This article was downloaded by:[University of Limerick]
On: 21 April 2008
Access Details: [subscription number 785045819]
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
International Journal of Science
Education
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713737283
Learning science through contexts: helping pupils make
sense of everyday situations
Bob Campbell; Fred Lubben
Online Publication Date: 01 January 2000
To cite this Article: Campbell, Bob and Lubben, Fred (2000) 'Learning science
through contexts: helping pupils make sense of everyday situations', International
Journal of Science Education, 22:3, 239 - 252
To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/095006900289859
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/095006900289859
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf
This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,
re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly
forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be
complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be
independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,
demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or
arising out of the use of this material.
INT. J. SCI. EDUC.,
2000, VOL. 22,
NO.
3, 239- 252
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
RESEARCH REPORT
Learning science through contexts: helping pupils
make sense of everyday situations
Bob Campbell and Fred Lubben, Department of Educational Studies,
University of York, UK, and Zelda Dlamini, St John Bosco High School,
Malkerns, Swaziland
The study explores ways in which Swazi junior secondary school pupils who have been taught a
contextualized science course deal with everyday science-based situations. In particular, this paper
documents pupils’ written explanations of everyday actions in terms of an awareness of the social
and economic implications of science; their skills in designing an experiment to solve an everyday
dilemma; and their abilities to draw on relevant science concepts to solve everyday problems. For all
responses, pupils are asked to indicate the source of the knowledge they draw on. The findings show
that considerably less than half of the sample display any of these abilities. A large majority of those
displaying experimental design skills claim to have gained these from school science but only a minority
of those showing social and economic awareness and problem solving skills relate these to school science
education. Suggestions are made to increase the effectiveness of contextualized teaching in dealing with
everyday situations.
Introduction
This paper reports a study on Swazi secondary school pupils who had followed a
contextualized science curriculum, which made extensive reference to everyday
experiences. It analyses the extent to which these pupils draw on science understandings to deal with posited everyday situations and their perceptions of the
origins of the science knowledge they use.
Several reasons have been given for including the learner’s everyday experiences in a science curriculum. Ogborn et al. (1996) argue that to explain natural
phenomena, examples from the learners’ surroundings need to take priority.
Peacock (1995) emphasizes that contextualization improves access to knowledge
and thus provides equity to disadvantaged groups. He emphasizes that contextualization is particularly appropriate for curriculum regionalization, as is current
policy in various countries in Southern Africa, but that teachers will need training
to build confidence and skills to adapt centrally provided skeleton learning
materials. Empirical studies of learners’ responses to context-led approaches
show that the use of everyday contexts in science teaching improves learners’
enjoyment (Ramsden, 1992; Dlamini et al. 1996). However, Ramsden queries if
the reported increased enjoyment relates to the everyday contexts themselves, or to
the variety of learning activities included in context-led approaches. In a study of
responses of Swazi students to contextualized learning, Lubben et al. (1996) idenInternational Journal of Science Education ISSN 0950-0693 print/ISSN 1464-5289 online # 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/tf/09500693.html
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
240
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
tify three types of contexts which increase students’ motivation and interest in
science learning, and their participation in classroom transactions. They find
that such positive attitudes are displayed towards lessons which ‘allowed students
(i) to work on personally useful applications of science; (ii) to own the lesson
activities by contributing their expertise and knowledge; and (iii) to discuss contentious issues.’ (p. 314) They also observe that lessons starting with an invitation
to speculate about the possible explanation of an everyday situation allow for
conceptual development, which follows naturally from learners’ current understanding. A ‘speculation’ phase also provides teachers with the opportunity to
identify misconceptions, which subsequently can be addressed systematically.
However, class observations show that these potential benefits of contextualized
learning can only be achieved if teaching styles move away from the traditional
teacher-centred approach.
The most frequent argument for contextualizing science teaching, however,
has been that it provides relevance to the learning of school science (Campbell et
al., 1994). The relevance-in-science movement has been prominent for over a
decade. Mayoh and Knutton (1997) suggest that within this area two questions
need to be specified: ‘relevant to whom?’ and ‘relevant to what?’. Science courses
relevant to employment may encourage the development of skills, attitudes and
routines relevant to the workplace. Science courses relevant to society may emphasize socially and politically contentious content and encourage reasoning and decision-making skills appropriate for active citizenship. This paper explores the
relevance of school science to the learner. In terms of ‘relevance to what?’, the
research was interested in relevance to everyday life, as opposed to relevance to
further education, the world of work or ‘being a scientist’. However, there are
epistemological and philosophical arguments for separating the two domains of
everyday life and science. Reif and Larkin (1991) identify significant differences
in the goals and cognitive means in both domains. In the scientific domain
optimal prediction and explanation are the central goals but these are subsidiary
in the everyday domain where the central goal is to lead a fulfilling life. In the
scientific domain there is an intention to aim for maximum generality, precision
and consistency, whereas, in the everyday domain, this is of lesser concern.
Concepts in the scientific domain are explicitly defined, based on rules and universally coherent logic. Concepts in the everyday domain are implicit, based on
experimental schema, and organized through locally coherent associations. Reif
and Larkin suggest that school pupils have additional problems because school
science often differs from scientist’s science and from everyday science. They
claim the differences in the goals and cognitive means for both domains are not
made specific for learners and, as a result, pupils are unconsciously importing
alternative concepts and ways of thinking which are effective in everyday life
but not in science.
Several studies have focused on the effect of incorporating everyday science
applications into school science on the learners’ mastery of school science (e.g.
Driver et al. 1994). However, our study focuses on the largely unexplored area
of pupils’ use of science in everyday situations. When Jarman and McAleese (1996)
asked high school academic pupils in Northern Ireland what science ideas they
used in their daily life, the most frequent responses referred to explicitly taught
applications of science: e.g. the wiring of an electrical plug.
LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH CONTEXTS
241
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
This paper focuses on pupils who have been taught a contextualized science
course, and explores for selected science-based everyday situations:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
the pupils’ awareness of the social and economic implications of science;
their ability to design a valid experiment to solve a given dilemma;
their ability to apply science concepts creatively to solve a given problem;
the perceived source of the knowledge used in each of these cases.
Methodology
Nine pencil and paper probes were administered to 118 Form 2 pupils (ninth year
of schooling) in 4 secondary schools. Where possible, non-science periods were
used in order to avoid biasing pupils towards drawing on knowledge from science
classes. All pupils had been given access to the knowledge on which the probes
were based through materials produced by a local curriculum project (LISSIT:
Linking School Science with Industry and Technology). These materials used a
contextualized approach (Lubben et al., 1998).
Each probe described an instance of one of three types of everyday situation.
One set of three probes (SE1-3) described a science-based action and asked pupils
to explain the reasons for taking the action. Responses were analysed for evidence
of pupils’ awareness of the social and economic implications of science. Each of a
further set of three probes (ED1- 3) described a science-based problem and pupils
were asked to design an experiment to solve the problem. Responses were analysed
on the basis of the experimental design. The final set of three probes (PS1- 3) each
posed an everyday, science-based problem and pupils were asked to suggest a
solution. Responses were analysed according to the pupils’ use of science and
other concepts. The three sets of probes were chosen purposefully to demand
different science abilities (awareness of social and economic implications; experimental design; application of concepts) included amongst the teaching objectives
of the LISSIT course. In responding to each probe, pupils were asked to indicate
where they had obtained the knowledge used for their response by selecting from a
standard list of knowledge sources (books, home, radio/television, school science,
work or ‘other’.
From an initial analysis of about a quarter of the scripts for each probe,
clusters of similar responses were identified to form the basis of a coding scheme.
This was refined and validated through independent script analysis. The agreed
coding scheme was then used independently by the authors to categorize pupils’
responses to each probe. Resulting codings were then compared and a final analysis validated. Further analysis sought a pattern for the science knowledge (or nonscience knowledge) used and the perceived source of this knowledge.
Findings
(a) Awareness of social and economic science
Three probes described a common science-based action in scientific terminology
and pupils were asked to provide reasons for this action. Since the description
indicated a science-based action, any reference to social or economic issues in the
justification for this action will indicate any awareness of economic or social impli-
242
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
cations of the science concept involved (coded A). Alternatively, justifications
could include solely a scientific explanation or an everyday rationale (coded B,
C, etc). One probe, ‘Acid Soil’ (SE1), showed a picture of a field with cabbages.
The text read:
The soil in Mr Simelane’s field is acidic. He decided to add 5 bags of lime to the soil.
He had to buy the lime at a cost of 50 Emalangeni (E50) per bag. Mr Simelane spends
a lot of money on lime. What reason can he give for doing this?
Table 1 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to the perceived source of
knowledge.
About one in three pupils realized that the addition of lime to soil has social
and economic implications (A responses). The majority of these responses focused
on an increased yield. Several referred to an improved quality of the cabbages but
only a few mentioned an increased income from the sale of the cabbages. One in
five respondents (B responses) justified the addition of lime as making an improvement to the soil but did not elaborate further. This group might have been aware
of the social and economic implications of the addition but did not make this
explicit. Almost one in three pupils (C responses) provided only a scientific reason
- the adjustment of the soil pH. Overall, about half of the pupils claimed to draw
their knowledge from school science, and just over a quarter from home. These
proportions were equally distributed for the main categories of responses. Keeping
in mind that the pupils were not from rural agricultural areas, it is surprising that
of those who gave a scientific reason for adding lime (C responses), about a third
claimed to have drawn on ideas from home.
A second probe, ‘Thandi 3’ (SE2), showed a picture of the inside of an electric
kettle. The text read:
Thandi noticed that there was a white solid on the sides and the heating coil inside the
kettle. She believed she could clean off the solid with a liquid commonly found at
home. Why would Thandi want to remove the solid?
Table 1.
Responses to probe SE1 (Acid Soil).
Source of knowledge used for SE1 responses
Code
A1
A2
A3
B
C1
C2
D
UC
SE1 response
frequency
n ˆ118
}
to increase the quantity
to improve the quality
to increase the income
to improve the soil
to increase the soil pH
to decrease the soil pH
to cover his large field
unclassifiable
24
15
3
23
29
5
7
12
Total
118
UC ˆunclassifiable
}
radio/ school
TV science work UC
%
books
home
36
2
12
1
23
2
2
20
2
5
-
15
1
-
29
4
10
-
15
1
3
6
10
2
1
2
2
-
3
3
-
6
100
11
31
1
59
4
11
243
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH CONTEXTS
Table 2 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to the perceived source of
knowledge.
Analysis of the responses to this probe showed that well over half of the pupils
recognized the economic and social implications of science (A responses). They
highlighted the impact of the scaling on the kettle on its boiling efficiency and, to a
lesser extent, noted the possibility of contamination of water or food. About one in
four (B responses) focused specifically on aesthetic aspects. None of the other
categories had significant percentages of responses. Close to half of all the respondents claimed school science as their knowledge source and just over a quarter
claimed to draw on home experience. Again these sources were similarly distributed for the different categories of responses.
A third probe, ‘New tyres’ (SE3), showed a drawing of bus. The text read:
The Vukuyibambe bus got stopped at a road block. The policeman said to the driver:
‘I see that you have new tyres. That is very good!’ Why do you think the bus company
put new tyres on the bus?
Table 3 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to the perceived source of
knowledge.
More than one third of the pupils indicated awareness of social and economic
implications of science (A responses) either referring to the avoidance of accidents
or intervention by the police. Another third of the respondents (responses C)
provided scientific reasons, such as increased speed or better friction, without
mentioning any resultant social or economic implication. Over a quarter of all
pupils claimed to draw on information from radio and television or home. Only
about one in ten of the pupils claimed to base their response on knowledge gained
from school science. The latter were, unsurprisingly, mostly among the C
responses, whereas the number who claimed to draw on knowledge gained from
radio and television was greatest among the A responses.
Table 2.
Responses to probe SE2 (Thandi 3).
Source of knowledge used for SE2 responses
Code
SE2 response
A1
A2
to speed up heating
to avoid damage to
kettle
A3 to avoid food or water
contamination
B
to clean the kettle
C
to allow water to flow
UC unclassifiable
Total
UC ˆunclassifiable
frequency
n ˆ118
radio/ school
TV science work UC
%
books
home
10
58
8
21
3
34
2
1
16
29
2
18
25
2
15
1
-
11
4
2
1
1
12
1
8
1
1
2
4
118
100
9
36
7
55
4
7
}
43
244
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
Table 3.
Responses to probe SE3 (New Tyres).
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
Source of knowledge used for SE3 responses
Code
A1
A2
A3
B
C1
C2
SE3 response
to decrease accidents
to avoid problems with
the police
to avoid slow punctures
the tyres were too old
to increase friction/grip
to increase speed
UC unclassifiable
Total
frequency
n ˆ118
25
}
12
9
20
39
5
}
%
travel
radio/ school
books exp. home TV science work UC
39
10
2
12
17
2
2
1
17
4
1
5
4
2
1
3
38
7
3
12
10
9
1
2
8
7
-
-
2
3
-
-
3
118
100
21
6
31
34
13
4
9
UC ˆunclassifiable
(b) Experimental design skills
Three probes each described a science-based dilemma and asked pupils to design
an experimental procedure to find out which of the given options would best solve
the dilemma. In order to answer the probe pupils needed to identify the dependent, independent and control variables and provide a reliable test method and a
criterion for judgement.
The first probe ‘Be a soil detective’ (ED1), showed a bag of soil, labelled
bottles of universal indicator solution and water, and a few test tubes. The text
read:
A farmer has brought some soil to you to analyse. Write down how you would find the
pH of the soil.
Table 4 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to the perceived sources of
knowledge.
About two out of five pupils provided a sequence of experimental steps (A
responses). Only about 8% of the pupils, however, included a criterion for judging
the observations and none advocated repeating the experiment. A similar proportion of the pupils merely stated elements of the question without elaborating any
procedure. Some two thirds of pupils claimed to get their knowledge from school
science and only one in ten from books or home. This distribution is reflected in all
categories of responses.
A further probe, ‘Thandi 2’ (ED2), showed bottles with Coca-Cola, lemon
juice, liquid soap and drinking water, respectively. The text read:
Four neighbours had kettles (one each) equally covered by a white solid on the inside
of the heating coils inside the kettles. They asked Thandi for advice. Thandi believed
she could clean off the solids with a liquid commonly found at home. How can Thandi
decide which liquid is the best to remove the white solid from inside the kettle?
Table 5 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to their perceived sources of
knowledge.
245
LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH CONTEXTS
Table 4.
Responses to probe ED1 (Be a Soil Detective).
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
Source of knowledge used for ED1 responses
Code
frequency
n ˆ118
ED1 response
A1
mix soil, water,
universal indicator
A2 mix above, judge colour
B
state one reagent or
apparatus
C
state expected outcome
UC unclassifiable
Total
%
books
home
radio/
TV
40
9
42
8
3
1
33
2
2
50
2
17
42
2
14
5
1
6
1
3
-
32
1
7
2
-
5
6
118
100
14
13
1
73
4
13
}
school
science work
UC
UC ˆunclassifiable
Table 5 indicates that about a quarter of the respondents demonstrated some
experimental design skills (A responses). However, almost all omitted to use any
form of control. Almost two out of three pupils merely selected a liquid that could
be used (B responses) without a description of an experiment to determine if it was
appropriate. Some pupils gave a theoretical explanation for the choice, such as
‘lemon juice because lemon juice is an acid and we know that acids are corrosive’.
About half of the pupils claimed school science as the source of their knowledge
and slightly less than a third stated that their knowledge came from home
experience.
Table 5.
Responses to probe ED2 (Thandi 2).
Source of knowledge used for ED2 responses
Code
ED2 response
A1a try all liquids + universal
indicator/litmus
A1b try all liquids in one kettle
A2a try all liquids with UI,
select most acidic
A2b try all liquids in one kettle,
select the one that cleans
A3 try a liquid in a kettle each
B1
B2
C
UC
frequency
n ˆ118
5
5
10
3
5
}
}
radio/ school
TV science work UC
%
books
home
24
-
10
1
16
-
1
select a liquid from given
as above, since it is acidic
select a liquid (other)
unclassifiable
62
10
2
16
61
2
26
3
37
2
3
2
13
1
1
-
-
1
6
1
7
Total
118
100
3
37
4
60
3
11
UC ˆunclassifiable
246
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
The third probe in the set dealing with experimental design skills, ‘Roofing’
(ED3), showed a beaker with sulphuric acid, a dropper and a number of test tubes
(all labelled). Four metals were listed: aluminium, copper, iron, lead. The text
read:
Roofs can be made of various metals. In highly industrialised areas, rain falls as a weak
acid because of the smoke from the factories. A builder has four types of metals that he
can use for roofing factory buildings. He asks for advice. Using the equipment and
material shown, write down how you would find out which metal is least affected by
acid rain.
Table 6 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to their perceived sources of
knowledge.
Almost half of the pupils displayed some experimental design skills. However,
very few of these controlled the amount of acid in their proposed experiment, and
less than half gave a criterion for choosing the most suitable metal. A quarter of the
respondents stated a choice of least reactive metal without any explanation (C
responses). Two thirds of all respondents claimed they got their ideas from school
science with most being amongst the A categories. Only one in ten pupils claimed
they got their ideas from home and these were mainly among the C group.
(c) Solving science-based problems
The third cluster of probes each described a science-based, everyday problem and
asked pupils to suggest a solution. The first probe, ‘Thandi1’ (PS1), showed the
interior of a kettle with white solid on the sides and on the heating coil. The text
read:
Table 6.
Responses to probe ED3 (Roofing).
Source of knowledge used for ED3 responses
Code
ED3 response
A1
A2
react each metal + acid
as above, select least/
most reactive metal
A3 react each metal +
controlled vol. of acid
A4 as above, select least/
most reactive metal
B
state indicator or
reagent only
C
state expected least
reactive metal
UC unclassifiable
Total
UC ˆunclassifiable
frequency
n ˆ118
24
9
}
%
books home
radio/ school
TV science
work
UC
46
3
3
2
45
1
-
13
11
1
1
1
10
-
-
30
21
25
18
4
2
7
1
1
16
5
1
-
2
12
118
100
10
12
4
76
2
14
8
13
247
LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH CONTEXTS
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
Thandi noticed that there was a white solid on the sides and the heating coil inside the
kettle. She believed she could clean off the deposits with a liquid commonly found at
home. What liquid can Thandi use to remove the solid? Write down why she should
use the liquid you named.
Table 7 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to their perceived sources of
knowledge.
Only one in ten pupils selected a household liquid to remove the carbonate
deposit because of it’s acidic properties. More than half of the respondents focused
solely on naming a household chemical. Another quarter named a laboratory
chemical. Neither group gave science related reasons for their choice. Half of
the respondents stated that they based their answers on school science knowledge.
Unsurprisingly, this source of information was dominant among the C responses.
One third of the responses was based on home knowledge, mostly amongst the B
responses.
A second probe, ‘My bag’ (PS2), showed a bag trapped under a rock. The text
read
Sipho has been working near a mountain site and a big rock has rolled over a bag with
his belongings. Write down the easiest way by which Sipho can get his bag from
under the rock. Explain why the method you chose is the easiest.
Table 8 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to their perceived sources of
knowledge.
More than one third of the pupils (A responses) used science explicitly to solve
the problem. Of these, more than half mentioned that the use of a lever would
reduce the effort, or that the use of an alkaline substance would reduce the friction.
More than half of the pupils (B responses) mentioned the use of a lever but did not
explain why. Just under half the pupils, mostly B respondents, claimed to base
their response on home knowledge. Slightly less than a third stated that they drew
on school science. These were clusters mentioning levers or forces in their
responses. It is also of note that a sizeable proportion of pupils claimed to draw
on experiences from work.
Table 7.
Responses to probe PS1 (Thandi 1).
Source of knowledge used for PS1 responses
Code
PS1 response
A
named household liquid:
since it’s an acid
B
named household liquid:
since it removes stains
C
named lab chemical or
just acid: it removes
solid/reacts with metal
UC unclassifiable
Total
UC ˆunclassifiable
frequency
n ˆ 118
%
books
home
radio/ school
TV science work UC
12
10
2
2
1
6
1
-
61
52
1
32
-
24
-
4
29
16
25
14
1
-
1
4
-
26
8
-
1
4
118
100
4
39
1
64
1
9
248
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
Table 8.
Responses to probe PS2 (My bag).
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
Source of knowledge used for ED2 responses
Code
ED2 response
A1
use lever (rod/crowbar):
less effort
A2 use people to increase
lifting or pulling force
A3 reduce friction using
alkaline substance
A4 roll rock, use gravity
B1 use lever, no mention
of effort
B2 use own force to push
B3 crush/break the rock
B4 dig near the rock
C
pull/cut the bag
UC unclassifiable
Total
frequency
n ˆ118
21
14
}
2
4
29
29
3
7
4
5
118
}
radio/ school
TV science work UC
%
books
home
35
2
17
1
15
4
2
58
2
37
3
11
10
5
3
4
1
-
2
-
1
-
-
-
5
100
5
56
5
26
14
12
UC ˆunclassifiable
A third probe ‘Shoes’ (PS3), showed shoes with four different types of soles A,
B, C and D. They were labelled rubber pads, shallow grooves, smooth and spikes,
respectively. The text read
Lungile is an athlete. She needs to buy a new pair of shoes for running in the coming
inter-school competitions. The types of shoe soles are shown below. Which type
would you advise her to buy? Explain why your choice is the best type for her to buy.
Table 9 shows pupils’ responses grouped according to their perceived sources of
knowledge.
Almost half of the pupils (A responses) used science in solving the problem. In
most cases the choice of shoe was based on an expected increase in grip or balance.
About one in seven pupils made their choice on the view that the shoe will last
longer, and a smaller proportion on the basis of the expected weight reduction.
Roughly a quarter of the sample claimed to base their response on home knowledge, and about one in six pupils on information from books, radio and TV, or
sports. The latter were dominated by A responses.
Discussion and implications
Table 10 provides a summary of the sources of information pupils stated they drew
on for the A classified responses for all probes.
Looking across the set of SE probes, 157 of the 354 responses (44%) show an
awareness of the social and economic implications of science. About 37% of the ED
responses show some skills in experimental design and 31% of the PS responses
demonstrate the use of science to solve everyday problems. These percentages are
low, particularly for pupils who have been taught through a context-based
249
LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH CONTEXTS
Table 9. Responses to probe PS3 (Shoes).
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
Source of knowledge used for PS3 responses
Code
frequency
n ˆ118 %
PS3 response
A1 type A/D: it prevents
slipping/sliding
A2 type D: it provides
balance:
B
type A/B: it lasts longer
C type A/D: it is lighter
UC unclassifiable
Total
45
11
17
10
35
}
118
books home
radio/ school
TV science work sports UC
48
10
10
12
7
1
14
2
14
8
29
1
3
6
10
6
2
1
5
5
1
-
1
4
4
13
100
20
28
18
12
2
19
19
UC ˆunclassifiable
Table 10.
probe
set
SE
ED
PS
Sources for A responses in the SE, ED and PS probes.
books
home
radio/
TV
school
science
work
20
(13%)
11
(8%)
14
(13%)
45
(29%)
16
(14%)
29
(27%)
21
(13%)
4
(3%)
14
(13%)
59
(38%)
94
(72%)
28
(26%)
6
(4%)
3
(2%)
6
(6%)
travel
exp.
sports
UC
Total
(%)
2
(1%)
-
-
-
14
(13%)
4
(3%)
3
(2%)
4
(4%)
157
(100%)
131
(100%)
109
(100%)
-
UC ˆunclassifiable
approach. It suggests that bringing ‘everyday situations’ into ‘school science’ does
not readily enable pupils to bring ‘school science’ into ‘everyday situations’. Reif
and Larkin’s (1991) contention that different types of reasoning are required for
science and everyday situations may explain why the highest percentage of A
responses is for the SE probes, as the social and economic implications of science
is closer to everyday reasoning than the abilities explored in the ED and PS probes.
(a) Awareness of social and economic implications of science
Only 38% of the pupils making A responses to the SE probes claimed to be
informed by school science. Tables 1-3 show that this proportion is over 50%
for probes SE1 and SE2, but only 5% for SE3. Overall, considerably more than
half of the responses classified as evidencing social and economic awareness were
from pupils who claimed to be informed by knowledge sources other than school
science. Home experiences were consistently cited as sources for around 30% of the
A responses. Books and radio/television were each claimed to be sources for 13%.
The latter sources were more prominent for the A responses for SE3. Similar
percentages apply to the claimed knowledge sources of the non-A responses.
This means that school science features infrequently as the source of knowledge
250
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
for responses to these probes, but also that it contributes equally to responses that
show and do not exhibit social and economic awareness.
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
(b) Experimental design skills
A large proportion (72%) of the responses to the ED probes were based on school
science. This high proportion is consistent across the probes though slightly lower
for the ED2 probe. Home knowledge was claimed as the basis for only 14% of the
A responses, mostly for the ED2 probe. The contexts in ED1 and ED3 contained
aspects of laboratory equipment which may account for the higher proportion of A
respondents drawing on school science. The apparent influence of the probe setting seems to agree with Song and Black’s (1992) finding that the application of a
scientific procedure tends to be better performed in scientific settings. The non-A
responses were attributed considerably less frequently to school science (50%) and
more to home experience (22%). This means that school science teaching has had a
positive impact on experimental design skills. Many of the non-A responses,
selected a liquid to remove the deposit from the kettle, or the expected least
reactive metal for roofing sheets, rather than suggesting a testing procedure as
required. These responses show that the bridge between everyday reasoning and
science reasoning has not been crossed (Reif and Larkin, 1991): everyday reasoning requires a ‘most likely’ solution, and not a valid testing method.
(c) Solving science-based problems
Table 10 shows that one in four of the A responses to the PS probes was based on
home knowledge or school science. About half this proportion draw on information from books, radio and TV or extra-curricular activities like sports. In both
cases there is variation between the difficult probes. Similar proportions of the
non-A responses claimed to draw on school science but a considerably larger
proportion (38%) claimed to use home knowledge. More importantly, negligible
percentages of the non-A responses claimed to have been drawn from knowledge
gained from books, radio and TV and extra-curricular activities. So, while similar
proportions claim school science as the knowledge base for responses classified as
science based and non-science based, proportionally more science based solutions
than non-science based solutions had their origins in extra curricular activities.
This implies that efforts at increasing and improving the science content of informal activities may be of value. If we aim to improve pupils’ ability to solve sciencebased problems, we might usefully encourage out-of-school learning as well as inschool teaching with out-of-school contexts.
Whereas the literature shows that context-based learning supports the understanding of school science concepts and procedures (Ramsden, 1997) and provides
the motivation to engage in school learning (Lubben et al., 1996), this study shows
that a context-based curriculum does not automatically help learners to access
their understanding of school science to deal with everyday situations. In our
study, there is evidence that pupils draw on the procedural knowledge of experimentation gained in school science. However, they do not so readily utilize learning about the social and economic aspects of science or apply school science
knowledge to problem solving in everyday situations. Here, out of school learning
dominates. Thus, if contextualized classroom learning is to do more than motivate
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
LEARNING SCIENCE THROUGH CONTEXTS
251
pupils and support the kind of understanding assessed in examinations and actually help pupils apply appropriate science in their daily lives, then we must build
even stronger links between the classroom and the community.
Teachers using a contextualized approach can’t assume that the inclusion of
everyday instances in their science teaching in itself is sufficient to help learners to
recognize the social and economic implications of science in their surrounding. In
order to achieve this awareness, everyday contexts may better be selected as dilemmas, i.e. the development of nuclear energy for weaponry and electricity generation; the effects of chemical contraceptives on empowerment of women and
interference in their hormonal cycles; the development of hybrid crops on enlarged
yield and market dependence. Similarly, if we want learners to use their science
understanding to solve problems in their everyday life, teaching science through
contexts is not sufficient. Project work on everyday problems generated by the
learners may train them to select relevant science concepts (learned at home or in
class) to address these problems.
We must see everyday situations as both starting places and end points for
science education. While we must continue to capitalize on the rich experiences
that pupils bring to the classroom and use these to help learners access the (school)
scientific domain we must also encourage teachers to stress the application of
pupils’ science learning in their community. If science education is to have a
meaningful impact on the lives of many pupils then there must be a meaningful,
two-way flow of knowledge and understanding between school science and everyday life experiences.
Acknowledgement
Financial contributions from The British Council and the University of York have
made this research project possible.
References
CAMPBELL, B., LAZONBY, J., NICHOLSON, P., RAMSDEN, J. and WADDINGTON , D. (1994)
Science: the Salters’ Approach - a case study of the process of large-scale curriculum
development. Science Education, 78 (5), 415-447.
DLAMINI, B., LUBBEN, F. and CAMPBELL, B. (1996) Liked and disliked learning activities:
responses of Swazi students to science materials with a technological approach.
Research in Science and Technological Education, 14, 2, 221- 235.
DRIVER, R., ASOKO, H., LEACH, J., MORTIMER, E. and SCOTT, P. (1994) Constructing scientific knowledge in the classroom. Educational Researcher, 23 (7), 5- 12.
JARMAN , R. and MCALEESE, L. (1996) A survey of children’s reported use of school science in
their everyday lives. Research Papers in Education, 55, 1-15.
LUBBEN, F., CAMPBELL, B. and DLAMINI, B. (1996) Contextualizing science teaching in
Swaziland: some student reactions. International Journal of Science Education, 18
(3), 311- 320.
LUBBEN, F., CAMPBELL, B., MAPHALALA , T. and PUTSOA, B. (1998) Science curriculum
material development through a teacher-industrialist partnership: industrialists’ perceptions of their role. Research in Science & Technological Education, 16 (2), 217- 230.
MAYOH, K. and KNUTTON, S. (1997) Using out-of-school experiences in science lessons:
reality or rhetoric? International Journal of Science Education, 19 (7), 849- 867.
OGBORN, J., KRESS, G., MARTINS, I. and MCGILLICUDDY , K. (1996) Explaining science in the
classroom (Buckingham: OUP).
Downloaded By: [University of Limerick] At: 15:49 21 April 2008
252
B. CAMPBELL AND F. LUBBEN
PEACOCK, A. (1995) Access to science learning for children in rural Africa. International
Journal of Science Education, 17 (2), 149- 166.
RAMSDEN , J. (1992) If it’s enjoyable, is it science? School Science Review, 73 (265), 65- 71.
RAMSDEN , J. M. (1997) How does a contextualised approach influence understanding of key
chemical ideas at 16+. International Journal of Science Education, 19 (6), 697- 710.
REIF, F. and LARKIN, J. (1991) Cognition in scientific and everyday domains: comparison
and learning implications. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 28 (9), 733- 760.
SONG, J. and BLACK , P. J. (1992) The effect of concept requirements and task content on
pupils’ performance in control of variables. International Journal of Science Education,
14 (1), 83- 93.