPREAD & L DEL
L I NK I NG & RS DELI NK I NG
( o i l + 90at )
s. OCP .nd the Associ .tion Conventi ons
In Chapter 3 . i t was assumed that the Assoc i at i on Convent i on s i nvol ved the
l i nk i ng of al l tones and TBU ' s .
In Chapter 4 . the search f or a sat i stactorY
anal Ysi s tor Low tone SPread brought to l i 9ht the need to mod i f y the
260
Assoc i at i on Conven t i ons such that 1 ) tones assoc i ated w i th TBU ' s i n a Ri ght to
Lef� fasn i on across �he word and 2 ) �he i ni t i al l i n ki ng did not i nvol ve the
l i n k i ng ot more than one TBU to a tone. Wi th the i ntroducti on of OCP . one sees
agai n the need to PostPone the l i n k i ng ot tone to al l TaU ' s unt i l Low tone
sPread i ng takes Pl ace. Thi s becomes c l ear when comPar i ng Low tone SPread on a
s i mpl e three TBU noun w i th Low Spread on a complex noun wi th two or three noun
roots .
O n words wi th onl Y one n o u n root . the Low tone spread$ to t h e f i nal TBU of
that root .
nU k� �x5
1/..:-- - 1
L
H
,
I
On words wi th more than one n oun root . the Low tone sPreads to the t i nal TBU ot
the t i rst morpheme on l Y .
n�� Ya-Ux@
j.. � �",,/
" man ' s n ec k '
H
,
1
L
The waY the ru l es have been set uP thus t ar al l ow tor th i s correct Predi ct i on
i n behavi our . I t . t or examp l e . al l TaU ' s were l i n ked to tones bet ore the
appl i cat i on of the tonal ru l es . the appl i cat i on of the OCP woul d i mmed i atel Y
create an amb i 9u i ty between t h e word w i th a si n9l e noun root versus one wi th
two or more noun roots. as shown i n (96) .
to al l TBU ' s .
f i rst TBU.
In b oth cases . tone woul d be l i n ked
When Low SPread i n9 takes pl ace. Low wou l d SPread on l Y to the
There i s noth i n9 i n the l i n k i n9 Pattern to i ndi cate that Low must
a l $o sPread to the second TBU i f the noun concerned is a si mpl e three TBU noun .
but must not spread a second t i me i f the second TBU i s another noun root . Thi s
26 1
amb i ';u i ty created by such a l i n k i n'; Procedure makes i t i mPossi b l e for the Low
tone SPread i ng ru l e to d i st i n9ui sh t h ese two tYPes and thus treat them
d i ff eren t l y .
(96)
mu l t i Pl e noun roots
n.\.\
'11
L
��",!x�
si ngl e noun root
' man ' s nec k '
'V
n�.\ k��:<:,
\J, '" �
H
Pul l eYb l an k ' s
I
1
H
L
I
1
( 1 983 ) proposal to l i mi t the Assoc i at i on Conven t i ons to l i n k a
tone to on l Y one TBU serves a usefu l PurPose h ere. The eHed of l i n k i ng one
tone t o one TBU s i 9nal s . ex cept i n the cases of under l Yi ng contour tones . the
Presence of a si n9l e noun root . I f . after the Assoc i at i on Conven t i on s . the
aPpl i cati on of the OCP resu l ts i n a si n9l e tone bei n9 l i n ked to several TBU ' s .
we are thus i nf ormed that there are as manY noun root s as l i n kages to the tone.
The Low t one sPreadi n9 rul e . then . is l i mi ted t o sPread i ng on lY to the f i rst HI
tone l i n ked TBU. On a si n9l e noun root wi th three TBU ' s. thi s means that the
Low tone wi l l sPread to the f i nal TBU, si nce t h at is the f i rst ( and on l y ) TBU
that i s l i nked by the HI tone . On the noun wi t h two noun roots. the Low tone
wi l l sPread on l Y to the f i rst TBU that is l i n ked . In
(97 ) bel ow. is an i l l us-
trati on of how the tonal rul es i nteract to Produce correct f orms f or ( a ) a
three TBU Singl e root noun and ( b ) a comPound noun .
(97) a. s i ngl e root
' hi s EMPH i nheri tance '
CVCVCV
f
H
L
I
1
A C
->
CVCVCV
/
1
�,. ...
'"
L
H
f
1
L SPREAD
-> CVCVCV
�
L
->
I
d)
H
1 DELET I ON
�
L
H
LS DEL I NK I NG
262
b . mul t i Pl e root
wura n Yi m-bal a-wo l o -> wura nY� mbal aw61 6
cv-cv-cv -} cv-cv-cv
I
I I
'-..V
L H H H
H
L
I
I
I
I
A c
I
I
I
1
-> cv-cv-cv
�' �
L
OCP
I
1
H
' h i s EMPH darkness '
->
cv-cv-cv
L
L SPREAD
�
->
H
I
J�
L
H
@
I -DELET ION
RS DEL INK I NG
The � i nal quest i on that remains i s whether the aPpl i cati on o� OCP i s real l y
needed t o al l ow a correct tonal outpu t . I n terms
Ot
SPread i n9 r u l es . i t appears
that the aPpl i cat i on o� the oCP i s not essen t i al �or produci ng correct resu l ts .
Whether a noun has undergone oCP o r not . both H i 9h and Low SPread i ng ont o a
comPound noun produces the same resu l ts . However . we recal l that oCP was
i n troduced i n an ef f ort to deal w i t h a sel ect set of c omPl ex nouns wh i ch
behaved l i ke Si mpl e non-compl ex nouns i n phrase i n i t i a l Posi t i o n . The nonaPpl i cat i on of the OCP i n thi s situat i on wou l d have requ i red at l east some
other ki n d of rul e or cond i t i on to a rul e to b l oc k the appl i cati on of Feature
Swi tch and I ndePendent Low Li n k i ng in al l Posi t i ons ex cept in word t i nal
Posi ti on . The b l oc k i ng of these two ru l es word i nternal l y wou l d have to be
restri cted to t h i s speci al set ot nouns. however . f or we have al readY seen how
both rul es can be appl i ed word i nternal l y on other compl ex noun s . Such a
condi t i on wou l d b e feasi b l e i f i t were sU9gested that Feature Swi tch and
Independent Low tone Li n k i ng were sensi t i ve to the cohesi veness of a par t i cu l ar
comPl ex noun ·
I f a compl ex noun functi oned as a semant i c uni t . then FS and Low
Li n k i ng maY be b l ocked �rom aPpl Ying. whi l e they sti l l aPpl y to the end o� each
morPheme w i th i n compl e:< nouns wh i ch were l ess cohesi ve i n nature.
We see thi s l ac k of FS and Low Li n k i n g in another setti n9 where the OCP
----- ----- --- -----------
263
cannot be moti vated . but where a con d i t i on b l oc k i n9 the two ru l es cou l d be
aPPl i ed . When a H I noun root is f ol l owed b y a Lh noun root wi t h i n certai n
compl ex nouns . nei ther FS nor Low Li n k i n9 are al l owed to appl y.
(98) a. son:d + na�a -> sonna�a
/
/
H
,
L
I
1
h
- > tasal')e
b . tt: :( � + son
I
H
I
1
' horse ' s tai l '
I
( Pl ace + sacr i f i ce ) ' al tar f or sacr i f i ce '
L
I
h
c · saka + nYe7e -> sakanye?ere < sheeP + be al ot ) ' al ot of sheeP '
V
H
,
1
I
L
I
h
Therefore, i t maY b e feasi b l e to attach a con d i ti on to FS and Low Li n k i n'; .
b l oc k i n9 thei r appl i cat i on i n certai n word i nternal envi ronments. i nstead of
ProPosi ng the OCP rul e , wh i ch does not cover f or the exampl es 9i ven above i n
(98) . Unf ortunatel Y , t i me and sPace d o not al l ow f or a thorou9h i nvesti 9at i on
of � h i s Possi b i l i �Y .
B. Hi9h
De1iokio9
Earl i er . i t was Poi nted out that al thou9h HI
(weak Mi d ) usual l Y behaves
d i f f erentl y than Lh . there are si tuat i ons where i t tri 9gers the same tonal
r u l es as Lh nouns.
I n order to accommodate this behavi our . a rul e cal l ed
Feature Swi tch was i mPl emented to change HI to Lh . Th i s Process d i d not chan ge
the surface tone; i t s i mpl y changed the under l Yi n'; tone so that i t cou l d
----- -- _
..
_- ---
-----
264
tri ';';er the same rul e as Lh nouns.
It was suggested that t h i s conf usi on of i dent i ty f or these d i f f erent tYPes
of M i d tones was due to the f act that thei r i dent i cal pi tch val ue contri buted
to the over l apP i n9 of tonal b ehavi our . The fol l ow i n g is a d i scussi on of a tYPe
of Mi d tone that apPears to be Lh i n certai n setti ngs , whi l e in other envi ronments, i t behaves more l i ke a HI or a Low-Hi gh ton e .
Th i s tYPe o f Mi d tone i s n ever f ound i n word i n i t i al Posi t i on and i t i s
al ways preceded by a Low ton e .
tone ( Lh ) . i t i s Mi d tone.
When f o l l owed by no tone o r by a Low o r Mi d
When fol l owed b� a HI tone or H tone.
it i s Low
ton e . The under l i ned vowel s i n the eKamPl es bel ow are l i n ked to these Part i cul ar tYPes of Mi d tone .
( 100) k�-l a-xa
' sorghum- I ND '
k�-j ti.-K e
k�-n tLL-)( O
" wood- I ND '
" bac k - I ND '
k�-l A-p6-l �
" bund l es of sorghum- IND '
k�-l a-P�?al o
" bundl es of sor9hum-DEF '
k�-j l.-p6-1 �
" bund l es of wood-I ND '
k�-ji..-pi:}-?al o
' bund l es of wood-DEF '
k�-nt i.l.-Yi\-n3
' back-ache- IND '
Th i s tyPe of behavi our Paral l el s verY cl osel Y the tonal behavi our of LowHi gh contour tones whi ch are l i n ked to a s i n9l e TBU ( see pp. 243ff ) .
If these
par t i cu l ar Mi d tones are consi dered under l Y i n9l v Low-Hi 9h . then one can
mot i vat e the Ri 9hts i d e Del i n k i ng ru l e . wh i ch del i n k s a H i gh tone of a Low-Hi 9h
c.ontour when i t i s f ol l owed by another Hi gh tone. Such a der i vat i on i s i l l us-·
trated bel ow.
( 101 ) k� 1 a p6l S -> k� l a p6l �
/
L
I
1
/1 /
H
I L.- "'1
LH
1h
1
H I GH SPREAD
I A
L LH
I
H
I I�
I lh
RS DEL I NKI NG
265
However , i f the segment
=La
i s under l Yi ngl y Low-Hi gh . the two tones shou ld
l i n k to separate TBU ' s when f o l l owed by an i ndef i n i te suf f i x . as shown bel ow .
Unfortunatel y, t h i s produces the wrong surface t orm.
( 1 02 ) *ka-U-x-'
I
I
I
L
L
H
I I
I 1
' sorghum '
Rather :
ka-I a-xa
I
h
In addi t i on , kAlaxa tri ggers Hi gh Spreadi n g onto Low tone nouns and verbs,
someth i ng a Hh f i nal noun cannot do. I f one Pos i ts an under l Y Lh tone for
=la,
then i ts subre9i ster H i 9h tone can spread onto a f o l l ow i n9 Low tone, as shown
bel ow.
( l 03) wu Ya
ka-Iaxa tea
I
/
A
L
L
LH
1
h
Oh
I
' He i s showing sorghum '
I.. , 1 ,
H I GH SPREAD
If we consi der that the under l Ying tone i s Lh . however , some eXPl anati on
must be found f or the l ower i ng of th i s Lh tone of
=la
to Low i n
kalap61$.
Another ru l e wi l l have to be f ormul ated wherebY the Lh tone becomes Low tone
when preceded by a Low tone and fol l owed by a Hi gh tone. A si mpl e waY of
perf ormi n9 the mechan i cs of th i s tone l c�er i ng i s to dsl i n k tha subre9i ster
Hi gh tone i n t h i s envi r on ment :
( 1 04 )
kal a p61 S
I I
/
L L
H
1 h
h
I -$ I
Such a r u l e wou l d be stated as fol l ows =
266
( 105) H I GH DEL I NKING:
Del i n k a subre9i ster Hi 9h tone l i n ked to a Low tone i f
i t i s Preceded b y a L l tone and tol l owed by a Hh tone. wi th i n the doma i n of the
word .
x
I
L
I
I
X
1
L
X
h
h
�
I
I
H
The reader maY recal l that an ear l i er H i 9h Del i n k i n9 rul e ( 44) was i ntroduced in Chapter 4 to mot i vate the l ower i ng of a Mi d tone verb after a Hi 9h
f i nal noun and i n a Phrase f i nal Pos i t i on . Because these two Hi gh Del i n k i n9
ru l es take Pl ace i n d i f t erent envi ronments . they shal l be consi dered separate
ru l es at t h i s Poi n t .
Th i s Process i s qui te remi ni scent o f the R S Del i n k i n9 of a Low-Hi 9h contour .
ex cept i n t h i s case. the Lh i s not a contour but rather a comPl ex bund l e of
f eatures . PerhaPs. thou9h . the mot i vati on f or this tYPe of rul e i s si mi l ar to
that of RS Del i n k i n9 . RS Del i n k i n9 was concerned wi th the s i mpl i f i cat i on of
contour tones . Th i s H i gh tone Del i nk i n9 seems to be moti vated by some k i nd of
desi re to s i mpl i f y the compl ex Lh f eature i n an envi ronment where the Lh tone
i s caught between a Low and a Hi gh ton e . Li ke RS Del i n k i n9. the Hi 9h Del i n k i n9
ru l e al so t.�kes pl ace atter the appl i cati on of the spread i n9 r u l es. as shown
below.
( 1 06) a. k�l a + pol 3
1
I
H
L L
1 .1
I h
I
I
I
-> kal a - pob
I \
L
1
I
L
.... H
� "" "l
h
(!)
H SPREAD
(sor9hum + t i e . n . )
I
->
kal a-p61 � ' bund l e of sor9hum head s '
I I
L L
' -J
,�
I
H
h
LINK I NG & H DEL I NKING
267
b . v�nd i �e + k E E x �
(shi rt + arm)
-)
v�n d i - k € € x t
' sl eeve '
A si mi l ar Phenomenon occurs on nouns wi th TYPe I I suf f i x es . When a noun ends
i n a TYPe I I i ndef i n i te suff i x . the f i nal tone i s Lh , and i t can tri 9ger Hi gh
tone sPread onto t o l l owi ng words, as shown i n the deri vati on b el ow.
( 107) nk�n-?al a ti -> n k�n-?al a h -) n k�n-?al a tl
�
L......-1
H L L
L
H L L
L
L
H L
I
,
l !r I
h h I
I
h h
I
h h
(.. ... 1 I I
I I I
I
LOW SPREAD
I
V-1 I I
I .... ... ,
(D
H I GH SPREAD
' show teeth '
h�
HISH SPREAD TO TBU
However , when a noun w i th a TYPe I I suf f i x i s compl eted by a Def i ni te Sut t i l( ,
the TYPe I I suf f i x b ecomes Low tone: nk�n-7a-k! -) n k�n-?�-k ! ' the teeth ' ,
It
wou l d aPPear that Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 is al so taki n9 P l ace here . However . i n
observi ng the examPl e bel ow i n ( 1 08) , the under l Y i n9 tonal structure ot the
TYPe I I suf f i x Presents a sl i 9h t l y more comPl i cated situat i on . Atter the Low
tone �f the iiOUii root sPreads oiito the Hi gh tone of the TYPe I I suff i x , a. talal
Ot
three tones are l i n ked to the singl e TBU , =la.
( 1 08 )
n k�n-7a- k !
1.. - � I
L
I
1
' the teeth '
HL H
"
I
hh h
LOW SPREAD
In order to moti vate the l ower i n 9 of al l these tones to Low tone, i t seems that
both RS Del i n k i n� and Hi gh Del i n k i n9 wou l d have to take P l ac e . However , Hh i s
bl ocked tram Del i n k i n9 because i t i s not f ol l owed by a Hi 9h tone but rather by
a Lh tone. and the subre9i ster Hi gh tone of the Lh tone cannot be del i n ked
----- . .- � . - .- ..---
268
because i t i s not Preceded by a Low tone. One possi b l e sol uti on i s to somehow
col l apse thi s comPl ex of tones. LI -Hh-Lh i nto a si mPl e . more manageabl e
combi nat i on such as Lh . Unfortunatel Y t i me and sPace do not al l ow a di scussi on
of the theoret i cal i mPl i cat i ons of such a move. However . such a Process wou l d
Permi t t h e Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 r u l e to take Pl ace. resu l t i n9 i n a correct surface
rePresentat i on . as shown bel ow .
( 1 09)
n kan-?a-ki -> n kan-?a-k! -> nkan-?a-k !
L. ... ...�
L
HL
I
I
t..-1
L
H
L
hh h
1
h
h
I
I
LOW SPREAD
I
I
I
Tone Col l aPse
I
l--1
L
II I
1
I
H
L
H
h
h
* I
H I GH DEL I NKING
One m i gh t t h i n k the Lh tone of kal a- wou l d al so under90 H Del i nk i n9 when
fol l owed by the Hi 9h tone DeH n i te Suf f i x . However. as t h e -F i rst e:< ampl e i n
( 1 10) i n d i cates . no Hi gh Del i n ki n9 occurs. I t seems then . that t h i s Hi gh
Del i nk i n9 occurs before def i n i te suf f i x es on l Y on Type I I suf f i x es . ComPare ( a )
wi th ( b ) bel ow .
( 1 10)
TYPe I I SuH i x
TYPe I Suf f i x
a. k a l a-ke
/
L
I
L
I
I
" th e sorghum '
H
vs .
b . n ka?-a-k ! -> n k a?-a-k!
I
L
h
I
L
I
I
" the teeth '
H
h
The Pri marY d i ff erence b etween these two nouns i s that the noun wh i ch does
not undergo H i gh Del i n k i n9 i s a TYPe I noun. whi l e the second i s a TYPe I I
noun . Other examPl es conf i rm that def i n i te suf f i x ed TYPe I nouns d o not al l ow
Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 i mmed i atel Y Preced i ng the def i n i te suf f i x . i n contrast to TYPe
----,
- _
.
- - -- -.---
-----
269
I I noun s .
The ru l e of H i 9h Del i n k i n9 ( 1 05) . then i s f ormul ated i n t h e attemPt t o
account f or t h e 1 0wer i n9 o f a Lh t one si tuated b etween a Low tone and a Hi 9h
tone i n a compl ex nou n . The d i scussi on above ex Poses some compl i cati ons
i nvol ved i n i ts aPpl i cati on . At th i s Poi nt . however . a more thorou9h anal Ysi s
wi l l have to wai t unt i l more research i s don e .
C. LRxiC.l Cbani••
The Previ ous t wo tonal a l t ernat i ons. the DC? and H i 9h Del i n k i n9 . took P l ace
in a par t i cu l ar tonal envi ronmen t .
However . i t was n oted that somet i mes their
aPpl i cati on was b l oc ked f or reasons not al ways c l ear . Th i s sec t i on deal s wi th
tonal al t ernati ons wh i ch I cal l l ex i cal changes. These tonal changes oPerate at
the l ex i cal l evel
( i . e. wi th i n word bo��dar i es ) and are. f or the most Par t . not
90verned by the t one of ad j acent morPhemes. but take Pl ace after noun roots are
comb i ned to f orm comPl ex nouns. The f ol l owi n 9 d i scussi on wi l l deal wi th each of
these changes and ProPose the waY i n wh i ch these changes maY be formu l ated .
1 . High Del eti on
Hi gh Del et i on takes Pl ace i n two tYPes of envi ronmen t s . The f i rst takes
Pl ace i n an envi r onment that i s both t onal and morPhol ogi cal . wh i l e the second
seems to be a functi on of the seman t i c and morphol 09i c �1 structure of the noun .
For the sake of conveni ence . they shal l be l abel ed Hi gh Del eti on I and H i gh
Del eti on I I .
a.
High Del .ti on I
In Chapter 2 . i t was men t i oned that Mi d tone verbs l owered to Low tone when
an i ncomP l et i ve suff i x was added . The ProPosed anal Ysi s posi ted the Mi d tone of
------,-,- - ---- ------- -------
270
a Mi d tone verb as under l Y i n9 l y L h . A Hi 9h Del et i on ru l e was then �ormu l ated to
tri 9ger del et i on o� the subre9i ster Hi 9h tone of the Lh verb when � o l l owed by a
Hi 9h tone i ncom�l eti ve su� � i x ( See (59» .
In Chapter 3 . i t was al so �ound that
certai n tonal sets o� nouns al so l owered to Low tone when the Hi 9h i n i t i al TYPe
I I i nde� i ni te su�f i x was added . Al thou9h . at that Poi nt . the under l Yi n9
features o� the vari ous types of Mi d tones had not been di scusse d , i t was
sU9gested that Hi 9h Del eti on cou l d aPply here , too . The Hi 9h Del et i on ru l e as
ProPosed i n ChaPter 3 i s restated bel ow:
(SS) HIGH DELET I ON: Del ete a Hi 9h tone on the Pri marY or subre9i ster t i er it a
Pri marY Low tone i s � ound to the l e� t o� a Pr i marY Hi 9h tone or l i n ked to a
subre9i ster Hi9h ton e . and f ol l owed by a Hi 9h i n i t ial su�f i x .
I� the suf � i x i s
a nom i nal suf f i x . i t must have under90ne ei ther n o se9mental al t erat i on o r el se
have under90ne Sut� i x Reduct i on .
{H. h > ->
[sut t i x - it N . then f u l l or reduced ]
Thi s r u l e assumes that al l Mi d t ones were under l Y i n9 l y Lh or Low-Hi gh .
However . now that HI tone has been posi ted for weak Mi d and Mi d-Low t ones , Hi 9h
Del et i on . as �ormu l at ed above , wou l d not del E�te the Hi 9h tone . wh i ch i s now on
the �ri marY t i er . One therefore wi l l h ave to mod i f y the rul e t o al l ow f or the
del eti on anY t i me that Hi 9h t one i s combi ned wi th and l i nked to the same TBU as
a Low ton e :
----- ,- - "-- ----
27 1
( 1 1 1 ) H I GH DELETI ON : Del et e a Hi9h tone on the Pri marY or subre9i ster t i er i f a
Low tone on the Pri marY or subre9ister t i er i s l i nked to the same TBU as the
Hi 9h ton e . I f the suf f i x is a nomi nal suff i x . i t must have under90ne ei ther no
se9mental alterat i on or e l se have under90ne Suff i x Reduc t i on .
[suf f i x - i f N . then f u l l or reduced ]
Th i s wou l d mean t h at when the Hi 9h of a HI tone i s del eted . the remai n i n9 Low
tone on the subre9i ster t i er wou l d l i n k to the se9mental t i er . Th i s i s i l l usIn ( 1 12b > . the Low-Hi 9h tone i s al so del eted through
trated b e l ow in ( 1 12a> .
the same Hi gh Del et i on ru l e .
( 1 12) a .
n i -i
I �
�
-
>
n � -i
��
->
H L
L HL
1 h h
1 hI
, ,
H DELETION
n i -i
I II
L SPREAD
' mothers '
b . nkan-?a l a -) n k �n-?ala ' teeth '
A
�
lh
, I
I
H L
L
I
I I
h h
HIGH DELET I ON
1
I I
H L
I I
h h
LOW SPREAD
In these examp l e s . once Hi gh Del et i on takes Pl ace. t h e remai n i n 9 Low tone then
sPreads onto the H i gh tone suf f i x . creati ng a Low-Hi gh contour . wh i ch is then
si mpl i f i ed to Mi d ton e .
If a HI morPheme marked for Hi 9h del et i on i s Preceded b y a L I tone o r a
subre9i ster h i gh f i nal word . one mi ght expect Low or H i 9h tone sPread i ng to
bl ock Hi 9h del eti on . However .
( 1 1 3a ) shows a der i vat i on where Hi 9h Del et i on
takes P l ace before Low tone SPread and Hi gh SPread . thus Produc i n 9 a correct
272
surtace torm.
I t Hi gh SPread were al l owed to take Pl ace and sPread onto a HI
noun before Hi 9h Del et i on . th i s H i gh SPread wou l d e f f ect i ve l Y b l ock the
envi ronment f or Hi gh Del eti on . as shown in ( b ) .
I I
( 1 1 3 ) a . �da n i -i -b { -> �da n f - i -b { -> rtda n � - � -b ! -> �da n � -� -b i
I I
I
I l
I � I
H @ HL H
I I I I
L H
H HL H
L
1 h
I
I h
t
I
I
I
I 1
h h
I
h h
H I GH DELET I ON
b . �da n i - i -b { ->*�da n { -l-b{
I � \
VI
L H
H H L H
" ....1
h
I
<D
h
' I ' '' '
L H
V
L H
I
I
1 h
1.-1\
I
V\ V\ ,
L H L L H
I I I � I
L HL H
I
L
I I
I h
h h
I
h
' mY mothers '
h
T COLLAPSE � H DEL I NK I NGe
LOW SPREAD
' mY mothers '
H H L H
I
h
H IGH SPREAD
�1
h
H I GH DELET I ON N/A
Bel ow ( 1 14 ) i s an ex amPl e of a comPl ex noun wi th several noun root s . The
second noun root . wh i ch i s Lh . sPreads i ts subregi ster Hi 9h tone onto the
Th i s i s f o l l owed by a H i gh Del i n k i n9 ru l e .
fol l ow i ng HI morPheme.
( 1 1 4 ) a . k�-j i -Po-l j - > k�- j � -p6-1 :S
I
L
I
I
I
/
H
L
" .... 1
h
CD
H IGH SPREAD
I
L
1
L
/
' bund l e of wood '
H
� r1D
L I N K I NG � H I GH DEL I NK I NG
However . when th i s same comPl ex noun i s fol l owed by a TYPe I I suff i x . the
t i nal noun root . bei n9 a d j acent to the Hi 9h i n i t i al suf f i x undergoes Hi 9h
del eti on . as shown i n ( 1 1 5 ) . One maY exPec t . then . that the subre9i ster Hi 9h ot
the Preced i n9 Lh morpheme wou l d SPread onto the tol l owi n9 Low ton e . but as
( l ISa ) shows, t h i s Produces ' an i ncorrect resul t .
--------�- - �-- -----------
273
' bundl es ot wood '
( l l S) a . ka- j i -po-?al o ->*ka- j i -po-?al o
I I
L L ® H L
I I I I I
I I
1
. .,
I I I
I
I
L
I
Ii
I I
h h
H I GH DELETI ON
L
L'
·1
I
...
I I
H L
I I
h h
H I GH SPREAD
I nstead . the deri ved Low tone sPreads onto the Hi gh tone of the suff i x . as
shown i n C l l Sb > .
b . ka-ji -Po-?al o -> ka-j i -po-?al o
I I I
L L 6iJ H L
I I T I I
I
1
I
h
1
I
H I GH DELETI ON
' bundl es of wood '
� ... 1 I
L
L
L
H L
1
h
1
h h
I
h h
I
I I
I '
LOW SPREAD
I t aPPears. from the examPl e above. that the Hi gh sPread r u l e must b e b l ocked
f rom sPread i ng onto anY Low tone that is a resu l t of a Hi gh Del et i on rul e . If
this is the case. Hi gh tone Spread shoul d al so be prevented f rom occurr i ng i n
the exampl e bel ow . where a M i d tone verb wh i ch has undergone Hi gh Del et i on i s
preceded by t h e L h Possessi ve Pronou n . �. However . as seen i n t h e deri vati on .
i n order to Produce the correct surface f orm. the subregi ster Hi gh tone of the
Lh Pronoun must sPread onto the deri ved Low tone.
"
( 1 1 6 ) ndi Ya mo nYa- -a - > ndi Ya mo nya-a - > ndi Ya mo nYa-
I i Ii I
L H LH L
I I II I
1 h Ih h
I I
I I
L H
h h
, I " ,
L H LH L
I I II I
1
h lh
h
' I
I I
L H
"
L H LH
<E) h
1 h lh
I
H I GH DELETION
I
I
I II
I
a
I I
" r
see YOU '
L H
L
l... ....
I
h
h
H I GH SPREAD
The ProPosed general i z ati on that no sPreadi ng i s al l owed ont o deri ved Low
tones. then . meets uP w i t h a contrad i ct i on . I t i s possi b l e that ther e i s a
274
d i st i nc t i on i n tne apPl i cabi l i ty of tne SPread i n9 r u l es b etween sPreadi n9
across word boundar i es and sPreadi n9 across morPnemes wi tn i n word boundari es.
Tn i s matter needs more research before i t can be resol ved .
The order i n9 of H i 9h Del eti on wi th the OCP i s al so cruc i al .
If the OCP
aPpl i ed before Hi 9n Del eti on . as shown i n ( 1 1 7 ) . Hi 9h tone wou l d b e l ost al l
across the wor d . Produci n9 an i ncorrect surface f orm.
I I 1\
H H H L
I I I
( 1 1 8) saka-a
1 1
-
>
<fDV
sa ka-a -> saka-a - > * s�k�-a
V �
H
H L
I
1
h
I
"
H
1
h
OCP
' 90ats '
1tC- 1'
r
L
I
1
h
H I GH DEL
H L
I
h
LOW SPREAD
However . i f H i 9h Del et i on takes Pl ace before OCP. the envi ror �ent for OCP
wou l d then be l ost and the correct surface f orm wou l d be Produced .
,
( 1 1 9 ) sa-ka-a - > sa-ka-a -> sa-k�-a
I I
®H L
, T I
, , ,
H H L
, I ,
H
I 1
H
1 I
h
h
H I GH DEL
"
H
I
� '1'..
L
H L
I
I
h
LOW SPREAD
Note that the OCP occurs on th i s word when i t i s not fol l owed by a TYPe I I
i ndef i n i te Suf f i x . as snown bel ow.
( 1 20 ) sa-ka -> saka -> sak;1
I
I
\1
1 1
1
I
H
H
I
H
,
OCP
1/:
H L
L/
1
I ND L LINKING
& LS DELINK I NG
Hi gh Del et i on then i s a ru l e that takes pl ace after Assoc i at i on Conventi ons but
---- ------
---- ---
275
before anY other rul es at the Lex i cal l evel .
Th i s second tYPe of Hi gh Del eti on i nvol ves the same Process of del et i ng a
H i gh tone wh i ch i s i n comb i nat i on wi th a Low tone. However . the envi ronment for
t h i s Hi gh Del e t i on I I i s d i fferent .
I t takes P l ace Pr i mar i l y when a
HI
noun
root is fol l owed by some other noun root i n a noun comPound . The nature of the
t one of the root does not seem to be cruci al f or the aPpl i cat i on of the rul e .
Bel ow are some exampl es o f High Del eti on I I . I n t h e fol l owi ng examPl e . the
noun ,
�
' dog '
is Hl. and ex h i b i ts a Mi d-Low tone as a si mpl e noun ( 1 2 1 a ) . When
i t i s fol l owed by adj ecti val mod i f i ers. however . i t undergoes Hi gh Del et i on . In
( 1 21 b ) Hi gh Del et i on takes Place. and then the remai n i ng Low tone tri ggers Low
tone SPread i n9 onto the fol l owi n9
HI
noun root . When fol l owed by Lh or Low
tone, the remai ni n9 Low tone tri 9gerS no tonal rul es , as seen i n ( c ) and ( d ) .
' a dog '
( 1 21 ) a . P3n
�,
H L
'
,,
1
I
I
b . pjn-h x (
�
1
->
H
I
1
H DELET I ON
.9
pjn � x �
� �1
L
' an ol d dog '
H
I
CD
LOW SPREAD & L D!::I_!::r r ON
A N i) LS il '=. ,-_ I N II.
• •\l C-
" a good dog '
d . pjn-kal a:< a
' a spoi l ed dog '
In other cases. a part i cu l ar word maY undergo Hi gh del et i on i n certai n
------ .- �- ---- -�---- --- ---- ------
276
semant i c env i ronments. wh i l e in other seman t i c envi ronments. i t does not . The
noun ,
�
� road ' i s such an examPl e .
I n ( 122a ) . i t does n o t under90 Hi 9h
del eti on i n contrast to examPles ( b ) and ( c ) . Therefore. i n some cases.
aPpl i cat i on ot Hi 9h del et i on maY be semanti cal l Y det i ned .
( 122 ) a. kun-boB
/
I
I
1
H
->
kun-bol �
'\./
H
I
qv
1
->
ku-se� -> k
1,� 1
H
I
I
1
L
I
H
�
� travel l er '
H L
I
h
LOW SPREAD
( l i t . road 90�r )
,
L
I
1 (0
H DEL
� bi 9 road '
IND L L I NK I NG . L I NK I NG . LS DELINK I NG
OCP
I
�l �
�
H
L
1.. '"
1
kun-
I
1
I
1
H
b . ku-see
->
I
LS DEL I NK I NG. & L I NSERT I ON
& L DELET I ON
c . ku-sel t
' tr i P '
( l i t . road 90i n9)
Some LH n ouns al so under90 Hi gh Del et i on when in word i n i t i al Posi t i on . The
word
£Qali • Peanu t ,
i s one scch examPl e.
' the Peanut sel l er '
b . tcn-caxa
� �I
->
1
H DELETI ON
tcn-cax� -> t cn-c�x �
L.�"' 7
L
H
I
�
L
H
CD
LOW SPREAD
& L DELET I ON
LS DEL I NK I NG
' peanut stal ks '
277
c.
SymmarY
H i gh Del eti on I and I I b oth i nvol ve the del et i on ot a Hi gh tone i n comb i na­
t i on wi t h a Low ton e . though H i gh Del et i on I I seems to i nvol ve pri mar i l y HI
noun roots - Both take Pl ace i n l ex i cal l Y marked envi ronments. i n that not al l
High tones i n comb i nat i on w i th a Low tone undergo High Del eti on .
It was seen
that Hi gh Del eti on I accounts t or the del eti on ot High tone at certa i n l ex i c­
al l Y marked noun roots when these noun roots Precede a Hi gh i n i t i al TYPe I I
sut t i x or an i ncomPl eti ve sutt i x - The morPhol ogi cal structure at that sut t i x
al so has a bear i ng o n 'whether Hi gh 'Del'eti on t akes Pl ace . Hi gh Del eti on I I . on
the other hand . occurs on l ex i ca l l Y marked HI noun roots wh i ch t i nd themsel ves
i n i n i t i al Pos i t i on ot certai n comp l ex nouns.
They both occur at the same stage ot r u l e der i vat i on . Recal l trom the
d i scuss i on on p . 274 that Hi gh Del et i on I must take Pl ace betore OCP as wel l as
bet ore the sPreadi ng rul es . Al though ru l e order i ng was not di scussed tor High
Del et i on I I . the examPles i n ( 1 2 1 ) i nd i cates that High Del et i on needs to take
pl ace before Low tone Spread . An ex am i nat i on ot ( 1 22) wi l l reveal that OCP must
al so take Pl ace at ter Hi gh Del et i on I I . It OCP t ook pl ace betore Hi gh Del et i on .
the ent i re complex noun wou l d u ndergo Hi gh Del et i on . whereas i n real i t y, on l Y
the t i rst noun root i s subj ected t o t h e del et i on ot i ts Hi gh tone ( see ( 1 22b ) .
Theret ore . whi l e the env i r onments Ot these two rul es are d i H erent trom each
other , t h eY both take p l ace at the same stage ot rul e der i vati on . and they both
i nvol ve the del eti on 0+ a H i gh t one in comb i n at i on wi th a Low t on e . For these
reasons ,
it maY be more ett i ci ent to comb i ne these two ru l es i nt o one ru l e . as
stated bel ow .
278
( 1 24)
H I GH DELET I ON: On words l ex i c:al l Y marked f or Hi ';h Del eb on . del ete a Hi 9h
tone on the Pri marY or subre9i ster t i er i f a Low tone on the Pri marY or
subre9i ster t i er i s l i n ked to the same TBU as the H i 9h tone and 1 ) fol l owed by
a Hi 9h i n i ti al TYPe I I or i ncompl et i ve suff i x < If the suf f i x is a nomi nal
suf f i x . it must h ave under90ne ei ther no se9mental al terat i on or el se have
under90ne Suff i x Reduct i on . ) OR 2) f o l l owed by a noun root i n a comPl ex noun .
- i f N. then f u l l or reduced ]
2. La... Del .t i on
Whi l e some HI noun roots i n a compl ex noun under90 H i ';h Del et i on and thus
acqu i re a deri ved Low tone. there is another verY smal l set of HI nouns wh i ch
are rai sed to h i 9h tone i n the same morphol 09i cal envi ronmen t . Bel ow are a
couPl e of e:< ampl es i nvol vi n 9 the HI noun
( 1 25) a.
ta-c�l')�
b . ta-kal a:<a
�.
' a good tree '
" a rui ned tree '
Wi th i n the doub l e t i ered approach . th i s " rai si n9 ' can be eff ected by means of
del et i n 9 the subre9i ster Low tone of the HI noun root . Such a ru l e maY be
stated as f ol l ows.
279
( 1 26)
LOW DELET I ON : Del ete t h e subre9i ster Low t one of a
HI
noun root , l e:< i c-
al l Y marked to do so. when f o l l owed by another noun root wi t h i n a comPl e:< noun .
x - X
I
H
I
I
I t must be s t i Pu l ated that t h e HI noun root has to b e l e:< i cal l Y marked f or Low
Del eti on . because on l Y a sel ecti ve set of HI noun roots under90 thi s ru l e . An
ex amPl e of Low Del et i on i s i l l ustrated i n the exampl e bel ow .
( 1 27)
ta-soonI')9uk�
" the second tree '
I �
L
H
I I
I h
The reader maY recal l another Low del et i on ru l e
ear l i er i n t h i s chaPter . L i ke Low Del et i on
( 126)
(46)
wh i ch was ProPosed
above . i t al so del eted a
subre9i ster Low tone of a HI morpheme. However , these tWO rul es d i ff ered both
i n the tonal environment and i n the stage of the rul e deri vat i on in wh i ch theY
occurred . Low Del eti on
( 1 26 )
as a l ex i cal ru l e . occurs at the same stage of the
deri vat i on as the Hi 9h Del et i on ru l e ( i . e . before OCP and the sPread i n9 rul es
( se e
( 1 24 ) .
whi l e Low Del eti on
( 46)
takes Pl ace on a HI n oun root after Low
tone spread . Because of these d i f ferences. then . i t seems w i se to keep these
two as seParate rul es .
There i s at l east o n e case where L Del et i on
( 128)
( 126)
seems to b e oPt i onal
( see
bel ow ) . In the e�: ampl es bel ow . the f i rst noun root i s oPt i onal l y HH lh
tone ( a > . hav i ng undergone Lew Del et i on ( b > , or Mi d tone . that i s. both the H
and the subre9i ster Low tone of the
.--- ------
HI
noun root rema i n i n Pl ace. Note that •
280
regardl ess of whether L Del eti on takes Pl ace or not. Hi gh tone SPread occu�s
because i n each case. the�e i s a subregi ster High tone to sPread onto the
fol l owi ng HI noun root .
( 1 28 )
ta-I E x(
-
ta-I E E k�
>
I
I I
H
-
>
I I
l, ... ...1
I
H H
H
I
I
(D
H H
V I
H H
V I
I
' the old tree '
I
LI Ni\.INC. 'I>
h
H SPREAD
L DELETION
ta-I llke
H
Q)
h
l
-}
ta-I llk�
DOWNSTEP
�aU ike -> .tal U ke
I
I I
L H H
", ...,
h <D
FS
SPREAD
H
.
I \� I
H H H
V
h
I
I
LINKING
&
DOWNSTEP
In a few cases shewn bel ow. Low Del eti on does not take pl ace at al l on �
when i t i s Part of a compound .
( 129) a. ta - Pan l � -) ta�nl � (tree - cleared > · cl eari ng. new f i eld '
' the f i rst tree '
However , even i f the l ex i cal rul e of Low Del et i on does not take Place. the
i n i t i al HI noun reot can be subject to High tone SPread when preceded by a
subregi ster Hi gh f i nal word, as shown bel own . The resul t of thi s High SPread i s
a surface form that i s i denti cal to nouns that have undergone Low Del eti on .
( ComPare ( 1 28 ) and ( 1 30 » .
( 130) a. Ada tal ll ke
t..1 I !
L H H H
I � .. 1 I
l h
l
l
H SPREAD
-> Ad� tal t t ke
I $ 1 I
L
H
H H
l h
I
I V
H SPREAD
' my oI d tree '
I
�
RS DELINKING
281
' mY
H rst
tree '
The examPles above show that Hi 9h sPread occurred a�ter Low Del eti on . Th i s
can b e ef�ected b y assumi n9 that a de�au l t subre9i ster Hi 9h tone i s pl aced on
the subre9i ster ti er a�ter the del eti on of the subr'e9i ster Low tone. However ,
+
there are some examples where n o Hi 9h tone SPread occurs after Low Del eti on .
Thi s i s i l l ustrated
( 1 31 ) ta - Pada
->
bel ow.
ta-Pada
I
H
H
H
H
1
h
1
<b
I
L DELETION
( tree
I
I
I
I
I
to cross)
' beam '
H SPREAD N/A
The reason �or thi s l ac k o� Hi 9h tone SPread i s not known at th i s ti me. I n
turther examPles bel ow. the ori 9i nal tone o t the f i rst noun root i s not known .
They do not behave as Hi gh f i nal nouns . however . i n that they do not tr i 9ger
Hi 9h tone SPread . I t mi ght be suggested that thes� parti cul ar Hi gh tone noun
roots are f ol l owed by
a
f l oati n9 Low tone. However . i t th i s was the case. then
the Mi d-Low (Hi) noun roots. which fol l ow these pecul i ar High tones. shou l d be
subject to Low tone SPread . wh i ch does not happen . Bel ow are some examPles of
comPl ex nouns wi th an i n i tial Hi gh tone noun root foll owed by Mi d-Low noun
rooi:s.
( 1 32 ) ka - Para-x a
(thi n9
+
to cross)
' f l oor , as i n second f l oor '
k a -ton�j
(th i ng
+
i ron ) ?
' rust '
kaa -taxe
' br i dge '
' beard '
' tYPe of snake '
' quai l '
.......
�
- � -- -.--- .---
282
The Hi '3h tone Demonstrati ve Pronoun exh i b i ts simi l ar behavi our i n that i t too
does not tri gger Hi gh tone SPread onto HI or Hi nouns. as shown i n (a) and ( b )
below" .
( 1 33) a . nte mE E ts
" th i s cord '
b . nde kilne
' th i s road '
Si nce demonstrat i ve. have not undergone Low Del eti on and are not Part of a
comPlex noen , i t i s cl ear that thi s l ack of Hi gh tone Spread i n certai n cases,
i s 'not a resul t oof the Low DeleHon rule. Whether or not thi s Probl em can be
resol ved wi l l have to wai t unti l more research can be done.
3. oth.,. Lex:. c.l Ch..,gn
Thlrl irl other ton.l changes , found i n complex noun format i on . that do not
currently have anY clear expl anation . For exampl e. the Low tone noun . aAA " man ' .
usual l Y remains Low tone when another noun root i s attached to i t :
( 1 34 ) naa
+
nyel E (man
naa
+
pel �
+
eYe)
+ I i (man
+
->
big
+
age )
->
nanYel f
napele@
" fr i end '
" a verY old man '
However . thi s Low tone i s raised to Mid i n certai n cases (or i n double ti ered
termi nol 09Y , i s sub ject to High tone i nsertion on the subre9i si:er t i er ) :
( 1 35) ••
nafol j (man
+
chi ef )
' man ' s i n-l aws '
b . nandaa
" bachel or '
c . naYeril
" fr i end '
In al l three of these i nstances the second root i s a ML tone. I t i s not known
why thi s ML root f orced the rai s i ng of Low tone i nstead of al l owing the Low
tone to sPread onto i t .
283
There are a few examPl es where Low tone is rai sed to HI or Hi gh tone.
In the
f i rst exampl e b el ow, the second noun root , normal l y Low tone. i s Hi gh tone when
Preceded by the noun root �, whi l e , i n the second ex amPl e . both Low tone noun
roots are rai sed to Hi gh ton e .
( 1 36 ) sax a + nj ( bush + cow) -> sanS
l ox �
+
( water + Python )
fii
' buffal o '
-> l uf ! i
There are other except i ons f ound i n the data.
' water python '
However . not enough data h as
been col l ected to determi n e whether there are Patterns of behavi our among these
excePt i ons to mer i t consi derat i on for r u l e f ormul at i on .
4.
Tone on Nomi nal i zed Verbs
The tone of verbs in a ncmi nal set t i ng deserves men t i on her e .
verbs are usual l Y Low when nomi nal i z ed .
' danc e ' -> ko?oro
' di e '
-} ko
' dance '
" death '
Lh verbs ei ther remai n Lh or b ecome H I .
( 1 38 ) a . -> Lh
b . -) HI
se
' gi ve b i rth ' -> -': z i
jool i
' sew '
-> jol a-x:J
' sewi ng '
wa?a
' drY '
-> wa-xa
' drou9ht '
jo
' speak '
-> juu
' speech '
' ur i nat e '
-> tera-mE
' ur i ne '
(Mw ) heer i
c . -) Hi
' b i rth '
koori
' Peel . c l ear ' - > kooro
" peel i ngs '
tuxo
•
' l oad '
carrY
-> tux u-ro
(MU
Hi 9h tone verbs al so ei ther become Lh or HI .
-----
--- �
- -- ----
------ - - -- ------
t.ow tone
284
I')m:5 l :5
' sl eep '
->
1 6:< 6
' hear '
-> nda-:< e
' ear '
9b6
' ki1 1 '
-> 9buun
' .f uneral '
ya
' to b e i l l '
-> Ya-m.a
' i l l n ess '
ka n?c3n
' be t i red '
-> kan?a-rc!
" f at i 9ue '
( 1 39 ) a . -) Lh
b . -> HI
(Mw )
,-
c . -> Hi
<MU
' I')m:11 a-IeJ ' n i ghtmare '
Wi t h i n comPounds , v.rb.l el ements .re most common l Y i n non-i ni t i a l Pos i t i on .
Once verbal nomi nal s have under90ne t h e tone .f eature changes descr i bed above.
thei r deri ved tone is then sub j ect t o the apPropri ate tonal rul es al readY
descri bed earl i er .
In al l o.f the ex ampl es bel ow < 1 40 , 1 4 1 , and 1 42 ) , the
nomi nal i z ed verb is the second el ement
Ot
the compl ex noun . When a n omi nal i z ed
Low tone verb i s Preceded by a Hi or a Low-Hi 9h noun . as shown bel ow . no t onal
changes take Pl ace on the verbal el ement • . as mi ':lht be expected .
( 1 40 ) Low verb
a. Hi + L
na + nY�
b . LH + L
s�l e + nd�x � <mi l l et + to sow )
< f i re + to l i 9ht ) -> na-nY� I')�
->
' .f l ame '
soond�x� ' mi l l et sowers '
Note that the LH i n < b ) si mPl i f i es to Mi d tone before a Low tone. When a Hi ':lh
tone verb or a Lh verb becomes Lh i n nomi nal Pos i t i on i t behaves as anY other
Lh nQun in that it is not af f ected by the tone of the preced i ng nomi nal
el ement .
( 1 4 1 ) Hi.9h verb or Mid verb
a. L + Lh
-) Lh
nk� + C:� (ch i c ken + 9ather ) -> n kucJ-x�
' cage '
l ux � + Y'r� ( r i ver + stand > -> l UYera-be
' water hol e '
-> tawa-xa
------ -- .- --- ---
' drY Pl ace '
285
c . HI + Lh Yaraxa
+
9ba < t h i n 9 + dr i n k ) -) Ya9ba-xa
' party '
Yaraxa + 9bex al e ( t h i n 9 + create) -) ya9bel ax e ' creat i on '
d . Lh + Lh
9baxa + wa7a <house + drY)
-> 9bawaxa
9baxa + nY� �e <house + cool ) -> 9banYi �e
e . LH + Lh tililx8 + koori
501 8
+
(hoe + cl ear ) -> tU6.kora-x o
(mi l l et + uProot )
9bE ri
-
> soo9bE ro
' drY house '
' cool house '
' hoe for weed i n'3 '
' mi l l et uProoter '
When a' H i 9h tone or a Mi d tone verb b ecome HI when nomi nal i z ed . i t can be
sub j ect to Low tone SPread if the Previ ous noun root is Low f i nal
(a) , and al so
to h i 9h tone Spread if the Previ ous noun root Possesses a subre9ister H i 9h tone
(b) .
( 142 ) Hi 9h verb or Mi d verb -> HI
a. L + HI ->
LOW SPREAD
L - LH
nA-pt!- lS�
L
L
H
/
I
L SPREAD & L DELET I ON
VAarya
b.
Hi
I
L
�
L
HI
I
LS DEL I NK I NG
-) ML - LH
/'
H
HL
i
1
I
,
L L I NK I NG
_. _
. - - -- ---
V
-}
v.1.1ntor,CJ ' sheet . b l an ket '
LOW SPREAD
�'.A.Y' t
HL
�
H
+ to <cl oth + to cover )
+
' verY ol d man '
I
ta + I E -x E -} tu-H -:{ �
t,
( man + be b i 9 + be ol d )
< f ather + be ol d )
' 9randf ather '
H
I
<D
L SPREAD . L DELET I ON & LS DEL INKING
-------
286
�a +
ca
t6 (day + cover )
c · Ln + H I - > Lh-H
H I GH SPREAD I NG
9ba + I E - > 9ba-l i x t
I
I
-> cantd-�e ' umbrel l a '
c ol d house '
<house + ol d )
l,.. - 'l
h
Q)
L
H
H SPREAD
9ba + 56n < heuse + spend n i9h t ) -> 9bs6nx� ' bedr oom house '
d . LH + HI
->
L-H
H I GH SPREAD AND RS DEL I NK I NG
9bon + I E -I E -> 9bdn-I t l t
L H
H
I
L H
I h
CD
1 h
1\
� '�
H
' V
, l - - -1
+
< 9ranarY
be ol d )
' ol d 9ranarY '
L I NK I NG & RS DEL I N K I NG
H SPREAD
Nomi nal i zed HI verb roots can al so under90 the OCP when Preceded by ei ther Hl
or HI noun roots. as shown in the examPl es bel ow.
-}
e · Hi + HI
nYe + PE n-I E
,
H
,
1
/'
H
I
I
-}
nYi -PE n H
�
(eYe
+
be d i sPl eased )
' j eal ousY '
H L
I I
r
L L I NK ING. L I NK I NG . LS DEL I NK I NG
OCP
ceewa + j �
------ .- - .---- ---
M-ML
( woman + enter )
-----
->
c i j e re
-
' adul terY '
287
f . HI + HI -)
Ya + gbon-:d
M-ML
< t h i ng + h i t )
-
> Ya9bonx� " ax e '
The nomi nal i z i n9 of these verbs. and thus the tone f eature changes that
accompanY these nomi nal i z at i ons take Pl ace b ef ore the SPread i ng ru l es as wel l
as b ef ore the aPpl i cat i on of the OCP. Th i s i s at the same stage of the deri va­
ti on of ru l es as the l ex i cal rul es of High Del et i on and Low Del e t i on .
However , the tonal changes that accomPanY nomi nal i z at i ons do not f ol l ow a
cl ear enough PaHern to f ormu l at e anY ru l es . We have al readY seen that Hi '3h
tone verbs. when nomi nal i z ed i n second Posi t i on of a comPl ex noun become ei ther
Lh or HI . There are some c l ues that i nd i cate that the seman t i c make-up of the
noun maY Pl ay a rol e in the determi nat i on of nomi nal tone of ver b s .
e:<amPl e . when preceded by
i
ta::.
acqu i res a Mi d-Low contour < H ) :
< f rom i:e: x , ( Pl ace ' . the verb
tapEr�ke
ei..d
For
al wal"�
( the sel l i ng Pl ace ' . Al l other h i gh
verbs acqu i re th i s same Mid-Low contour when Preceded by thi s same noun root .
However . when Preceded by other noun roots and Pl aced i n Cl ass 1 .
eLti
becomes
Lh . Th i s behavi our i s i l l ustrated by the exampl es bel ow .
( 1 4 3 ) a . c � l � + Pt r t -> c�$P£ r£ -�e
b . mj l j
c·
+
.. the bean sel l er '
Pt rE -> mdPE rE -�e
.. the r i ce sel l er '
kar� + Pt rt -> kaPE r£ -�e
' the meat sel l er '
On the other han d . when verbs are at the begi n n i ng of a comP l ex nomi nal .
they seem to retai n thei r ori gi nal t one. For examPl e . the Hi gh tone verbs
remai n Hi 9h . The e:<ampl es bel ow consi st of sentences contai n i n9 a H i '3h verb
in i ti al comP 1 e:< noun ( under ! i ned )
•
p£rt I@na
( 144) a. Nd i Ya
'I
can mE
do not kno... ho ... to sel l '
I VP-Ne9. sel l manner kno... not
b . Ndaa
pt rt kana
' I know ho ... to sel l '
c6n
I -VP sel l manner kno...
c.
p£ rty6l al"le
d . Ndi Ya
' sel l er '
ptrty61af)e
c.n m€
'I
do not kno ... ...ho sol d '
I VP-Ne9 sel l -chi ef-DEF kno... not
Al thou9h these nomi nal s do acqu i re a noun cl ass suf f i x , they are more verbal i n
functi on than the other compl ex nouns ...e have been exami n i n9 uP to no...
•
Other
gerund-l i ke nomi nal s i n c l ude nouns wh i ch b e9i n wi t h the f o l l o... i n9 Pref i xes,
�
( f rom i: E :<t · pl ace ' ) . Ili=.. and somet i mes ka=,.
( 1 45 ) a . ta- Yazu
bi
nYa b i
kH
takgrpxi
mPE n
Jesus them see them chas i n 9-PP CLAUSE. i t-VP d i s9ust hi m-PP
' When Jesus saw them chas i n9 them. i t di s9usted hi m. '
b. ni-
8i
nize�b( l a p Yt;!zuu �m� I S
thei r 90i n 9s on . Jesus-VP sl eeP
c · ka-
...u kacexekf puna�e nyi kact n�i .
h i s doi ngs
al l
are
' As t h eY ... ere 90i n9, Jesus s l ep t . '
' Al l that he does i s 900d '
good .
D. Cgn�lY'ign gf study gf Cgmplex Ngyn,
Th i s sketch i s on l Y the b egi nn i n9 of the studY of comp l ex nouns.
I t i s an
attemPt to out l i ne the tonal Patterns observed on comPl ex nouns and ProPose
tentat i ve r u l es such as Hi 9h Del i nk i n9 ( 1 05) . OCP (88) . Hi 9h Del eti on ( 1 24 ) ,
and Low Del et i on ( 1 26 ) .
Mi l l s, who has been studYi n9 Cebara for about
---. ---
----_ .
30
Years, has come uP wi th a
289
descri p� i on Ot �he var i ous tonal �YPes Ot comPl ex nouns i n �ha� l anguage.
Her
boun t i t u l da�a has a l l owed her � o c l ass comPl ex nouns i n� o three major categ­
ori es . accord i ng to morphol ogi cal and tonal i nt ormat i on . wi thout attempti ng to
expl ain these categor i es . I shal l s i mpl y l i st them wi th the examPles she gi ves
to tyPi. t y each categorY:
" (235) 1 . margin-c;gre
2 . c;gre-mar9in
3 . c;ore-c;gre
s i -sj � : n =rj
su-Pe : =re
s! -5j j : =d
[ 5u=rO + sj� : n l
[ su-ro + P': ]
[su=rO + sjj : nr i ]
.f ood + bad+sut
t ood + suck in + sut
' bad f ood '
" t l i es ' "
tood +staY ( overn i gh t ) +sut
• l et tovers '
< 1 984. p. 1 8 1 >
The Mi d-Low roo� i n i ni � i al Posi t i on �akes on �hree d i f t eren� �YPes ot tone
dependi ng on �he �ype of compound i ng. Mi l l s gi ves an e:< tensi ve descri Pt i on of
the tonal Pat�erns f ound i n each cate90rY. ci � i n9 numerous ex amples for each
ca�e90rY. She does no� . however . a��emP� �o f ormul a�e anY ru l es to account for
these Patterns . At f i rst 9l ance . tonal Patterns in Suc i te seem to cross these
cate90ri es .
A much more ex tensi ve studY wi l l need to be done o n comPlex nouns
i n Suc i te to determi n e whether the type Ot comPound i n9 wi l l have an ef f ect on
the tonal behavi our w i t h i n the comP l ex noun .
V. CONCLUSION
A.
Th-
Dgubl e tiered ApprgAch tg Tgn.l An.lY,i,
Al l o.f the di scussi ons i n t h i s chaPter assumed the use of the doubl e t i ered
apProach to tonal anal ysi s . As men t i oned in earl i er chaPters. th i s not i on of
Posi t i ng tone on two t i ers or i gi nated with the concept of tone-spl i tt i ng of
tonal f eatures . i ntroduced by YiP and Cl ements. Evi dence has b een brou9ht f orth
290
to argue for the f easi b i l i ty of th i s somewhat novel apProach . Fi r st of al l . i t
was seen that there was more than one tYPe o f Mi d tone i n Suc i t e .
In a n ef f ort
to d i st i ngui sh b etween the two . i t was suggested that one . weak M i d . was a
spl i t off f rom the Hi gh tone regi ster. si nce i ts tonal b ehavi our was al most
i denti cal to that of H i gh tone ver b s . whi l e the o�her . Mi d ton e . was s i tuated
in the uPPer part of the Low tone r e9i ster . Both Possessed the ex act same
pi tch . The rePresentat i on of the these tones, HI
( l owered Hi gh t one) and Lh
<rai sed Low ton e ) l ed to t h e Pos i t i n9 of these doubl e f eatured tones on two
seParate 'ti ers. the second b e i ng
subsi d i arY
to the f i rst or Pr i marY regi ster .
Secondly. i t was seen that i f tone on the subre9i ster t i er was al l owed to
l i n k by waY of rul e to the segmental t i er . then some eXPl anat i on cou l d b e gi ven
for the under l Yi ng HI tone whose surface rePresentat i on i n i sol ati on i s Mi d­
Low. and f or the Mi d-H i gh tone that resul ts on Low tone verbs af t er the
aPpl i cat i on of Hi gh tone sPread .
Th i rd l y. th i s doub l e t i ered aPProach great l y enhances the oPPortun i ty to
caPture general i z at i on s that a si ngl e t i ered approach wou l d not be ab l e t o do.
Thi s is esPec i al l y true for the Hi gh tone sPreadi ng ru l e .
I n a si mi l ar d i al ect.
SuPYi r e . Car l son ( 1985) ProPosed three ( or tour ) ton al ru l es that cou l d easi l y
have b een covered by the h i gh sPreadi ng rul e . In the doub l e t i ered aPProac h .
the subre9i ster High t one Spread too k care of Low tone words bei n g rai sed t o
Mi d tone after M i d tone nouns. and weak Mi d words rai si ng t o Hi gh tone af ter
both Mi d and Hi gh tone nouns. by the s i mpl e act of sPread i ng onto the f ol l owi ng
Pri marY regi ster ton e .
Fourt h l y . i t was seen that the doub l e t i ered apProach faci l i tated the
e:< p l anat i on of tone f eature changes at the l ex i cal l evel . Instead of i ntroduc­
i n g ru l es 0+ tone l oweri ng and rai si ng. ru l es concer n i ng High or Low Del et i on
291
were i n troduced . The not i on of Hi 9h del et i on . was espec i al l y hel pf ul f or
i nstance. when the H i 9h tone coul d b e f ound on anY t i er i n con j unct i on wi th a
Low tone. The eff ect
at
t h i s s i mP l e rul e was the ab i l i t Y to l ower a var i ety
at
tones to Low ton e : Low-Hi gh . HI < weak Mi d ) , Lh < Mi d ) . and Hl<Mi d-Low) . Th i s
general i z ati on wou l d have b een al most i mpossi b l e t o capture i f the doubl e
t i ered aPProach had not been i mpl emen t ed .
Fi nal l Y . i t must be acki'lc�d edged that not al l Prob l ems are sol ved throu9h
the use of the doubl e t i ered aPProach . For examPl e . the i dent i ty of the two
tYPes of Mi d tones i s somet i mes confused i n the appl i cat i on of tonal ru l es . The
Feature Swi tch Ru l e was i ntroduced to al l ow the weak Mi d noun to i nduce Hi gh
tone sPread i ng al ong wi th i ts Mi d tone counterpart . wh i l e the tentati ve Hi 9h
del i nk i ng rul e was i nserted to take care of the Lower i n9 of a Mi d ton e i n an
envi ronment where i t seemed that Low tone sPreadi n9 was tak i n9 Pl ace. HOPet ul l y
f urther research wi l l uncover some answers for the anal Ys i s of t h i s phenomenon .
I t i s not at al l certai n . however . that these Prob l ems cou l d be deal t wi th anY
more eas i l y throu9h the use of a s i n9l e t i ered aPProach to tonal anal Ysi s.
In summarY . then . the doubl e t i ered aPProach t o tonal anal Ysi s states that
t one can be rePresented on two t i ers . especi al l y in cases where the Pri marY
tone re9i sters have sut t ered tonal spl i ts. On the pr i marY t i er i s f ound the
tone wh i ch rePresents the pr i marY tone re9i ster .
Th i s tone i s ei ther H i 9h or
Low ton e . The tone on the secondarY or subre9ister t i er t i ne tunes or spec i f i es
wher e . wi thi n the �r i marY tone reg i ster . th i s part i cu l ar tone i s f ound .
When the tone on the Pr i marY t i er sPreads. the tone on the subre9i ster t i er
i s carri ed al ong by virture 0+ t h e f act that i t i s l i n ked to the Pr i marY
re9i ster tone:
- ----- _.----------. ------- -------
292
( 146)
CV CV
�
T
,
t
On the other han d . when the tone on the subre9i ster t i er sPreads i t does not
carrY the Pri marY re9i ster tone al on9 wi th i t . It sPreads on i ts own . usual l Y
to the �ol l ow i n 9 tone on the Pr i marY t i er ; but i t can a l so l i n k t o the se9mental t i er by � i rst pass i n 9 throu9h the Pr i marY t i er :
( 147) CVCV.
CVCV
�� V
t
t
I� a Pri marY tone i s not sPec i � i ed � or tone on the subre9i ster t i er . a de�au l t
tone i s i nserted a t the aPProPri ate stage i n t onal der i vat i on . Th i s de�au l t
tone i s a coPY o� t h e Pr i marY re9i ster tone i nserted on the sub re9i ster t i er :
( 148 )
CV ->
I
Tl
CV
I
Tl
I
tl
The r u l e i nser t i n9 t h i s d e� au l t tone has been cal l ed Subre9i ster Spec i � i cati on .
Usi n9 thi s doub l e t i ered aPProach . then we have i dent i f i ed f i ve d i f f erent
under l Yi n9 tones : LI . Lh . Hh , HI . and Hi. The three under l Yi n 9 contour tones
that have been i sol ated are Hh-Lh (Hi 9h-Mi d > . Hh-LI . and LI -H (Low-Hi 9h ) .
------- -- -- -- -- ------ ------ ------- ------- ----
293
B. SummarY
Thi s chapter has di scussed the tonal behavi our wi t h i n the structure ot the
noun Phrase . I t was seen that r u l es that oPerated on the verb Phrase were al so
found on nouns. However . the more comPl i cated structure ot nouns r equi red a
thorou9h exami nat i on ot the und
;,.-1 Y i n9
tones and their i mPI i cat i ons tor ru l e
f ormu l at i on .
The tones that caused the most d i f f i cu l t i es were those i n i ti al l y dubbed as
weak Mi d and M i d -Lowe Si nce both reacted to tonal rul es i n the same waY . i t
seemed conven i ent t o 9i ve them s i mi l ar . i f not i dent i cal under l vi n9 tones. Two
Proposal s concern i n9 the i r under l vi n9 tone were put torth. one sU9gest i n9 that
these tones were under l vi n9l v Hi 9h tone. the other that i t was a l owered Hi 9h
tone. HI . Af ter d i scuss i n9 the mer i t s and drawbacks tor both aPProaches . the
l owered Hi 9h tone aPProach was chosen . since the l atter seemed to i nvol ve tewer
prob l ems f or anal vsi s. The rul es ot Low SPread ( 1 1 ) and Hi 9h SPread (54) were
then re-ex ami ned and retormul ated i n order to account t or the tonal changes on
the HI noun .
Once the i ssue of the under l Vi n9 tone tor these weak Mi d and Mi d-Low nouns
was set t l ed . the matter ot d i st i n9u i sh i n9 between weak Mi d and Mi d-Low tone
were dea l t wi th . I t apPeared that both were mar ked l ex i cal l v tor the app l i ca­
t i on ot certai n ru l es to take pl ace at the Phrase l evel . Weak Mi d (HI ) nouns
underwent the Feature Swi tch rul e (66 ) , whi l e Mi d-Low ( Hi) nouns tri 9gered the
i ndependent Li n k i ng ot the Subre9ister Low tone to the se9mental t i er ( 60 ) .
Both ot these rul es. i t was seen . were more easi l v stated i t the subre9ister
Low tone was Part ot the l ex i cal make-uP ot weak Mi d and Mi d-Low tones rather
than i nserted at phrase l evel .
In the l i ght ot these n ew developments. the under l Yi ng tone ot the det i n i te
--------�- - ---- ------. ------
----- .
294
suf f i :< was re-exami ned . reveal i ng that al though e i ther an underl Y i ng Hi gh tone
or a HI tone coul d b e Posi ted f or the def i n i te suf f i x . there seemed to be a
verY sl i ght advantage to choosi ng a H i gh tone as the under l Yi ng r ePresentat i on .
The f i nal sec t i on of thi s chapter di scussed tonal behavi our wi thi n comPl ex
nouns . I n manY cases i t was f ound that the Hi gh and Low tone Spread i n'; r u l es
wh i ch were attested to oPerate across word boundar i es. al so took Pl ace across
morPheme boundar i es wi th i n the comPl ex noun.
In add i t i on to these r u l es .
however . tonal behavi our was f ound that was pecul i ar to t h e comPl ex noun . Al l
of them seemed to b e somewhat l i mi ted i n thei r appl i cat i on .
Fi rst of al l . the val u e of appl Y i n g OCP (38) to a verY sel ect set of comPl ex
nouns was d i scussed .
It was deci ded that al though one cou l d Perhaps have found
a waY to el i mi nate the need f or the OCP. it more easi l y Provided a correct
"i
output on complex nouns that requi red IndePendent Low tone Li nki ng. Secondl y ,
the Prob l em concern i ng the l ower i ng o f a Mi d tone between a Low t on e and a H i gh
tone was verY tentati vel Y resol ved through the appl i cat i on of the Hi gh Del i n ki n 9 ru l e ( 105) . Fi nal l y . tonal behavi our that seemed to be governed by Pri mari l Y l ex i cal consi derat i ons was descr i bed . al though on l Y two rul e s . Hi gh
Del et i on ( 124 ) and Low Del et i on ( 126 ) , were proPosed .
At var i ous Poi nts i n th i s chapter . order i ng of the ProPosed ru l es was
d i scussed and argued .
It was seen that the Le:< i cal ru l es of High Del eti on and
Low Del et i on must take Pl ace f i rst . fol l owed by the Ocp, Feature Swi tch and Low
Li n k i ng, Low tone SPread i ng and Hi gh tone Spread i ng . Li n k i ng. LS Del i n ki n9. RS
Del i n k i ng . and f i nal l y Downstep. However , orderi ng was not thoroughl y di scussed
f or al l rul es . A more thorough d i scussi on i nvol vi ng the i nteract i on al l ru l es
ProPosed i n thi s thes i s wi l l be Presented i n Chapter 6.
-- - . _._- ---- ------
295
NOTES
1 . The numbers oj"kin ' one ' , � ' two ' , and � " th ree ' are comPosed o�
two comPonents. the � i rst comPonent i s l in ked �ow tone and the second une
to Hi gh tone. Normal l y, there is an i nternal Low SPreadi ng rule. sPread i ng the
Low tone of the f i rst comPonent to the Hi gh l i n ked component . Thi s creates a
Low-High contour on the f i nal Tau. which becomes Mid tone i n non Phrase t i nal
envi ronments. as i n (a) . In Phrase t i nal Posi t i on . however . this Hi gh tone i s
del i nked <b) .
a·
waa
sc}�� ta
!t ' J
L
la
' he taak two? '
H
b . ndcriya s
� II
L H
When these Low i n i tial nouns are subject to M i d tone sPread however. Low
tone sPread i s b l ocked from aPpl Ying to the Hi gh tone comPonent. The resu l t i ng
tone i s Mi d-High as can be seen i n (7c) .
2 . Recal l f rom Chapter 3 that the underl Ying tone of the Def i nite Suff i x was
not undi sPutel Y under l Yi ngl y Hi gh tone. However . at thi s Poi nt. we shal l assume
that it is under l Y i n91y Hi 9h tone unti l f urther anal Ysi s can be undertaken .
See the subsec t i on I v. a. , t i t l ed C Hi 9h Del i nk i ng ' i n the sectian on ComPlex
nouns �or a discussi on o� an envi ronment tri ggeri ng the l owering o� Mid tone
nouns to Low tone. Recal l , al so in Chapter 3 that Mi d tone noun roots l owered
to Low tone betore certai n tYPes of TYPe I I suf f i x es. Thi s l atter Phenomenon
wi l l be di scussed agai n i n the subsecti on on l ex i cal changes i n thi s chaPter .
3.
4 . It was mentioned i n the i ntroductorY secti on of the thesi s that most Senu�o
l anguages have three l evel tones. whi l e a few in the southern area are rePorted
to have tour l evel tones. If this rePort hol ds to be true , it coul d prov i de
evidence to the hYPothesi s that Senufo l anguages were hi stori cal l Y of tour
l evel tones. Among the three l evel tone l anguages. SuPYire also Possesses two
different tYPes of Mi d tones, whi ch behave in a verY simi l ar fashi on to the Mid
tones of Suci te. Cebara, on the other hand . seems to Possess onl Y one tYPe of
Mi d tone. Insuf f i c i ent data on other Senu�o l an9uages i nh i bi ts turther i nvesti ­
gation at th i s t i me .
5.
Certai n comPlex nouns HI (weak Mi d ) and Hi ( Mi d-Low) n ouns are opti onal l y
subject to High tone SPreadi ng . If Hi gh SPreadi n9 does not take pl ace. then
consequently there i s no envi ronment for RS tone Del i nkin9. The examples bel ow
Possesss two acceptabl e t orms. one (a) where nei ther Hi9h Spread nor RS
Del i n ki n9 take pl ace and the other ( b ) where both take Pl ace .
Ada + j� + ka-n kudo-ngu-I")e - > a i\ da jAkA"k"dQr')glll")e
-QRD-DEF
son f i ve
mY
• mY H Hh son '
OR
.
:296
Jaka�k6d6�9u�e
I
I I
V1: I I
b . � da
L H H H
I 1./1 I
l h
Q) l
H
I
1
L H
1
The i �era�i ve Hi 9h SPreadi n9 whi ch takes P l ace here wi l l b e d i scussed i n the
secti on on Compl ex nouns.
6. See pp. 289ff at �he end of �h i s chaP�er for a ful l er ar9ument in suPPor� of
�he doub l e t i er ed approach f or tone f eatures and ru l e aPPl i ca� i on .
7 . On l Y a par�ial t onal der i va� i on of these san�ences are gi ven i n order t o
s i mpl i f y the di scussi on a t h and .
8 . See sect i on IV. B . on Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 f or eXPl anati on of Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 and T
Coll aPse .
9. There are a couP l e of examPl es. however . �hat seem to i ndi cate �ha� . i n
certai n i nstances . t h e Demonstrati ve Possesses a f i nal f l oat i ng Low �on e . I n
the examPl es bel ow. t h i s supPosed f l oat i n9 Low �one spreads onto �he fol l owi n9
verb (a) and noun ( b ) :
a·
aka k60 na ' �m� l i ! -> oka
that cut wi �h k n i f e-wi th
b.
aka l �r� nYe j ecr i YQ ->
that Pr i ce i s how-manY Q
keo
na ' �m�l i ! ' cut that wi th a k n i f e '
oka l�r�
nYe j�cri YQ ' How much i s tha�? '
297
CHAPTER 6
-
THE SUCITE SENTENCE
A. Introduc;tion
The Previous chapters �ocused on tonal behavi our o� nouns and verbs
i ndi vi dual l Y and then anal Yzed tonal behavi our across word boundari es- Thi s has
l ed to an ex tEnsi ve d i scussi on about the rePresentat i ons o� var i ous surtace
tones - in Parti cu l ar . those whi ch are Mid tone.
Thi s chapter compl etes thi s studY of tonal behaviour in Suci te by anal Yz i ng
the tonal behavi our of a few more aspects ot the Suci te sentence and then by
reviewi ng al l of the rul es Presented in the thesi s and exam i n i n g how these
rul es shoul d be ordered with respect to one another .
B. Th. Ady.rb!.! Phr•••
The adverbi al Phrase maY consi st ot a si mpl e adverb or a phrase consi sti ng
ot an NP and a postPosi ti onal part i c l e.
( 1 ) �nja
•
Bel ow are a number ot common adverbs:
yesterday ,
waa Pan tanja
· he came yesterday '
n!nja
· today '
nY� "'pal')a
•
tommorrow ,
b(nj �
•
l ast year '
n-&n?an
' here '
wal Pan ncin?an
' he came here '
wa
" there '
waa
kad w3
" he went there '
Most adverb Phrases . however . consist ot a noun plus a Postposi tion . These
adverbs and adverb phrases are l ocated i n postverbal posi t i on i n the sentence-
---- ---- .�----
298
Bel ow are some examPl es showi ng the l ocati on o� the adverb phrase, whi ch i s
underl i ned .
(2) a. katake nY�
Hunger i s
ad.
lA
me
an
' I am hungrY. '
Subject Vb . Pro PP
b. ndi Ya �Y�1d nAk�I Abf nyA?6 lA
1
'1
am afraid o� thi eves '
am afrai d thi eves ' face on
SUb. VP Vb.
Noun
Noun
PP
c. waa
he some weave ma-for
' He wove some �or me '
Sub-VP Obj . Vb . Pro-PP
The tone of the naun Phrase wi thi n the adverbial Phrase a�fects the tone of
the PostPosi tion i n much the same waY as the tone of nouns affects the tone of
�ol lawi ng verbs.
High tone Postposi ti cns are Hi gh after Mi d or Hi gh f i nal
nouns, but are subject to the Low tone sPread rule when preceded by a Low f i nal
noun. The major Processes a��ecti n 9 Postposi ti ons after nouns are i l l ustrated
i n the data in (3) . The examPles i n (3a) and (b) show two dif ferent Hi gh tone
Postposi ti ons Preceded by a Lh nou n . whi l e
(e)
shows how a Law-Hi gh Pronoun
does not af�ect the tone of the tol l owi ng Hi gh tone Postposi tion , but i s i tsel f
subject to RS Del i nk i n9. In <d) and <e) are examPles
�
a Low f inal noun
SPreadi ng i ts Low tone onto the tol l owing Hi gh tone Postposi tion . In ( d ) , the
Postposi tion is onl Y one TBU and i s l ocated i n Phrase f i nal Posi t i on . Once Low
SPread takes place, RS Del i nk i ng del i nks the Hi gh tone of the resu l t i ng Low­
Hi ih contour when i t i s i n Phrase � i nal Posi tion .
----�- �- .-- ---
-------
299
( 3 ) a. waa w� kan mo-6
' he gave some to YOU '
I I
L H
I
h
b.
wu
nYe mo ��n
" he i s besi de
'J
I
L
yOU '
H
I
h
c . 'waa w� kan ;,da-ci
1/1 1
• he gave somit to me '
-> waa w� kan ;'dil-6
L H H
RS DELINKING
d . waa w� kan n.-�e-
6 -> waa w� kan n�-�u-
L H (L) H
tian ->
"-,,1 ,,'.... �I
HL H (L)
U
1
" he 9ave some to the man '
L H (l ) H
RS DEL INK INS
lOW SPREAD
e. wu nYe na-ke
il
L---1 ......-1:
t.. ... , .... "I
H
lOW SPREAD
wu nYe naka
t�n
A/I P'1
' he is besi de the � i re '
HL H (L) H
V
1
LS DELINKING
Mi d (Lh ) tone Postposi t i ons remai n Mi d tone after Mi d tone and low tone
nouns. but are subject to Hi9h Del inkin9 ( 44 ) when preceded by an underl Yi ng
Hi 9h � i nal noun .
---_
..
_ ..
- .-
--- -----
---- ---- -
-_.-
.-....
... _ .. .
300
( 4 ) a.
kat�ke nYe mo l a
� You are hungrY '
katike nYe �da l a -> kat eke nYe �da l �
'-'t
l
I '
1 h
I
L H
Vl
l
I I
1 h
�
L H
L
h
" I am hungrY '
L
h
HIGH DELINKING (44)
b. t ��a K a la
-> ��i xa l a (touch it on )
" touch i t '
There i·s no data showi ng low tone postposi H ons. thus there i s no waY of
knowing whether Low tone PostPosti ons wou l d be subj ect to Hi gh tone SPread i �
Preceded b y a Mi d tone noun . as i s the case f or Low tone verbs.
an
The i n i ti .l el ement of
Thus •
Precedi ng verb.
•
adverb phrase is not a�fected by the tone of the
Hi gh tone verb does not tri gger High tone SPreadi ng
onto HI nouns of an adverb phrase. Rather . as exampl e ( 5 ) i l l ustrates. the Hi
noun at the begi nning o� the adverb phrase undergoes Low Li nking (60) . a rul e.
the reader maY recal l . whi ch l i nks a subregister Low tone of a Hi noun to the
segment when that Hi noun is in Phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on .
(5)
waa
1a
p€r€ n9-�u -
I
H
I
h
1\ I
� ->
I
HL H <U H
I
�' I
1 h h
waa
1a
I
f\,1
P€r€ n9-�u
H
I
h
-
....
�
1:
e he sol d i t to the mother '
HL H (U H
V I
1
h
,
h
LOW SPREAD & RS DELINKING
LOW LINKING
Thi s lac k of tonal i nterac t i on between the verb and the adverb phrase i s i n
keePing wi th a statement made i n Chapter 1 that there i s a b�rri ar for tonal
change b etween a verb and a fol l owing nomi nal el ement .
----_ . _- _ . _ - ---
-----
301
C. Th- Noun Cl ••, Cli tic
The noun cl ass c l i t i c has been menti oned in ear l i er chaPters. However . i �s
comPl ex �onal behavi our has requi red del ay of i ts anal Ysi s unti l now. Each noun
cl ass has i ts own cl i ti c .
However , al l noun cl ass cl i ti cs. regardl ess of cl ass
af f i l i at i on Possess the same tone. The noun cl ass cl i ti c can be found i n
subject and obj ect Posi t i on . or a s Part o f an adverb phrase. It can al so
functi on as a Possessi ve Pronoun. Bel ow are a few examPl es showi ng the cl i t i c
i n (6a) subject Posi t i o n . (b ) obj ect Posi t i on . and ( c ) a s a Possessi ve Pronoun.
(6)
a.
It&
b.
nda�
c·
It&
Ya ma
�
nY�
" he i s cOllli ng '
" r saw h i m.
C Hi s meat is here '
ka� nYe nanran
I t has been referred to by other authors. such as Mi l l s ( 1 984) . as a general
cl ass Pronoun . The reason that i t is l abel ed a cl i ti c i s because of i ts tonal
behaviour wi thi n the sentence . It was men t i oned ear l i er that tonal boundari es
exi sted between verbal el ements and f ol l owi ng nomi nal el ements. Noun cl ass
c l i t i cs. however , break down that tonal barri er i t Pl aced i n i n i t i al Posi tion
of the noun phrase, and are subject to tonal rul es from the Preceding verbal
el ement . The al tered tone of the c l i t i c can then affect the tone of succeed i ng
elements of �he noun phrase. In addi t i on . when the noun cl ass cl i t i c functions
as a possessi ve pronoun . i t cl i t i ci zes to the fol l owi ng noun . The fol lowing
di scussi on wi l l descri be the behaviour of the noun cl ass cl i ti c wi thi n various
tonal envi ronments. First .
we
shal l l ook at how the cl i t i c affects the tone of
fol l ow i ng consti tuents. and secondly, how �he tone of the noun c l ass cl i t i c i s
affected b y the tone of �he Precedi ng verbal el ement . The compl i cati ons of the
cl i ti c ' s tonal behaviour wi l l be examined in the l i ght of the Present anal Ysi S
----
. ---.
-
- - _ ._--
------
302
i n an attemPt to seek out a vi abl e sol uti on .
I n sentence i n i t i Al posi t i on� the noun class c l i t i c exh i bi ts a Mi d tone as
seen i n (7) bel ow. The questi on i mmed i atel Y comes to mind as to what tYPe Ot
Mi d tone i t i s.
It
one exami nes i ts behavi our i n subject Posi tion . there i s an
i ndi cati on that the c l i t i c tone maY be Lh . In (7a) below. the subject
�
" YOU '
has a Lh tone. When �� a pre-tense marker . tol l ows. it i s subject to Hi gh
tone sPread f rom the Precedi ng Lh subject. resul t i ng i n a Mi d-High tone. When
s�n?e i s
Preceded oY the
noun cl ass cl i ti c . i t acqui res the same Mi d-Hi 9h tone,
as can be seen i n ( b ) .
(7) a. mo s�n?� Ya ma -) mo sen?� Ya ma
" You a�e comi ng agai n '
I I ,
L L H
..... ...
h
HIGH SPREAD
b . w sen?� Ya ma
I I I
L L H
-
}
wu sen7� Ya m �
" he i s comi ng again '
"' ....
h
HIGH SPREAD
On the other hand, the tone of the cl i t i c does not tri gger Hi gh sPreadi ng
onto the Negati ve marker as i s oPti onal l y the case tor regu l ar Lh nouns 1 •
However , when put i n object Posi tion or i n an adverbi al phrase, the storY
changes.
Fi rst . i t must be noted that noun cl ass cl i t i cs i n object Posi ti on
� tri gger Hi gh tone sPreadi n g onto Low Tone verbs. Note bel ow. that when a
Low tone verb fol l ows a cl i t i c . i t does not acquire a Mi d-High tone (aa) . as i t
does when Preceded b y the Lh Pronoun cab )
•
---_
. . _- _
. .
_ ._ ---
-----
•
303
(6)
wu gbara
' meet h i m ! '
*wu 9bara
I
L
...
t,
L
\)
l.. -:: - -
h
HIGH SPREAD, HIGH SPREAD TO TBU
mo gbara
I
L
j.... ..
I
->
L
mo gbara
�,
� ...
I
L
h
meet you !
L,
h
H SPREAD
H SPREAD TO TBU, LINKING, LS DELINKING
The cl i t i c , then , cannot be al l owed to tr i gger high tone SPreadi n9 onto
fol l owi ng verbs Particularl y. when i t functi ons as an object . As a resu l t . the
cl i t i c does not seem to be underlYi n9l y Lh after al l . A possi b l e eXPl anation
for �hi s di screpancY i n tonal behavi our i s �hat the underlYi n9 tone ot the
subject c l i t i c i s different from �hat of a cl i t i c in object Posi tion .
Si nce i t aPPears that cl i ti cs are not under l Yi n9l y Lh tone i n object
Posi t i on , thei r behaviour needs to be further exami ned . When Preceded by a
cl i ti c . a Mi d tone verb or Postposi tion i s l owered to Low tone (9a and b ) . Thi s
same 1 0werin9 Phenomenon i s observed when a Mi d tone verb i s Preceded b y
a
high
t i nal noun (9c ) .
(9) a.
b.
wu tux o
-> wu
wu la
->
c . fal axa l a
tux o
wu 1 4
• carrY i t: ! '
' on h i m '
-> t�laK� 1 4 ' on a roc k '
Thi s 1 0wer i n9 was anal Yzed i n Chapter
4
as Hi gh tone Del i nk i n9
(44) .
where
the subregi ster Hi gh tone of a Lh verb is del i n ked when Preceded by a Hi gh
t i nal noun and i n Phrase f i nal Posi tion (see
( 10» .
---_ . _ -- ---- ------
304
( 10)
�fU axa tuxo
I
>
� a l ax a t�xO
H
L
H
h
h
h
-
I
I
" carrY a rock '
I
I
I
L
$
I
h
HIGH DELINKING
It the PostPosi t i on
is
( 44 )
al so anal Yzed as underlYi nglY Lh . the same High
Del i nking rul e can be moti vated when the Postposi tion i s Preceded by a Hi gh
� i nal noun such as fala&i.
�4lalCa. l a -> �� Uxa
(11)
I
I
I
I
a
l I
H L
H L
h
h
I
h
�
h
HIGH DELINKING
( 44 )
Al though the cl i ti c i s not Hi gh tone on the surtace. i t could al so moti vate a
Hi gh Del i nk i ng rul e i f the el i t i c i s anal Yzed as Low-Hi gh . A Low-Hi gh tone
l i n ked to the same TBU woul d create a surtace Mi d tone whi l e at the same t i me
tri ggering High Del i n ki n9 o� the f ol l owing Lh verb or Postpos i t i on . Such a
der i vat i on i s i l l ustrated bel ow.
( 1 2 ) a.
wu tuXO
I
"
LH
II
wu t�l(O
L
"
LH
h
Ih
I
Ih
->
\
' carrY i t ! '
L
�
II
-Ii
HIGH DELINKING
b. wu l a
"
II
l
LH L
lh
I
h
-> wu
14
Ih
h
" I
LH L
II �
" on h i m '
HIGH DELINKINI3
-- - -- -- - -- -- -- --- --- -- -
305
Un�ortunatelY, the sol uti on �or the tonal behaviour o� the noun cl ass c l i t i c
i s not that si mpl e. It i t were anal Yzed a s undarlYi n9l Y Low-Hi 9h there wou l d be
no waY to moti vate what aPPears to be Low tone SPreadi n9 on t ol l owi n9 Hi 9h tone
verbs.
In ( 13a and c) below n ote that when a Hi 9h tone verb or Postposi t i on is
preceded by a c l i t i c . it acqui res a Low-Hi 9h tone
in
exactl y the same waY as it
does when Preceded by a Low � i nal noun (see ( 13b and c » .
( 1 3 ) a. wu Plrt
->
wu P�r€
' Sel l i t ! '
' sel l r i ce !
I
' besi de him '
•
besi de rice '
Thi s tonal change was anal Yzed as the Low tone ot the noun sPreadi n9 onto
the verb . as shown bel ow .
(14)
' sel l ri ce '
LOW SPREAD
LS DaINKING
As a resul t . thi s behaviour seems to i ndi cate that the cl i t ic Possesses a
Low f i nal tone. thou9h thi s Low tone does not show uP on the surtace.
However .
an under l Yi n9 � l oati n9 Low tone shou l d not Permi t the rule of Hi 9h Del i nk i n9 on
Mid tone verbs, si nce Hi gh Del i n k i n9 requi res a Hi gh t i nal noun or Pronoun . not
a Low t i nal one.
The noun cl ass c l i ti c . theretore. i s gi ving contrad i ctorY
si9nal s concerning i ts underl Yi n9 tone rePresentation .
As Part of a noun phrase. i . e • • as a Possessi ve Pronoun. the c l i ti c exh i bits
yet another type ot tonal behavi our .
When tol l owed b y Low i n i t i al . Mi d or Mi d-
Low nouns . i t tri 9gers no tonal changes. as shown i n ( l Sa , b . c ) . However . when
----- ----
- " "- "
306
fol l owed by a weak Mid (HI ) noun . that weak Mi d noun becomes Mi d-Law. as shown
( 15) a. wu m�l a-I")e
" hi s r i ce '
b . wu 9ba-ke
" hi s hause '
c . wu ja-I")e
" hi s sen '
d . wu ta-ke
->
wu ti-ke
" hi s tree '
e. wu so-ke
->
wu sc-ke
' hi s mortar '
Thi s i s exactl y what hapPens when certai n comPlex nouns are composed at twa or
more HI or Hl noun roots.
As shewn i n the examPle ( 16 ) below. the t i rst noun
root remai ns Mi d tone. whi l e the t i nal noun root acqu i res a Mi d-Low tonal
contour.
Recal l tram Chapter 3 . that this behavi our was accounted tor through
the use at the OCP rul e (88) , whi ch col l aPsed two HI tones i nto one Hl ton e .
whi ch subsequent l Y underwent Independent Low Linking ( 60 ) i n Phrase i ni ti al
PosH i on .
( 16) a. Ya - ta-ke
I I
I
->
Ya-�a-ke -> Ya-ii-ke
V
H
H H (L )
H
I
I
1
I
I
I
OCP
I
H ( L)
V,
H L
V
I
L LINKING
I
->
H (L)
Ya-ti-ke
I
1... '"
' neck '
H L H (L)
V
I
L SPREAD
If one posi ted the c l i ti c as bei n9 underlYi n9l y HI . i t cou l d al so be moti vated
to under90 the OCP when f ol l wed by a HI noun . as shown i n (b) bel ow.
IndePendent Low Linking wou l d then take Pl ace an the f i nal TBU creating a Mi dLow contour.
----- . ----
-
--
-.--.
---. . ---- ----- -------
307
b . wu
I
�a-ke
+
I /
->
H
H H (L )
1
1
wu �a-ke
'-J I
I
I
->
wu ta-ke
->
H H (L)
I
V\
H L H (U
1
�
I
DCP
I
/
wu ta-ke
" hi s tree, I ND '
��(U
,
'/
1
L LINKING
L SPREAD
In summarY. then . the noun cl ass cl i ti c conti nues to gi ve conf l icting
si gnal s concerni ng i ts underlYi ng nature. As a subject, it seems to be Lh . As a
noun object i n sentence initial Position . i t seems to be both Hi gh f i nal and
Low f i nal dependi ng on the tone of the verb whi ch fol l ows. When foll owed by a
HI noun . it behaves as a HI comPonent of that noun and ParticiPates i n the DCP.
The precedi ng di scussion examined how the cl i ti c affects the tone of
fol l owi ng nouns. verbs and verbal parti cl es. The noun cl ass cl i t i c i s al so
affected by Precedi ng verbal parti cles and verbs.
The reader wi l l recal l that
normal l y a noun in Phrase i n i t i al Posi t i on is n ot affected by the tone of a
Preced i ng verbal (see Chapter 1 ) . Howaver . when a cl i t i c i s i n i n i t i al Pos i t i on
of a noun Phrase. anY Precedi ng verbal can al ter the tone of the cl i t i c . whi ch
can i n turn. al ter the tone of fol l owing nomi nal s and verbs. For examPl e. when
a c l i t i c i s i n sentence i n i t i al Posi t i on functi on i ng as an object . i t can
tri gger Low tone sPreadi ng onto Hi gh tone verbs. as seen i n ( 17a) bel ew.
However , when Preceded by a High f i nal verbal particle, as i n (b) . the c l i t i c
i s i tsel f High tone. as wel l as the Hi gh tone verb . Whatever floati ng Low tone
there maY have been underl Yi ngl y i s del eted in thi s envi ronment. When Preceded
by a Low tone Par�i cle. as i n (c) , however , the cl i � i c i s Low tone, whi le �he
fol lowi ng Hi gh tone verb i� Hi gh .
( 1 7) a. wu
pt rt ->
b . mo na
c . moo wu
_ ....
-
. -
-.
wu
ptrt ->
ptrt
_..
wu P�rt
->
mo n a WO Plr€
' You sol d
moo wu Plr€
' YOU sol d i t '
. . _ ---- -- - _.
_ ..
. . __
._
H'
. . . _ ---
308
I t wou l d aPPear that , i n thi s case, the c l i ti c behaves as a Hi noun and i s
subject tc both Hi gh tone and Low tone SPread , as shown i n the deri vations
bel ow.
,
( l S ) a. mo net wu P€r€ -> mo na WO Pir€
,
I I I
I
I I I
L H H
L H H
H
H
I
I
I
h
h
I
I
h
h
I
I
(., '1
h
� YOu sol d i t '
<D
h
HIGH SPREAD
b . mo-o wu P€r€
I
l, / I
L L
I l
h I
H
,l
W
L SPREAD
&
I
->
H
1
h
L DEL
moo wi} P€r€
I '-'1
LL H
t "
hI
'�
H
I
h
h
LINKING
� you sol d i t '
�
RS DELINKING
A cl i ti c whi ch functi ons as a possessi ve Pronoun can al so be subject to Low
tone or Hi gh tone sPreadi ng, which i n turn can affect the tone of fol l owi n9
consti tuents i n the Phrase. ComPare the derivati ons of ( 19a ) and ( 1 9b ) bel ow.
In (a) , the possessi ve Pronoun and the fol lowi n9 HI noun under90 OCP. Since
·
they are in sentence i n i t i al Posi tion . Low Li nkin9 takes pl ace, which then
results in Low tone sPreadi n9 onto the fol lowi n9 Hi gh tone verb.
In (b) ,
�
kaca i s sti l l i n Phrase i ni tial Posi tion . so one mi ght exPect Low Li nking to
take Place. However , if this haPPened . an i ncorrect surface t Qrm wou l d be
Produced . as shown i n (c) . Instead the cl itic is subject to Low tone Spreadi n9
from the Precedi n9 Low tone verbal particle. Once the subre9i ster Low tone of
wu
kari i s del eted , Li n k i ng and RS Del inkin9 take place, thus produci n9 a
surface Low tone on the cl i ti c and a Hi gh tone on the noun.
..
---_ ._-_
_-- -------
309
( 19) a. wu kara w"
I
I
H
H
H
1
1
h
I
,
wu kara w"
->
I
"-../
H
wu kari wee
'/'1
H
"
1
I
->
I
H L
H
1
h
h
wu kari w�e
->
"v1,-.....: 1
H L
H
1
h
I
.1
I,. "
->
u�
w
I
I
I
/I
waa wu kara wee
->
HL H
H
H
HL
11
1
h
11
I
'
.11
1
'-./
"
II
I
I
->
waa wu �ra wee
I t.. .... 'v'
,
H L
I
L INKI NG
waa wu �ri wee
I V'I,J/ \J
HL
H
H
HL
H
H
1
h
11
Q)
h
11
h
h
I
"
,
,
L SPREAD
&
I
L DEL
II
LINKING
I
I
&
RS DEL INKING
*waa wu kara wee
� �'I
->
H
H
Ii"
1
h
H
' he l ooked at h i s meat '
"vi
->
1
H
OCP
c . waa wu kara wee
I
H
LS DELI NKING
&
b . waa wu kara wee
H L
I
I
L SPREAD
L LINKING
OCP
' l ook at his meat '
I
'/
L
H
r
LOW LINKING
LOW SPREAD
&
LS DELINKING
When a cl i ti c whi ch has undergone Low SPread is fol l owed by a Low tone verb .
the resulting Low-Hi gh contour remai ns l i nked to the c l i tic. creati ng a Mi d
tone, as shown below :
(20) a . waa
I
�
I
L H
J I
1
1
wul o
I
L
I
1
->
waa
�
wul o
L
H
L ..- 1
I
1
I
�
wul o
L
L
H
' -4
1
I
1
h
L
1
1
,
CD
L SPREAD
wac!
I
&
->
I�
I
' he took i t off '
L DEL LINKING
When a cl i ti c whi ch has undergone Low SPread is fol l owed by a Mi d tone verb.
the verb undergoes High Del i n k i ng. as shown bel ow:
---- -----
-
._ . _-----
310
b . waa � nYa -> waa
�
I
I
I
l,.. ... l
l
H
l
l
I
1
I
1
nYa -> waa
H
�
nYa
l
H
1
1
l
.:t:'
I
h
h
1
'.......-1
l
I
'
I
'
h
l
eD
h
" he saw h i m '
t
H I GH DEL INKING
lOW SPREAD
& l DElETION
"
,.
Naun c l ass c l i ti c5 are al sa subject ta �anal rul es when i n i ni t i al Posi t i on
at
an
adverb phrase. I n the examPles belaw, the H i gh tane verb , as wel l as the
'.
High �ane i ncampl et i ve suH i x an law tane verbs . tri gger H i gh Spread anta the
c l i t i c (21a, b . c ) , wh i l e the low tane verb can tri gger Law tane Spread (21 d ) .
(21 ) a. waa l a P€r€ � u -> waa l a Plrt
I
I ,
H
H H
!lAd
" he saI d i t ta h i m. '
L. ' I
h Q)
H IGH SPREAD
b . wu Ya H nu � l a -> wu Ya H nu IrliC&. l a
.. ....,
,
L H
H
I I
1 h
I
1
I
J...-1
l
l H
1
H
1
-
> wu Ya H nu IrliC&. l a ->
1/1 1 1
L H
l
• " ....1 I
1 h CD h
I
h
LOW SPREAD
H I GH SPREAD
H
I V
1 h
l
*
h
H I GH DEL I NK I NG
->wu Ya U na � a
L-4
L H
V
I
H
h
I
L
t'I
RS DELINK ING
he VP l i e- I NC h i m an
c· wu Ya IrliC&. klan
�
� he i s l Y i n g an h i m '
->
wu Ya IrliC&. kaan
�
" he i s g i v i ng i t ta h i m '
31 1
d . waa �muuna c�
I
�
l
L H
I
I
1
1
nYU�ge mPa�a i -> waa �uuna cil
\
H
I
H (L)
I I
1 h
/ ,
tIlL
I
H L
L
h
1
"
I
nYu�ge mpa�a-i ->
'"
I
I I
I
H
H ( L)
H
1
h
I
"
I
L
I
h
OCP
L
H
I
h
I
L SPREAD
�
L DELETION
�
L INKING
,
H (L> H L
I I
I
I
LS DELINK ING. RS DELINKING
h h
�
DOWNSTEP
'he-VP kni�e 9rab h i s head above-PP " he 9rabbed the kni�e above h i s head '
I t must be noted . however . that Mi d tone verbs cannot . as their structure
shou l d Permi t . tri gger Hi gh tone sPreadi ng onto noun c l ass c l i t i cs. The e��ect
i s that cl i ti cs do not become Hi 9h tone after Mi d tone verbs. as i l l ustrated
bel ow. Rather . i n (22a) the cl i ti c tri ggerS Hi gh Del i n ki n9. whi l e i n ( b ) i t
under90es Low Linki n9 and subsequentlY sPreads its Low tone onto the Hi 9h tone
PostPosi ti on ·
(22 ) a . katike nYe
I
" hunger i s on h i m '
la
�
I
I
L H L
I I -$
h
h
I
HIGH DELINKING ( "'4 )
b . waa wu kan � - pd -> waa
I
L
HL
h
1
I
wu
�,,/"'<I
V
kan �ud
' he 9ave it to h i m '
H
LOW LINKING. LOW SPREAD. LS DELINKING
Recal l that verbal i ncomPl eti ve suffi xes. anal Yzed as under l Yi n91y Hi 9h tone.
were al so Mid tone after Mi d tone verb roots. as shown i n (23a) . However . th i s
aPParent underlYi ng Hi gh tone does not tri gger Hi gh tone SPreadi n9 onto a noun
---- - - - _ .
-
.- --
--- - - _
..
__ .
312
c l ass cl i t i c ( b ) .
(23 ) a. ta - r i
' be cooki ng '
b . wu Ya ta-ri wu I A -> *wu Ya ta-ri WO I A
' he i s cooking on i t '
At thi s t i me. there does not seem to be a cl ear answer �or thi s l ac k of Hi gh
tone SPreadi ng. It i s Possible that hi stori cal l Y Mi d tone verbs had a di�ferent
tonal ori gi n than M i d tone nouns. PerhaPs �urther devel opment ot the anal Ysi s
i n the �uture can Yield more concrete answers.
How to expl ai n the variety of behavi our on the noun cl ass c l i t i c eludes us
at this Point in t i me. Rul es whi ch have al readY been di scussed are used i n
connecti on wi th the noun c l ass cl i ti c .
However . the variety o� rul es used
bri ngs about a con�usi ng arraY o� hYPotheses concerni ng i ts underlYi ng tone. As
a subject . i t someti mes appears to be Lh . In object Position . i t aPPears to be
Hi9h f i nal i� fol l owed by a Mi d tone verb . and yet i n the same Posi tion . i t
tri ggers Low tone sPread onto �ol l owi ng High tone verbs. We can explain the Low
tone sPread . as wel l as i ts bei ng subjected to Low sPread and High sPread i f we
Posi t the underlYing �orm as Hi. However . a Hi word normal l y does not tri 9ger
Hi 9h Del i n ki n9
( 44 )
unless i t has i tsel f been subject to subregi ster Low tone
del eti on . Thi s seems to be a case where a l owered Hi gh tone. Hi, whi l e normal l y
functi on i n9 a s a Hi tone. al so functi ons i n certai n i nstances as a Hh tone and
tri 9gers Hi 9h Del i nk i ng on fol l owi ng Mi d tone verbs . even when there is no
indi cati on that the subregi ster Low tone has been del eted . I t maY be possi b l e
to come u P wi th some k i nd of solution t o expl ai n these idi osYncraci es . At thi s
time. however . I shal l l et the matter rest unti l further research can b e done.
----
-----�
313
D.
ye.-No Que.tign.
Yes-No Questi ons are formed by addi n9 la to the end of the decl arat i ve
shtement .
( 24) wa� Paon
' he came '
wa� Pan l a?
' d i d he come? '
waa k�d
' he went '
waa k�r{ l a?
' d i d he 90?
waa 9b�r�
' he a9reed '
waa 9b�r� l a?
' di d he a9ree? '
The Quest i on marker i s consi stentl y Mi d tone after verbs re9ardl ess of the tone
of the verb . However . alter nouns. var i at i ons can be found. as shown by the
examples below :
13
me?
b . wild 1 3
us?
c.
You , pl . ?
(25) a.
"d�
y�d l a
d . mo 1 3
You . S9. ?
e. wud l a
h i m?
f . m�B
U
ri ce?
9. ceew� la
a woman?
h . 9baxa l a
a house?
i
�
r.djr:;(�
j . m�I �l')e
k.
1a
a
yam?
1 a the rice?
9bake l �
the house?
l . nd�rake l � the Yam?
These el(amples 9i ve four possi b l e surface tonal shaPes for the questi on
marker . Mi d . Hi 9h-fal l i n9. Mi d-fal l i n9. and Low tone .
When it fol l ows a verb .
one i s temPted to saY that it i s under l Yi n9l y Lh . whi l e after nouns. i t cou l d
be consi dered underlYi n9lY Hi9h tone. o r PerhaPs even Low tone. At thi s POi nt.
-----���- ---. ---- ----- ----
31 4
i t i s un known what the tonal anal Ysi s �or the questi on marker mi 9ht be. It is
onl Y cl ear that i ts tone shape is i ndeed a��ected by the tone of the Precedi n9
word . esPecial l y i � that word is a noun.
E. Wh Que.tion EgrmAtign An d Frgnt.biftin9
Wh questi ons are �ormed by �rontsh i �tin9 the questi on word to i n i t i al
Posi t i on o� the sentence. The sentence then termi nates wi th �. Below are a �ew
exampl es:
(26) a. san
waa k.ad y�
where he-VP 9c
' Where di d he 90?
Q
b . San waa wu nYa y�
' Where d i d he see h i m? '
y�
c . Di i naa m�x€ nYe
how man ' s name i s
' What i s a man ' s name? '
Q
d . DH ceewu m�x€ nYe y.a
' What i s a woman ' s name? '
e. NYa?a mu Ya kun y�
' What are You doi n9? '
what:
You TA do
Q
The tonal behavi our of the sentence � i nal questi on marker � i s not unl i ke
that of the comPl eti ve aSPect marker
i d i scussed i n Chapter 4. It i s
general l y Low tone. However . l i ke the complet i ve asPect marker . when i t i s
Preceded b y a Low tone. a Mi d-Low tone material i zes . as seen below:
(27) a. san
waa
wu 9bara
where he-TA him meet
y�->
San waa wu QbirEt
' Where d i d he meet h i m? '
Q
ComPare wi th
y6
man-TA should
__
' Man shou l d l ove God '
God Pl ease h i m sel �-to
315
Whethe� both ot these wo�ds possess an unde�IYi ng Mi d tone o� whether theY both
submi t to some tYPe o� tone i nsertion rul e (ei ther Mi d or High tone) i s a
questi on that shal l be le�t unanswered at thi s time.
The �ront-shi � ted Questi on Phrase does not i nteract tonal l Y with the
fol l owi ng Subject noun Phrase. It the Hi 9h Spreadi ng rul e were al l owed between
the two
Phrases. an i ncorrect surtace torm woul d be Produced . as shown bel ow.
ceewO nYe Y� ->* san c�ewu nYe�
(29)
I
I
H
1
1
L
,
h
l
L
' Where i s a woman? '
,
1
H
I-
h
H
- - --1
(!)
HIGH SPREAD
b . NY47a ceewO Ya kun Y� ->*NY47a c" wu Ya kun y� · What i s a woman doi n9? '
l/t
vI
I
L H
H
L H
h
I
h
1
1
t... -
I
H
-" I
<D
HIGH SPREAD
Thi s restri ction i s true t or anY object or adverbi al Phrase whi ch has been
�rontshi tted . In (29) , � has been tront shi tted . I� i t al l owed i ts
subre9i ster Hi 9h tone to sPread onto the subject cl i t i c . the cl i ti c wou l d
acquire an i ncorrect Hi gh tone.
(29) 9baxa wu Ya nY44
I
I
L
H
h
1
I
I
->
*9baxa wu Va nY44
I
I
' A house he sees '
L H
" '1
h O)
HIGH SPREAD
Tonal rules wh i ch oPerate across the sentence aPpl y � the trontshi fting.
In (30a> the obj ect . �, tri ggers Hi 9h tone sPreadi ng onto the Law tone
verb . whi l e in ( b ) , the trontsh i t ted object can no l onger tri gger Hi gh tone
- ---- ------�---
316
sPreadi ng because i t i s no l onger adjacent to the verb .
(30)
a. ndi Ya 9baxa
b . 9baxa ndi Ya
� -> ndi Ya 9baxa
�
' I a house aaa '
� -> 9baxa ndi Ya � ' a house I
aaa '
If the tonal rul es must wai t unti l after frontsh i f t i n9, then , the resulting
adjacent noun Phrases at the be9i nni n9 of the sentence must have tonal boundarY
divi d i ng them so that the tone of the f i rst noun Phrase wi l l be blocked from
affecti n9 the tone of the fol l owi n9 noun Phrase.
E. But. Ordwrin9
Rul e order i ng has al readY been di scussed somewhat bri ef l y i n ear l i er
chapters of thi s d i ssertati on .
It was ar9ued i n Chapter 2 (pp. 67-68) and
further conf i rmed i n ChaPter 5 ( pp . 271ff ) that the l ex i cal rule of High
Del eti on ( 124) must take Pl ace before the SPreadi n9 rul es .
I n Chapter 3, w e saw that Associ ation Conventi ons were best ordered before
Se9mental Del eti on rul es ( pp . 100f f ) whi l e adjustments made in rel i n k i n9 tones
after the Se9mental Del eti ons wel�e made both before and af ter Low tone Spread .
(see p. 1 16 for l i st of rul es) .
Chapter 4 i ntroduced new rul es but few environments were found to test the
ordering of rul es . It was noted that LS Del i nkin9 must take pl ace before RS
Del i n ki n9 (p. 1 57) and that both occur at the output of Low tone SPread . In
addition , it was seen that the Associ ation Conventi ons i nvol ved the l i nking of
tones to TBU ' s i n a one-to-one rel ation and that the Li nki ng of anY l ef tover
TBU ' s took pl ace after the aPpl i cati on of the Low tone SPread . The rul e to
account for thi s add i ti onal l i nki n9 was si mpl y l abel ed Li nki ng.
ChaPter 5 i ntroduced another set of rules and data wh i ch brought more
--�--�- .�.- - ---- ------
317
oPPortun i t i es to observe the i nteractions of the rul es. In Secti on IV. C • • i t
was shown that the fol l owi ng rul es must take Pl ace i n the fol l owi ng order .
( 124 )
Hi gh Del eti on , ( 126) Low Del et i on
( SS ) OCP
(66) Feature Swi tch , (60) Low Li n king
After these rul es, whi ch take Pl ace wi th word boundari es. are the two
sPreadi ng rul es: High tone SPread and Low tone Spread.
Unti l now, however , two
i ssues concerni ng these sPreadi ng rules have not been di scussed :
1)
thei r
orderin9 wi th resPect to one another and 2) � whether they take Pl ace on two
d i fferent l evels, that i s, the l ex i cal and the postlex i cal l evel , usi ng the
terms of l ex i cal Phonol ogy.
Let us deal wi th the l atter i ssue f i rst . Do the SPreadi ng rul es take Pl ace
wi thin word boundari es before they occur across the syntacti c Phrase? There are
a few cases where Low Spread does occur at the l ex i cal l evel f i rst . Doubl e TBU
Low-Hi gh nouns undergo what aPPears to be a Low SPread rul e . The High tone of
the resul tin9 Low-Hi gh contour i s then del i nked through the process ot RS
Del i nkin9, as shown bel ow:
(31 ) nd3r�-ke -> ndtr�-ke -> ndjra-ke
�1 I
V1 I
I I I
L H H
L H H
L H H
L SPREAD
' the yam '
RS DELI NKINS
The resul t i ng surface tone for the noun root , then , i s comPl etel Y Low tone.
If the noun ndjr.-k� were preceded by the Lh possessi ve Pronoun ,
�,
the
5ubregi ster Hi gh tone woul d SPread onto thi s Low tone , Produci n9 a Mi d tone on
both TBU ' s of the noun root , as seen bel ow:
318
' Your Yam '
( 32) mo nd�r�-k� -> mo ndjra-k�
I
V"
L
I
'
L H H
l
L
f.,.. .....
h
h
L/ I
L H H
I
1
HIGH SPREAD
If the 5ubre9i ster Hi 9h tone were al l owed to sPread betore the i nternal Low
SPreadi n9 rule. the fol l ow i n9 i ncorrect surtace torm woul d be Produced:
(33) mo nd�ra-k� ->*mo ndjra-ke
I
I I
L
I
I
L H H
1- ... ...
V
H SPREAD
DOWNSTEP
h
I
I
!
L
L H H
I
1
h
Another set of examples whi ch seems t o confirm the necessity Ot applYin9 Low
SPread at two different l evel s are Low tone nouns whi ch Possess both a TYPe I I
suft i x and a def i n i te suff i x . I n Section IV.B. of Chapter 5. the tentati ve rule
Ot Hi 9h Del i nkin9 ( 105) was i ntroduced . Wi thin this secti on . TYPe II def i n i te
nouns were di scussed .
As the examPl e ( 1 09) from that secti on shows. i t aPPears
that a series Ot rul es are requi red i n order to produce the correct surtace
form. One of these rules i s Low tone SPread .
( 1 09)
nk�n-?a-k! -> nk�n-?a-k! -> nk�n-?a-k!
� ... ..."
L
I.
1
I
1.,.;-'1
HL H
L
L
hh h
1
h
II I
LOW SPREAD
1
I
,
t,.....-4 I
H
L
h
1
I
I
L H
j:. I
h
h
Tone Col l aPse HIGH DELINKING
When th is noun i s preceded by �, i t i s cl ear that the above rules have
al readY taken Pl ace before the subre9ister Hi 9h tone Ot
�
is sPread onto the
319
noun ; when Hi 9h SPread takes place, both the Low tone ot the root and the
deri ved Low tone ot the TYPe I I sutf i x acqui re a surface Mid tone
(34a > .
If Low
Spread . Tone Col l aPse and subsequentl Y Hi 9h Del i n k i n9 had not taken pl ace
before High SPread . onl Y the f i rst TBU wou l d become Mid tone whi l e the suf f i :<
tone wou l d i ncorrectl y remai n High-Mi d , as shown i n (b) .
( 34) a. mo nk�n-?�-kf > mo nkan-?a-k!
I
I
I I I
I I ,
L L L H
L L -L H
-
I
h
h
L-
h
�
..
h
HIGH SPP.�AC
b . mo nk�n-?i-kf -> *ma nkan-?i-kf
I It I
I
I
� I
f
L L HL H
L HL H
L
"" .... ., " I
, I
II I
hh h
1
h
h <D h h h
HIGH SPREAD
There i s yet another examPl
e where there seems to be word i nternal sPreadi ng
.
before sPreadi ng across word' boundaries . The word kao4 i s a H i noun meani ng
' manner ' . I t i s used as the f i nal const i tuent of a noun Phrase tar exPressi ons
that wou l d be transl ated i nto Engl i sh as " how to ' . A tew examples are gi ven
bel ow:
(35)
a. nda� so?o-kan�
cYon
" I know how to cook '
I-TA cook-manner know
b . nda� piri- l<in a
c:Y6n
"r
know how to sel l '
I-TA sel l -manner know
c · nda� xa cel i -k�n� cY6n
I-TA i t drY-manner know
" I know how to drY i t '
320
d . nda� � i n i
cel i -kana
cY6n
' I know how to drY �onio (a grai n )
I
I-TA �on i o drY-manner know
In the examPles above. note the tonal variat i on of kan4. In (a) thi s Hi noun i s
Mi d-Low when Preceded b y a Mid tone nomi nal i zed verb . whi l e i t i s Hi gh tone
a�ter a High tone verb and Low-Hi 9h after a Low tone verb. Thi s behavi our can
be easi l y eXPl ai ned i � High tone SPreadi ng accounted for the High tone � i n
( b ) and Low tone S�readi ng for the Low-Hi 9h k�na i n ( c ) . A deri vati on of ( c ) i s
9i ven bel ow:
(35 ) c . nda� x a c:�B -kana cY6n -> nda� x a cel � -k�na cY6n
��"1
H
H
L
1
CD
h
1
I
I
�
L SPREAD
�
H
I
I
I
L
I
L DELETION
h
I
H
I
h
LS DELINKINI3
When the Phrase i s preceded by a Mi d tone noun. i t aPPears that i nternal Low
SPread i ng has al readY taken pl ace when Hi 9h tone SPreadi ng occurs as shown i n
( 36a) . for i f Hi gh SPread occurred before i nternal Low SPread. the former woul d
block the appl i cati on of the l atter . a s seen i n C36b ) . produci ng
an
(36 ) a. ndaa f i n i cel i -kana cY6n -> ndaa f i n i cel i-kan � cY6n
I
L
V
I
I
L
H
H
r -- (b � �
H II3H SPREAD
b . ndaa � i ni c:�l � -kana cY6n ->*ndaa f i n i cel i - �n� cY6n
I
I
I
,
I
� - Cb 1
H
L
h
h
L
HII3H SPREAD
L
H
I
•J
L
'"
I
H
H
CD
h
�- - -1
I
HII3H SPREAD. LOW SPREAD N/A
---- - - --- -- - -- -- --- ----- --- ------
i ncorrect
321
Agai n . i t aPPears that word i nternal sPreadi ng must t ake Pl ace betore postlex i cal sPreadi ng.
For other cases i n Suci te. however . havi ng the sPreadi ng rul es oPerate first
at the lex i cal and then at the postlex i cal l evel creates compl i cati ons. For
examPl e. i f a Low tone TYPe I def i n i te noun i s Preceded by
�,
one wou l d exPect
the Low tone of the root to sPread onto the sutft i x f i rst and then to have the
subregi ster Hi gh tone sPread onto the noun . Unfortunatel Y , thi s gi ves an
i ncorrect surtace form, as shown i n (37a) .
In order to Produce the correct
surface form, Hi gh tone must sPread f i rst . whi ch resul ts i n el i minating the
envi ronment for Low tone SPread ( 37b ) .
(37) a. mo mjl a-� -> mo mjl a-�e ->*mo m�la-�:
I
I
L
L
I
H (L)
I
1
h
I
"
I
h
L
h
t...
1
......
L H (L)
L
h
h
I
I
I
L SPREAD
... t,......1
,
I,
' Your rice '
L H (L)
" ..
I
h
H SPREAD
b . mo mjl a-�e -> mo m�l a-�e
I
I
L
L.
h
I
L
H
, I
(l) h
, "
HIGH SPREAD
L SPREAD N/A
A couPle of other examPles show that postlex i cal High SPread must take Pl ace
before l ex i cal l evel Low SPread .
(38) a.
----- ------ -
mo s�n7e Ya ma -> mo sen7e Ya m a
I
L
I
L
I
' You too are goi ng '
H
L.. 1. I
h Q) h
H SPREAD
-- --
L SPREAD N/A
- - - - ------ -------- ------
322
b.
ndi Ya mo ny�- a - > n d i Y a mo nYaa
I
' I see yOU '
I I
L
L H
h
CD h
1, , 1 I
H SPREAD
L SPREAD N/A
On the one hand. there does seem to be some
These exampl es Pose a d i l emma.
need to PosH a Low Spreadi n9 r u l e at the l e:< i cal l evel .
other cases. however .
require a Postl ex i cal aPpl i cat i on . even wi thi n word boundaries .
It is enti rel y
Possi bl e that a sol uti on can be tound t or thi s Probl em. However . time and
i nsut t i c i ent data do not al l ow tor a tul l i nvesti 9ation .
The second i ssue to deal wi th here i s how t o order Low tone and Hi gh tone
SPreadi ng with respect to one another . It we order Low tone Spreadi n9 t i rst .
the deri vati on i n (39a) wi l l produce a correct outPut. whi l e the one i n < b )
wi l l b e i ncorrect .
(39) a . wa� wu kara wee
I
11. ,
.. ....
HL H
II 1
1 1 Q)
L SPREAD
H
H
I
h
1
&
I
I
L DEL
->
wa� wu kara wee
1 1/1
HL
H
II I
11 h
..
I
...
H
I
I
h
I
h
L
I
LOW SPREAD
L
I
H
I
h
L
1 \.....-10
II
L
H
<D
h
L-1
J
H
�
.�
11 h
LINKING
'�
...
HL H
::l I
UJ h
b . wa� mo m�l j waa ->*wa� mo m�l � wee
L,.."- 1
waa wi} ka ra: wea
H
H SPREAD
I
->
&
H
I
Ii
RS DEL INKING
' he saw Your ri ce-I ND '
I
H IGH SPREAD. LINKING.
<See ( 40b ) for correct surface
form >
&
LS DELINKING
On the other hand . i t Hi9h SPreadi n9 was ordered t i rst . (40a> wou l d be
i ncorrect whi l e ( b ) wou l d produce the correct surface form.
- ---- ------.---
323
(40) a . waa wu kara wee -> waa wu kara wee ->*waa wu kara wee
II
\
1 L. .... 1
\
1
I
1 V1
I
HL H
H
H
HL H
H
H
HL H
11 1
1
h
1 1 (D
1
h
11
I
II
I
I
I
It
H SPREAD NIA
L SPREAD
I
&
L
\...
h
I
I
\
L
H
L
CD
h
h
- '\
I
L
V"""
I
HIGH SPREAD
I
" .J
'1
I
H
1
H
1
h
(see ( 39a) tor
correct surtace
h
t orm>
LINKING
L DEL
b . waa mo mjl j wee -> waa mo m� l � wee
I
II
,
'01
' he saw Your ri ce- IND '
H
I
h
L SPREAD NIA
8c
L INKI NG
Theretore. i t aPPears that: stri ct: orderin9 tor these two rul es Produces
i ncorrect resu l ts.
If . however . Hi gh and Low SPreadi ng operated i n some type
ot cyc l i c tashi on across the sentence. where ei ther Hi 9h or Low SPread would
occur f i rst. dependi n9 on whi ch cou l d apply t i rst i n scanni n9 the sentence trom
l ett to right. a correct surface torm wou l d be Produced i n each case· Note that
i n ( 3 9a) above. Low tone SPread was the f i rst aPpl i cabl e sPreadi n9 rul e
encountered . whi l e i n (40b > . Hi 9h SPread occurred t i rst: . Bel ow are a tew more
e:<ampl es to i l l ustrate thi s i nteracti on ot rul es.
( 41 ) a. wu Ya wu k�n �u-u
I It
I II
I
I ,
\
"
I I
H LH H LH
1
1
Ih
wu Ya wu kaan �uu -) wu Ya wu kaan �uu
1 A
,
Q) I h
Ih
Ih
Ih
1
"
HIGH SPREAD
II
LH HH
1 1,.. ... 1 1
I A I 14
H LH H
I IV
1
Ih
HIGH SPREAD
---- -
--- - -- --- --
Ih
&
I
HH
1
-> wu Ya wu kaan �UU
I A
II
H LH H LH
\ I I, '"
lh
II
�1
HH
H LH H
h
I,
LH
H H
\ \
Ih
->
1\
I IV
1 Ih
I I
1 \
LOW SPREAD
' He i s 9i vi ng i t to h i m '
lh
RS DEL INKING
--- ---- ---- ----
->
324
b . wu Ya mo kaan
I
1\
I
II
H L.H L LH
I
1
II
In
I
n
II
In
wu Ya mo k aan
I)Uu
HH
H LH L LH
HH
H LH L
In
1 In
1 11
1
I)Uu
II
->
1 1\
I II
II
I
1
I
1.. ..... , ,
h (»11
Ij
wu Ya mo kaan
->
! /\
II
LH
I I I I/ i,...
It
HIGH SPREAD
I
1 11
n
h
I)uu
It
HH
-r 1
�
L SPREAD N/A. HIGH SPREAD
" He i s g i v i ng You to h i m '
After the sPreadi ng rul es . then . Li nki ng rul e
( 39 )
takes pl ace. From Chapter
4 we know that the L i n ki ng rul e was devi sed as a seParate Process trom the
Associ at i on Conventi ons so that extra TeU ' s woul d not be l i nked to tones bet ore
the aPpl i cati on ot Low tone SPread (see pp. 1 SS) . Atter Li nki ng. LS Del i nk i n9
takes Pl ace. An examPl e t rom ChaPter 5 i l l ustrates tile need to order Li nkin9
betore LS Del i nk i ng. In ( 42 ) bel ow. IndePendent Low Linkin9 takes Pl ace .
resu l t i ng i n botn tne Mi d and Low tone l i nked t o the same Teu.
Normal l y . thi s
i s an accepted contour tone i n Sucite. However . i t the t i rst tone of the
contour i s l i n ked other TeU ' s of tne morpheme. then the l et t si de tone can be
del i n ked .
( 42 )
Thus. Li n k i ng must take pl ace f i rst .
kara
I
H
I
1
->
kari
/l
H L
t-. ...
-
1
L LINKING
}
kari
1/1
->
kara
�
H L
H L
1
1
V
LINKING
" meat '
V
LS DELINKING
Nex t . RS Del i nkin9 takes Pl ace . The Hi9n Del i n k i n9 rule ( 44 ) wou l d al so take
Pl ace at thi s stage ot the derivation .
It i s cruc i al l Y ordered i n reterence to
Hi gh tone SPread and Low tone Spread . As the e:<ample bel ow shows. Hi 9h SPread
Provi des the envi ronment tor the Hi9h Del i n k i n9 0+ the Mid tone verb .
----- - - --_.
-
.-
------- ------- ----- ------
325
(43) waa mo kara nYa -> waa mo
I
I
I
L
H
I
L
L
h
1
h
h
I
I
I
�ri nYa -> waa mo k� ra nYa " he saw Your meat '
l.. ...
I
I
I
H
L
L
'�
I
L
H
�
1 I
Q) h
...
*
h
h
LINK ING
HIGH SPREAD
�
HIGH DELINKING
The Low tone Inserti on rule (27) ( i ntroduced i n Chapter 3) whi ch Produces a
f al l i n 9 tone on Hi 9h f i nal nouns i n sentence f i nal Posi t i on wou l d al so be
ordered anytime after Hi9h Spread . Fi nal l y , as menti oned before. the Downstep
rul e takes Pl ace. The deri·vati ons bel ow are ex amPl es of this orderin9 of rul es.
(44) a . waa �muu-n' ca wu nYU�-9' mpa�a-i -> waa �muu-na ca wu nYU�9' mPa�a-i
II
!
/
� .. 1
h
1 <D 1
HL
H H (L ) L H
11
1
I
"
I
I
LOW SPREAD
!
I
!
H H (L )
I
I
II
I
I I
1
H H (L ) L H
1
11
1
II
h
l £> € l Eft O '"
...
1/1
HL
! I
I
h
I /
H L
' I
I
H H (L )
1.. / 1
I
,
1 h CD h
h
I
H L
1
I
h
HIGH SPREAD
-> waa �muun' cO wu nYU�9' mp.a��-i -> waa �muuna c� wO nYU�ge mpa�! i
I ,
V I
�
, / �!
" / / l/1 I I ,:" .,o j I
HL
H H (L) L H
11
1
II
H H (L)
I t.--'"
' I
1
h
h
h
H L
HL
H H (L ) L H
1
11
1 1
I I
I I
h
LOW SPREAD
I '
I
1
(he-TA knife hel d h i s head above-PP)
b . b i � Ada saka-a-bf
9b6
->
I
I I � I
HL L H H H HL H (L ) H
11 1
h
!
HL L 1'1
11 1
I
1
hI
h
II
!I I
hh h
J
1
h
" I
I
II l !
h
9b6 -> bi i nda saka-a-bi 9b6
I I t\ f
I
H 6i) HL H <L) H
I
I T il I
1 1
hh h
HIGH DELETI ON
- -- --- ------
DOWNSTEP
" He held th� knife above h i s head '
bi i Ad' saka-i-bi
II I
1 1
HL
I
LINKING. LS DEL INKI NG. RS DELI NKING.
�
11 ' 1
H H (L)
V
h
II
v1 I
1/1\ f
I
I
h
HL L H H L HL H <U H
II , I
11
1
h
1 1 1\
1 1
hh h
L SPREAD < Lex i cal )
I
326
->
I t vt
1 &..-1 1
-
I
>
bi i �da sakaab!
j l V'\
l lA l
9b6
I
->
bi i �da sakaabi 9bo
I I V1
I
1'1
I .... '"
HL L H
H L L H (L)
H
HL L H
H LL H (L ) H
HL L H H LL H (L ) H
l1 l h
l l h h
h
l1 l h
CD l l h
11 1 h
II
!
I ' I
�
Tone Col l aPse
->
9b6
bi � �da saka-a-b!
&
I
H DELINK
bi i �da sakaab! 9bo
�� � ' VI '�
HL L H H LL H (L ) H
I, I ,
I, I I
l1 l h
ll h
II I
I
a.. .. 1 I ' I
I
h
HIGH SPREAD
II
I V II I
11 h
I
h
LOW SPREAD
(theY mY 90ats ki l l ed ) ' They k i l led mY goats '
�
RS DEL INKING
G. Coocludioi Not••
Thi s enti re di ssertati on has consi dered i n detai l the tonal behavi our
wi thi n a simpl e sentence o� Suci te. a Senu�o dialect . It was seen that some
Probl ems cou l d be easi l y sol ved whi l e others de� i ed a cl ear anal Ysi s . The
theoreti cal apProach used here extends the autosegmental aPProach i nto the
i mpl ementati on o� two tonal t i ers. borrowi n9 �rom the recent developments i n
non-l i near Phonolo9Y. I t was seen that thi s apProach great ly enhanced the
abi l i ty to adequatel Y describe the tonal Phenomena o� Suci te whi l e at other
Poi �ts. some na99i n9 questi ons sti l l remai n unanswered . Further research wi l l
b e requi red t o Pursue these questi ons whi ch . i � answered . cou l d contri bute to
mod i � i cati ons o� the above anal Ysi s.
It is mY hoPe. however . that the Present
descri ption and anal Ysi s o� Suci te wi l l serve to Provi de a sPri n9board �or
�uture anal yzes o� tone in Senu�o l anguages as a whol e.
The doubl e ti ered
aPPProach i tsel � needs to be tested � or i ts vi ab i l i ty i n other l an9uages.
However . whether the double ti ered approach hol ds uP i n other languages or not .
i t does remai n cl ear that a trad i t i onal autose9mental aPProach to anal Yz i ng the
------- ---- -
327
tone of Suci te fal l s terri bly short of adequatel Y descri b i ng i ts comPl i cated
tonal Processes. Again it i s hoped that further i nvesti gat i on and the
presentat i on of more data wi l l resolve the questi ons that remai n unanswered at
thi s Poi nt .
NOTES
1 . The reader maY also recal l that Hi gh tone spread as a rul e i s not as
Producti ve between subjects and verbal parti c l es as el sewhere in the sentence
< See ChaPter 4 ) .
J, .
------ .-�-- ---
._--_
. _ - --
-
:328
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Ione: A
ImPri mer i e
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Ibl
l i n9ui ?tic
aurv@Y.
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Tom!
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KaYe. J . and H. KooPman ( 1982) . "Les tons du sYsUme verbal en
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baU
<gbadi ) . "
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KiParskv, Paul ( 1982) . " From CVc l i cal Phonol ogy to Lex i cal Phono l ogy. i n van
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- ---- ---------. ------
329
Lavergne de Tressan ( 1953) . Inyantaira l in9ui sti9ue de l ' Afri9ue gbcidentale
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Maddi eson , Ian ( 1974) . "A Possi b l e new c:ause at tone-sPl i Hing evi dence t ram
Cama, Yoruba. and other l anguages. " The Tgne Tgme, ucLA Wgrking papers in
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�
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.-- --------
•
332
APPEND IX
. The d i acri t i cs f or each tone are 9i ven bel ow :
Low
...
Mi d
unmarked vowel
Hi 9h ..
Low-Hi 9h R i se
Low-Mi d Ri se
Mi d-Hi 9h Ri se
v
...
�
Hi 9h-Low Fal l
Mi d-Low Fal l
Hi 9h-Mi d Fal l
NOUN LEX ICON OF SUCITE
Each noun has u P to f i ve entr i es each separated by a semi -col on . W i t h i n each
entrY two possi b l e forms maY be 9i ven . seParated by a comma . These i nd i cate a
var i at i on i n Pronunci at i on of a parti cu l ar word. The symbol ?T i nd i cates that
the tone mar k i ng i s uncertai n . The f i ve entri es. i n order of aPPearance . are :
Si ngul ar Indef i n i te � S i n gu l ar Def i n i te � Pl ural Indef i n i te;
" mY <nda> - Si ngu l ar Def i n i te ' .
Pl ural Def i n i te ;
Some nouns have no Pl ural . The l ast entrY i s gi ven onl Y f or a restri ct ed number
or nouns·
b.
b�?�; b�?�ke� b�?aya; b�?anYE : Poi son
b�l � ; b�l a�a; b�l a l a . b�l aYa; b � l ib ! . b � l inY€ : bal l . bul l et?
bando?�; b�ndo?o�a; r�ndo?oYS;
bando?onY€ : sesame
b�rant�n ; b�ranta �e; b�rantanYa; b�rant anY€ : banana
b6 � x �; bar�ke:
strength
bal e ; ban e ; b � Ya; b � Yaki : seed
bal € ; bana; b al e ; bal aki : 9round Peas
balou. bel u?T ; bal arye ;
bal a l e . bel a l e?T; bal ab i ; nda bal arye : sl ave
333
b�rax � � b�r� ke; b�raY� ; b�ranY€ ;
????: ba9. sack
bobQ; b ob u�e; bobol � J bobou b i : mute
bOroxo ; buruke; buroyo; burunY€ : bread
bux uro� buxute: addi t i on to a vi l l ag e
C.
c�; c�rye; n��koor� ; nikoote: c h i l d
caan J caanke; caan ' Ya; caannY€ ; nd� c atnke: mar ket
c�l � ; cal ary� ; cal i ya; cil � nY€ : beans
cal ou ; cal a�e; cal �l a ; cal Sb f ; nda c al a�e: Pi 9
canc6l �; cAnc66ne ; canc6761 � ; canc676kf : Pi Pe ( t or smoki ng )
cantory8; cantOrygeJ cantony8: cintonY€ ; nda cintoryge: umbrel l a
cary�;
ciryge J
cannYi; cinnY£ ; nd� canbane : day, sun
. . .
cary�nY�I € ; ca��nYi i ne > ca�en Y- ; c a��nYi i ; ca� �nYi � k ! ; ??
sun, I i t .
day
cedE ; cene; ?cer�I E Nc�ral e ; ?cerSk f Nc�r�k ! ; nda cene: cal abash . gourd
ceew�Nceewu; ce�rye; c�e; c��b i ; nda c ��e : woman
cef 6 1 9 ; cet61 ��e; cef�e; cef��b f : d i vi ner
ce9burox o ; ce9buroke; ce9bor i Yo ; ce9boranv€ : P i ec e of wood -?
cere; ceteJ nd� cete: bodY
c�n�� ; c� n�e; ct � nmi ; c � � n mb ! : antel ope
c�nrax � ; ctnr�ke; ctnr�Y� ; ct nranYe: l i on
CE nXt ; ct nke; CEn ' YE ; ct nnY€ ; nd� c€ n k e : sauce
cEnxa�r�x � ; cE nxaY03 rake: sauce i n9redi ents
c i j er�; c i jete; ??: adul terY < of man )
ci k�n ; c i k�n�e; c i kuu n ; c i kuunb f ; ??: b r i d e . l i t . exci sed woman
c i k�nr � ; ci k3nte; nd� ci k �n t e : weddi ng
c i l � ; c i i n e ; c i x al e ; c i x �k ! ; nd� c ! ! ne : t h i 9h
ca9boraxo ; c�9borake; ca9boraYo ; ca9boranY€ : c l ean i ng . cal abash ?
c i l uu; c i l a�e; ci l �l e ; c i l �b ! ; nda c i l ��e: Potter
ci nnde@; ci nndee�e; c i nndeel E ; crnndeeb i ; ??: el der woman
c i P� I � ; c i P� I ��e ; c i Pee; c i P�eb i ; ??: groom
c�r��E ; cera�e; c�rami ; cerambi ; nda cera�e: orphan
c i wu l 8 ; c! woone ; c ! wuu . cuwuu?; c ! wuuk ! : week
col � ; coOne; co?ol � ; co?ok i ; nd� c66ne : c l aY Pot
con l � ; con l a�e; ci i nl E ; c i i nb ! ; nda conl a�e : Younger brother . si ster
----_ .- . _- _ . _ . _ ----
eYe of the
334
c� ; c�rye; c�ol j ; c��bi : net
c�nr� ; c��nte; c�n ' y� ; c�nnY€ ; nd� c55nte = ashes
�
d�9bAnry�; d�9b�ryge; d�9b�nnY�; d�9b�n YE : gi nger
d�?�sal u ; d�?�sal arye; dA?Asal al a; d�?�sil ab f : t i sh < sPeci es >
dA?�s6nryo; d�?�s6nryge; d�?�s6n ' yo ; d�?as6nnYt : toad
danaa; danaa�e; danaaya; danaanYE : red PePPer
danb�r�ryS; dAnb�r�ryge: di rt
das�l � ; das�l ��e; das�l o; dasul �b f : e l ePhant
d690n l aryo , -nk-? ; d690nl aryge; d690n l anYo; d690n l anYt : duck
domp�ry� ; domp�ryge ; domp�nYi ; domp�nYE : vul ture
d�x�nca; d�:(�"carye; d�x�ncaa; d�x�ncaab f : sheep
£
taac i i � t aac i i rye ; f aaci i ; f aaci i b i ; nda t ac i i rye : cu l t i vator
tal a ; fal a�e; ?????: agr i cu l ture. cu l t i vati ng
fa l axa; f� l ake; ta l f ya; t a l f nYE : rock
tan7an f �l 9 ; fan?anf�l orye; f an?an f ee ; fan?anfeebi : k i ng
t an l a; f an l ��e; f an l al a; f an l �b i ; nda f an l �rye: crutches
tan�a; f an�ge; fan n Ya; fannYt ; nda faryge: cemeterY, grave
teramE ; f erambe; nda ferambe :
urine
t E nl E ; f i i ne; f � n?E nl E ; f�n?� n k f ; n d � f i f ne : Pen i s ??
f � � ; f � i rye ; f � i l E ; f i � b i : python
f i i n ; t i i nrye; f i f n l e, t i t nmi ; f i �n b f . f i €nmb i , ?t f i nb i nd a f i i nrye:
t i nE ; t i na�e ; nda f i na�e: f on i o . grai n from crabgrass t ami l y
f a l �rt; fal �rarye ; t al ar i ye ; f al ar�nY€ : f l ower ( Fren c h )
f� l� x e ; t �l �ke; fal � Ye; f al anYE : mat
f an E tar � ; tanE tararye; fanE taral e ; t anE tarab i : wi ndow ( French )
f �ra; f ararye; f ar.a l a; f arab f : wi nnow i ng basket
fare; f ate; f anY� ; f anYE ; nda f at e : excrement
f okanzaxe; f okanzake; fokan z i ye; f okanzinYE ; nd� t6kanzake: wi n9
f 6 l 6k i de; f6l 6ki daki : l egend
f ol � ; f ol a�e ; fee ; f eeb f ; nd� t6l a�e : owner . c h i ef
f ol � ; f oone; to?ol j ; torok ! ; nda f66ne : debt
fon l a ; f ��ne; t�u n ; tu�nkf : Peanut
fonry�n ; fOnryge: Poverty
b l i nd Person
335
tOX O ; toke; t UYO; tunYt : corn
tU; tu�e; tuu l o ; f uubi : 9reet i n 9
tuced� ; t uc�n e ; tuceral t ; t uceraki ; ? ? : stomach (gener i c )
tUtt n?E n ; tutt n?t n k'; t utt n?tnYt ; t utt n ?t nnY€ : pal m l eat
tU9bel � ; tU9b" ne; tU9b€x€ l t ; tU9b€ x ak ! : Senuto basket
tujokul o ; tujokuun'; tujokoxal o ; f uj okoxak f : cuP
tujox � ; fujoke; tujOY� ; tujonYE : water Pot
f u kanx A ; fu kan ke : f ukan ' yA ; tukannYt ; nda f a�n ke : shou l der
tUnkYax E ; tunkYaxak'; t un kYaxaYt ; tunkYaxanY€ ; nda tunkYak': d i arrhea
f unm�n ; f unmb e : sweat '
fu�� ; tU�ge; tunY� ; tunYt ; nda fa�ge : i nsi des
tutax e; tutike; f u t i Ye ; futinYE ; nda fatak e : trai ner (tor Yam pl ants)
t v.aa ; t y,ia�' ; t yaal a ; fyaab i :
f i sh
f Y�x u ; f Yexa�e; t yex a l e ; f Yexamb! : earr i n9
tYE nx� ; fy?n k e ; f Yen ' y� ; t YenY� ; nda ty€ n k e : worm
ill
9ba ; 9ba�e; 9baal a; 9baab i ; nda 9ba�': r i ver
9babal @; 9babane; 9bab i ya ; 9bab i yakf ; nda 9babane: room (ot a house )
9ba l A ; 9baAne; 9bA?al a; 9bA?akf ; nda 9b aane : t orehead
9bAnmbal a�� ; 9bAnmbal u�ge ; 9bAnmbal anY� ; 9bAnmbal i nYE : bamboo
9bAram9bAbal @; 9bAram9bAban'; 9bAram9bAb i Ya; 9bAr�m9b�b i Yak i : l i ce
9bArati l ax@; 9bArat i l ake; 9barat t l i Y@ ; 9barat i l i nY€ : toP of the door
9bArax A ; 9bArake; 9bar i yA ; 9bAri nYt : door
9bas6nx9; 9bas6n k e ; 9bas6n ' Y9; 9bas6nnYE ; nda 9bas6n ke : bedroom
9bax a; 9bake; 9baya ; 9banY€ � nda 9bak': house
9bes�; 9bese�e; 9bes€€ I E . 9bes{Ye; 9bes€ t b f . 9bes�nY€ : machete
9bi i n ; 9b i � n b e : l i 9ht
9bal ax e ; 9bal ake; 9baB Ye; 9baB nYE : wel l
9bo; '�bur'/e ; kul o ; k u l ob :i ; nda 9bu�e: corPse
9bon l � ; 9buunne; 9b�n?j l j ; 9bon?ok { ; nda 9bounne: t i repl ace
9boxo; 9boke; 9buyo ; 9bunY€ ; nda 9bo k e : tam-tam
9b�n�� ; 9b��ge; 9b�nnY� ; 9b�nYE : 90ri l l a
9bun . on 1 . 00n1; 9buunbe; 1??111? : tuneral
9bunna�o; 9bunna�ge ; 9bunnanyo; 9bunnanYE ; nda 9bunna�ge: wal l
9busAn ; 9busan�e ; 9busaan l a ; 9busAan b i : trog
336
i
ja; ja�e; ja�l a ; ja�b� ; nd� j a �e : son
jat�x�; jat�ke; j atoY� ; jatonY€ ; nda jat�ke: roof
jaxaci i . j�l<�9ban ; jaxaci i �e; jaxacH l e; ja:<a c i 'ib� : trader
jexe; jeke; j i Ye; nd� jeke: soaP
j i de; j i ne ; j �r��i ; j �r��9i ; nda j i neN?nd� j � ne: breast
j � funam@; j � f un�mbe : potassiu�
j � �zi ; j � �za�e ; j i i z i Ye. j i i z i � l e; j � � z i nY€ . j i � zii b� : thread (Di oula)
j � l �xe; j � l �ke; j � l i ye; j i l i nYE : nut
jaramE ; jarambe; ???????: mi l k
jokurax8; jokuroke ?T; jokur ! y8; jokuri nYt : mumPs
jol � ; j oone ; j o?ol � ; jo?okf ; nda j66ne: testi c l e
j S ; j��e; j661 � ; j6ob ! ; n d a j��e: pocket
j�l ax�; j�lake; j ol i Y� ; jol i nY€ ; nda j�lake: sewi n9
juu ; juube; nda j 66be: speech
k
kaafoxe; kaatoke: outsi de vi l l age l i mi ts
kaa taxe� kaa t ake; kaatiye; k�atsnYE : bri dge
kacer@; k�cete ; k�c i Y@; k�cinY€ : stal k <of a pl ant )
kacEnnE ?; kacEn�e; ????????: the 900d
kacE nl E ; kac i i nne; kacE €n�i ; kacEfn�9f ; nda kac i i nne: fet i sh
kac i l axe ; kac i l �ke; kaci l i Ye ; kaci l ?nYE ; nd� ka c! l�ke: bone
kac i l axe; kac i l �ke; kaci i re ; kaci � te; nd� kacf l �ke: skel eton
kac�x� ; kac�ke; kacoY� ; kaconY€ : Pen or encl c5ur�
kacu; kacu�e; k�cul o; kacul ub� : mouse
kad�rt; kad 'ra�e; kadar�l e; kadarabi ; nda kadar��e: door trame
katanl a��; kat�nl ��ge; k�t�n l �nY�� k�t�nl anYE : donkey
katol S; kafol ��e; katee; kateebi : l ord
kat6r8; kaf6ra�e; kaf6r l YO ; kat6ranY€ ; nda kaf6ra�e: e99Pl ant
katulo; kafuune; katol<ol o ; kato:(ob! ; ??????: surPrise
katuxo; kat uke; katuYo; kafunYE ; nda katuke: vaPor . steam . hot season
katYenanji de;
kat Yen�nj i ne ;
katYenanj � ral e; katYena"j � r�kl ; nda katYena"j i ne:
whi r l wind
harmaHan
wi nd s . cold season
----- ----------- -------
337
ka9bol j ; ka9boone; ka9bo701 � . -9box aI E9 ; ka9bo7ok ! ; nda ka9b66ne: mi rac l e
k�j i i x e ; kaj i i ke ; kaj i i Ye ; kaj i i nY€ : f i rewood
kaj i k�rax � ; kaj i k�rake; kaj i k� r i Y� ; kaj i k�ranY€ : bark
kaj i nn� ; kaj�n n e ; kaj i nn e ; kaj 1 nnak! ; nda kaj ! nne: bracel et
kaj 1 p� I � ; kaj1 P66ne; kaj i Po7ol � ; kaj i Po7okf : bund l e ot f i rewood
kakonx � ; kak� n k e ; kakon ' y� ; kakonny€ : col d . cOU9h
kal ap61 � ; kal aP66ne ; kal aPo7ol � ; kal apo7ok { ; nda kal ap66ne : sheat Ot sor9hum
kal al(a; kal ake; kal aYa; kal anY£ : sor9hum
kal el � ; kal e�n e ; kal e��i ; kal e��9! ; ???????: customs
kal ox j ; kal oke; kal �Ya; kal �nY£ : shower room
kama� rya; kama7aryge; kamS � nYa; kama ?anY€ : pai l l e en corne**
kamene; kamene ; kamE € �i ; kam£ nY€ ; l ett hand :
kamene ; kamene; kamee�i ; kamee�9f : sParrow hawk
k a merye ; ka meryge; ka meY£ ; kamenY€ : dew
kam9b H �; kam9b H ne ; kam9b U I)O kam9b i 'i1')9f : man ' s cane
kam61 u ; kam6 l arye; kam66mi ; kam6omb ! : ant
kam6nzax e ; kamSz i ke ; kam6nz i ye ; kamSz i nY € ; nda kamSz i ke: ant wi th wi n9s
kam6onyel u ; kam6onYi i n e ; kam6onyere ; kam6onyeete : ant ( sPeci es )
kam6%or�; kam6z orarye ; kam6zoral o ; kam6zorab f : ant ( spec i es )
kam� "tdxada; kam�"t6x ane; kam�"tdxar6; kam�ntdx ate : anteater
kampel � ; kampe�ne ; kamp�7e I E ; ka"'p�7�ki ; n d a k a"'peene ; t i nger
ka"'pena�93; kampena�9��e; ka"'penary9�!Sb. -9aYS ; ka"'penary9jSb i ; Pouce: thumb
ka"'panna�� ; kampannaryge; ka PanannY� ; ?ka Pan 1 nYe ; n d a kapana�ge: st i ck . stake
ka"'p� rary� ; ka"'p( raryge ; kamp� ranY� ; kamp� ranYe ; nde kap�r( ryge: cri c ket
ka,npul o ; ka"'puilne; ka"'poxel o ; ka"'poKak i ; nda k�"'puune: musc l e
ka"ci nry( ; ka"c?n�ge; ka"c i nnyt ; ka"c?nnYE ; nda k a"cl ryge: nai l
( t i nger )
kandax e ; kandake; kan d i ye ; kan d i ny€ : r i 9ht hand
kan?a ; kan?ak e ; kan ' YA; kan n Yt : v i l l age. town
kan?ant o l S ; kan?antol orye ; kan?ant�e; kan?anteebf : v i l l age chi et
kan?S nrya ; kan?a�geNkan?anrygeNY ; kan?3nnya; kAn?anYe ; Pi ege: trap
ka"tal a ; ka"taane ; ka"ta?al a ; ka"ta7ak f ; nda ka "t�ne: hand
ka"hwi l e; ka"tawH n e ; ka"tawex al e; ka"t:aw�l( akf ; n d a ka"i:awH n e : pal m
ka"t:uxo; ka"tuke; ka"i:uyo; ka"tunY€ : bac k
ka"t�Yana; ka"i:ilYane ; ka"tuYanY�;
ka.nyakCinyS
?;
kani:�Ya n Ye : back ache
kanyakCin e ; kanYakun�: naPe ( Ot nec k )
338
k8parax�; �Par�ke; ��par i Ya; kapar� nYE : � l oor (as i n second � l oor )
kapel i ne; kaPel i n�; kapel i ! �i ; kapel i ��9i ; nd� ka pel i ne: r i n9
kape�E ; kape�ge; kapenYE ; k ape n nyl : b r oom
kaPE nl � ; kaptnne; kaPEnx� l E ; k aPE nx�ki ; ???? : sadness
kapi ci i ; kaPici i �e; kapi c! i l e ; kaPic{ i b{ ; ????? ; evi l doer :
kaPi l �; kaPi � ne; kaP�x�l e ; kaP�x�kf ; nd� kapf i n e : cu rse. bad
kaP�n�can l a ;
kaPan�caanne;
kap�nacanxal a;
kapan�caanxak ! ;
nd�
� panac aan ne :
sauce sti rr i n9 sti c k
kapan ; kaPon�l ; kapoun ; kaponYte: PraY i n9 mant i s
kara; kaate; nda ka�te: meat
�ramjl � ; kara mjla�e; karamj l al j ; k.8ramj l ab i ;
nd a ki ra mj l a�e: snake ( spec i es )
kar�l oxo : armpi t
kas�koQn ; kasakaan��; kasakaOn l j ; kasakaunbf : sol d i er
kasana�m� l t ; kcsana�m� � ne ; kasana�m���i ; kasana�mee�9! : el bow
kas�x e ; kasake; kas � Y� ; kaS� nYE : war
katant�x @; katantake; katant ! y@; katant1 nYt : l adder
k ate l � l � ; katel �ne; k ate l al E ; kat�e�9i ; ????????: habi t
katexe ; kateke; kati Y�; kat�nYE ; nda ka teke: hunger
rust
katon�j ; ka tan�e; katonnyj ; katonnYE ; nda k�tan�e:
kaY� l @ ; kaY� � ne; kaY� f �i .
kaY�xal e ; kaY� ��9f . kaYexak f : comPound
kaz�nxt ; kaztnke; kaz t n ' y� ; kaz t n YE ; nd� k�z t n ke:
k�l u . ee?; k�l a��; k�el E ;
kerex@; k �re�� : su�ter i n9
keeb ! :
squ i rr el
m on key
kez e?� ; kez�?e�e; k�ze?el E ; k�ze?�b1 : chance. l ot
k E E X� . kee; kE ake. ktke; keyt ; kenYE ; nda k��ke : hand
kE raY� ; kE ranYE ; ????? : � i el d
k ! d�; k� ne; ker�x i ; k�raki : Peop l e. c ou n trY
kal t ; k al a�e ; kal el E ; kal �b i ; ???????? : 90d . God
ko?oro; ko?ote: da n c e
kolotjl j ; kolotol c�e: vi l l age chi e �
k E rE x t ; k E rake;
konl j ; kaanne; konxal j ; kjnxak i : tomb
koolj
; koone;
nda
koone: c ju9h
koono; koonde: cotton
i:: o ri nY€ ; nd� k66te: Peel i n9s
k66ru : kora�a; k6ral o; k6rab i : button
kooro; koota; kor i Yo ;
-----
---.
-
..- . - -
--- .----
339
k�n l � ; k�nla�e; k�nlal�. k�nl ay� ; k�n l ab i : beads (Di ou l a )
kjrad�nry� ; kjrad�ryge; k�rad�nYt � k�rad�nY£ : 9l ue
kjrax � ; kjr�ke; k�ri Y� : k�r�nY£ ; nd� k�rake : heri tage
k�raxj ; kjrake; k�r i Yj ; kjri nY€ ; nda kjrake : brick mol d
kjru ; kjra�e; kjra l j ; kjrabf ; nda kjra�e: boat (French )
ku; kil�e: death
kudd; kune; koral o ; kor�ki : seat
kudo ; k�ne; kuux i ; kuxdki ; nd� kune: rule, road
kul u9baxa ; kul u9bake; k & lu9baYa; kill u9banY€ : ancestor house
kun�9�nry�, -nkan-?; kun�9�n�ge; kunA9�nnYa; kuna9annY£ : centi Pede
ku;,boa ; hmbocne; kunbol(ol o ; kunboxcki : l arge or main road
kilnn��c; kunn��ge; kilnn�nyc . -i Yo?; kilnn�nY£ : turtle
kunna�j ; kuna�e; kun{Yj ; kilnanY€ : mushroom
kunncn ; k�nne; kilnnon : kUn�ki ; ?nda kunneNnd� kune: navel
kunt�ra�a; kilnt�ra�ge; kunt�r�nY� ; kunt�r� nY£ : ant
kunYu�S; kunYu�ge; kunYunYS; kunYUnYE : owl
kuru9ba-a l a. kUrU9baYa;
kuru9baabf . kuru'ilbanYi ; han9ar :
shel ter (9rass overhang)
kus�@; kusa��e; kus�eI E ; kus�ebf : travel l er
kus�l t; kus��ne ; kUs�xaI E ; kils�xaki : tri P
kils�r€; kus�te: triP
kiltunno. nk-?; kutunna��; kiltuxalo; kiltu:(�bi : monkeY
kuz�n ; kuz��e; kuzuul o ; kilzuumb f : for ked stick
1
l aa l arye; l aal a�ge; l � l anYa; l aal anY€ ; nda l a�l a�ge: butteri ly
l al a ; l aane; l axala. l axal a; l a:<ak! , l axak f ; nda hane: PregnancY
l-a m;1: � ma�e; lamaI a; l amb i : b l ade <French >
l amana; l�mana�e; l amanaa l a ; l amanaabi : nda l �mana�e: sl ing
l anmb3; l anmb&�e; l anmbaila. l anmbaYa; l�nmb�ab l , l �nmbanY€ : lamP
l axa; l ake; l aya; l anY€ ; nd� like: stomach
l ede; l ene; l�ral £ ; l �rak f ; nda l ene: t i me.
l e�£ ; l e�ge; l enYE ; l enYi ; nda l e�ge: i ntesti nes
l £ rasl i l @; l £ rasi i l ane; ??: be9i nnin9 <of t i me >
l O?j ; l o?oke; l o?oYj ; l o?onY€ ; nd� 1 676ke: water
l o7okutara�e; l o?okutararyge ; l o?okutaranYe. -i Ye ; l o7okutaranY€ ; nda
l o?okutara�ge :
:340
hi PPoPotamous
l �r� ; l�te; l onyo; l onY€ ; nda l �te: vegetab l e
l�r� ; l �te; I �Y� ; l �nYt ; nda l �te ?T: Pri ce
l u� i � ; l u� i � rye ; l U�l � I E ; l u� i � b f ; nda l u� ! � rye (?) : water Python
luIS; I Mne; 1 0:< al o ; l oxaki : shea nut
l u1 e ; 1 Ullne; 1 0x01 0 ; I Cl< c k l : b i l e
l unti de; l unti ne; l � nteral e; l u"terak! : ankle
l Ul<anv6; l ukanvoke; l uvenyov6; l unYenYonv€ : ri versi de. or mouth of the ri ver?
l uxo; l uke. l ox oke; l�vo; l unvE : creek . stream
l uverabe ; l uverabe; l uVeri Ye ; l �Yeranv€ : water hol e (stati onarY water ?)
l uzu; l uz urye; l uz�l c; l uzulabi : hunter
l uzufol6; : chie� hunter . exPert hunter?
II
ma?anjo; ma?anjorye; ma?anjoOl � . m�?anj ov� ; ma?anjoOb i ; barbe: beard
mambel �; mambel arye; mambel al E ; mambel l abf : car
m�ra; mararye; m�rel a; mar�b i : el ePhanti asi s
marafa; m�rafarye; maraf.aa l a . m�ratava; marafaabf . marafanv€ : 9un
mas�n�; maSEnarye; m�s�naI E ; mas�n�b i : needl e
mejul 6; mejuune; mej6xol o; mej6xokf ; nda mejuune: voi ce . crY . sPeech
mE raryE ; mE raryge; mE ranY� ; mE ranYE ; nda m€raryge: vi Per
mE t�nx�; mEtanke; nda mE tanke: 900d name
mE trt; mE trarye; mE taral e ; mE tarabi ; nda mE trarye ???: teacher (French >
mE n?E nryE ? ; mE n?Enryge; mE n?E nnY£ ; mEn?tnnYE ; nda mtn?€ nryge : storY
mExE ?nT; mE ke; meYE ; menY€ ; nda mi ke: name
m9b � 1@; m9b � � ne ; m9b � i ryi ; m9b� ��9i : beat i n9 or threshi n9 sti ck
m9bin@; m9bi narye; m9bi nal e; m9b f nabi : bamboo mat
ma"c3; ma" corye; ma"caa; mancaabf ; nda manccrye: el der si ster
man@; mane; mane; manaki : sweet 9round Pea ??
mma; mmarye; mma3l a, mmaYa; mmaab f . mmanyt ; nda mmarye: 9i f t
mmal a ?nT; mmaane; mma?al a; mmaakf ; nda mmaane: bud
mmE l E ; mmi ine; mm£?E nI E ; mmE?Enki ; nda mm! l ne: voi ce
mmE I E ; mmi i ne; mE?E I E ; mmE?E ki ; nda mml f ne: roPe
mond�r�; mond�rarye; mond�ral � ; mOnd�rabi : ti mePi ece (French )
moPi i n ; moPi i nrye; moPi f nl E ; moPi�nbi : enemY
mCPi i nf61 �; : enemY
34 1
mot8; mot6rye; mot61�, mot6y� ; mot60b f . mot60nY€ ; nda mot6rye: motorcycle
m�l � ; m�l arye; m�l aY� ; m�l anYE : r i ce
munala: munaan�; muna?anl a; muna?ankf : nose
munawi l @; munawHne; munawe:< al e; mcJnawhaki : nostri l
mu"kudB; mu"kun£ ; mu"kuralo; mu"kur�ki : cheek
muz6n��n , muz��n ; muz6n��; muz66nmi , muz��nl � ; muz6nmbi : bui l der
muz�rt; muz�ra�e; mtiz�ral � ; muz�rabi : scarf ( French )
me.
mPa. mPa?T; mPary�, mparye?: above
mp�?a; mPa?arye; m�?aYa; mpa?anY€ : waterY Porri dge
mPanla; mpaanne, mPaanne; mp.aanra; mP nte: Pi geon
mPe; mpi ��; mPi i l e; mPi �b i : rabbi t
mPad�x�; mPadake �Na?; mpadaY�; mPadanYE : ri b
mpoxof6lS; mpoxof6I a�e; mPoxofee; mPoxofeebi ; nda mpox ot61 6rye: cl own
Rlpudo; RlPun�; ",Poral o; ",poraki ; nda RlPun�: horn trumF'et
mpu18; mPuun�; mpuuryi ; mpuury9i : hi l l
mpul u ; mpul ury�; mPul al o ?T; mpul ab f : sPi der
mPu�� ; mpuryg�; mPunY� ; mpunY€ ; nda mpUry9�: cei l i n9
mba:<e; mbak�; nda mbak�: Powder
Q
na; nake; naYa; nanYE ; nda �ke: t i re
naa; naarye; namaa; namaab i : man
An�a; Anaa��; An�mi ; Anlambi : scorPion
naawaxa; naawak�; naawaYa; naawanY€ ; nda naawake: boi l
naaxa; naake; naaYa; naanYE ; nda �ke: sore. i ntected wound
nafol � ; natol arye; natee; nateebf ; nda natol arye: parents-i n-l aw of a husband
naful o; natul arye; nattil al o , natul ayo; natulabi , naftil anYE : ri ches
nambu:<u ; nambuxul'''je ; nambuxumi ; nambuxumbi ; nda n mbux u�e : + i ref l Y
namem� ; namembe; nda n�membe: soot . ashes
namponry� ; namponrye; nampuun ; nampuunbi ; nda nampory�: vi sitor , stranger
nanal u; nanal arye; nanal al a; nanal ab f ; nda nanal arye: fresh water t i sh <spec i es)
nandaa; nandaarye; nandaal a; nandaabi ; nda nandaarye: bachel or
na"j ide ; nanj i n�; na"j i ral e; na"j � raki : si l houette. 9host
----- - - - _ .
_
.-
---- ---_. . _-- --- -------
342
nan j � l u; nan j � l ��e; nan j � l al e ; nanj � l �bf ; voun9 man :
nankAlu; nan kal ��e ; nan kal al a; nankal�b i : thi ef
nankoov�r�; nankoo� te: red measl es
nanvel � ; nan ve l ��e; nanvel �le; nanyel Sb! : friend
nanYl �t ; nanYl �ge; nanyl yt ; nan v i nY£ ; nd� ",nYi �ge: fl ame
rtna�a ?nT; rtna�g�; rtnanYa; rtnanY€ ; nda rtna�ge: tai l
na�9g; n a�9��e ; na�9��1 � ; na�9��b! ; nda na�95�e: 9arden
napel e@; napel ee��; n apel eel e; napel e�b! : a verY o l d man
napunnaP'l�; napunnapa1&�e; naPunnap�l i Ya; napunna�l i nY€ : mel on seed _ <tYPe )
nas�muu ; n as amu u�e ; nas�muul o ; nas�muumbf ; nda nasamuu��: spark
naYeru; naYer��e; naYeral t ; naYer�bi ; nd� n'Y�ra�e: friend
na%od� ; nazon�; nazcral � ; nazcr�k! : ladle. di pper
nejcb� ; nejcb e ; nejcY� ; nejcnYt : cow manure
nena1acn ; nene?an�e; nena1anmi . nena?al a; nena?anmbi : cattl e herder
ntr�; : bad l uc k . mi sfortune
n£ r�dajan?a; n£ r�dajan?a��: father ' s maternal uncl es
nt rafcl g ; : someone who bri n9s mi sfortune
n£ r�fcl �; : rel ati ve through a daughter of Pat . fami l y
ntru; nt ra�e; ntr�l £ ; n£r�b ! ; nda nE r��e: maternal uncl e
n�xasQ; n�xasu�e; n�xasul o; ntxasul abi : b i cycl e
n�f�n ; n�f.t�e; n�f.a n ' Ya ; n�f�nnY€ : brick
naf i ! le; naf f i ne; n�fexale; nafex�k! : b u ttocks
na9un�c. -nk-?; n�9un �ge . na?; n�9UnnYC; na9UnnY£ : knee
namp�c!n��; namp�c! n�ge; namp�ci nnY€; n�mpeci nnY£ : toenai l
n�ncin?€nn€; n�nc:€n?tnnde; n�nctn?lnnvt; n�nc€n?ln n Yt : sal i va
n�nc! l ; n�nc ! f �e; n�nci i ; n�nci i b ! : nei 9hbour . partner . co-wi fe
nandee; nandee�e; nandeel E ; nandeeb ! ; nda nandee�e : mi ddl e-aged el der
n�njaramE : cow ' s mi l k
nan�cl l e . -dul c ; n�nt�c i � ne. -duun£ .
7;
n�nt�c � i �i . -duu�i ; nant�c i l �9i . -duu�9i :
heel
n��e; n��ge: root?
rta�ak ci l ax@; rta�ak ci l ake; rta�ak ci l iV@; rta�ak ci l i nvE ; nda rta�ak ci l ake: sPi ne
n�Panla; n�paanne; n�Paanra; n�Paante: mosquito
nap�l�; nap��ne; nape?el E ; nape?�ki : toe
naporoxo; naPorak�: nudi ty
------ ---- - -- - -----
---- .----
343
naPu�� ; naPu�ge; nda napu�ge: the whol e
nasi l ax@; nasi l ake; nasi l i Y@; nasf l i nYE : f oundati on
nol �x�; nol �ke; nol�Yt; nol �Y�; nda nol � ke: grandmother
nox�n mb�l@; nox�n mb�ne; nox�n mb�Ya; nOx�n mb� Yaki : boy
n� . ne�t ; n��ge; n�nY� ; nenYE : cow
n3; n3�el nl i ; ni lb{ ; nda n��e: mother
�n�l u ; �n� l a�e; �n��mi ; �n��mb! : gui nea hen
n�n?�n? n�n?� Ny; n�n?�nke; ???????: underneath
DC.
nca; nc��e; nc4a; nC44bf : sheeP
nc4n4?4on ; ncAn4?4�e; nc4n4?ala. nc4n4?4mi ; ncana?4nmb{ ; berger: shePherd
nc�nkonl�; nc4nkonl ��e; nc4nkon l al � ; nc4"koISbi : wi l d cat
ncasj; ncas �e; ncas l a; ncas ab! : encampment . smal l haml et . settl ement
nci l e . j-?; nCi i ne; ncl xal e; nc�x�k! ; nda nci i ne: bal aPhone
ncananYa. j-?; ncananYa� ; nda ncananYa�e: world (Di ou l a )
�c� . j-? �-?; �c��e. -00; �c�� l � . -06-; �c�Sbf . -06-; n d s Ac��e. -0-: toP
ad.
nd4; nda�e: bel i ef < Di ou l a>
nd� ; nd� �e: food
nd�r�; nd�te: i ndi genous med i c i ne <cf . tabe>
Adaxe; �dake; �di Ye; �di nYl ; nd� �dake: ear
nd�xa; nd�ke: root
nd�r�x�; nd�r�ke; nd�r�YS; nd�r�nY€ : Yam
nd�x�no; nd�x�nde: seeds
nd�x�vire; nd�x�vite; nd�x�viYe; nd�x�vi nYf : seedl i ng
nd�xo; nduke; nduyO; ndunYt : odour
�
�guraxo; �9urake; �guruYo; �guranY€ ; nd� �garake: smoke
D.i
njedt ; njene; njeral e; njer�k i ; nd� njene: l i ver
�jeene; �jeene; �jee�i ; �jee�g! : stone
n j i de ; nj�ne; n j i r�le; n j i r�kf ; nd� n j ine: tongue
njarazan l a; njarazaant ; njarazanxal a; njarazanxaki ; nda njarazaanE : ePi l epsY
nj�rald ; nj�r�ke; nj�d y� ; nj�dnYe: ; mud :
344
�
nkanaan ; nkanaan�e; nkanaanl a; nkanaanbi : Packrat
nkanj�na; nkanj'nE ; nkanj�i �i ; nkanj� a�9i ; toothache
nkanl a; n kaann� ; nkan7an l a ; nkan7anki ; tooth
nkanma; nkanmbe: 9ravel
nkede; nkene: a Part. side
nkeenm9bada; nkeenm9bane; nkeenm9baral a ; nkeenm9baraki : neckl ace
n kEEnmgb6ro ; nkE E n mgb6ra�E ; n kEEnmgb6ralo; nkE�nm9b6rabi : chamel eon
nkEEn�jolS; nkE( n�jQQnl ; nkEEn�jQ?ol� ; nkEE n�jQ?ok{ : throat
nkE�( ; nkE�ge; nkEnYE ; nkEnYE : branch . chi cken ' s stomach
nkora�� ; nkora�ge; n kor� Y� ; nkQr� nYE ; nde nkora�ge: fal l ow l and
n kucox� ; nkucoke; nkucoY� ; nkuconY� : chi cken cage
nkul exe; nkul eke; nkul i ye; n kul i nY� ; nda nkul E ke : cockroach
nkul o; , nku � a�e; n kuu ; nkuub{ : chi c ken
�kuna; � kunake; � kunaYa; AkunanYE : wooden bowl
nkunton ; nkunton�e; nku"to6n l � ; nkunto6nbi : l i zard
n kunYel ebE ; nkunYel ebe ; nkunyel i Ye; nkunYel anY� : rooster ' s crow
nkupol S ; nkuPol a�e; nkupee; nkuPeebi : rooster
nkutun� ; n kutuna�e; n kutuxol o ; nkutux ab{ : red monkeY?
�
ntaanla; ntaanne; nta�n�i ; ntaan�9i : basket ( t i ghtl y woven )
nt'm9b �a; n ta m9b �ge; nt�mgb nya; nt'm9b nYt : dust
ntanla; ntaanne; ntaan�i ; ntaan�9i : courtYard
ntana sp?: da Pl ant . the l eaves and t l owers are used i n cooki ng
ntara; ntate; nd� rttate: l an d
�taraf6l S; Ataraf6l 6�e; ntarafee; Atarateeb{ ; ???: l and chi ef
Abazl�x�; rttaz€lke; A taz�lY� ; At3z€€nYE ; nde ntiz€€ke: d i rt . soi l
nti de; nti ne; nteral e; nter5kf ; nda nti ne: bat
nta ?r; (; to�l ; nde nto�e: bur i al
nton 1 9 ; ntonl a�e; ntonl i Y� ; ntonl lnY€ : termite
nt��x�; nt�jke; ntooY� ; ntoOnYE : Pestl e
ntu�� ; ntu�ge; ntunY� ; ntunYE : chest
•
nnYa; nnyake; nnYaYa; nnYanyl ; nda nnyake: grass. straw
345
nYa�a; nYa�ge; nYaYa; nYanYf : nda nYa�ge: mountai n
nYaP�lg; nYap66ne; n Yapo?ol � ; nYapo?ok! ; nda nYap66ne: bund l e of 9rass
nYe?efol g ; nYe?efol a�e; nYe?efee; nYe?efeebi ; nda nYe?efol a�e: ol der brother
nYe?i ; nye?eke; nYeYt ; nYenYE ; nda nYe?eke: face
nYel � ; nYi � ne; nYt i ; nYi i k! ; nda ny! ! ne: eYe
nYenE ; nYene; n yes�i ; nyee�9! ; nda nYenf : horn
nY�x� ; nY� ke: morni n9
nYi bal awol o;
nYi bal awoone;
nYi balaw�xab ;
nYi bal aw�:<ak! ;
nda nYi b�1 �w66ne:
darkness
nY� 9banxa. -p-?; ny� gbanke; nyi 9ban ' ya ; nY1 9bannYE : drY season
nY{ mb'd� ?T; nYi mbene r?; nda nYi mbene: darkness
nYi mbal axe ; nYi mbal ake; ??: ni 9ht
nYi mi ?; nY�mbe; nda nYlmbe: shadow
nnYam£ ?ml ; nnyambe; nda nY�mbe: shadow
nYamado�o. -nt-?; nYamado�ge; nYamadonYon ; nYamadOnnYE ; nda nYamado�ge: earthworm
nY� mgb�?g; nY�m9bo?Dke; nY� mgbo?Dyg; nY� m9bo?DnYe: rai nY season
nY� �i ; ny� �ge; nYt Ys ; nY� nYE : 9round
nYiPE n l � ; nYiPi i ne; nda ny!p! l ne: jeal ousy , l i t . unPl easant face
nYi samt ; nYi sambe; nda nYi s�mbe: tear
nYo; nYoke; nYOY� ; nYOnYf ; nda nY6ke: mouth , beak
ny6?6�� ; ny6?o�ge; ny6?6y� ; ny6?onY€ ; nda ny6?O�ge: camel
nYon?on"tanl a; nYon7on "taanne ; nYon?on"taan�i ; nYon?ontaan�9i ; nda nYon?on"taanne:
chin
nYon�mE n7E n�E ; nYOn�mEn?E n�ge ; nYOn�mE n?E nnYE ; nYOn�mE n?E nnY€ ; nda nYon�mE n7£ n�ge :
jaw
nYosc E x i ; nYosE � ke; nYoseeY� ; nYoseenY£ ; nda MY6s€€ke: l i Ps
nnYo"tan l a ; nnYo"taanne; nnyo"tan?al a; nnYo"tan?aki ; ??: chi n
nYoto�� ; nYota�ge; MYotonY� ; nYotanYE ; nda ny6t6�ge � l i d , cover
nnY�fan l anxa; nnY�fanl anke; ???: Promi se
nnY�juU; nnY�juube; nda nny�juube: sPeech, l i t . mouth words
nYudunn� , -nt-?; nYudunn��€ ; nYudunn51 � ; nYudunnSbf ; nda nYutuna�e : deaf
nyugod�, -nk-?; nYU9Cne; nYugoral � ; nyugorakf : sku l l
nYumpinx�; nyumptnke; nYUmpen ' Yt� nyumpennY€ : bad luck
nYunjoor6; nyun joote; nYunjuy6; nyunjunY€ : hai r
nYu"tanxa; nyutan ke; nYu"tan ' Ya; nyutanY£ : 900d l uck
-----
--
_ . _ - _._------
346
nYu�j���; nYU�ja�ge; nYU�j�nY�; nYu�j�nY€ : headache
nYu�on ; nYU�ge; nYunYon ; nYUnYE : head
nYu�ufoI 9; nYu�afol o�e; nyu�afee; nYu�afeebf : chamPi on . boss . suPervi sor
nyupar�m�; nyuparambe: brai n
nyut i l e; nYut i i ne ; n yuti xale; nyuti x akf : peak underside
nyuton8; nyutone; nYuto6�i ; nYuto6�91 : hat
nYUVedE ; nYuvene; nyuveral e; nYuver ake: headband (worn by certai n old women )
nYtlzaaxa ; nYuzaake: nyuzaaYa: nYuzaany€ : comb
!l
'�aa; ' �aa�; ' ryaanm i ; ' �aambi ; nda '�aa�e: twi n
�9b�7���; �9b�?��ge;· f)9b�?an nya; �9b�7�nY€ : bamboo bed
�m� l t ; f)mi i ne; f)mee� i ; �mee�9i : corner . an9le
f)mon ka��; �monka�ge ; �mo"kannY�; f)mo"kannYE ; nda f)mo "kaf)ge: breath
f)�� l � ; �muune; �m�?jlj; �m�?�kf ; nda ��uune: knife
f)m�ljxj m?; f)m�l �ke; f)mjl i Yj ; �mjl i nY£ ; nda �m�l jke: ni 9htmare
e.
Paan ; paan�e; paan l a ; paanbi : a carn i vorous rept i l e. 2-3 m. 1 0n9
pal 3; pal sf)e; p�l ami ; pal amb f . pal tnY€ : bucket
P§ndaI �; Pcfnd.ll sf)e; pand�l al a; Pa·nd�l ab l : Pants
paYast; P�Yasf f)e; P4Yasf l e; p�Yasl i b l . p�Yasl inY€ : mattress
Pel E ; Peene ; pexal E ; pexakl ; nda Peene: bowl
PE nxt ; PEnke; PE n ' y� ; P£nnYE ; nda p€nke: comPound
PE XE ; PE ke; PeYt ; PenY€ ; nda PE ke: l arge clay Pot
PSc�; pac��e; Pacaa; pacaabf : 9irl
PSjenx€; PSjenke; pajeny� ; pajennY£ : t i c k
PsmpannY�x�; PSmpanYake; PamPannYtY�; PSmpanYenY€ : babY
PSnf)t ; panf)ge; pannY� ; pannYE : wooden drum
Pl f)E ; pi f)ge; pi nYE ; P� nYE ; h i ve:
Parandi i ; Parandl i f)e ; parandl f l e; Parandf i bf ; nda parandf i f)e : apPrentice (French )
Pare; pate ; Pi Ye; Pi nY€ ; nds pate: bamboo l eaf
Pol � ; pol a�e; pee: peebl ; nda p61 af)e: mal e. husband
Po! u; pol af)e; pol sl j ; pol abi ; ????: catf i sh
Pondl i ; pondf i f)e; Pondl 1 mi ; pondi i mb i ; nda Pondl i f)e : nai l s ( French )
Poro ; poote; nda poote: mud . banco
Poru ; poraf)e; Poral o ; porabl ; nda pora�e: daughter
- �-- ------.--- ------
347
pjn ; p3n�e; P�un ; P��nbi ; nda p5n�e: d09
p�l o ; PllUne ; POl< ol o; POl<oki : b odY
pCinY�:<� ; pCinY� ke; PunY�Y� ; PUnY�nYE : c l aY
Pusert; pus�ra�e; PUSeriYE ; PuseranYt ; nda pusera�e: dust ( French >
5.
sacEnl � ; saceenne. i � n?� sac�nx E l E ; sac�nx�n k ! ; 111?1??: b i rd
sfj6n?S; saj6n76�e; saj6n7i Y� ; saj6n?anY€ : sand
sal a; sal ake: l az i ness
sal a�ol S; : l az Y Person
Sa"cEn�E ; sa"cE n�ge; sa"cE nnY£ ; sa"cE nnY€ : cat
san�a; san�ge; sannYa; sannvt ; nda san�ge: the rest
�"tu; sa"tu�£ ; sa "tul o; sa"tul abi : quai l
sa"tu�� ; Sa"tu�ge; sa"tunv� ; sat�nYE : hYena
saPi i n ; saPi i n�e; saPi ! nl E ; saPi�nb! : ennemV
sara; sara�e; sar ! Ya; saranY€ : sal arY ( Di ou l a)
sara ; sara�e; sar l Ya; sari nY€ : tobacco
sa�u; sara�e; saral a; sarab! : bee
sedE ; sedaki : h i p
seeP�l<�; seeP�ke; seeF'�Y� ; seeP�nYt ; n da seep�ke: bel t
se?eH ; se7ene; se?e�i ; se7er)9i : basket n arge. 1 easel Y woven )
se?enE ; se7ene; se?e�i ; se?e�9! : pal m nut
sen�9a?a�a; sen�9a7a�ge; senI')9aranY.i}; sen�9a?anYE : wa:<
senzenexe; senzennake; senzen l Ye; senz eni nY€ ; nda senzenake: hePat i t i s
sePE nx� ; sePEnke; nda septn ke: boredom
serenver@ ; serenYera�e; serenveral E ; serenYerabi ; nda serenYera�e: door l atch
SE E X� ; sE � ke ; seeY� ; seenYE ; nda s€€ke: l eather , skin
SE nE ; SEne; sE €�i Ns���i ; sE f�91 ; nda SEne: sti nger
sEnrE ; sente; sE n ' YE ; sEnnY€ ; nda s€nte: honey
si ; si �e, si i �e: l i �e
saca; sacal')e; sapal s; sapal ab! : Person
saca?ana; saca?ane ; saca7a�i ; saca7a�9i : shaker . rattl e
sacere; sacete; nda sacete T?: madness
sacera�6l S; sacera�6l a�E ; saceratee; sacerateeb l : crazY Person
sacire; sac�te; nda saclte: crowd , the people
ssci r@; sacite: ta9ba lan9uage
348
s�dI')J . s�c�nJ . ; s�dl')·3 e. s�conde: fool i sh
sa9�nla. -nk-?; sa9�nl al')e; sa9�nl al a; sa9�n l abi . sa9�nl �nYe ; Po@l e: frYi n9 Pan
si � n ; si � nl')e; si ! nl E ; si � nbf ; nda si 1 nl')e: f ami l y
s� �r�. s�n�; s� � te. sl l nde; S�y�; sl nYE : nest
saj � nl')�; saj � nI')ge; saj � nnY€; saj � nnY€ ; nda saj l nl')ge: carP
sak�; sak�l')e; sak�a; sak��bi ; ?: 90at
sakol�; sakoone; sak06l')i . sakJxal � ; sak061')9! . s.k�Kaki : woman ' s cane
sama; sam�l')e; samaYa; sam�l')e: harvest (Di oul a)
sambuxo; s�mbuke; s�mbuYo; samounY€ : swarm of bees
sam�; sambe : oi l
sam�; sambe; nd� sambe: sor9hum beer
sampoxo ; sampdke; sampUY�; sampunYe ; nd� samp6ke: va9i na
sane; san6l')e; san�l � ; san60bf ; nda san6l')e: buff al o. bush cow
sa"taaxa; sa"taake; sa"taaYa; sa"taanYE ; nd� sataake: bow
si nY�l�; si nYQl al')e; si nY� i ; si nyl l b f ; ??: sibl i n9 of same mother � f ather
sal')e; sal')ge; sanYe; s i nY€ ; nda sal')ge: worshiP, sacr i f i ce
sare; sate; saYe; sanY€ ; nda sate: skin
sarawf l �; saraw! ! ne; sarawi xal e T?; sarawi xakf ; ?: Pore
s�san ; sasanke: b l ood
sasankud8; sasankune; sasankuuxi ; sasan kuuki : vei n
s�s6nl')� ; saS6nl')ge ; s�s6nnyj ; s�s6nnY€ : f l y
sata7A; sata7ake; sata7aya; sata7anye : arrow
saxe; sake; s i Ye ; sinY€ ; nda sake: f i el ds . bush
sax e; sake; si Ye ; si nY€ ; nda sake: feather
saxacal u ; sa:<acal al"j e; saxacal al a; saxacaUib 1 ; nda saxaca1al')e: wi l d Pi9 < bush Pi9)
saxakafan1 al')a; sal(akafanl aI')ge; saxakafanl anya, -i ya?; saxakafanl anY€ : z ebra
sol S; soone; soo; sook! : mi l l et
s6n l u ; s6nl al')e; s6n l al j ; s6n l ab i : parakeet
sonnal')a; sonnal')ge ; sonnaYa; sonnanY€ ; nda sOnal')ge : horse ' s tai l
sonxJ ; sdnke; son ' YJ ; SdnnYE ; nda s6nke: horse
s� ; sol')e; sool � ; soob ! ; sta9. hart :
s�I')J ; SJI')ge ; sjnyj ; S�nYE : mound f or sweet potatoes. Yams
s61 0; s66ne; s6x�l o-s6xalo; s6xak! : f l oor
sure; sute; nda sute: stapl e d i sh
suso709baxa ; sus0709bake; suso709baya; suso709banYt ; nda suso?o9bake: k i tchen
-----
---.
_ . _ . _--
349
5uum�; suumb e ; nda suumbe: sal t
5U:<O; suk€!; suYo; sunyt ; nda suke: mortar
t.
taanbal@; taanban€!; taan b i Ya ; taan b i ya k i T?: arrow
ta�axa; tat ake; tat aYa; tatanYE ; nda tata ke: vi l l age centre
tagb�l ax � ; tagb�l ake; tagb�l i Y� ; tagb�l i nY€ ; nda tagb�lake: wound . i n jurY, cut
tal i nt; tal i n€! ; tal i ! �i ; tal i ��9! : proverb
tamat ! ; t amati �e : tomato
tan?an�a; tan?an�g€!; tan?anYa; tan?anY€ ; nda tan?an�ge : shoe. sandal
taPu�� ; taPu�ge; nda t�Pu�ge: vi r9i n l an d
tasa�e; tasa�ge; ????: al ter f o r sacr i f i ce
t�ta�a; tata�ge; tatanya; tatany€ : Senufo Pancake
tawax a; tawak€! ; tawaya; tawanY€ ; nda � wak€!: drY pl ace
t�mt; t�m��€!; t�m€ l E ; tEmE b ! : s i t ter . si eve
tE Xt ; t?ke; teYt ; t�nYt ; nda t € k e : Pl ace. l ocat i on
tabe; tab€!; t i Ye ; t i nY€ ; nda tabe: med i c i ne
tabalara; tab a l ate: resPect . honour
t i d e . tade NY ; t�ne; taral e ; tarak ! ; ????????: l i ana. troPi cal creePer
t agaanf61 9 ; tagaant61 a�e. -n k-?; ta9aantee; tagaanteeb i ; sorc i er : sorcerer
t i l e ; ti i n€!; t i x ax i ; t i x§k! ; ????????: crest Ot the cock
H mbuxal axo; H mbu:<al ak€!; H mb u x al i Yo ; H mbuxal anYt : cl i mb i ng P l an t
tanmt ; tanmb e ; t i n ' y� ; t i nnYE : n o i s e
tanYu�8; tanYu�g€!; tanYuny8; tanYunY€ : stumP O t a tree
ta�e ; ta�ge; tanye; tanYE ; nda ta�ge: 1 09
tapada; tapane; taparal a ; taparak ! : beam . wooden cross
ta�nl�; taRSn l a�e ; taPinl { ya; ta�n l i nYt ; nda taP3 1 a�e : new t i el d . c l ear i n9
UPi ne; tal='i n€!; Upi ! �H UPi ��9! : f l ut e
tap� l � ; taPoon€!; tap� x5 1 � ; taP�x §k! : tYi ng wood
tarapan@; tarapane ; taraPane
T?;
taraPanaki ; nda tarapane : gr i nd i ng stone
taraxa; tarake; taraYa ; taranY€ ; nda ta�ke: gr i nd i n9 stone
tax e ; take; t i Ye ; ti nY€!; nda take: tree
to; tu�e; ti i ; t i i b ! ; nda tu�e : tather
tan l j ; tanl a�e; t�n l a l � . ton l ayj ; ton l ab i . tan l anYt : Prot i t
tontonx � ; tanton ke; tonton ' Yj ; tontonny€ : l un9
tax a; toke: l eProsY
.--- ------
350
tClxOf Cl I S ; tOl< ofClI Cll')e; toxOfee; tClxO.feeb f :
l ePer
t� ; tOlje; to61 � . toY� ; to6b f . tonY€ ; nda tolje: soci ety. group. c l ub
t�� x � ; t�� ke; toOY� ; toonY£ ; nd� t�5ke: Paw. t oot .
l eg
tuc i c �d � ; tuci ci � ne : Younger brother ot father . l i t . l i tt l e fa.
tucul um� ; tucu l umbe; nda tucul dmbe: heal th
tU9udo. -nk-?; tU9une; tU90ral o ; tU9ur�kf : Pi mpl e
tukoraxo . uu? ;
tukorake; tukor i Yo ;
tukor i nyl ; nda
tukorake: hoe for weed i n9 .
scratch i n9
earth
tu l t x � ; t u l t ke ; t u l eyt ; t u l eny€ ; nda tul t ke : 9randf ather
t ul ux o ; tul oke: ethn i c 9rouP
tutul')O; tutulje; tutuun l o ; tutuGn b � : messenger
tuturo; tutut e : commi ssi on . errand
tutuu; tutuulje ; tutuulo; tutuub{ : n i 9h t b l i ndness
totuxo; tutuke; t utUYO ; tutunY£ : bran or mi l l et . fon i o, corn
tut u x o ; tutu ke ; tutUYO ; tutunY€ : bean cake
tuu ; tuul')e; tuumi ; tuub i : caterPi l l ar
tuutan@;
t uut ane ; tuutane; tuutanakf : hoe handl e
tuuttln ; tuuttllje; tutun � ; tutun ab f ; n d a tuuttllje: b l ac ksmi th
tuux 6 ; tuuke; tuuy6; tuunY€ : hoe
tuxuro. t ox oro; tuxute. toxote; tUXUyo . toXOYO; t ux unYt . toxonYt ; nda tuxute . t 6x 6t e :
l oad
�
vaan b � t ; vaanb � � b e : cl oth
vaan"tOIjS ; vaan "toIjge; vaan"tony6; vaan"tonY£ : cover
vaanl')a; vaanljge; vaannYa; vaannYt : wraP-around cl oth
vaan ti i ; vaant i i lje; v4ant i i l e ; vaan t i i b f T?:
weaver
van d i k l i :< f' ; vandi kU ke; van d i keyt; van d i kenYt : sl eeve
vannd i lje ; v4nnd i ljge ; vannd i n Yt ; van n d i n Yl : shi r t ,. bl ouse
v€ n l u ; v€ n l alje ; v€€ nmi ; vt t nmb ! : cri c ket
vUljj ;
VUIjge;
vunyj ; vunY£ : shel ter
vYex u ; vYexalje: wel l l adder ( f oothol d s i n wal l )
I!t
waras3 ; warasolje ; waraso61 � . warasoy� ; waras6cb ! . warasonY€ :
wax a;
si ckle. reaPi ng hook
wak e ; waya; wanyl ; nda wake: drou9ht
w€ rt; wtralje; wtr f Yt ; wtranYt : moneY
- ---- -------- ---- -----
:35 1
w£ ramis�n ; w£ rami s€ n�e ; w£ rami s€nY£ ; w£ rami s�Y€ ; nda wE rami s€n�e : change ( D i ou l a )
wod�; wane; ?w�r� l �Nw�ral � ; ?w�r�ki Nw�r�k1 ; n d � w6ne: star
w� ; wd�e; wdol � ; w��b i : snake
wu l ac� � n ; wul ac � i n �e; wul ac i i n l E ; wu l ac i i nb i ; nda wu l ac i ! n �e : crocod i l e, caYman
wYe�t ; Wye�ge ; wYen ' Yt ; wYenY£ ; nda WYenge: l eat
�
Yaara; yaate; Yar i Ya; Y ari nY€ ; nd� YLate: 9arbage. th i n 9
Yaced� ; Yacene; Yactral £ ; Yac,rak i ; nda yac i n e : Pre9nancY
Yat al a� e ; yatal ake ; Yatal i Ye; nd� yat al ake : rePti l e
Ya9ba:< a ; ya9bake; Ya9baYa; Ya9banY€ ; nda ya9bake : Party
Ya9be� al ax e ; nd� yagbexal ake: creat i on
Yagb�ntan�; Yagb�ntane ; Ya9b�ntane; Ya9b�ntanak{ ; nda ya9b� ntane : hand l e ot axe
Ya9b:Jn:< � ; ya9b3n k e ; Ya9b�n ' y� ; Ya9b3nY£ ; nd� Yc{9bSnke: ax e
Ya9buu; Ya9buu�e; ya9buUl o ; Ya9buub i ; ?????: he who ki l l s t or sacr i T i ces
yakukaara; Yakuk��te; yakukAya ; Yakuk�Y£ ; n d i yakukaate: debr i s
Y�l o�:J ; Y�1 0�ge ; Y�l onY:J ; Y�l onY€ : okra
Yam�; yambe ; nda Y�mbe : si c kn ess
Y�r�t£ n ; Y�r�t£ �e : b l ac k berrY
Yarax a ; yarake; Yari Ya ; Yar i n Y€ ; nda Y� rake; thi n9s :
Yasi nne� yasi nde; Yasi n nYe ; Yasi nY€ ; nda yas i nde: t ru i t
yatarax e ; yataraxake; YataraxaYe; n d a Y�tarax ake : creature
Yatax �; Yatike; Yat i Y� ; YatinY£ ; nda yatake: neck
Yel £ ; Yeene ; Y�e; Y�e k 1 ; ???????? : Year
Yi �a ; Yi�ge; Yi nY�; yinY£ ; ????? : moon . month
Y l r { faxe; Y1 rl f i k e ; Yi r i f i Ye; Y l r i f i n Y€ : al b i nos
Yaru ; Yara�e; yaral e ; Yarab f ; nda Yara�e: Porcupi ne
Yd�r�; Y��te ; YuY�; YUnYE : i ns i de ot tree
Yox o ; Yoke; YuYo ; YunY€ ; ????????: quarrel
z.
z an?an ; z�n?�n e ; zan ' ya; z �nnY€ ; nda z �n?�ke: rai n
' z an l u1 8 ;
' z an l uune; ' z an l dx a l o; ' z an l dKaki ; nda ' z an l uune : ki dney
z ��m5 l ax S ; z��mS l ake; z ��mSl i YS; z ��m5 1 i nY£ : rai nbow
z � nK � ; z � n ke; z t nt i Y� ; z , nt i nY€ : baobab tree
'zi;
' z i rye ; ndi z i �e : b i rth
z l Pu ; z � pu�e; z l Puu l o ; z i puub f ; ndi z l Pu�e: s k i rt .
-----
---
-
._ .
---_ ._--- ----
( French )
�I,,",
3",,..
zon; zon�e; z��n l � . zoonmi J %oonmb ! ; nda zo�e: heart
zonjan&. -�-?; zonjane; zonjanY&; z onjanY€ . zon ja��9� : heart sickness
VERB LEXICON OF SUClTE
Each verb Possesses two f orms. the ComPl eti ve and the IncomPl et i ve .
Fol l owin9 the En9l i sh trans l at i on of the verb is an examPl e sentence wi th
transl ati on .
b.
accuse· bi ba7a wu l a naMkaI �:(� l a : they are accusi ng h i m ot
h i m of thi evsrY.
be exhausted . be b red out .
ndaa ba?a: I am e:(hausted .
thank ( l oan word f rom Arabi c > .
thanki n9 You .
b ! J bH :
rai se (an i mal ) , f eed .
WU Ya
m6 bar�x6 :
theY are
nk�u ndi Ya b � i : I rai se chi ckens .
9ather , harvest ground Peas.
the kernel s 0+ corn .
waa f �ca�e b�l e: he 9athered uP
resPect , obey . honour . be thi c k .
resPected thei r mother .
l ook for.
,.
, .-
wu Ya saka caa: he i s l ooki ng for a 90at .
can ; caan :
l ay an e99 . droP, be Possessed . destroY.
can : the chi cken l ai d e99s.
ceo ci ; kun :
do.
ce?e; ce?! � :
l augh .
ce7el E ; d�7�1 u :
i nsu l t . nank�ta Ya ra Ye c�?�l u: the
each other .
cel e; cel H :
di vine.
nk�l ��aa c' ral a
wu sl za tu"turo eYe: he wi l l do some errands.
ce?e f an?an la: l au9h loudl Y.
ch i l dren are i nsul t i ng
wu ci wi sa cel i . T?-sa: have h i m 90 to di vine.
spread out .
paco�aa vannYa cel i :
cl othes (to drY) .
tremble. shi ver . shudder .
h i m shi ver .
we�ta
Ya
the gi rl l ai d out her
wu c�l � :
t�p
col d made
353
ci n ; d n ! :
know , be convi nced . Persuaded .
and I . we know each other .
C E r aX E ; d raxo:
d i s l ocat e .
d i sPersed '
nda n� �nnaa wu Ye ce n : Anne
nf}nYa.1
d i sPerse.
C E ra:< E :
the
caH l e
h ave
refuse.
Ya�a Ya ya1 ata CYf}x o : the sick Person ref u sed f ood .
sneez e .
k.1konxa f 6 1 a m.1?a cad i : he who has a col d , sneezes .
car i ; ddi :
peel ( eggs ) .
shel l
shel l the peanuts?
carax e ; c arax6 :
f ai n t .
waa na?�n kuu w u ma?a caraxe T? : i f
t o d i e. he fai nts.
conri , j; condi :
embarrass . worrY.
ca m.1?a conri n.1 mpone ti:< ! i la: the c h i l d
embarrasses the stranger
f uun k i cari
l a : d i d he
someone i s goi n g
•
..
cod ; cud i :
waa
( Peanuts ) .
stran91 � .
someone.
mE E ta m.1?a nca
w.1
cor i :
the
cord
can strangl e
9ather .
n.1n j a l �b i Ya ma?�n9bora�a cuu: the boys are in the
Process of 9ather i n 9 man90es .
c�n ; cuu n :
tear .
n d a v.1nndi ��.1 c�n : mY sh i r t i s torn .
sort . choose,
coonri
I
set t l e
( an af f ai r ) .
nda si
am 90i n 9 to set t l e an aff ai r .
za
kaana
1 .1
dd ; dd i :
Pl an t .
COl ul")5n ; col a�u.:
h eaT. recover .
be i n 900d heal th .
People are recover i ng .
cud ; c ild i :
pl unge. s i n k , swamP .
foot i n the mud .
cuol o ; cuul u :
bel ch ( or burP?) .
mo6 l i ta mo m.1?a cuul o : when Yo� eat wel l .
You bel ch ( or burP? ) .
be deep.
cYil ; cy6d :
catch .
wuu yal a na taYi c�ri i :
we shou l d pl ant some trees .
yambi Ya col o�u : the s i c k
ndaa na t55ka curi n j jraki i :
I
stuck mY
bal akaa cux i : the wel l i s deep .
b i i n kul � CYU: they caught a ch i c ken .
d.
pu l l
( a cord ) .
wu cu rna dal i
T?
rna: grab i t and Pu l l .
354
£.
en l arge.
mazor/a Ya ';bax a f.{a:l u : the mason i s i n
of en l ar9i n9 a house.
bal ance. swi n 9 .
the roPe.
t l atter . t emPi: .
her .
t "H u ; t.:tl u :
the Process
s� z� fa� u me: e: t a l a : l ei: ' s g o swi n 9 on
wu
wu Ya wu f�n l u: we are temPti ng . f l at t er i n9
construct . bui l d .
bui l i: the house.
n9a wa� gbak6 f aanre= i:hi s i s i:he one who
exchange. repl ace.
bi n� w€ra f�l � : theY made change .
wu
na wu
( t h e vOi ce > .
l i mP.
t i 1 1 , cuI b vate.
H el d
k€rax 6 f aa c:i :
h e cul ti vated h i s
•
.fa:n l� ; tan I H :
t o l ose
voi ce.
run . dr i ve .
nda� yal a n a mamb�l a t � u :
+tnH ; HnI H :
i nc l i ne . d i P . be at an an9l e s i n k i ng.
t 1:: nr i ; H nd i :
Pi nch . put in a corner .
b 9h t spot?
H ; .f l u :
germi nate. sprout .
H i nni ; t H nnu:
be c l ean .
.f H nn� ; t H nnu:
cancel .
"' z an kaa
cuI t i vab n'; .
I
l ost my
I must dri ve a car ·
Ya
fEnl i :
the
ma m� ya f 1:: nr i nk�: are
sun i s
You
in
a
sddk � l aa f i u : the mi l l et has germi nated .
tal a
f H ni 1 i :
the
rai n
•
cancel ed
the
f al i wd�a l a : apProach t h e snake.
ntane b i Ya f ! l ! i : i t is the courtyard that
Pound ( a f l oor > .
theY are Poun d i ng.
tal < a > l e ; f al < a > l u :
f ane: ; f anu :
ca�9a
Ya fanl � :
cana� f i i nn i : the c l aY Pot i s c l ean
aF'proach .
H J. a ; H I l i :
nda m� � ni
crawl .
i:el l a l i e.
l uzu�aa f a l < a > l e :
the huni:er crawl ed .
wu Ya f anu : h e is i:el l i n9 a l i e.
make �.h i te .
be wh i te .
make c l ean .
vanl arJa
c l oth is get i: i n 9 wh i te < becomi n 9 c l ean > .
Pi erce.
t i re >
•
n E x asu�aa f ar i :
Ya f ant x6: the
the b i cycl e i s Pi erced <has a f l at
355
to; f u =
emi 9r at e .
t or i ; fild i :
f 6x a1 6 ;
f6xal u:
t al ab i l aa f a : the t u l an i emi grated .
fuu:
f l ow .
l o?oke Ya
l ose .
w�raa f �n l otara�i : we l ost at the l otterY.
90 out . aPPear .
Pound 1 .
the water i s f l owi n9
Yf�9aa fori : the moon came out .
bi n�a mbi
fuxal u.
b l ow . wi nnow, swel l .
b l ewin9 the t i re .
f :) ;
t uu:
roast i n
hen .
nga waa n�ke f � : th i s i s the one who i s
wu Ya nn6l u f uu : h e i s roast i n9 a gui nea
t h e f i re .
B n ; Bni :
m i s s . f ai l .
f u l o ; fill H :
push .
f iln ; f ilnn i :
sweat .
kaf�ka Ya b i f iln 1 :
filx 1 ; tcid :
9 1 ean .
wu Ya filun
fux f ;
ex t i ngu i s h .
na
e:< t i n9u i shi n9·
furf :
f u:< ari ; fil:<�ru :
T?-n£a : they pounded the f l ou r .
waa sa f � n ann 1 i : h e mi ssed Anne.
wu Ya f� a:<a f ill H : he pushed a stone.
f ud :
bi
the heat makes them sweat
he i s 9 l ean i n'3 Peafiuts .
·
T" .
f urf
rummage , ransac k , search .
the house.
it's
.
a
.f i re
wilri Ya 9bake f ilx �r il :
u r i nat e .
N€ n ; f H n :
f l ower .
sukara waa f Y£ n :
wh i P , beat .
f y€ nx € ; fy€nx6:
Ann e i s afrai d .
he uri nated .
wu Yari
taka Ya f i f n :
we searched
hurrY uP.
waa +Yeer i :
be qu i et .
bi�
staYed qu i et .
suc k .
�nn1 Ya fY�:< i:l :
ta f yal il :
hurrY uP.
are
the hYena
to f r i ghten .
tremb l e.
f r i 9htened them.
be afrai d , f ear .
they
wi i fY�?� :
theY cal l ed h i m , but he
i t was su9ar that he suc ked .
the tree i s f l ower i n9.
w�ra Ya wi:l�a fY� n r i:l :
sob .
cU 9be:<el aa nyel i wu
has real l y cried, he sobs .
we are beat i n9 the snake
ma7an fyt nx 6
T?:
•
when a chi l d
356
9ba; 9bilu :
dri n k .
ndaa b i E ra 9ba l a:
did
I
dri n k beer?
a9ree. meet .
wel come.
waa 9bara si da sf na moi :
a9reement t o 90 w i t h You .
wound . i n jure.
9bere; 9bE}rE}xo :
f al l asl eep.
t h e b i cyc l e i n j ured h i m .
ncx asu�aa wu 9bel � :
b e short . shorten .
wu kune
< l et ' s take a short cut )
ca�aa 9bE}:< � :
l et ' s shorten
9bere=
uProot < mi l l et ) .
9b€rax € ; 9b€ra:< 6 : d i spute . '=Iuarrel .
'=Iuarrel l i n 9 .
b i sooki 9bE r i :
ceeb i
Ya bi
gb6; k6! i :
ki l l .
gbox i!l; 9bi!lx H :
meet t0gether .
Put i n Pi l es . i n
9bcxc:
the men met together .
gb�n; 9b66n :
h i t , beat . d i g 9round Peas.
beat i ng each other .
Posona�a Ya nk6l i :
get t at .
the road
the c h i l d tel l asl eep.
9baxal a ; 9b�x al 6 : arrange , make.
torm. des i 9n . rePai r .
drew a scorPi on .
9bE r i ; 9bedi :
he i s i n
wu Ya
n�
9bax al u :
he
he uProoted the mi l l et .
ya 9b€rax 6 :
the
women are
the poi son k i l l s .
na�a Ya 9b61 ux 6 :
grouPs .
bi Ya
b i y�
namaabi l aa b� ya
they are
gb66n :
t h e man i s get t i ng t a t .
i
shoot . brea k .
b e ab l e
l eave.
wash .
waa nn6l u j a :
to. succeed
enter .
jiilu jUlu:
cross (a r i ver ) .
j o ; Yu :
sPeak . saY,
tal k i n 9 .
j 6 ; j 66r:i :
swal l ow . t orage.
j ool U j OOl u :
sew .
------
he
at .
wu Ya " r}m:Jb j H :
j i ; cy€ n :
he shot a gu i nea hen .
he washed a kni f e .
bi Ya nCYE n 9baki i :
they entered the house.
b i i kuna j i i l i :
they crossed the road .
the
recount .
nkill a�a Ya j 66r i :
wu va�9aa jool i :
_ . _._ -_ . _-----
was ab l e to
Peof:' 1 e are
the c h i cken i s toragi ng.
h i s c l oth i s sewn .
357
sharPen .
ndi Ya 'l')muune j�j: d :
I
am sharPeni n'3 the kni f e .
k
chew .
k.i'i1 :
annl Ya burc1:(o
Anne i s chewi ng bread .
cri t i ci ze . order (somethi ng ) .
they ordered a hoe and then l et t .
sutt er .
Yal')a Ya nkaal a :
wu na taax6 ka�jo ml kar � :
the sick Person i s sutt ering.
d isapprove, deny . Pardon . waa w€ r�l')a Ya mi i
stole moneY and he den i es i t .
PaY attenti on . suPervi se, consider . take care.
min : he does not consi der anybody .
k.a7,k� ; k.a7,ku :
scratch . sPi t .
frY.
wu Ya nY1 l')9a ka7ara:
wu Ya ssmsY60ra k� f i :
be SPoi l ed . erase. destroY.
Yam i s spoi l ed .
teach . read . swear .
kan ; k,3an :
give. l end.
boi l .
be sad .
Cebaa kara kan �naa:
uProot ( ground Peas.
harvested Peanuts .
l ather . foam.
ndjdk.ia': kaU:d :
go, l eave .
Peanuts) .
he read the l etter .
Ti eba 9ave meat to Anne .
ndi Ya kanrl sakf i :
moo t aun
ndi Ya kedo ereda7e:
I
kin ; k i f n :
groan .
Yal')a Ya nki l n :
You
l i ve at Orodara.
Anne has gone to Canada.
90vern (a country ) . translate (a l an9uage) . turn.
Pour the mi l l et i nto another contai ner .
ca bi
kanla:
the soaP i s l ather i ng.
annaa karl Kanadii :
tease. mi streat .
mi streat i ng .
the
the water i s boi l i ng.
j ek� Ya n kanl')a :
inhab i t . l i ve at .
wu Ya wa kaacaa
she i s f rYi n9 dou9hnuts.
be ti red . t i re. Punish . to make sutter .
I t i re i n the f i el ds .
kanla; k�nB i :
he
he scratches the soi l .
waa seb�l')a kal � :
1 07ak� Ya n'kan i :
x� �1�1 c1:
keraxu :
it ' s
seekl karal')a:
a ch i l d
the s i c k Person i s groan i ng.
they are
358
kal axe; kal axo:
be i ntel l i gent .
k6; k6nU:<6:
tear trom.
k6; k6d :
draw (water ) .
k�7o; ko7� i :
dance. plaY .
k676; k6?H :
hope. ant i � i Pate.
kob ; kol H :
cou9h .
kon l i ; kon l axo:
sl i t a throat . ki l l .
koori ; kooru :
work the soi l . cl ean oH the l and .
are wor k i ng the f i e l d .
k6d ; kodf :
nai l .
k5; kuu:
f i nish, termi nate, end .
running out .
k5n ; kudn :
cut , d i 9 ( a wel l ) . ci rcumci se.
they are d i g9i ng.
k5d ; k6dl :
chase, punt .
d i e.
shave.
gather .
kul al 6; kul al u:
crY out .
kill il; kill u :
rol l .
hid :
crunch .
it's a
bi t ilunkl kul i :
they
that theY are nai l i n9 .
Ya n kdo:
the moneY i s
ba1 S:<a b i kudn :
i t ' s a wel l
i t ' s a 90at theY are chasi n9.
I shaved the
b eat" d .
he i s gather i n9 uP the Peanuts .
wu Ya n�xasur"Ja kill il:
wu Ya wora ktirl :
You " must endure tati 9ue.
y@ :
t aci � �a Ya k6l alu:
the culti vator is crYi n9 out .
he i s rol l i n9 the bi cyc l e .
I
am crunch i ng the kol a .
fol d the mat .
fal aka kuri :
kura1 6; ktiral ti:
tol d .
wee�ga Ya nk6ral u:
the leaf i s fol ding.
waa wu Ya kuro�5 :
wu Ya ')m6H na nkuraru:
----�- - " -- --_._----
wu Ya kE raka kodru:
the chi ckens are dYi n9.
kan?anta kil ma
wal k on al l fours.
al l fours.
they k i l l ed a steer .
door
w€ra�a
tol d .
snore.
•
the woman i s cou9hi n9 .
sakaa bi k6di :
stumb l e . bumP i nto.
he danced and then he went
bi non konl i :
kud ; kud i :
kurar'o; kuraru :
go and draw some water .
ndaa m.{?,:(jcr"Ja kill i :
kul i ; kildi :
the wi nd pu l l ed uP a tree.
waa ko70 mi i sa:
n kililb i Ya kul i :
kill � ;
kun ;
sa 1 070 k6:
9baraxa bi kudi :
to endure.
He i s i ntel l i gent .
kafE� kaa taxa k6:
cee�a Ya n kol i i :
kCi; kol ! :
kildi :
waa k�l axi :
he stumb l ed .
he snores whi l e sl eePi n9.
ca�a Ya ku'l:< o:
the
chi l d is
wal ki n'; on
359
kYex i ; kY�x o :
brea k . d i g and take
broken .
nda k€€ kaa kYex i :
out Yams .
mY arm is
1
laal a ; LUl u :
l ick.
IAiwul c; laawuu:
make fun of . r i d i cule.
ot h i m .
return .
pa�aa tasa�a l aal a:
bi Ya wu 1aawau:
l a?a Pan nan?'n :
Peel .
ku mande:ra wu Ya
Peel i ng.
1 ��H ; l ��l u :
l ower . bend over .
l ex€lle; l ex€ll u:
t i c k l e . Pri ckle.
Ie: ; Hxo:
9row ol d . be ol d .
the dog i s l i ck i ng the Pl ate.
come bac k here.
it ' s a Potato that he is
1 a'?al u:
I am bendin9 over ·
ndi Ya l �el u :
y � a y� y�
they are mak i ng fun
l ex al u:
90 t i c k l e Youself .
mY father i s o l d .
nda tu�a.a I e: :
a thi ef
hi de. camouf l age.
(habi tual )
h i des
•
crack (by heat ) .
B; H:
eat .
down .
nYl �9a.a l e: rax i :
m! Sa san€ :
maa l �
the 9round i s cracked .
when You have eaten . 90 and l i e
if YOU
be far awaY. maa I i I ! wu sa kari :
wi 1 1 1 eave You .
bi Ya fct6l a 1 66:
90 far
awaY . we
I S ; 1 au:
take . h i re.
1 6x6; nduru:
understand . hear . l i sten . mo Ya nduro na kaci in&a fori :
hear that the f et i sh has come out .
lux ! ; l ad :
cl i mb . 90 uP.
wu Ya l ur! tak! i :
he takes Pi ctures.
You
He i s cl i mbi ng the tree.
m
m,ar.a; m.arh :
glue. conserve. sti ck together .
PaPers are stuck t0gether .
man ]: ; mbadi :
l i ght . pl aster .
mani ; manH :
assembl e . add . col l ect .
col l ecti n9 moneY .
- --- ---.
l amb��a man � :
---- - -----
bi
papi nYa mara y� Ye l a :
the
l i ght the l amP.
Ya
w€r€
man! ! :
they are
360
inn� sa mon kanadai :
mo . mon ; moni :
stay a whi l e. l ast .
wh i l e i n Canada .
mb Ure; mbHru:
think about.
Ot You .
mbux i ; mbur:t :
suck .
mbu: d ; mbud :
oPen . reveal .
cee�a� wu na�a non70n
reveal ed the secret Ot her husband .
Anne wi l l
ndi Ya mbf f ru mo l a :
medi tate.
c��e Ya Aeta mbur f :
sanci i na Ya mpeel u:
wu ja�e Ya mpannu:
the woman
mbux f :
he rol l ed uP the
Protect . defend. munca�a Ya mpdi col a�a l a:
protects the Younger sibl in9.
stutter .
I am thi nkin9
the chi l d sucked the nere bean .
mbuxal 6; mbuxal u: rol l u�.
waa nci i z i mbuxal6 wu k€€ ka l a:
strin9 around h i s arm .
9l i de (hover?) .
stay a
the b i 9 si ster
the b i rd i s 9l i din9.
his son stutters.
D.
twi st . wind. wri the.
ne; neni :
put . wear (clothin9) .
wear a shi rt .
kunaa na7ala:
nda s i
za vandi�ane:
bri n9 i n . sak� bi n€�u 9baku:
bri n9i n9 i nto the house.
no. non ; ndni =
bi te. arri ve. achi eve.
n6n76; n6nd :
di rty, be d i rty.
the road is twi sted .
i t ' s a 90at that
wo waa wu non :
ndaa n�n7Sn :
I am di rty.
retreat . reject . rei mburse.
are wi thdrawi n9 them.
ndunxa1 6; ndunxal u:
smel l . sni H . pan�a Ya na mPon�a ndun:< al u :
sni tt i n9 the stranger .
- -- ---
sow. or Pl ant.
waa toxa ndil:< i :
they are
a snake bit hi m.
ndunru�Sn ; ndunru�un :
ndu:<u; ndad :
I am 90i n9 to
b i Ya b i ndunru�un:
theY
the d09 i s
he sowed . or Pl anted . corn .
361
ndu:<u; ndux6:
dunk ( i n a sauce) .
the sauce.
bel i eve. create.
(generi c ) •
see.
Ya
�iin
� l oat .
kal aa saca nta
nYaa mEn :
swi m.
1 0?akH :
T?
saca:
God
I am swi mming.
di l ute. reduce ( swel l i ng) . su kara�aa nYaun
the sugar is di ssol ved i n the water .
nYAl a�a; nY�l a�u: riPen . be red . ma?agboraa I E wu ma?a nY�l a�:
i s mature. i t i s red .
nYel i ; nY� n i :
crY.
waa kaata nY£ n7( n :
he tasted the meat .
wal k around .
wu S l sa sax a nYE E r i :
l et ' s go wal k the bush ) .
nyUd ; nyUr6:
kal t wu nYEE r6:
ask �or. PraY.
ny€n7f n ; nY€n?l n : sti r . move.
cE nka ny£n?l n :
conaa nY! :
nyi ; nY� n i :
fill .
nYi ; nY1 un :
shine. l i 9ht.
ny! ; nyi nl ;
wake uP.
i t i s Sod he i s Praying.
sti r the sauce.
sa wu nY1 Y1 da se:
the sun shi nes .
wake ( sg . ) him uP and 90 (pl . ) .
be wet . be col d . cocl .
cool i ng .
Fjmon ; �mL1un :
. ---
l et ' s go hunti ng ( l i t .
the clay Pot i s ful l .
ca�9i Ya nYi u:
b e 900d . b e Pretty.
when a mango
the ch i l d i s crYi ng.
ca�a Ya nYi n � :
ny�n7en ; nYe7� i n : taste.
created man
a b l i nd Person does not see.
ndi Ya nYanf :
d i ssol ve.
he dunked i t i n
wu n� r� ndux6 cE nkf i :
va�9aa nYo:
the
broth i s
the cl oth is pretty.
draw a bow or sl i n9shot .
waa mp�na :)mon na: �E rambH :
shot at the turtl e-dove wi th a sl i ngshot •
-------
he
362
I)m6n ; I')m6n i :
rest . breathe.
rested .
wu net k..:ln7.fn
mi '"Jm6:
mo6�mSI S bi si suta l � :
sl eep.
the mush .
c��a Ya I)m�d� :
nurse.
he was ti red
and he
i f You sl eeP. theY wi l l eat
the chi l d i s nursi ng.
push roughly. jostle.
jostl i ng each other .
bi Ya bi Ye I)m�ra�un :
theY are
e
p�l a ; p�I H :
..
Pan ; ma:
surPri se.
come. arri ve.
be f at .
Peo. Pe; peni :
wu Yamba� nda p�l �:
napo1�a
tak�J pel � :
shel l < l ocust bean ) .
bean .
Pan :
his sickness surPri sed me •
the stranger has arri ved .
the tree i s f at .
ba n€t� Pea:
di sPl ease. di s9ust . not content.
ndi � : what You did di sgusted me .
PEri ; P€rH :
sel l .
mol a wu P€ ri i :
l ose.
w€ r�l')aa Pan� :
SPi n <cotton) .
f i ght .
sweeP.
bu bi Ye per� :
nt�nna wu
ci
l a� Pin
pan u :
she is SPinning cotton .
they fought each other .
kaati Ya p� ni :
the meat is getting
i t ' s wood that he i s tYi ng.
puu :
do better . be haPPY.
doi n9 better.
i t ' s the courtyard she i s swe�Pi ng.
the sick Person i s
swel l .
wu '3be7el)9.1a Pu :
h i s cheek i s swol len.
'3reet .
ndi Ya m6 s.Uru:
I am greeti ng You
.---- -------
I)ge
the moneY is l ost .
wu Ya kona
kanci Ya waa P� :
Ada moo
i t ' s rice she i s sel l i ng.
be r i Pe. be wel l cooked .
wel l done.
tie.
come and shel l the l ocust
•
363
sharpen . comb . carve. hew.
that I am sharPeni n9.
san7an ; san7an :
kara nda san7en :
chew.
kari nY8n nda saJ�6:
i t ' s meat that
unti e . reach out (the hand ) .
him.
bi
n�
i t ' s a Penci l
am chewin·; .
I.
wu san7an :
theY unti ed
stretch out .
waa wu Ye san7anl l fal aka la:
stretched out on the mat .
..
san � ; sani :
vacci nate.
PaY.
dcxat5raa wu san� :
fol a ndaa sara:
Pri ck . rend. sna9.
wri te.
nkaanaa nda sar i :
the stick poked me.
am wri t i n9 .
I
si ; si :
be b orn . 9i ve b i rth .
si E n ; sHni :
Produce .
si i l i ; sH l i :
be stron9.
sHnH ; sH nlu=
ai m ( t o shoot somethi n9> .
that I a m aimi n9 at .
si l i ; sid! :
be9i n .
nda c6�aa see:
tak�a s i E n :
mY wi fe 9ave bi rth .
the tree Produced .
f aci'i' si i I i :
waa 9baxa s! l ! :
a cuI ti vator i s stron'; '
we n d i Ya
si ! n l u :
he be9an a house .
bi Ya sinu:
mo ndi Ya sax � i :
they are l Yi n9 down i t ' s You that
waa s070 mi i
son ; sdnni :
worsh i P . adore.
are ador i n9.
56n ; suun :
spend the ni9ht. nda si za s6n k�n ka7i :
the n i 9ht at Kan9al a.
56:d ; s6d :
burn .
kacE n l a bi i son :
9baxa :(a s6d :
buy, be saved . escaPe.
am wai t i n9 for .
she Prepared
PrePare. cook .
then went .
defecate.
sa:
I
5070; sori :
5U ; silni :
i t ' s a snake
timid. be ashamed .
l i e down .
wai t .
the nurse vacci nated us.
i t ' s a debt that I Pai d .
ndi Ya sab! ! :
be shy.
timid .
he i s
<food ) and
i t ' s a fet i sh that theY
I
am 90i n9 to SPend
a house i s burni n9.
nkul Ul')aa s� :
ndi Ya si za su:
I
the chi cken escaped .
am '30i n9 to defecate.
364
su; sul i :
pound .
sCi; suxal Ci:
poke. jab .
���nary4d nda su :
silild ; sililru:
exagerate.
much
be too
i t ' s corn they are Poundi ng.
fcxa bi sol i :
much.
the need l e Poked me·
wu
Ya I i ma sililri :
he ate too
•
suxalo; silxal u :
crouch .
su:<ari ; silxaru :
si�t.
rya�aa su:<al 6 :
the man i s crouched .
si �t the t l our .
mb i i be suxari :
shake.
the car i s shaki n'; us.
mambel arya Ya wcra su:<aru:
recei ve. f i nd .
commi ssi on .
I
taal a; Ual u :
carress. Pat.
hanla; taan l u :
al i 9n .
sacks.
t�.inla; tadnlu:
measure. comPare.
measurin9.
I i 9n
ndi
uP.
Ya
ni p6nrya taal u :
recei ved Yow'"
am Patting mY dog.
bil b�ranYa taanla:
they l i 9ned uP the
i t ' s mi l l et that
seo nda taanlu:
I am
l i ke. pl ease. be c�ntent. mo � ba nda �ri ka n� ta�n
ndi i : You came to 9reet me . that Pl eased me .
h?a; tar i :
put on the � i re .
wu Ya col a tari :
he Put a pot on the t i re.
it 's
share. d i vi de amon9. d i stri bute.
peanuts that I am di stri buting.
tanba; Unbi i :,
l earn . teach .
a mechani c .
stomp.
tan?Jnl� ; ban?anl Ci:
ndi Ya mekanaz E n Ya tanbi :
waa ncia tan?an :
stomp .
he stomped me.
wu Ya f i na tan?.£n l Ci:
be 900d ( to eat ) .
900d to eat .
he i s stompin'; ton i o .
mak�rana�aa tanla tal ax i :
touch . wu Ya n�ryu t Yaabi l a l o?ak i i :
� i sh in the water .
sti ck . gl ue. b i nd .
on the l etter .
b e used to.
I ' m l earn i n9 to be
they are touchi ng the
tE mburCi tard l E tira�a la:
kan?ataa nda tel i :
the macaroni i s
stick
I am used to �ati 9ue.
a stamp
365
h;
tee:
show.
show Your husband (to me) .
ma naa�a t� :
tiin. ti i n ; tlan : si t down .
wu Ya tian
anYbodY ' s house ( f i 9 . ) .
wa Y�ri mE n :
he doesn ' t sit down at
tinl �mi ; tlnl ama: bar9ai n for . ha99l e over , barter for .
i t ' s a shi rt that I am barteri n9 for .
vandi �e n d a t€nl amu:
Hrt ; HrH :
sl i de. sl i P .
waa t�r( :
he sl i PPed .
Pl ace. put . set ( a dat�) . hel P.
and hel P me i n the work.
ba n� t€xi baara�a la:
u; U:
brai d . weave.
tan ; tan i :
make a noi se. rumbl e . crash (thunder ) .
thunder i s crashin9.
9ri nd . crush .
waa vanI a ti :
coma
he is weavin9 a cloth.
the
kal ��i Ya tani :
he is 9ri nd i n9 mi l l et .
waa soo tare:
l odge at . unl oad .
stayed at mY Place.
t�un . t i n ; tan! :
be ful l .
waa I i taun :
descend.
nda si tax i l uki i :
fal l down .
ndaa to:
gbu
he ate unti l he was ful l .
wi l l 90 down to the creek.
I
I fel l down .
t6; t6n! :
burY. close.
burYi n9.
tonI :! ; tonUxo:
be 1 0n9. make 1 0n9.
ndaa tonI:! :
t6r6; t6d i :
Pass .
Pass on and -;0 .
t6rax 6; t6r6xa:
accomPanY. have sen t . send.
wi l l send You a l etter .
bn75n ; bnd :
dil ute. draw out .
the H our .
t::5d ; t6di :
count.
tun ; tunn i :
send somebol Y on an errand .
an errand .
t6r6 maa se:
----_ .
-- -
-
-
vomi t.
it ' s a
I
nda
ndaa ilibi i bn75n :
ndi Ya sakaa t6di :
clean . wi Pe. rub .
hands.
bl:d ; til=< H :
wu Ya t6ni :
I
- -- - - ---- .----
we are
am tal l .
sf z a seba t6r6x6 m06:
I
I
am mi x i n9 water wi th
am count i n9 90ats.
bi Y� nda tunni :
wu Ya wa kenYa tuuxo :
ca�a Ya tux i i :
corPse that
he i s
the chi l d i s vomi ttin9.
he sent me on
rubb i ng h i s
366
t(tx i ;
hid :
tu:<o; tux i i :
di9. deePen .
carrY transPort .
m�l a ·nda� tuxo:
drY. be courageous. be
f l our i s drY.
l ook . vi s i t .
i t ' s r i ce that I carri ed .
wu na wa wu yaranYi :
throw. mi spl ace.
h i s objects.
wa7a; war i :
I ' m o i 99i n9 for a mouse .
kacu ndi Ya turf :
hard . d i f f i cul t .
ma� nta na wi ! mE n :
be raPi d, be in a hurrY.
what you ' re doi n9.
be b l ack, forget .
b l ackened >
w£ri
mbi ba�
mo rida w£ra�£ :
rna k�rak i l i :
nda fu�aa w� :
wa?a:
the
don ' t l ook at me.
heat . bother. be a pest . annoY. vex .
me.
wtd ; wtrax6:
he mi sPl aced some of
You bU9
hurrY uP
illl th
I for90t ( l i t . mY i ns i des
•
wu Ya nafAn w�nl :
Pour . make bricks.
wul i ; wCidf :
wash .
ndi Ya wudl :
he is Pouri n9 bri cks.
I am wash i n9 mYsel f .
take out . cl ean uP/cl ear out a wel l .
the wel l d i 9ger cl eared o�t the wel l .
wurax f ; wCira:<6:
mix uP (th i n9s > . be mi staken .
ya. ; Y4: be si ck.
wu Ya Yet :
,
Yawn .
Ya?a; Yari :
yal a; Y.1l axo:
waa Ya�l �:
abandon . Permi t .
be suf f i c i ent .
Ya?a waa se :
the meat i s suf f i c i ent.
Yere wu taun :
wu Ya wu Yera�Ci :
- ---- ----.---
wu
he i s shaki n9 the tree.
ka�ta� yal a:
stoP ( i ntr . > , stand .
--------�
I 90t mi xed uP.
he yawned .
wu Ya tak� Y�?�ru:
stoP ( tr . ) .
ndaa wurax i :
he i s si c k .
l eave. reserve.
90 .
shake.
bal aku�a balaka wul � :
stoP beside h i m.
he stOPPed h i m .
l et h i m
:367
sa wu Yex e:
questi on . ask about someone.
Ytr€ ; YtrH :
wear out , sPoi L damage.
wear i ng out .
ncia vanYa Ya YtrH :
counsel , advi se.
ndaa wu Y& rE
h i m about the wor k .
get u P . f l y. come f rom.
Yari ; Yari :
cal l . i nvite.
come and eat .
jump.
waa Yari :
ndi Ya mo Yari ma ba
spl i t .
bi Ya Yi ni :
I
advi sed
he got uP.
Ii:
I
am i nvi t i ng You to
ndaa kampena Yaraxe :
I
they are j umpi ng.
kanci xe ndi Ya Yuu:
i t ' s wood that
water . na�g�rya nd i Ya Yuu:
water i ng.
YO; yCil ! :
mY cl othes are
baara�a woke l a :
rai se , ��ke uP (tr . > . straighten uP.
rai sed the f i nger .
Yi u . YU Yi ni :
go and ask h i m .
steal . tri ck. riP-ot t .
a m spl itting.
i t ' s the garden
wara Ya yCil i :
squeeze (orange> . mi l k (cow) .
i s wri ngi ng out the cl othes .
I
wr i ng.
that
I
am
him. he steal s.
waa vannYa Yux i :
she
368
WELMER ' S QUESTIONNAIRE
Transcri Ption and French transl ati on by Traore Gnoudj oti en .
Tone Anal Ysi s and En9l i sh translat i on b y Anne Garber .
The fol l owi n9 questi onnai re was desi gned by Wel mers for the PurPose of
doi n9 a qui ck surveY ol the basi c structures of an Alri can l an9uage. Speci l i c
vocabul arY and syntacti c structures were sel ected i n order t o faci l i tate a
basic anal Ysi s and a comparati ve studY between d i al ects and l an9uages .
Thi s Suci te questi onnai ;'·e i nc l udes a French and Engl i sh transl at i on lor
each i tem and Engl i sh 9l osses. At this Poi nt, 9l osses are tentat i ve. pendi ng a
more thorough consul tati on wi th a Suc i te speaker . The transcri pt i on . though on
the whol e accurate. does have some i nconsi s�enci es that cannot be corrected
unti l I get i t checked out wi th a Suc i te sPeaker . UnderlYi ng tone i s marked
above the tone-beari ng uni ts esPec i al l y i n cases where the surface tone i s
di flerent than the underlYing tone. Bel ow i s an eXPl anation ol the symbol s
used :
L
Low tone
H
Hi gh tone
M
Mi d tone
(Lh )
Mw
Weak Mi d tone
( HI )
ML
Mi d-Low tone
(Hi)
AbbreyiaU ons
Q
Fut .
VP
Neg·
REF
1.
I NC
IncomPl eti ve marker
Quesb on marker
Future marker
CLAUSE M Cl ause Mar ker
PP
PostPosi bon
Verbal Parb d e
Con .
Connector
Negab ve Marker
EXCLAM Excl amati on marker
Referent i al Pronoun
?
transl ati on or transcri pt i on unced:.>rin
M
L M
nankin
son
une Personne
Person one
one Person
.
- -----
2.
LM
LM
sl i n sUOn
Persons two
deux Personnes
two Peopl e
3.
LM
M ML
sl: i n
kankorll
Persons f i ve
c i nq Personnes
f i ve People
kan7an
vi l l age
un vi l l age
one vi l l age
4.
369
5.
L
M
M
ML
kanY� sililnni
vi l l ages two
6.
kanY�
ka"kurO
vi l l ages f i ve
7.
c i nq vi l l ages
f i ve vi 1 1 ages
L M
se?�l � n�n k i n
one
basket
,.,
o.
un Pani er
one basket
M
L
M
M
M
ML
se?�l)i suunn!
baskets two
9.
deux vi l l ages
two vi l l ages
se,?�l)i k�nkurO
baskets f i ve
10.
M
LM
deux Pani ers
two baskets
c i nq Pani ers
f i ve baskets
sakaa suun
90ats two
deux chevres
two 90ai:s
s�Pal a Punon
Peopl e al l
tous l es hommes
al l the men
kanY� Punon
vi 1 1 ages al l
tous l es vi l l ages
al l the vi l l ages
11.
,
.... .
1 ...
13.
L M
M LM
nd� sakaabf Punt
mY 90ats al l
toutes me� chevres
al l mY 90ats
14.
SaCi nYE ?are:
men
manY
15.
M ML M
beaucouP d ' hommes
- manY men
SakanYE '?are:
90ats manY
beaucoup de chevres
manY 90c!i:s
1 ilnYE ?a:<E
water manY
beaucouP d ' eau
much water
wa
someone
quel qu ' un
someone
16.
17.
----- -- - - - - - ---
----- - --- ---- -------
370
19.
des hommes
some men
pH
some
1 9.
M
pH b H P�n ba
some they come M
20 .
21 .
22 .
23.
j ' ai achete du r i z
I have bou9ht some rice
ci nk�na l� tun sE n?i n
d o manner an other a9ai n
Y a-t-i l un autre moYen de faire
cel a?
nYe nd€l l a l aa
i s that on Q
i s there another waY ef doi n9 that?
SE nYe?ara
Peopl e manY
yaci
VP-not
H
ML
Ycil M
a9ai n?
28 .
L M
ML
l aa kcro
M
xa jo
ii:
d ' autres hommes ont d i t qu ' i l s ne
1 ' avai ent Pas vu
some other men have sai d that they
did not see him
nkuu
da
kanna na nYe ndud
chi ckens l i tt l e onl Y
be mi ne
26 .
27.
.
nya€n
wd
h i m see-Ne9.
m�l a c�r� kanna
rice l i tt l e onl Y
Peu d ' hommes l ' ont vu
few men have seen him
nya€n
wu
h i m see-Ne9.
P� l a�
na
ju
some others saY that
L
25 .
des hemmes sent venus te voi r
some men have come to see You
m�na ndaA S::l
rice
I
buy
Peri
n.i
theY-REF VP
24 .
mo wee
You vi si t
je n ' ai qUE Peu de poul ets
I have but few chi c kens
il ne reste que Peu de ri z
there remai ns but l i ttle rice
. di s-I e encore
saY it a9ain
saY
M
il l ' a fai t encore
he did it a9ai n
yaUci l a c�
he a9ai n? ii: do
lOla
ML
H
nda yaci nda ci nkanna do m€
I not that do �anner know Ne9.
�- � ---�----
je ne sai s Pas fai re ca
I don ' t know how to do that
37 1
29.
30.
31 .
32 .
33.
34.
35 .
36.
37.
38 .
39.
40.
-----
nya€n
nda Ya� wu
I not him see-Neg.
je ne l ' ai Pas vu
I d i d not see h i m
wu Ya mi nanj��
he come today
i l va ven i r aujourd ' hui
he wi l l come today
bi � Pan t��j��
they come YesterdaY
i l s sont venus h i er
they came yesterdaY
bi Ya met nY�"'Panl')a
theY come tomorrow
i l s vent veni r demain
they wi l l come towmerrow
l a7a Pan ny�mPan�a
return come tomorrow
revi ens demain
return tomorrow
Mw
Pan na 1 07i f namb�er�m€
come water r i ght nOI'4
aPPorte de l ' eau tout de sui te
bring some water ri ght awaY
wu nYe kan7an l a
h e b e vi l l age i n
i l est au vi l l age en ce moment
he i s at the vi l l age at this moment
nd� na mPan
I
come
H
mo sH na
You but Vp
nambed?
r i ght now
n�71n ta�jaa.
here yesterday
nci �7€£n
be here-Neg.
je sui s venu ici h i er . mai s tu
n ' etai s Pas a
I came here yesterday , but You were
not there
H
L M
waa t� f n n�7;n canncaa suunnf
he staY here daYs
two
i l est reste la deux jours
he stayed there two days
yal ari n� nci
wa€
food
be there-Neg.
i l n ' Y avai t Pas de nourri ture
there wasn ' t anY food there
wu gbak� nYe waa �€ [nYeaan�t ]
his house be there
sa mai son est la-bas
h i s house i s over there
L M
wcr� sa ba n�ri wad �i ny�mpan�a
we Fut .
go
there tomorrow
nous i rons l A demai n
we wi l l go there tomorrow
-- -. . _ - _ .._------
la
372
41 .
Mw
L M
nd� nYe nd� '�m66nnE
thi s be mY
kni fe
ceci est mon couteau
th i s i s mY kni f e
4 2.
Mw
nd� nYe '�m�ntafesd?
thi s be kni fe-pretty
ceci est un j ol i couteau
thi s i s a Pretty kni fe
43.
L M T?
nk� nYe nY£?E�n
thi s be what
qu ' est-ce que ceci?
what i s this?
nk� 9bakaa psI �
thi s house l arge
cette mai sen est 9rande
thi s house is l arge
nta ka�taa P�n?�n:<�
thi s meat
tou9h
cette vi and e est dure
thi s meat i = tou9h
46.
Mw
nd� nYe '�m�ncEnnE
that be kni fe-900d
cel a est un bon couteau
that i s a 900d kni fe
47.
M L M
Mw
nd� nYe nd� '�m66nnE
that be mY
kni f e
cel a est men couteau
that i s mY knife
L M T?
nk� nYe nYE?€sn
that be what
'=!u ' est-ce que cel a?
what i s that?
nk� 9bak" kaa psI � dE
that house
l arge
cette mai son-l� est 9rande
that house is l arge
M L
�9atun waa k�r� j Os
who he that saY
qui a di t cel a?
who sai d that?
wa� kaf?ka fo wu kanU?Aki l i
he wi nd b l ow h i s hands-i n
il a souff l e dans ses mai ns
he b l ew in h i s hands
kaf?ka Ya fau f�n?�n l a
wi nd i s b l owi n9 f orce on
Ie vent souf f l e fort
the wind b l ows stron9l y
wu Ya �m�nn� l �
h e i s breathi n9 Q
resPi re-t-i l ?
i s he breath i n9?
44.
45 .
48.
49 .
50.
51 .
52.
373
54 .
55.
56 .
H
nk� k�"c i � nYi�€ . ka
it
wet
this wood
Ya?s
nta nyf mE
wi l l -Neg. INC burn Ne9.
ce boi s est humi de. i l ne brOl eia
Pas
thi s wood i s damp. i t wi l l not burn
L M Mw
H
naka nda Yar�nYa Pun� sorax6
f i re mY thi n9s al l
burn
I e .feu a brOl e tous mes objets
the f i re burned al l mY thi ngs
�9atun wu Ya rna
w€�
who he come there-Q
'=lui arri ve?
who ' s comi ng?
w�
wa
na nkol al o
she throw and
crY
el l e s l est mi se � crier
she started to crY
wa kal (a) la� mon
be-I on9
she crY
el l e a eri e l on 9temPs
she cri ed a l on9 � i me
sap�l abf Ya nko?i k�n?�nka
Peopl e are dancing vi l l age
ML
.fan�H
i nsi de-in
l es gens sont en trai n danser au
vi l l age
57.
58 .
59.
60.
61 .
the People are danci ng at the
vi l l age
H
b i i kj7A� nY�ka mbax i
they dance morni n9 oPei!
i l s ant danse toute l a nui t
they danced the whol e ni 9ht
L M ML
nda tor"ja
ka
mY father d i ed
mon P�re est mort
mY father is dead
waa k� tfnje�
he di e l ast Year
i l est mort l ' an dern i er
he died last Year
nkatunna�a� tu nYal"}9a l a
fal l ground on
monkeY
I e si nge est tombe sur I e sol
the monkey has f al l en on the ground
62.
63.
64 .
ka� tu
i t fal l
l o?okH
the water-i n
c l est tombe dans l ' eau
it fel l i n the water
wa� tu�
he fal l
kd ka
the arm
i l est tombe et s l est casse I e bras
he fel l and broke h i s arm
65 .
kE :d
break
- ---- -------
374
66.
i:ak.:{a t u il
tree fal l
Pari
kiina
t.he road cross
l ' arbre est. t.omb� a t.raverse I e
chemi n
t.he t.ree has fal l en across t.he road
67.
ma?an
nta t Y�xa m€
You-Neg. I NC afrai d Neg.
n ' ai e Pas Peur
don " c be afrai d
waa fYail
he fear
i l a eu Peur
he was af raid
wu na nda conl a�a b� y� 9b6n
he and mY brot.her t.heY h i t / f i 9ht
lui et. mon t rere se sont. bat.t.us
he and mY brot.her t ought. each other
waa xa � l o?ok i i 1
he i t. throw wat.er-i n
h�n x� �{ na nY�ni
H oat.
i t.
i l a j et.� cel a dans I ' eau . et. cel a
a t l oH�
he threw t.hat. in t.he wat.er . and i t
f l oated
68.
69.
70.
71 .
M
L
l ilka Ya kan?an ka Pad (?) �
ri ver i s vi l l age crossi n9
l a riviere cou l e a travers I e
vi l l age
the ri ver f l ows through t.he vi l l age
72.
nka nci � n�9a l a l ilka
t.hi s di rect.i on on r i ver
l a ri vi �re coul e dans cet.t.e
di recti on
s�
l d?�ka Ya t uu na
wat.er i s
and goi ng
the ri ver f l ows i n th i s di rection
sancHnna yad
fly
b i rd
l ' oi seau s ' est envoI �
the bird i s in f l i ght
la
it.
i l ne sai t. Pas vol er
he doesn ' t know how t.o f l y
73 .
74 .
75.
Ya?a
n j a �jara mt
Fut. . Ne9. be abl e f l y Ne9.
H
waa d?€
he l au9h
76 .
i l a ri
he l aughed
H
waa sanE
he l i e down
----- ----------
i l s ' est couch€!
he went t.o bed
------�
-- �--,�- - "
:375
77 .
H
waa HnM.1 nYa :( a
k.1nndilka
la
he si t see i ts vi l l age-same? on
i l a hab i U dans I e m@me vi l l a';e
he l i ved i n the same vi l l age
wu s£ n?in nYe si
l a l aa
he sh l l be l i f e wi th Q
est-i l encore vi vant?
i s he l i vi n9 a9ai n ?
73.
79.
H
bi i m�n?�nki cel .1.1 nY� ka mbilx !
they son9 sin9 mornin9 oPen
30 .
81 .
i l s ont chante toute l a nui t
theY san9 the whol e ni9ht
H
waa tUn
he si t
i l s ' est assis
he sat
H
L
M
waa ')m�nl � cannc.1a hand
he sl eep days
three
32.
;I
wa.1 j u
na.
he sPeak wi th
i l a dormi trois j ours
he sl ept three daYs
H
dax�taxa')i i
chi ef-wi th
i l a Par l e au chef
he spoke to the chi ef
33 .
wa.1 j u
fan?an · l a
he sPeak force wi t h
i l a Parl er fort
he spoke l oud lY
waa ka?axa can nYa,)9a l a
he sPi t drop 9round on
i l a crache Par terre
he sPat on the ground
waa yad
he get uP
i l s ' est l eve
he 90t uP
34.
85.
36 .
H
waa yere
he stoP
i l s ' est arr�te
he stoPPed
Ya?a
waa j uuba
he sPeech l eave. stoP
i l a cesse de Parler
he stoPPed b I ki ng
87 .
88.
takil nYi r"]l mi ntaun
tree be-wet and swel l
I e boi s est devenu humide et i 1
90ntle
the wood has become damp and i s
swol l en
wu kekaa tailn
h i s arm swel l
sen bras s ' est gen t l e
his arm has swol l en
H
89.
a
376
90.
91 .
92.
93.
94.
95 .
96.
97.
98.
99.
1 00 .
101 .
nda Yaa 1 070 ctn mE
I not water know Ne9.
je ne sai s Pas nager
I don ' t know how to swi m
H
ndaa 1 070ka nYan tor6
r i ver swi m cross
I
j ' ai traverse 1 a r i vi ere a 1 a nage
I swam across the ri ver
L M
nda Ya suun na nd� sa 1 �
thi n k that I fut. i t
I
dn .ncee
know do
H
j e Pense que j e sai s fai re ca
I thi nk I know how to do that
ndaa xa son�� ca�9a k�
i t thi n k day end
I
j ' ai Pense a ca toute 1a j ourn�e
I thought of that al l daY
nda caa suun
na wu sa mPan
th ink that he fut. come
I
j ' ai Pens� qu ' i 1 a1 1 ai i: veni r
I thought that h e was 90i ng t o come
H
waa a74
he return
i 1 s ' est retourn�
he returned
waa bra�a kar��a
he canoe return
i l a rei:ourne l a Pi r09ue
he returned the canoe
•
H
waa kara we� sa ndn 1')9a
l ook to k��w who
he turn
'"
wu ma wa'"
1')ge
he come there CLAUSE M
L
M
9baya hand t6r6
houses three Pass
kanda:<e
ri9ht
mi
i l a tourne 1 a i:@i:e Pour voi r qu i
venai i:
he turned h i s head to see who was
comin9
wa. kara
turn
depasse troi s mai sons Pui s i:ourne a
droi t
90 Past three houses then turn r H lht
wu Yaa nblx �
vomi t
he
i 1 vomi t
he throws uP
wClraa Yera ss:<aa mo
we YOU wai t b e-1 0n9
nous vous avons attendu l on9temPs
we wai ted tor yOU a 1 0n9 t i me
L
M
377
wu Ya
nca na nY� �ra mt
he Neg. be-ab l e
wal k Neg·
1 02 .
1 03.
1 04 .
1 05.
1 06 .
1 07.
1 08 .
1 09 .
1 10 .
111.
1 12.
1 13.
i l ne sai t Pas marcher
he doesn ' t know how to wal k
H
waa l ux !
i:aki i
he cl i mb tree-i n
i l a gri mP' dans l ' arbre
he cl i mbed the tree
H
waa l ux !
t 6 nYan�ga ny� nti n f i
h e c l i mb unt i l h i l l
toP-PP
i l a mont' j usqu ' au sommet de l a
coU i ne
he cl i mbed to the toP ot the h i l l
I u:<! na7�n mt
c:l i mb here
montes ici
cl i mb uP here
waa Ux � nYan�ga l a
he descend h i l l PP
i l descendu de la col l i ne
he Came down from the h i l l
H
ML
waa c��a l urax6 t�l aka nYu�! i
he chi l d l it t stone head-PP
i l a h i ss' l ' entant sur l a Pi erre
he l i t ted the chi l d uP onto the stone
H
wa� keka nce
he arm wash
i l a l av' I e bras
he washed h i s arm
waa c��a taraxa tak i -i
he ch i l d descend tree-PP
i l a descendu l ' entant de l ' arbre
he 90t the ch i l d down trom the tree
wa� tor i
he go out
gbak! -i
house-PP
waa yad
he l eave
k�n?�nk i -i
vi I l age-PP
wa� �m� l a
he kni te
wul 6
take out
i l .est sorti de l a maison
he went out of the house
i l a qui tt' I e vi l l age
he let t the vi l l age
L
9bugbQn�gi -i
box-the-PP
i l a pri s un couteau hors de l a
boi te
he took a kni fe out of the box
wdra� nci gbaki -i
we enter house-PP
sommes entr's dans l a mai son
l et ' s 90 i n the house
tYanY£7€n l a�
ji
enter
t i sh manY
beaucouP de Poi ssons sont entr's
dans la nasse
sa�n�i
net-PP
- ---- ----.--- ------
378
manY f i sh have entered the net
1 1 4.
1 15.
1 16 .
1 17.
1 18 .
1 19 .
120.
121 -
122.
123 .
124 .
waa mjl �l)a ne ( ? ) beh k!-i
he rice put
ba9-i n
i l a mi s I e riz dans I e sac
he put the rice i n the ba9
l o?o ne tonna cddn!-i
water Put metal Pot-pp
mets de l ' eau dans l a marmite
put some water i n the Pot
H
waa wi l � kdn m ! sana s! n
he hol e cut and Post Plant
il
un
he
in
waa kaYi (?) d� ne iW:JkH
he meat-pi ece Put. mouth-i n
i l a mi s u n morceau d e vi ande dans
la bouche
he Put a Pi ece of meat in h i s mouth
wdra y�d kan?an l a
we l eave vi l l age
H
L M
Mw
kad wdra
t.ai:a
90 our Pl antati on
ma
to
nous sommes al l �s du vi l l age a notre
Pl antat i on
la
pp
we went from the vi l l age to our
Pl antat ion
waa y�d kan?an l a t<1l")ja
he l eave vi l l age PP yest.erday
a creuse un trou et i l y a Plant�
Pi quet
dug a hol e and he Pl anted a Post
it
i l a qui tte I e vi l l age h i er
he l ett t.he vi l l age Yesterday
H
waa kad
ny� ka l a
he l eave morn i ng PP
i l est Par ci Ie matin
he l eft i n the morni n9
wdraa non n�?an tarija
we arri ve here yesterday
nous sommes arri v�s ici h i er
we arri ved here yesterday
L H
wdraa non na?an Yakdl')9a l a
we arri ve here eveni ng PP
nous sommes arri v�s i ci Ie soi r
we arri ved here i n the even i ng
waa Yi u kilna l a
he jump road PP
i l a saut� a traver I e chemi n
he jumped across the road
wa� Yi u Wa takH
he j ump
tree-PP
i l a saut� de l ' arbre
he jumped from the tree
379
1 25 .
waa kunnaa Yi u �9a wu Yaa non
mi i l a saut� mai s n ' a Pas Pu attei ndre
he
road j ump but he not arr i ve Neg .
he j umped but cou l d not make i t
1 26 .
mon
bH
juu
they tal k be-l ong
i l s ont par l � 1 0n9temPs
they tal ked t or a 1 0n9 t i me
127.
bi
wil
they he
k� nco
tal k about ( der09atorY )
i l s ont Par l � de l u i
theY tal ked about h i m
128.
1 29 .
1 30 .
wu Ya Yu
fan (? ) an l a
sPeak
he
torce PP
i 1 ParI e f ort
he speaks l oud l Y
ML
waa Y i u tanYu�ga l a
1 09
PP
h e jumP
i l a saut� par-dessus l a bucne
he j umped over the l og
LH
n d a Y a s�c�ra
Yil
senoufo speak
I
j e par l e du senoufo
I ' m tal k i n9 about senouto
waa t�mpal a
wa
he noi se-b i g? throw
i I a pouss� un cri
he 9ave a crY
H
ndaa kill ( � ) 1 6
crY out
I
l< � l 6de
i t hear-Neg .
j ' ai cr i � mai s . i l s n e m ' ont Pas
entendu
I c r i ed out but theY d i d not hear me
131 .
1 32 .
1 33 .
panryaa wu
dog h i s
134.
1 35 .
1 36 .
�ga b i Ya
but they not
Mw
t55ka non
l eg b i te
MwML
waa l< � k6n
kaYfna
takak i
h e i t cut meat-Pi ece Pl ace-chew-PP
Ie ch i en l u i a mordu l a j ambe
the dog b i t h i m on the l e9
i l a arracne en mordant un morceau de
vi ande
he b i t otf /t ore ot f a Pi ece of meat
waa m�U S::J?::J
she r i ce cook
eI I e a t ai t cui re du r i z
she cooked some r i ce
waa n kill a S::J?:l
she ch i cken cook
el l e a f ai t cui re un pou l et
she cooked a ch i c ken
380
y
1 37 .
H
waa nkilLlbf Bri
she chickens couni:
1 38 .
1 39.
el l e a compi:e l es poul ets
she couni:ed i:he chickens
H
wa.i bni:a kon
nal')9i i
he l i ana cui: mi ddle-i n?
i l a i:ranche l a l i ane
he cui: the l i ana
Wa... v�.nmp� ! k6n
i l a coupe Ie i:issu
he cui: the c l oth
waa k£ka konl i
he hand cui:
i l s ' esi: couPe a l a mai n
he cut h i s hand
he
c l oth
cui:
1 40 .
141 .
L
M ML
waa k.inc� s6r6xaya Pan la
he
cui:
� i rewood
i l a couPe du boi s .i brQl er
he cui: some f i rewood
wu ya.i nka nk6n nk�nna ctn mE
he not that cut manner know Ne9.
i l ne sai i: Pas couPer ca
he doesn ' t know how to cui: that
1 42 .
143.
LH
wu Ya ndjraYe i:Ciri
Yams
d i g uP
he
i l est en t rai n de deterrer l es
ignames
he i s di ggi ng uP Yams
1 44 .
waa
he
1 45
9ba
dri nk
l unYE ?E nxa
water-much
i l a bu beaucouP d ' eau
he drank a l ot of water
•
...'draa mjl a B
we r i ce eai:
1 46 .
nous avons mange du r i z
we ate some r i ce
H
wdra.i kara
k.i
we meai: chew-eat
1 47.
nous avons mange de l a vi ande
we ate some meai:
LM-H
wa.i w€ra kan
ndilCi
he moneY gi ve me-PP
i l m ' a donne de l ' argent
he 9ave me some moneY
w€ra kan
nuLl
moneY 9i ve me-PP
donne moi de I ' argeni:
';i ve me some moneY
1 48 .
1 49
•
. - �- ---. ----
381
1 50 .
ndaa x� l 6x 6
I
i t hear
j ' ai entendu cel a
I heard that
L M
moo r.d� 9b6n ( :::: ? )
You me
hit
tu m ' as frappe
You h i t me
waa b i
9b6n
he theY h i t N i 9h t
i l l es a baHu
he f ought them
waa Pdnl')a hun
he
dog k i c k
i l a donne un couP de P i ed au ch i en
he k i c ked the d09
M L
wd. Pdn l')a nY�?� n k6n
he
d09
f ace cut
i l a rel:enu I e ch i en
he restrai ned the do9
15! .
1 52.
1 53 .
1 54 .
H
sakal')e 9bo
they 90at k i l l
i l s ont tue une ch�vre
they k i l l ed a 90at
bH
155.
H
"
ndolii wu caa 1')ge ndaa d n
that he want CL
know
I
je sai s ce qu ' i l veut
I know what he wants
ndaa wil d n
I
he know
je I e connai s
I know h i m
1 56 .
1 57 .
H
mi i na nt�l e -nt? or d?
roPe pul l
b re l a corde
pu l l the roPe
tal')ge !:al a n �?an mE
1 09 Push there over
Pousse l a bQche Par l a
push the 1 09 over there
1 58 .
1 59 .
ML
waa wil kE € k a tUUl< 0
he h i s arm
rub
1 60 .
H
waA Yacsna tOn l �x i n a kanc�t i �
he bel l Y scratch wi th nai l s-PP
161 .
i l a f rotte son bras
he rubbed h i s arm
ci
bi i
ma
bi
they do/tel l they come
i l s ' est 9ratte I e ventre avec l es
ongl es
he scratched h i s stomach wi th h i s
nai l s
d i s l eur de ven i r
tel l them to come
- --- ------ ------
382
1 62.
waa ma;
bi
ci
tU,/a
thei r f ather do/tel l he come
d i s a l eur P�re de ven i r
tel l thei r father t o come
nYa?an waa jo�
what he saY-C!
qu I a-t-i l dH?
what d i d he saY?
ndaa saxasa"cuun nYa
I
bush cat
see
j ' ai
ndaa vanl i\l")a j ool i
I
sew
c l oth
j ' ai cousu I e ti ssu
I sewed the cloth
1 63.
1 64 .
vu un l eopard
I saw a l eoPard
165.
166.
LM
nda Yaa 'I')guraxo nduxa Ua
I
smoke odour smel l
je sens la fumee
I smel l the smoke
waa nkan l aka Y::I
he
stick spl i i:
i l a f endu I e b�ton
h e spl i t the stick
1 67 .
1 68.
ML
waa wll sil ka fi\d
he h i m skin Pi nch
1 69 .
L M
i l s l est Pi nce l a Peau
he Pi nched h i msel f
ML
waa ndi\ k€€ k a f E ri
he mY arm Pi nch
i 1 a Pi nce mon br'as
he Pi nched mY arm
waa naaka f YE n
he wound drai n
i l a suce l a pl ai e
he drai ned the wound
1 70 .
171 .
1 72 .
L M
pi\mp!nnY� ka na ncaa '/m�di
was
nursing
babY
1e
waa ka"kanl axa wet;
throw
he
sti c k
i l a j ete un b�ton
he threw a stick
waa mE ta klld
he roPe b e
i l a noue l a corde
he t i ed the roPe
bebe tl!t:ai t
the babY was nursing
1 73.
- ---- -------
383
1 74 .
waa sak;iiI'"Ja Po t:axa 1 03
he 90at t i e tree to
i l a attache 1 03 chQvre a un arbre
he tied the 90at to a tree
waa bl!h ka kild
he ba9 t i e
i l noue I e sac
he ti ed the ba9
175.
1 76.
L
H
LH
waa vanmp� ( � ?) ba ncQ
he
wash
cl oth
i l a l ave I e ti ssu
he washed the cloth
waa k�nYa ncQ
he hand wash
i l s ' est l ave l es mai ns
he washed h i s hands
waa 1 070 wuI !
he water wash
i l a Pri s un bai n
he teok a bath
waa I)muuna tuuxo
he kni f e w i Pe
i l a essuYe I e couteau
he wi Ped the kni fe
bH 9ba:<a f aanri
they house bui l d
i l s ont construi t une mai son
they bui l t a house
1 77 .
1 78 .
1 79 .
1 80 .
181 .
L
M
bi Yaa 9baxa faanru
they
house bui l d
i l s construi sent une mai son
they are bui l di n9 a house
ndaa sama s;:]
I
oi l buy
j ' ai achete de 1 ' hui l e
I bou9ht some oi l
1 82.
183.
H
Aka fa:l ake
B
this stone Pi ck uP
1 84.
ramasse cette Pi erre
pick uP thi s stone
H
waa kaYarakf Puna bal e
he Pi eces al l 9ather
i l a ramasse tous l es morceaux
he 9athered al l the Pi eces
nUsill a nYe yawi 9bol ;:,
el ePhant be ani mal -l arge
un el ephant est un 9rand ani mal
an el ePhant i s a l arge animal
185.
1 86 .
L M
ML
nda n;:,:·:an�bal @na nYe nda j3
thi s I i H I e boY be mY son
- -- _._-----
ce peti t 9arcon est mon f i l s
thi s l i ttl e boY i s mY son
384
1 87.
LM-H
LM
n� nkoo sudn nYe ndad
chi l dren two be mi ne-PP
1 88 .
j ' ai deux enfants
I have two chi l dren
LM-H
M L
gb�a nYe ndad
nkau
chickens six be mine
j ' ai six poul ets
f have si x chi ckens
ML
1 89 .
�guk� wa sii ka suu fari
thorn his skin Pi erce
l ' ePi ne l ui a traverse I e Pi ed
the thorn went through h i s foot
saru waa nda non na k££ ka l a
bee he me b i te mY hand PP
une abei l l e m ' a Pi que a l a mai n
a bee stung mY hand
1 90 .
191.
Mw
WQ
waa nda non na tjjka l a
snake he me b i te mY foot PP
1 92 .
L M
i l m ' a hi t mal
i t hurt me
kaa nda y"d
i t me hurt
1 93 .
un serPent m ' a mordu I e P i ed
a snake b i t mY feat
L M
tjjk& Ya nda yad
me hurt
foot
j ' ai mal au Pi ed
mY foot hurts
wa� lo?o kaun
he water boi l
i l a fai t boui l l i r de I ' eau
he boi l ed the water
1 94.
1 95 .
H
i l a fai t frire une vi ande
he fried some meat
waa kara kall
he meat frY
1 96 .
H
waa barant3n kaL(
he bananas roast
i l a fai t r8ti r des bananes
he roasted some bananas
f�
waa faun
he Peanuts roast
i l a fai t '3ri l l er des arachi des
he roasted some peanuts
l o?oka Ya nk","n !
water
boi l
l ' eau est en trai n de boui l l i r
the water i s boi l i ng
b i i m::n-nY£ ?un wtri
they rice much Pl ant
i l s ant pl ante beaucoup de ri z
theY Pl anted a l ot of r i ce
1 97 .
1 98.
1 99 .
. - -- ------- .
:385
200.
LH
bi i nd�r�Yi nd�K i
they Yams Pl ant
i l s ont Plante des i 9names
they Pl anted some Yams
Yaa m3nl ��a f��
bi
they
rice wi nnow
i l s sont en trai n de vanner I e riz
the · are wi nnowi n9 the ri ce
ndaa m�3n-nYE ?axa Pir€
I
r i ce much sel l
j ' ai vendu beaucoup de r i z
I sol d a lot of r i ce
201 .
202.
203.
L
ML
waa k��9b i n' kE E x i
he sti c k break
2(04 .
L
ML
kaF)9b ! naa kE E l<i
sti ck
break
205.
i l a casse I e b�ton
he broke the sti ck
I e b�ton est casse
the sti ck i s broken
H
waa mina ken
he roPe cut
206 .
i l a casse l a corde
he broke the roPe
H
mi n," ken
roPe cut
l a corde est casse
the roPe is broken
kon ' yakon ' YS
wa� Pena nca
he bowl shaHer
Pi eces ?
i l � casse Ie Pot en morceaux
he broke the bowl i n Pi eces
wu
Ya?a.
�ja l<a kE x a mt
he Ne9. fui: . be-ab l e i t break Ne9.
i 1 ne Peut Pas I e briser
he cannot break i t
207.
208.
209.
H
waa i:or6 n aran mt
he Pass here
210.
H
wa� nda 9baka ter6
he mY house Pass
21 1 .
i l a depasse ma mai son
he Passed by mY house
H
nd' kUna waa 1 3
thi s road he take
212.
i l a Passe Par i ci
he Passed by here
L M
ML
wor�
ka
nHan
Ya
qur manner VP-Ne9. Pl ease
mP!
sxnbi l i mt
these People-PP Ne9.
i l a Pri s ce chemi n
he took th is road
ces gens-l a nous detestent
those People hate us
- ---- ------- ------
386
213.
L M
t1L
ki:f
wor�
our
2 1 4.
H
si n b U i
tMn mP:L
ces gens-l � nous ai ment
manner Pl ease these Peopl e-PP those Peopl e l i ke us
H
H
ML
wu ma� na"'k::J:Jra � Uan wu-i
our also chi l dren
Pl ease us-PP
215.
chacun ai me ses enfant.s
everYone loves thei r chi l dren
H-L
waa ju
war� sa wu
cu.
he saY he-REF fut . h i m catch
i l a essayt! de 1 ' attraper mai s i l
n ' a Pas Pu
H
wu s�
Ya
nca mE
he but Ne9-VP be-ab l e Ne9.
216.
217.
LM
nda Ya suun s�
j u na mo-i n
je veux te Parler
I VP desire fut sPeak wi th You-PP I want. to t.al k to
ML?
YOU
M
1 070
k�l a
nYe nda l a
water manner ? i s m e on
218. L M
219.
he tri ed t.o trap h i m but he could
not
je veux de l ' eau
I want. some water
ML
nd� l�
nYe s�
ni:a
I desi re be f ut . Con . Inc .
t�ba7about� tanbi
french
l earn
je veux aPPrendre I e francai s
I want to l earn french
waa Y�ri
na nc�7:L
he get. uP and l au9h
i l s ' est mi s a rire
he st.arted t.o lau9h
waa koClna Ya7a
he cou9h stoP
i l a cesst! de tousser
he stoPPed cough i ng
220.
221 .
H
wa� nk� 5070 n kanna ctn
he that. cook manner know
i l sait Prsparer cel a
he knows how to make that
wu .1 aa nci wi nc(:il oF)Sn .
he desire be he be-healed
waa yal a ma taba
9ba
med i ci ne dri n k
he shou l d
s ' i l veut 9ut!r i r . i l doi t. Prendre
du remede
i t he wants to be cured . he must
t.ake some medicine
LH
nda Yaa nd�r�Y:L sol i
Pound
I VP
Yams
je suis en trai n de Pi l er des i 9names
I am pounding some Yams
222 .
223 .
- ---- ------. -----
387
224 .
bi wll n i:a1aa. Yi I a:<e 9baki -i
they he p� l l
house-PP
i l l ' oni: i:rarne hors d e l a mai son
they dra9ged h i m out of the house
ndaa wu tun ntax atilx al")iln
he send
I
c:h i ef-PP
je l ' ai envoye c:hez Ie c:hef
I sent h i m to the c:h i ef
ndaa. wira t6r6x6 1")0un
moneY send h i m
I
je l ui ai envoYe de 1 ' argent
I sent h i m some moneY
225.
226 .
227.
L
s.. l:ata punaa ra ye
9b6xo
peopl e al l t hemsel ves assemb l e
c:aank! i
market-i n
tous l es gens se sont rassembl es
au marche
everYone ';ets together at the market
bi � sacata 'Obo:<[)
they People assemb l e
i l s ont rassembl e l es gens
they assembl ed the peopl e
kafonI")9i 1 a.1 non
kannya Puna l a
news
arri ve vi l l ages al l i n
l es nouvel l es se repandent dans tous
l es vi l l ages
the news sPreads i n al l the vi l l ages
tal aka c:an
nYal"}9a l a
mat. sPread 9round
etends 1 a natte Par terre
sPread the mat over the 9round
sadtaa CEraXE
Peopl e di sperse
l es gens se sent di sperses
the Peopl e have di spersed
228.
229.
230 .
231 -
232 .
H
v.1nnya Y�ral")€ n !7an m€
l aundrY han9 there
233 .
H
mets a. Pendre Ie l i nge l a
han9 u P the l aundrY there
H
1 M kan c:i 'lna PanIc!
mac:hete take
c:ut
rod
gbes@
234 .
H
�
n ka kdn na " I")m::ll i -i
that. cut with kn i fe-PP
Prends une
mac:hette et. c:ouPe l a
ba9ueHe i c: i
take a mac:hete and c:ut t h e rod here
eouF'e ea avec: un c:outeau
cut that wi th a kni fe
- ---- --------- ------
388
235.
waa '�muuna Ya?a l aa tu
he
knife l et i t fal l
nY��9a l a
9round on
i l a l ai ss� tomber I e couteau Par
ter"re
he l et the knife fal l to the 9round
'�muunc1a tu nY��9a l a
kni h
tal l 9round on
I e couteau est tomb� par terre
the kn i fe has t al l en to the 9round
waa suxa 9bexale
he mortar make
i l a f abri que un mortier
he made a mortar
waa tu nt�nna �m� l a 9bexale
he
i ron
knife make
i l a f abr i que un coteau for9�
he made a torged knife
236.
237.
238.
239.
240.
M
waa Pdnndal a jool i
sew
he Pants
il a contectionne un pantal on
he made a Pai r of pants
nYa?an mo Ya n kun y�
what You VP do Q
qu ' est-ce que tu es en trai n de
fai re?
what are YOU doi ng?
24 1 .
H
moo waa n ka 9be:(�I� l a
You
thi s make/do Q
242.
as-tu f ai t ceci ?
did You do thi s?
H
maa ma co�a gbex�l a l a
You Your net PrePare Q
as-tu Prepare ton f i l et?
have You Prepared Your net?
waa kan?an�9a 9bex�l e l a
PrePare Q
he
traP
a-t-i l PrePar� I e pi ege?
has he set the trap?
243.
244 .
M
te na a
ka ci n kana
it do manner show me on
245.
M
kuna te na a
road show me on
246.
montre-moi comment taire ca
show me how to do that
montre-moi I e chemi n
show me the road
M
'�muclnna te na a
ma
kn if e show me on
Your
montre-moi ton couteau
show me Your kni te
389
247.
248.
249.
ma nda Yara l aa
You me cal l
Q
est-ce que tu m ' as appe l e?
d i d You cal l me?
M
waa wdra y�d
he
we cal l
i l nous a appel es
he cal l ed us
b i i mamkl il Yar i
they Mamadou cal l
i l s ont aPPel e Mamadou
they cal l ed Mamadou
waa kob
he cou9h
i l a tousse
he cou9hed
waa c�d
he sneez e
i l a eternue
he sneezed
waa cilill d
he bel ch ..
i l a eructe
?
waa k t n
he 9roan
i 1 a gemi
he 9roaned
waa sawe?ar� j o
?
he
saY
i l a c huchote
he wh i spered
250.
251 -
252.
253.
254 .
255. L M
ML
nd� ny(i"J9a Yaa nda t ilB
?
mY
head VP me
256. L M
257.
258.
259.
j ' ai mal a l a t@te
I have a headache
Mw
L M
nda 1 5' ka Yaa nd� w al ax c:i
?
mY b i l e?
me
j ' ai mal a 1 ' estomac
I h ave a stomachache
M
suna
n Y� nda 1.1
di arrhea b e me on
j ' ai l a d i arrhee
I h ave d i arrhea
M
nYe nda 1.1
c i t ura
bodY-heat be me on
j ' ai l a t i erre de la temperature
I have a tever
M
kat�ka nY� nda U
hunger be me on
j ' ai hi m
I ' m hUn9rY
260 .
wuu
l et us
s! c E n k a l a
90 market to
al l ons au march�
l et ' s 90 to the market
26 1 .
262.
nda� baara c i nan j � ( � )
I
work do today
j ' ai travai l l e aujourd ' hu i
I worked today
M L
n k a nYe
9ba9b� l S
that b e house-l arge
cel a est une 9rande mai son
that is a l arge house
bi
9bakUl p�l u
the i r house l arge
l eur mai son est 9rande
the i r house i s l arge
263.
264 .
l ilnYi '"Ja
col d water
265.
kan
nlllln
9 i ve me-PP
H
l o?okaa nY� '"J€
water cool
donne moi de l ' eau troi de
9i ve me some col d water
l ' eau est trai che
the water is cool
266.
Pan
ni
s�nci waYi !
wu
come wi th drY wood-pp so-we
ba ne nak i i
M Put t i re-i n
aPPorte du boi s sec Pour I e feu
bri n9 some drY wood t or the t i re
s�nci nya Ya� wa?E t
not drY
woed
Ie boi s n ' est Pas sec
the wood i s not drY
267 .
268 .
' r;r"l::lPE nX�
Jl:n. ; e-b l unt
H
L
I')ja
Ya?cJ,
Ne9 . t u t . be-ab l e
un couteau emousse ne couPera Pas
de vi ande
H
269.
270.
kaata k()£ n
meat cut
a b l unt k n i f e wi l l not cut meat
nda ' '1muunn aa PE n
th i s kn i t e VP b l unt
ce couteau est emousse
th i s kn i fe i s b l unt
H
Y�ra k�n7aan a H l a
Your vi l l age far Q
est-ce que votre vi l l age est l oi n?
i s Your vi l l age t ar awaY ?
------ - ---- -------
39 1
271 .
272.
H
waa k.id taB H:d -i
he ';0 Pl ace-hr-PP
i l est aI l e l oi n
he has gone far awaY
Mw ML-H
,
wa.1 Pan
na.
sama sak.£-!
he come wi th fat 90at-PP
i l a aPPorte une chevre 9rasse
he brou9ht a fat goat
1')9€! sakil')a pun€! nYe sam�
th i s 90at al l be fat
cette chevre est 9rasse
thi s goat i s fat
273.
274 .
,
wd. Pan
na se?etafeed� !
he come with basket-Pretty-pp
i l a aPPorte un jol i Pani er
he brought a Pretty basket
Ad€! se?ena.1 nYon
that basket be-Pretty
ce Pan i er-l a est jol i
that basket is pretty
1')9€! n.1l')a zi:lnl')a.1 nYon
that man heard be-900d
: ' est un homme bon
tha.t i s a 900d man
M
kaPi I a c i wdra l a
theY bad do us on
i l s nous on fai t du mal
theY did us an i njurY
275 .
276.
277.
bH
278.
ju
wa.1 kapa:<ala
he bad <news) tel l
279.
LM-H
wi:lrCi
us-PP
i l nous a di t de mauvai se nouvel l es
he tol d us some bad news
ML ML
1')9a nal')a nYa
:l: dnmP� H61S
that man be heart-evi l -chi ef
c ' est mechant homme
that i s a dangerous man
nda nYe ' metonl axu-u
I be roPe-l on9-PP
j e veu:< ur.e 1 0n9ue corde
I want a 1 0n9 roPe
280 .
281 .
nda
that
282.
m9b � � n€-€ l a.1 ton l a
d€
ce b&ton 1 .1 est 1 0n9
sti c k-there it be-lon9 EX CLAM that st ick is 1 0n9
H
v.inmb� baa drt
smal l
d oth
this
ce morceau de ti ssu est etroi t
thi s Pi ece of cloth is narrow
LM-H
i:onnacdf6nna nYe ndu-d
i ron new Pot be me-PP
j ' ai une nouvel l e marmi i:e
I have a new Pot
mpa
283.
392
2 84.
naVCnl")9i
new-i t
c ' est neuf
it i s new
285 .
L
ML-H
wa� Pan n�
sd7dl � x !
he come wi th ol d basket-PP
i l a uPPorte un vi eux Pani er
he brou9ht an ol d basket
nd.i sd?dnaa I e:
thi s basket ol d
ce Pan i er est vi eux
thi s basket i s ol d
286.
287.
L
L ML
L M
namp�l �d�a w�� P�n ba Yer� wee
ol d man one come M You vi si t
un viel homme est venu vous voi r
an ol d man has come t o see YOU
waa I e:
he ol d
i 1 est vi eux
he i s old
vanmbi nY� i nYe ���
cl oth-red be h i s
il a du ti ssu rouge
he has some red cloth
288.
289.
290.
H
f�l anYe: e:
Yaa nYal ���
�j !
those rocks-there VP
red
l es cai l l oux-l a sont rouges
those rocks are red
29 1 .
s�e
truth
292.
293.
w�
it i s
c ' est vrai
it ' 5 true
H
nt.i ka�taa f�n?6n
th i s meat be-rotten
cette viande-ci est pourri e
thi s meat i s rotten
H
nd.i '�muunnaa tcinl�
kn ife be-sharP
thi s
ce couteau est c!"' lpant
thi s kn i fe i s sharp
nta me: e: caci gbere
thi s roPe short
cette corde est courte
thi s roPe i s short
H
waa 9bexala� 9bere
make smal l
he
i l est vrai ment Petit (de tai l l e>
he i s real l y smal l
H
waa 9be:<ala� ton b
make tal l
he
i l est vrai ment 9rand (de tai l l e >
he i s real l y tal l
294.
295 .
296.
------ .
._-- ---- -----_ .
393
297.
L
ta
mof na.
c:ome wi th
M ML LM-H
se?ed d i d H
smal l basket-PP
298.
H
nka f�l akaa 9bex�laa wol axo
thi s rock
make smooth
299 .
LH
LH
302.
ce b�ton-ci es� droi t
thi s sti ck i s strai ght
H
ce b�ton-ci es� mi nce
this sti c k i s thin
nda m9b i i na c�r€
thi s stick smal l
301 .
ce cai l l ou-ci est tres l i sse
thi s rock i s real l y smooth
H
nda m9b i i naa t�l e
thi s sti c k
strai 9ht
300 .
aPPorte un Pet i t Pan i er
bri n9 a smal l basket
H
waa drE
it smal l
il est mi nce
it i s thi n
-H
s�m� nYe wi -i
fat be he-PP
i l est 9ras
he i s fat
l o?okaa nam�neun
hot
water
1 ' eau est chaude
the water is hot
30.3 .
304.
H
nka ka"ci kaA nY�I"JE
wet
this
wood
305.
ce boi s-c i est moui l l e
thi s wood i s wet
LH
nda m9bH na,g mp�l l:
th i s sti ck
be-thi c k
ce b�ton-ci est epais
thi s sti ck i s thick
vaanvi i �
nYe ���
cloth-white be hi s
il a du ti ssu b l anc
he has some wh i te cloth
306.
307.
ML
vaan�906 nYe ���
cl oth-black be his
308.
ML
H
nka vMnnkonk�� 9be:<�laa: pel i
thi s cl oth-cut
large
make
309.
---
ce morceau de ti ssu est troP l arge
thi s Piece of c l oth is qu i te l arge
H
nta tux�taa 1 �x6
th i s l oad be-heavy
-----
i l a du ti ssu noi r
he has some b l ac k cloth
-
.- .
ce fardeau-ci est l ourd
thi s l oad is heavY
394
310.
1')9a baaral')a� wa?a
thi s work
be-hard
ce travai l -ci est d i + + i ci l e
thi s work i s d i f f i cult
nda nYe kac�nn�
thi s be thi n9-90od
ceci est i mportant
th i s i s i mPortant
31 1 .
312.
H
b�arant�nl')aa nY�nl al')a
be-ri Pe
bananas
l es bananes sont mures
the bananas are r i Pe
ba�rant�l')a� l � non
k6n mP�
bananas
age arri ve cut
l es b ananes sent mure a cuei l l i r
the bananas are ready to cut
313.
314.
H
wu Yaa col OI')£E
he Ne9. wel l -Ne9.
il est mal ade
he is sick
l o?o�J namaneun
water
hot
l ' eau est chaude
the water is hot
315.
316.
H
1')9a ba�rant�nl')aa t�anla
these bananas
soH
ces bananes-ci sont deuces
these bananas are soft
woral')aa soro
kol a bi Her
l es nei x de kel a sent ameres
the kol a nuts are b i tter
317.
318.
L
ML
n�.fill af ol a
r i ch Person
319.
L
Wl:
he is
ML
waa ci nMoU+ oB
he do r i ch Person
320 .
322.
i l est devenu r i che
he has become ri ch
LH
z�n7anka Yaa ntO
rain
VP t al l
321 .
i l est ri che
he is r i ch
ML
i l Pl eut
i t ' s rai n i n9
ML
canl"'}anyHna Yaa ntO
sun
VP tal l
I e sol ei l se couche
the sun is 90i n9 down
w� nYe ( n > ka f � aka n�n?-i n
snake be this stone under-PP
i l Y a un serPent sous cette Pi erre
there is a snake under thi s stone
------- ----- -------
395
323 .
nika ne c:ona n�n?-i n
B rs Put Pot under
mets Ie feu sous Ia marmi i:: e
pui:: i:: h e f i re under i:: h e Poi::
c:ona nYe nika l a
Pot be t i re on
I a marmi i:: e est sur I e feu
the Pot i s on the t i re
324 .
325 .
H
ka tt x f nY�I'"J9a l a
i t Put 9round on
mei:: s c:a Par i:: erre
put that on the 9round
nda� wu nYa kilna l a
I
h i m see road on
je
kilna Yaa sf l aka n ksna l a
road VP 90 ri ver si de on
I e c:hemin longe l a rivi ere
326.
I
1 ' ai vu sur I e chem i n
saw him on the road
327 .
?
328.
nda tac:6r�rya nYa wu wua�a
mY Pl antat' on be h i s one
<VL? )
ma pl antati on esi:: Pres de son
Pl antation
H
329.
i:: aaun
besi de-PP
mY pl ani:: ati on i s near h i s Pl antati on
ba yere � nk�d� l a
M stand mY side on
ti ens-toi debout � c8te de moi
stand beside me
ba Yere wa so?ol i
stand our betwl �n
ti ens-toi debout entre nous
stand between us
330.
331 .
wu
his
na
and
332 .
L M
ML
tac:6r�rya nYe nd� wd�a
pl antati on be mY one
k�n7�nka so70l i
vi l l age between
H
-M
Mw
waa Y�re
sac:ai:: a i:: o iWi -i
he stand uP peopl e mi ddle
i l s ' est mis debout au mi l eu des
gens et s ' esi:: mi s � Par l er
m:Li
h e stood uP i n the midd l e of the
c:rowd and began to sPeak
M
ya
and sPeak
333.
sa pl antati on est entre ma Pl antati on
ei:: I e vi l l age
h i s i='l antaH on i s between mY
Pl antation and the vi l l age
ML
wu 9bak� nYe k�n?�nka n�ryH
h i s house be vi l l age ceni:: r e
sa mai son est au mi l eu du vi l l age
h i s house i s in the mi ddl e ot the
vi l l age
:396
334.
H
waa yi!re wcJ nt�:< �ta:<arya
he stand h i s
c h i et
ML
nY.1?An 1.1
bet ore PP
335.
336.
337 .
M
H
waa yi!re 9baka nYo 1 .1
h e stand house mouth PP
ML
Mw?
waA ' rymuuna c� w� n YcJry9a mpAnryi i
n,;
k n i t e grab i l,:S head above-PP
nt � i mo� ry9a ndi rya SJ?jj joe
how YOU th i s tood cook saY-Q
i 1 s ' est t enu debout devant son ch i et
he stood betore h i s chi et
i 1 s ' est tenu debout devant 1 a
mai son
he stood i n front ot the house
i 1 a tenu I e couteau au dessus de sa
t@te
he 9rabbed the k n i t e above i ts head
( by the han d l e? )
comment as-tu PrePare cette
nour r i t ure?
how d i d You PrePare t h i s tood?
338 .
nYA7an waA kan
mo6 y�
what he 9i ve You-PP Q
qu ' est-ce qu ' i 1 ta donne?
what d i d he 9i ve You?
nYA7anxa nYe si!?i!n-i Y£
be basket-PP Q
what
qu ' y a-t-i 1 dans I e pan i er?
what i s there i n the basket?
nYA7an tad i i waA Pan y�
moment he come Q
what
quand est-i l venu?
when d i d he arr i ve?
Yaa see
san
Yi
where You (pI ) VP 90-Q
o� al l ez-vous?
where are You 90i n9?
ML
Yi
m06
ry9utUn waa k�ra j u
who-other he i tRF.F saY You-PP Q
qu i t ' a d i t ce1 a?
who t o l d You that?
339.
340 .
34 1 .
342.
343 .
344.
H
nYA7an 1 a
Yeraa k.1d
w�mpa�
what tor YoU (pI ) 90 over there
Mw
Yi
n k a I �r a nYe joor i
that Pr i ce be how manY Q
Pourquoi @tes vous al l es U-bas?
why d i d You 90 over there?
comb i en ce1 a coQte-t-i 1 ?
how much does that cost?
397
345 .
nd.a
sheep
L M
b i nYe I')ilun Yt
j oor !
be h i s Q
how manY
eombi en d e moutons a-t-i l ?
how manY sheep does h e have?
346.
347 .
sa'n
mo
b:il')a nYE t n
where Your f ather be-Q
oil est ton p�re?
where i s Your f ather?
L M
ML
Mw?
n ya?an H l ax a kaari Yt
what
tYPe meat Q
quel l e sorte de vi ande est-ce?
what k i nd Ot meat i s that?
349.
H
waa ndlt ci wu y06
h e that do h i mseH
349.
350 .
351 .
352.
il a t ai t ca l u i -m@me
he d i d that h i msel f
H
ndaa nda ci na Yd6
I
that do mYsel f
j ' ai fai t e a moi -m@me
I d i d that mYsel f
M
bii
bi
YS
nYa
they themsel ves see
i l s se sont vus
they saw themsel ves
H
M
wdraa wll Ye
nYa
we
oursel ves see
nous nous sommes vus
we saw oursel ves
-H
ta rna
na
I C come wi th
ndll')i -i
tood-PP
353 .
aPPorte I e rePas
b r i n g the meal
H
cuI Il1"'J:)
be-healed
Y�1"'Jaa
s i c k Person
1 e mal ade est 9u€!ri
the si c k Person i s cured
354 .
c��b i Ya b i Y S
k6d !
women TA themsel ves chase- IC
355.
H
Ya9bak ai
Yd7dri
t h i n 'ii-dr i n k
356.
357.
l es t emmes se pourehassent
the women are chasi ng each ct�er
la f @te est i n teressante
the teast is i nterest i ng
H
Yal at�
kOl UI')5
thi n9-eat l ac k
l a nourr i i:ure est i nsut t i sante
the t oad is not enough
H
ncek .fa:
kj
soaP
.f i n i sh
- .-- ----�---
I e savon est t i n i
the soaP has run out
398
358.
359.
360.
36 1 .
362.
b�l �kaa
wel l
cil: d
be-deep
,
silmbaa
wil can
mi l l et beer h i m destroY
Le boi sson l ' a detru i t
Dr i n k r u i ned h i m
wu Yaa y6?6ru
he VP gossi P
i 1 bavarde
he goss i Ps . tal ks al ot
H l')a
f::J
f on i o wi nnow
vannes I e f on i o
winnow the f on i o
H
9baka pj
house sweeP
�-----
Ie pu i ts est profond
the wel l i s deeP
bal ai e l a mai son
sweeP the house
--- - �-- -.----------. -----
399
VITA
Anne El izabeth Garber was born i n Toronto, Canada on FebruarY 8, 1 955 . She
attended Oakri dge SecondarY School i n London , Ontari o and the Col l ege General
et Pro�essionel i n Jol i ette, Quebec , 9raduati ng �rom the Un i versi ty o� ottawa
wi th a B. A. in Li ngu i st i cs i n 1 978 . In June 1 978. she began graduate studY i n
Li ngui sti cs at the Uni versi ty o� I l l i noi s and recei ved
her Years at the Uni versity
at
a
M . A . i n 1 980. Duri ng
I l l i noi s. she held research assi stantshi Ps i n
Li n�lui $t i cs and Art Hi storY. as wel l as a teaching assi stantshi p i n ESL.
Duri ,g the academei c Year 1 981-82 she attended the Associ ated Mennon i te
Bi b l i c,tl Semi nari es i n El khart , Indi ana, a�ter whi ch she sPent the Years 19821 985 i n i<otoura, Burkina Faso doi ng l i ngui st i c research with Afr i ca Inter­
Mennoni te Mi ssi on . In June 1 987 . she i ntends to return to Burkina to conti nue
working �or A�rica Inter-Mennoni te Mission .