OO~@zgl£ c~®&@©@
Susitna Joint Venture
Document Number
Please Return To
DOCUMENT CONTROL
.John L. Buckley
Effects of Fire on Alaskan Wildlife
Bureau of Sport Fisheries ami WildlifP,
Washin~ton,
for tl1e welfnrl) of
fish and wildlife in Alaska is evid!.'ncPcl
by the provision in the AlMka Statehood Aet withholding administration
of this rt~t\Ol\l'('l' f•·om the state until
l'ti<'h time as the Sf;.'<'retnry o.t' the Intrrior ceJ•tifies to tht' Congreg, that the
Alaska State Legislature has made
11
adequnte provision. for the administrn-·
tion, management, nncl <>ongervation
of said resources in the broad national
intere:;t." This <'OtWPrn results from
the fn<'t that no otlw1· m·pa under the
American flag Rupporh; Ruch a diversity of fish, gn nw, ami fur nnimals,
of kinds not prt·~Put in the othPr states,
nnc1 undPr condition~ still not fnt· remo,·prl from thr primitive. Perhaps
tlwre is also rerognition to SOlliE:' i!('gree
of tlw fragile nntlll'P of Arctir nnrl
suhnrf'tir enYironnu•nt:-;. The \'lll'iety
of wildlife S}Wt•ips iH a. fmwtion of tlH'
div<•rsit~· of hahitnts pnl\'idPcl hy tlH'
lnrge ~izC' of Ala:::kn, its nortlwrn !oration, nnrl its extrPmP~ of topogrnpl1y.
Onp-fifth the !';i7.r of the FnitPfl
RtntPs, with a totnl lll'!'fl of 5R6,-!00
squarl' milf'R (.:?0), Aln!';kn PXtPncls east
mul \\·pst :u·om11l nrnrlY onP-sixth of
thC' Pnrth, and north nnd south through
mon• thnn 19 ch•grt•<•:=; of lntitucle; c·limnfPl' rnngp frotn tPtupPl'HtP tn truly
.\r·dit·, nnd l'rou1 ln:n•itiln<' to c•onti11<'11 tnl. PPrhn ps n llt'ttPr nmlrrstmulin~ of it~ Ri7.1' i-. nc•rtnir·pcl by rrnli?.ingthn t it hn~ fonr· ti llH' 7.onc•:.:, ns 11111 n~·
n.:: thl' <'Ontin<•tlt:rl t'nitt•cl StntN-:. Thr
din·r~it~· of thP nn•n i-. ~till furtlwr
inc·rrtl'-'l'cl h~· tlw fnl't thut i-\l'VPrnl thousnml milc>s of c·on"t nhnt on tlw Pnc·ific• 1111cl A rt•tir 0('1'11 !Is llll(l thc>ir srvPl'n I !':I' ns.
\\"ithin thiR Ynst nl'Nl therr nre
llHll'hcl diffPrrnc•Ps in elimntr, topogrnph~·. plnnt <•nnmmnitiC'~, nncl in e<•onomir rlt>wlopmPnt. SouthPnst<'rn Aln<.:kn. <'nntaining- ~Ollie :1!5,000 sqnnr!.'
mih·~ of rngg-rd mnuntnins nncl cl<'llS!.'
fMPsts, JH'<•dominnntl~· of wel't(:'t'n h<'llllll('k ( T~ugn l"·trroJI]I,I/lla) and Ritkn
R)li'\H't' ( l'if·ru. sift'ht•uo::is), hm-: 11 t•rlnth·p)~· mild, wPt t•limntt>. J[enn .Jnnum·~·
nn<l .Tnl~· tPtutwt·Hbll'P.., nr" :10o F. nnd
57° F .. t'P~pPt•th·PIS; :rm' annnnl Jll'<'<'ipitntion YnriC'!" rr''i" i!O to 150 itwlws
in tlifft•rrnt pn..t~ or lhr nrPa. A log~ing inc1nsh·~· hn~Pil nn pulp, tlrf;tinecl
to C'Xpnnll g'l'Pn tl~· in thr nc>xt fl'w
d<'<'ndc>s, lf; .i n~t now g-Ptting undrr
wny; f;llles ronb·n<•h; for th<' c•utting
of l1C'nl'1~· 25 billion hql. ft. on nppl'OximntHly 2%, lllitlion IICl'C'S OVPr C\ 50-
NATIONAL C'ON'CERN
1wriod hH\'{' b(:'en consummated
situ•t• HJ52 ( 7., 8, .cJ).
Tn the T<'l't of. Alaska th<'l·e are
two mnjor communities-one supporting tret> gt·owth, rontaining 187,500
sqmu·p milt's; ( 13) i the other consisting
of h·t>eless urC'n~ of Arctic and alpine
tundrn, or wind-swept heath. These
forests nre restrided to the interior,
hrondly that region he-tween the Brooks
Rnng-r on the north and the coastal
ranges on thr ~outh, and extenrling
from thr Canadian border almost to
the Bering Sea roast, where boreal
spruce fon•stR, or their seral stages, ·
hlnnkPt most of the lnnd below the
3.000-foot h>vr1. ArE>as above 3,000
fP<'t :;;upport R.lpine tundra growths of
shl'llhhy and hPrhaceous vegetation.
Both trmprrnhtr(' n nr1 pr<'cipitation
lll'<' lower than in southE:'nstE:'rn Alaska.
.Jnnnnry nnrl .Tul? temperature means
vm·.v, rP::pN·tin·l~·. from nhout - l r
F. to +11 o F'. nm1 52° F. to 60° F.;
nnc1 ann un 1 prrcipitn tion from a bout 7
in. to 20 in .• morP than hnlf of which
fall:-; ns snow. Lnn<l use in tlw intc>rior
c·ou~i,-t..: of ruining; ('Utt.ing of timhrr
in lo"Hl :tl'Pm: fo1· firPwoO<l, housp logs,
nnrl ltunh<'r; and ngrirulture on the
K('tllli PPnimmln 1111cl in thr :Mntanuska
;llJII Tnn11nn Y:dl<'ys. Xnn<' of thrsC'
u..;c·~ in\·ol\'<•s nppt·<•c·inhle m·ens of land
nt }li'Psc•nt. and with the QXception of
tituht•t' <·utting fm· pulp som<' rlPrades
in thP futnn·. probably newr will.
yPtH'
T.\nr,r. 1.-ARr..\:: RtrR~l-:u I!'< At.ARKA
1!140 Wm:N ACCl'R.\TE RECORD
Rt:>r('f.
KF:l·:PING BEGAN].
Sq. miles
Yc•ar
At•r<:'s
l!l+O
l!l.U
1!14!!
1!14:3
] !l-1--1:
lHHi
1fl41i
1!l.t i
1!1·1 R
I!l.tfl
4,500,000
7,o:n.~
~.li54,ii4
5,7'1 O.li
707.0
1.0-n.s
1!1;10
!:!,Oli:1,!JR:~
1!li'i l
1!1:5!}
l!lii:1
l fl:i+
1!!!iii
!!!!1 ,IHi!l
i -!,liflO
47:!.5-W
1..t-ao,fi.tfl
~:~~i){1~
~6.8
l!l.ili
l!l!i i
4lii,721
4,83!l,:!Rl
22.11!.!0,0::\9
1,2!:!:1,335
730.8
7,fl6l.4
34,406.4
432.510
llHfi, 77~
11 0,()04
117.~1 ~
1,-!:\R .!l!i:3
t,.t:J I ,lili5
~5.1 !10
1R, 14-7
Totnl
Att>ragt>
-- Bnsl•d
....
17~.8
1-'l~.:\
~.~4R.4
~.!.1:H.O
(i;i.O
~R.4
~.~~:-i.O
~4li.4
1111.7
ns ..t
2.~3n.4
1,911.5
1
on Lut1. ( t:1) for the p<:'riod
1!140·1!lJl, nntl on rP<:'ords iillpplie<l by
th(l BUt'<>ntt of Ln111l :\[nnng('meut, U. S.
llPplt l'tmenc of the Interior £or 1952·
1{157,
••
-
D. C.
The nreas to the north and west of
the interior, and the Alaska Pl.'nimmla
and Aleutian Islands, are treelrss areas
of Arctic tundra and wind-swept
heath, respecth·ely. Mean annual
precipitation and mean Janunry and
Jul;\r temperatures decrease from approximately 60 in., +30° F. and 50° F.
in the Aleutians to 4 in., -17° F. and
40° F. at Barrow on the Arctic coast.
Grazing of domestic reindeE:'r, and in a
f~w locations, grazing of sheep and
cattle probably involve less than a
million acres.
In romparison with the inflnen<'<' of
the land uses mentioned nhove~ which
togE:>ther nffect not much more than 1
percent of the gross land area of (·,
Alnska nt present, fire is a mnjor fac·,.
tor. "\Yildfire is a problem only in interior Alaska at present, for the unlogg-e£1 forl'sts of southenstern Alaska,
lying in nn ar!.'a of extremely high , ·
prE:'eipitation, are virtually fire-proof.~-..
In the future, fire may become 11. prob- ~:
lem in south Pastern Alnskh, for James ' •
nncl )fcGrPgor ( 12) rPport that fires
could haYe burned in the dea rent ar<'a
on the MayheRo Expt>rimental Forest
on approximately onP-third of the dnys
h<'tWP<'n ,J nne 2fi and Oetoh<'r 1, 19n5,
hn~Pd on burning stnnc1arr1R in the Pa.
cifi1· X ortln\'<'st.
The intE>rior forE'sts, on thE:' other
hnn£1. are situatPd in a zone of low
}ll'<'<'ipitntion and nre suh,iE'('t to intrn!'P nml fr!.'qurnt burning-. Table 1,
hmwcl on rN•orrls of the Bttrenu of
Lnncl :\fnnngement, tT. R. Depnrbnent
nf tlw IntPrior, showR thP imm('nsity of
the nrPns that have b!.'en hnrnr<l since
n•c•<mls haw been maintninC'd. AI.
though tlw loss<'s have hPen lt>ss than
20,000 n<'rrs in some yenrs, firps extPmling over nC'nrly 5 million acres in
otlwr yp:n·s hnvr hrought the annual
avc•mg-P to 1,223,335 ncr('s for the 18;n•n r twrind !.'!Hli ng in 1957; nnd this
loss hns ot•('url'Pcl in spit!.' of increasingly pffp(•tivr fir(' clet<'ction nnd control. 'l'his a nnunl n\'<'t'a~e PX<'eecls 1
pPt'<•Pnt of the estitnat('d 120 million
n<'l'l'S of forests in the intl't'ior, and
cl<'arly lends credence to the stntenwnts hy Robinson (16) and oth('rs
that four-fifths of the Alnsknn interior
hns he!.'n hurned one or more timE's
since the end of the 19th century.
There <'nn be no doubt that wild fire
in Alaska is a major problem.
,\
PnocEEDINGS
124
Direct and Indirect Eft'ects of Fire
tlU·111~~~W fJl!l'fq~'~tt 'v~lj\ifc nre
both di r<'ct n nd indirect. · The <lit·cpt
effect, i.e., the out nnrl out destructinn
of nnimnls, is by far the most elrama-
tie and is the only effect considered
by much of tlw gpneral publie. Our
observation~,
however, have not yet
PXtt•n:o;ive losses of animals;
eertainly uothing approaching the
popular t'oneeption of churr('(1 <'ar£'l\SS<'S lilll'mlly sprinkled umong the
smoking etubt•rs I Fires during the
spring and earl~· smnnwr may destro7ir
nt>sts nnrl young of birds and mammals, nnd ext('nsiv(' and hot fires at
anv
. time tlouhtlPss dt•strov many small
nnimnls n11d <'Y<'I1 some of the largl'r,
more mobile animnls. Losses of this
sort, though p<'rhnps more obviom;, havl'
only a tl'unsitor·~· eff'e<'t on the populations of n11imnls, provided that tlwrt•
is a sour<•(• of rl'in\'nsion, and provided
thnt the hahitnts hH\'P not ehangPd ~ig­
~·eveulell
.
.
nifienntl~·.
The iuclirE>l·t pfft·c·t~ of fir<'s arP hy
fnr the most fm•-J·<•:whiug-. for RC'VPrnl
decades must pm;<; heforP t•onditions
rPturn to thPir fonnrr statu;;;; in f'Ollll'
i nstn ncP::; thP dwngp::; wrought may hP
irre,·prsihlP. Rpvpral itPms rPquirP dis.
!'Ussion as a ft'lliiH'\\'ork for rvnluating
the mngnituc1P nml dirr<·tion of tiH'
chn ng<>s thn t O!'l'tll'.
F;ffec•ts oj' {irf' on hlJdrolomf.-"Tlw
relntion of
fm·r~t~
nttd othc•t· YPgt>tntion
to hyd rolog,\' in thr intet'ior of A ln~kn
i~ poorly undPr~tood. AH'tough qnnntitatirP clnt:~ bt>ni•ing on the suhjP<·t
Ill'<' vrr~· s"nnf?-. ,·pgptntiou prohahl~·
PXPr<•isp:; n c·cm:-idrrn hle influeneP on
tlu• wntPr l'Pg-inw" ( /.1). Rhimkin ( 18)
stntes that "An ontstnncling charnrtPt'·
i-.;tie of ..\ rt'ti<' r·h'l'l's c1raining nrras of
pPrmnnc>ntly fror.pn g-romul ( p<'l'lllllfrost) is thnt tlw runotT from tlwir
hnsins npproxinwh•s 55 to 65 perepnt
of tlw prN•ipitntion m; opposPd to 1:1
to 18 percPnt for rivers in temperntP
nrl'nR, sttc•h as tlw )[i::;sissippi. ... Thi..;
lllNtnR thnt tht• flootling, ('rocling anrl
::;ilt-entT~·iug- t'IIJllH·itiPs of tlw::;p l'ivrt'"
• • • Ill'(' rwnl'ly f'ont· tinws HH ~TNtt ll"
mig-ht h<' indic•H tl'cl h~· normnl I'Xprri~
('11('(',"
'l'hr nhorP l-:tntPnH•nh~ nrl' suflh•iPnt
to show thn t Pl'l'lllll froHt hns n pro~
found influPn<'P on sUt·fnre dminn~P
nnd RuhsnrftH'P JH'I'roln tion of wn ter.
Coil! p l<'tc> n'l'Hl\'H I of VPg-l'tn th·p <'Cl\'('1'
mnrkNlly 11 f'frt·t~ tlw c1Ppth of th<' pl'r~
mafrost tahlP (thP npp('r limit of PN'mafrost) nnd l•nnR('(fUC•ntly tlw ch'ninnge pnttt'l'll. On o11r nl'Nt nPnr Fnirbnnl<s mniutnined by the U. S. Army
ns a pe1·uw Ct:m;t experiment station,
tlw drpth to frv.\\t was 7 ft. four years
n ftpr Uw \'t·ge· ;1tion was removed, in
<•omrmrison to· it depth to frost of 3.3
ft. in ucljurr nt unc1istu-rbed forest.
Pewe (1•i) r-.tn'<.>s "Fires, clearings, and·
constrnrtion since 1903 have increased
the dnpth of pPrmafrost to between 25
nnd 40 feet in many places." Some
areas of the Tanana Va.lley that were
too wet to farm at the time of clearing are now subje<'t to drought, as a
r('Hult of th<' degredation of the permafrost table.
The influence of permafrost table
rPcession on pond and lake le,Tels has
not heen evaluated quantitatively to
my knowledge, but there can be no
<1ouht that water levels in the Yukon
Flats ndjaeent to Fort Yukon haYf
<1N•r£>nsl'd nu1rkPrlly since 1949 i in fat•t
mnnv former shallow water areas hnve
rompletcly dried up. Much of this
area ·was HC\'I'rely hurn<'<l in 1950, and
it is a strong temptation. to label the
firr-wntPr h•wl r<'cession rl'lationc;hip
a::; l'lltl:-;l' nml (•ffr<•t. 1Yhether or not
fit'l' i!' the rP:-iponsihle fal•tor, there can
])(' no donht that the water levP1 reces~ion iu thiR urPn has hn1l a pronoml<'Pcl
inflm•tl<'t' on nvailnhle habitat for wn-·
tPl'fowl. Rilllilar drying has not bePn
notPd in <'Pt'lnin other· arPns such as
thP :\Iintn Flats, wlwre fir<> has hPI'tl
]('s,.:; pr(I\'HlPnt. If fire is responsible
for thPR<' tll'<'r<'nsrcl wat<'r levels, it mn:r
\\'<'11 hi' tht• IIIOHt significant nnd fnrt'Ptll'hing pffN•t of fir~ on wildlife populations.
In sonH' olhPr nrPas of Alaska, F:Ul'h
n::: thP Tanana, micl<lle Yukon nm1 Kuskokwim Yn11Pys, thP influpnce of firr
nwy lw quitP difl'PrPnt from that postnln tPcl nhove. On th(' rxtensi ve flooclpl:dn::: surrcmruling- tlwsr riwrs, thr
vpg(•tntinn i~ tlw rpsultnnt of n numlH'r of fnc•tors <'lt•nrly rxpounc1Pn h:.·
Dt•nry (5). ~ln<'h of the following
rll';:;1•ription is bnse<l on his work.
Along tlw lll('anclt>ring riv('rs thcm:-pln~ i~ a l'Plath·rl~· nnrrow zone in
whi<'h thP migrnting nH•nnrlrrs of thn
l'i\'<'t's l<'llll tn l'(1lltnin. Tht• Jll'l'llHl·
t'r·osl tn hlP in thi~ nrPn is r<'ln tiwly
d«•Pp, 0!' rwr·mn frost mny h<• nhsnnt;
;-.;nb~nrfnt•l' tlrninngP is rclntir<•ly goocl,
:md treP growth is quite i'atisfnl'tm·~··
Tlw (•utting of hnnks on tht> one hantl,
nrul <lPJHJ::;it of lli'W alluvium on tht>
otht't', i,:; <'OllHtnntl~· rrmoving thE' oldl'r
n'g-(•tntion nnrl <'rPntiug IH'W hnre ar<•as.
I•'i.t.'!' in this zonl.' pt•ohahly has littl<'
i 11 n\1('11<'(' ()11 h;vclrolog;\:1 other thn n to
IH'<•rll•rn fp thl' rn te of. natural erosion
nnd hnnk-t•utting-.
In thr slightly high<'r areas removed
-
from the active meander zone, quite a
rliffrrent set of proc·E'~sPs is im·oh·ed.
T.hese arr.ns are largt•ly bogs, form..U
by the colonization of bodie$ of wnt('r
by peatforming plants; the im·a!'ion
of lowlands hy swn mp-makitrg vegetation of for('Ht moss<'s followecl by
sphagnum; and tlw formation of \\'liter areas by thawing of the perennially
frozen grouud. The first means of formation is too well known to need description; the seeoncl means, though
descrihec1 in this country by Shaler
in 1890 ( 17), is lPss well known. In
this process, known as "swamping" or
"paludification," mosses colonize depressions and hold water collecting
there i from thesp fo<'i the mos~
spread nnd coall'~ee, holding more and
more water. Finally conditions be<'ome so swampy nnd wnter-logged
that the forest vegetation is killed and
replaced by a shallow hog.
·.?:.
The thirrl methocl of hog formation·' •
o<'curs in pPrennially frozen silts con- ·
taining large amounts of ground ice.
Frm:en silts ha vP ('Xtremely high wa- •ter-holding <'apncity-more ~0 when ~.
frozen than whPn thn.werl. The ~- ·· ·"
lation Pl'Ovided by the vegetative man- :.
tle prevent.o; thawing of these silbt;
any break in the moss em·pet is suffi•
<'i<>nt to p('rmit thnwing which thPn becouws a · ~elf-perpetuating process.,
sometimPS l'(•arhing a dPpth of 15 feE.>l
Tlw thn WP<l silts 011 tlw N1ges ~htmt)
into th(' cl('pl'<'l-iHion fnrnwd by thawing,
nnd thus tht' ineipiPnt lake created expands in all dirPetions. These lakes
nrP <'nlled ''<'nve-in'' lakPs hy Pewe
( 1:i) nnd Hthnw" lnkt>s h~· Hopkins
( 10). As thP wn tl'r ar('as t>Xpan«l, the
parts firi't formecl are colonized by·~
nquatie plants, and hog formation pro. -:..
<'<'Pels in thP usunl fnRhion.
• •
Fi r<'s cn n ha \'P wr~· tum·kerl efft>rls ·
011 tlw last two of tlwse pro<'esses. The .
proel'ss of paluclifiration cnn be entirP- .. ~
Jy... rl'versed hv
,
.. a sPvere fire, for the ~.t~
....
lllosses are destroyecl, the permafrost .;
tnhle I't'C<'des, nnc1 both surface aM >
snhsurfnl'<' drniua~r are improrcod.
Tlw:;e ~iteR, fornwrly too wet to mppor·t trPe growth hProme better dr!liDN
nnrl R(•rnl stages oftl'll lending to fomt
growth follow the fire. In tho!re liJal
potE'ntinlly ::;uhje<'t to the fonuati.
of. <'nn•-in lnk<'s, the initiul breaks il
the imm1nting- cover nec•essnry for
im•eption of thawing <'Ould be prt:I'Bllfli•.~'Zi~
extensivl.' nrens by fire.
In gummnry, the t>ff<'<'ts of fire •
OY('l'
hydrology arl' 1nrg('ly operative th ... -..
altering the level of the permafrost
ble, thus modifying substantially
'-.)
.
·~
125
'
oPl'\TlSION ~\~F'mu•;s·r- Wib{)hl[l'(t~ .l\tlANAOI~l\1 NN'l'
\.~~
1:
l\
'two to tht'Pl' y<•tu·s. Fin• years follo~h not fully recover for 30 to 40 or more
ing the hurn sottH' unhrowsecl aspen yearR after the fire (1i, 13, 14).
l 1 lant succession following fire in
hns attnint•tl 11 mnximum height of nim~
The g<'nernlizl•cl pu ttcrns of vt•getutiye feet nml iR well on its way to becom- ht>rb nnd sn·rub tundra communities
hm; not been studied ns intensively as
sueccssion following fires in the forests ing unnvniluble" (19).
vYhet•e hirch, nspen, or poplar were in forested areaR; furthermore, thP
of interior Alaska have been outiinerl
by Lutz (13). He considers white absent· or scarce nt the time of the r(•lntionships betwpen tundra commuspruce ns the "<'linmtic climax'' and fire, or wlwre the fire was so severe as nities' are fur less distinct and well
black spt'llt'e as a "physiographic cli- to completl'ly kill even tha roots of umlet·stood than are those of the for~
mnxj' in the area. The successional these stWet<'S, reYo?getution of the site ests. Perhaps thE> general conclusion
that cnn be reac.herl on thP basis of
pntt£~1·n followed on any gh·en site is is by RPed.
data suppliecl by Palmer and Rouse
determinNl in part by the intensity
u Tnitinl invnsion after n lJnrn is
and frcquen<'y with whieh fires occur; usunll?· by the ligllt·!'!eecled fireweed on ( Ll) and from personal observation is
the most common patterns are out- the well·tlraiuetl to dry sites, by bhte· that the environmental types present
joint on tlw wetter sites, and by serlges
linrd brit•fly in the following para.- on the w<'ttest sites. Within a year or bPfore fire are ultimately restored. The
grnph. but all stages of. iutergradation two, willow, al<ler, :mu/or <lwn.rf birch progression of plants immediately
after the fire is of grasses, forhs and
n.ppenr, and usun.1!y within 5 to 10 years,
tree species begin to appear above the
mosses, followecl hy shrubs on those
A single moderate fir,•, or 11 sPri('S shrubs." (&).
::;ites
previously supporting them. The
of light firefi1 in nspPn 1 1>irc•h, white
rPinvnsion
of 1ic1wns proceeds at nbout
spruce, or poplar, will ultimately WhPre mineral soil is not exposed,
yield a white spruc•e dimnx, through revegetation by any species may be the same rate as in forested areas.
intermediate stages of vnrious mixtures extremel~· Rlo·w.
Discussion
The numhPr of speciE's prPsent in
of quaking aspen ( Pormlw~ tremuloidf's), balsam rwplar ( P. balsami- thP wgeta tion orc1inarily inerenses
The de}wmlen<'e of animals on plant
fera), paper (white) birch (Betula quit<' rapidly during the ('arly years environments for food, cover, and spezm.pyrz:fera var. commutataL and white following a fire, and there are marked cinl requiremPnts, in suitable spatial
spruce ( Pirea glaura) ; hln<'k Rpruce <'hangeR in ahuuclnncp within these spe- arrangement, is too well known to re(P. mariaua) mmnlly f('Ocrupi<'R sites ciPs. On n sPrie~ of 60 plots {•stnb- quire hPlnhoring hpre. Seldom are all
on whirh it fornwl'ly oremT«'rl through liRllPd in Ul:ll nml C'hec•kPd again in of a spe(•ies requirements prPsent in
the sam<.> intermC'!lintPs ns white F:pru<'<'. 19:l4 nnrl 1!)fiT in au area burned in nny sing)r t'nvironmental type, with
A single se\•ere fire rPsnlb=> in r<'<'stah- August nncl Srptemlwr of 1950, the the result thnt edges lwtween typPs are
liF:hment of thP spN•i('R prpo.;put nt the following <'hangcs wPre not('cl. The ordinarily more produetive of animals
time of thP firr, l'X<'Ppt thnt qnnking numhcr of spPC'ies inrreased from 2n than Pither of the single types making
asprn, pap<'l' hh•1•h, hnlsnm poplnr, in 1051. to 2S in 1911-l, nnd to 34 in up thP Ptlge. To gPnPrnlize, then, the
and black sprtwr, sing!~· n1· in nny 1957. ThP lnrg<'Rt herem;(' was in gr('nter tlw int<•rfipt'l'Hion of pnvironcombinatiou, nm~· rPplnc•!• \\'hit!• spJ'lH'P shruh;;;, whic•h itH'r(lnspcJ in. numlwr nH'nt:tl tyjws, thr gl'Pnh•l' tlte clivPrRity
for l'xtr!•nwbr long- p<'riwls. A sl'riPs from 12 spPt•it>~ iu 1!Jfil, to 17 F;IJN'iPs and thP larger tlw populations of wildof f.i('V('f(' fil'<'S lllfl~· l'C'Sttlt in <'011\'f'l'- in 1fli'i7, nncl in t•owr from; V~5 per- life will lll'. Tlw prrsl'nt patchwork
sion of nn~· foJ'Pst t~·lH' to c;pmi-lwrmn- <'Pnt in 19fll to 9..+2 pPrCPnt and 13.72 of thoroughly intrrRpPrsed environnPnt hPI'htu'Pous ( usun 11~· fireW('Pn- JWrC'<•n t, n•.::pt•l'ti vpl~·, in 19fi-l nnd mrntnl typrR in intrrior Alaska is
l!l57. Chnngt•s in nlnmclnn<'e of <'·('l'grnss) or shrub <•oulnmniti('R •
lnrgPl~· th~ l'P!-;ult of the extensive fire
DrpPnding on thr fOl'P:->t t~·pe }H'Ps- tnin BJl<'<'iPR ar<' pnrtieulnrly striking. hif.;tor~· of thr ar('n.
11 FirewrL•!l
in<'rrn~<'ll by nhout :100
rnt, tlw intpnsit~· of tlw flrt• ns it nfR1•lntiwly few of the wilcllife sppries
P<'r<'<'llt
from
1Mil
to 1!154, hut hy 19n7
ferts thf' nn1onnt of milwntl soil <'Xof
Alal"ka clPJH'tHl on rlimnx VPg'Ptn tion
ltntl lle<'rrnsNl to lNIR thnn hnl£ of the
pnsl'cl, n111l thr nvnilnhilit~· of sePd, 1 9il4 muouut. Tht> smnc nnttNn wns fol· for tlwir PXi!it('IH'<'. Of tlwsc few, pertlw enrl~· I'Olli'S<' of SlH'<'t•ssion may lowr!l hy JfarC'71CII!1 ia, but the fluctua· haps the <'~rihou iR the best Pxampl('.
Ynr~·. R<•=>ponRe to firf' hy clifferPnt tion wns uot l':O grrn t.
'WhilP ('on<'rcling- that our knowledge
11
trPI' spr<•iN; vnrips con:;idPI'tthl~·, the
Plnuh-• IIR<'ful ns browse show('il n of enrihon food l'NJnirenwuts is wholly
nronoUII<'Nl in<'r('ase on all nlots, with the inncl('qunte, nnd thnt enrihou enn sursprtlt'<'~ bring ki11ec1 outright, whitf'
willows, for exnmph~. O<'<'ttpying 8.9 lH'r·
. birf·h of young or ndd<llP ng<' sprout- C(lnt
vi\•p without rPindr<'t' li<•hens in their
of the ground in 1!l57, when•ns th(ly
ing ROlllf', nml ns)lt'll and popln1• sprout- orrupiPtl only 5.3 pprren t in 19S4, nntl cli(lt, we flo knnw that liC'henR, pspPrialing nhunclnntl~·· 'flm~ flrPR in Rtnwls 0.8 pt•rr('nt ht J!l5l'' (1).
ly <'<'rtnin SJwC'ies of ('ladonia an!l netcontnining hir<'h protlU<'f' n mo<lernte
As tH<'ntiolll'Cl ubm·p, the inYlHling nrria, rPgularly n p p<'nr in stomn<'h
. amm1nt of sprout::, nncl RtnnllR <'011lwrhs mny dominntf' th<' sttmds for F;ntl! p h•s nnd ar<' ('C'I'ta i nly preferred
tnining: n:;ppn nr poplnr producP P\'<'11 pPrhn ps 11 <lt'<'IHlP. hut grnr1un11y gi\·e to otlt<•r foocis, espN•iall)· during the
more nbuntlnnt ront ~prouts. Rflot wny to wood~· plants; in t}l(l <'llS(' of wint<'r. Lieltpns arp found only in llllsprouts 11 t•e ntorl' \'igormts nncl rn pirl l'<•,·pgptn tion largf'l~· h;t root F:prou tR, tlisturh<'cl arens, nncl do not recover
grnwing thnn RPC'<llingR nntl l'X<'t•t nu th(l pPrim1 of: clominnnce by hrrbs mny from burning for 30 to 40 or more
enrlY clomhtnn<'P on tlw RitP~ tlwv' m·~ b<' gr<•atl~· rPduC'ecl 01' pl;'rhnps non- Y<'nn:;. Thus it SPE'mR sn fe to assume
cup~·· On thl' Kt'nni Pl'nin~uln, wh(•re
<'Xistent. At thi~ stag<', nnd bl•fort> thE' that. the utility, ot at 1Pnst the attraca 200.000-n<'t'l' hurn oN•urrNl in 10-H, stnn<ls grow ont of l'l'tH•h ( nt about tiveness, of nn area to r.nribou is se"A thot·ough int(II'!-.JH'l'sion of n~p<'n :.30 y(llll's of ngP, unlPH~ h€'ld buck by VE't·ely reducPd for SI'VPrnl dE'<:'ndes by
, throtudl th<' origi nnl stn nd r(lsul t(l(l browfling), thP mnximum n111ount of the passag-e of fire through the area.
Fires alter dhectly the amount und
in he1tvy root StH'l{Pring inlllll'tlint('ly browse iR prorltH'ed. Fsunlly within
following tlw fire so thn t signill<•nnt th<' fir'>t clN•tule n fh•l' lire, the reindeer kinds of food nnrl cover present, as
aspen browse wns ptorluC'Nl within lichens begin to 1·enppear1 but they do well as the kinds of nesting sites and
surface nncl subsurfuce drninnge and
water-holding enpudty of the soil!;.
'.i~-?!f·~-~-.
,,'
.
~
,11
•'
•t
., I
,I
...
•l
~t
.
I
I
..:
11
.
11
~~~
.
-
-
0
r
~
~
~
'r•
~
f'
"·
.;,,
.,
i
..
.
·'·
~~
,.i1
t
~
~
~
~
·• ~
~
1r
<I
.
~
.,
11
~
f
~
;
~
)l
!i
~
"'
~
otlter spJ~rr t·ttqnirement.... Tu nddit~on fo changes in amounts of foo1l
present, fires may r1."~1.dt in prannmtrt'fl
-ehnngcs in titc nutritionn1 values or
tlie foods present.
1tlost wildlife species 'in Alnskn dt>}H~ml on food and eovt>r tbut arC' morr
abundant and of bettt>r quality in ~nh­
"lirua.'l euviromuental types. Imme(iiate}y following a fire, there js little
to attract any wildlife gpt>cie::;! ancl for
the flt"Bt J"t>IU' ne hYo, lmrned nr<'n'4 lll'C'
virtually hiologh•nl rlr.r·wrb~. By fhc
third or fourth yrnr after n hurn, if
revegetation is h:.· root sproutr-;, hrowst>
for moose and otht>r browsing animals
is present in significant amounts; if
revegetation i5 h:.r s(•Nllings the df'lns
before apprel'inhle amounts of hrowr-;n
are pro<lnreil nw:.· he !5 to 10 yt>nrs.
In eithPr rase, hrowr.;e is then nvnilnhle
for perhaps 2i5 :'i'rnrs. Becnu~e of tlw
r£'1ath•ely tapid rntl' of cluwg.: in t!H'i-1"
suhclimnx romnnmities1 -..ve ltnY<' in
pffert nn ('rotone in titne thnt ~et·w~
to enhatH'C' thP pt•ocluc:tivetu.•:::r.; of the
llr('ns. Rtutlie:-; h~· J1Jinnr:::t>n ( 6) in
OrPgon and by rownn, 1To!ll'; nnd Hnttrr ( 4) in British rolumhia hnYP
!';hown thnt the rrntle protl'in rontt'nt
of food pinnt::;. Rt<'tHlil:.· dPC·line<: nR the
forl'Rt ngl'~; th<' lntter Rtml~· ltnR Rhown
nl"o tltnt rnrotPH<' nn(l prohnhly minPrnl t•outt>ut itH•r·rnRe with fm·r~t nging-.
Thr intplit•ntion i::: thnt hoth ol1l ntHl
~·oung r-:tnmli'. in RnitnhlP jnxtnpoRition,
lll't' ll('('(""i!'fll'~· fnt• pt·o<ltwtion of ortillllllll rt•op!' pf g·nul<' nnimnlR. Chrntum
nnd R£>vrt·inp;hmtR (.!?) hnvr slwwn that
rnngl' qunlity hm:: !lire<'t <'f'fPdf: on
horl~· !'dZ<'. nntlPt' c;ir.P. tniniutlllll hrPPtlill!! ngr, nnd l'f'Jlt'nrlurtivP rntP in tltr
whitP-tail('rl clt•rt·. ThrrP is no t'<'ll"Oll
to rlmtht thnt tltr <.;UlllC' is hllP for otllf't'
:::prr•ir::: of hi.g- trntnr. ronqwsition
rounts on th<> KPt111i Nntionnl ~fno~r
Rnngr ( :21) l'ot· 1 fli12, HlilS, ntHl 10:1-t,
incli<·ntr n hig-hrr pt·oportion of rnh·P:::
in thr 1fl.t7 hm·rw1l nn•n thnn nn tlw
l'(l~t nf tll(l l'ltll,!re: thh:; inrr<'n~t'<l pl'o~
tlu<'tion il' prohnhl:.· thl' l'('RUlt of impt·m·rrl rnng-1• qnnlity. Pnpulntiou in.
Y«'ll to riP~ nJ~o slw''' n lllll rk('(l iru•t•pn~r
in the willtN·iug- pnpnlntion within thP
lmrn, fl'om 273 in 19!50, to !144 in
1%1, 61R in um2. nml 1,111 in 1!1;)!1
( tlJ).
.
'l'hr r<•lntion nf flt•c• to hY11l'oloO'\'
"'· wnR
rli~<'llRR<•rl <•nt·liPr. Tlw rO'<><'t of thl' lm,·.
C'l'l'fl wllt<'t' IP\'1'1~ JHlHtnlntNl is to 1'1'·
rhwl' tlw antouut of hnhitat nvnilnhl!'
to wntrl'i'owl, li1Hl fhu~ to rNhll'!' thr
populntion:::. At tlH' Rnme timr, 1'1'movnl of wonclr vc•getntion nR hy· fi t·c
itH't'l'llR('S tJW 11ft I'IH'tivrnl'RR 0 f fill' 11 l'l'n
to most wnt<•rl'owl Rpccies. ~rho mol'e
ilnmc•clin t.... ('ffects of burning marsh
unll pond an•ns mny he quite diffPrl'nt.
I•~ot' ('Xtl111pl(' 1 19.2,000 n<'rl'S of prime
tuu<lrn- hnhitnt in the Seinwh•k nrea of
nMtlnn•:4tt~m A!askn were hurnl"d in
thr ~UllllllN' of 1957. It appears t-hat
this hurn nrttinlly erilinncecl tlie 1958
prc,!luetion of waterfowl in the area.
N(•w plnnt growth started at least two
weeks earlier in the burned area that!
in nearh;\· unburn(ld areas, which appnt'<'ntl~· nttrn.rterl du<'ks to the flren.
'flw m<>nn rlrnsity of waterfowl in the
Pntire strntum, of which S(llawick is
n pnrt, war.; 33.3 ducks per square mile
in 195R <'om pared to 21.0 in 1957 (fJ2).
J1~nrly twsting of ducks ordinarily result.s in higher production than does
late nl'sting, er.;peeially in arE>as with
!OO Rhnrt 1:1 SNlson as Selnwick.
Conclusion
is the most important Ringlt>
t'nrtor inflm•n<.'ing the vrgetative rover.
hdh forest nnd tundra, in most C'lf
A :!l~kn. Although fir<' has alwayR been
JH'Pt"Pllt in Alaska, therl" has been n
snhstnntinl incrPase in arl"as hurn(l(l
Rilli'C' th<' ln tl' 1890's.
Thr m~t <'ffert of fire in wildJifp in
Alnsku <'llllltot <'nsily he evnluat('d. F<W
tho~£' sp<'riPf:, Ruch ns rnrihou, thnt r<'qnil·<' <·limnx ron(litions firr hnR ttnrlmlht('<ll:.· rt>durerl thP quality of the .
rnng'Pt and hnn rontrih11trd. to thr !lr(•liur l)f c•nrihou in Alnskn notl'd rlm·ing thr firs-t hnlf of thir.; rPntury. Wit~
otlwr qprc•iP~. snl'h tvR moos!', th<> l'Nlltft
hn~ lH'Pil ~plit<' thP oppositr. Tt iR highh· unlikt•lY thnt thl're hnv(' ev<'r hrforP
l>t'rn ~o tWill;\' moo~(' prc•:-;pnt in Alnskn
no:: tlH'rP nl'<' toc1ny. '\Yhil(> th(l rm:tt·ollf'!l U~l' of firp to nt•c•mup1iHlt "P<'·
t•iflt• ohjfldiYPR in hnth fm•N:t mul wilcl~
1i f't~ 11111 nngc•tu!'nt il-1 rn tit·Ply propPr,
wil,lfit•c• c•nnnnt h<' romlotwd.
'
'fhr cl it•p\'t.
llc•...;b·u<•tion of nni 11111 1;:: h:.·
lirc• i~ pt•ohnhl~· nr,·rr of lm~ting im·
pot•tnut•t•: tlw more Rtthtl(' PffPrh;, <'X<'l'<-h'<''l tht·nug·h <•hnnging h)'llrologir rPl.ttinul' mul wg-l•tnth·p cot i )osition nre
fat• t.nll'f' "ignifirnnt.
J•'ire
.
.
Literature Oited
1. nn·l\r.R\, .ronN TJ, Hl57. Unptth·
ti<~h1•tl r<'port, Alnskn Coopc•rnth'<'
Wiltllifl' Rl'sen rch '{Tnit, Qun rterly
4, COWAN. l. Mc'f., W. S. HO,\R, and
.r.
nnrl w. T•. T,mnv. 1957.
:nul rpporhc on ncrinl 1nl!'rprt'tation of h•l'r<'Rtrinl hilwtwiron·
ttu•tll s null fn 1111111 populH tiou~. U. S.
Air .F'Ot'l.'(', A rt.•ti<• ANOilH'tlirnl r.nbo·
rntnt·~·, 'l'c•<'h. Rl'pt. 5i·H2. 105 pp.
a. <·m:\'1'1':1!, E. lJ,, nntl C'. w. Sr.vr.Rt!'tO·
11 w~. 1!150, Ymiu tions in fertilit~·
nt: whllP·tnil<'«l tll•cr rl.'lntl.'rl to rnng(l
('tmtlitiow~.
Trnus. N. Am. Wild.
<'on f., 15 :110·189.
1950, The effect of for.
npon the mttrith·e vnlue of wood;r
1>lants as foo<l of moose. Canadiaa
Jour, Res., D, 28{2) :249-271.
5. DR.l'RY, WILMAM H., ,TR. 1956. Bo~r
flats and pl1ysiogrnpllir. procesRl'S ia
the Upper Kuskowim River R.egioa.
Alaska. Gray Herbarium Contrib.
1 i8. 130 -pp.
6. EINARSEN', A. A. 1946. Crude pro.
tein determinntion of deer food u
nn app1iecl mnungeml'nt techniQUt'.
Trans. N. Am. Wilft Con£., 11:309312.
7. GOVERNOR. OF AL,\SI<A,
1953. AD·
nual report of the GoYerJtor of Ala•
kn. to tl1e Secretn ry of the Interior.
'Vashington, Govt. Printing Office.
8.
. 1954. Annual report
of the Governor of Alaska to the
Secretnr;v of the Interior. Washin~~.
ton, Govt. Printing Office.
9.
• HHi6. Anuunl report
of thl" Gon•mor of Alnskn to the
Secretary of the Interior, Washing· •
ton, Govt. Printing Office.
10.
HoPKINS,
D, M. 1949. Thaw lakes
nn!l tlu\W sinks in the Imuruk Lake
nren, Reward Peninsuln, Alaab.
Jour. Geology, 57:119·131.
11. HtJSTWH, I. 1951. Tl1e lichen wood·
1ant1s in Lnbrndor nnd their impof'-o
tnn'e ns winter pM!ures for . .
ticnted reindeer. Act. Geog.,
. )~.
1-48.
. '
12. .T.ums, G. A., anrl R. C. 1!cGiftoL
1956, Rome forest r('gener.ttion problPIIlS following clenrcutting in south·
<'nst Alnskn. Pret~ented to Seventll
Alnskn Acience Conf. 6 pp. (Pro-CI:'llSNl).
13.
T~J'Tl..
TT. ,T. 1951!. E!':1lmdrnl l'ffl!l:ft
of forCMt firl'll in . tlte--litt<;rlor-of
Aluska. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull., 1133.
1~1
Pfl,
14. PAJ,MF:Rt I,, J., 1111!1 C. H. RouSK.
1945. Rtttc1~· of tll(l AlrtHkll tundra
with n•f.Nl'IIC<' to its reaction!' t•
rt•indel't' nncl oth<'r grnzin~. U.S.P.
'\Y.A, RNl('IHch Rept. 10. 48 pp.
15. pgwf.. TROY L. Hl57. PermafrMl
nncl it8 rffert on life in the North.
] 6.
17.
18,
19.
Rt•POl't !l(l ),
H••!>l'llt'<'h
RATTER.
est SUC<'<'ssion upon the quantity and
!:!0.
Or('gon Rtnt<' ('ollegp Biology Cclbr
qttinm, 18: 12·~1i.
HotHNRON, H. R. HI 53. Forest mallngem(•nt n t11l protrdion on the Ala&l<nll ntihli<'. <lomniu. Proc. AlaW
Rri. C'onf., 4: fl~·ll4.
Rn.\t,F.R, :N. R, Hmo. General ae<·ouut of thP frrRhwntPr morn~ses of
tlH' 1Tttited Stilt<>::;. Ann. Rep~ Dir.
1T.RG.S., 10 :2~5·330.
•
liiTl?>riON, D. B. l!lfil. Fort Yukoa. '
Alu~ka. Au rs~ny in humnn ecoloscr.
T. Alnskn l>e\'<'lopm<'n t Board, J•
IINIII. fj(} pp. ( Pro<'rssNl),
RPJ~NrER, 1>. TJ,, nn<l E. F. CH.,TE*
r,,, IN. 195iL Prngre~R ht the maaHA'l'IlH.'nt of tlll' 111oose of Routh et'lttrul Alnskn. 'frnns. N. Am. WilcL
<~on f.. 18: 5iHl·55~.
·
'{T, K Rl'RF:AI' M 'l'UP. CENSUS, }9!)6.
Rtn tisticnl n hstrn<'t of the United.
Rtnh•s: 1!156. WMhington, D. C.
21. 1T. R. ]•'JR'fl ,\Nl> wu.or.IrF: SE~\"IC1
1954, VnHuhliHlwtl narrn tive reT>Ort.
Kcuni Nntio1tnl MooRe Range, SepL·
!:!~.
Dec.
• 1 fl:lfl, 1958 Stn tus report. of wnterfowl. Special Scientific
Report, 40. 133 ilP·
_j
-