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BOARD MEMBERS
EDITORIAL BOARD
Kelly S. Moor, D.A.
Copy & Production Editor
Idaho State University
Student Success Center
moorkell@isu.edu
(208) 282-5161
Lisa Appeddu, Ph.D.
Research Editor
SWOSU
College of Pharmacy
lisa.appeddu@swosu.edu
(580) 774-3148
Frederic Murray, MLIS
Editor-at-Large
SWOSU
Al Harris Library
frederic.murray@swosu.edu
(580) 774-7113
Jordan Rae Wofford, B.B.A.
Graduate Student Intern
aij@swosu.edu
(580) 774-7175
I S S U E S
Patsy Parker, Ph.D.
Managing Editor
SWOSU
School of Business & Technology
patsy.parker@swosu.edu
(580) 774-3284
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Tami Moser, Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief
SWOSU
College of Pharmacy
tami.moser@swosu.edu
(580) 774-3069
Virgil VanDusen, R.Ph., J.D.
Bernhardt Professor
SWOSU
College of Pharmacy
virgil.vandusen@swosu.edu
Mary Aspedon, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
SWOSU
Department of Education
mary.aspedon@swosu.edu
Jama Rand, Ph.D.
President
Seattle Research Partners, Inc.
jamarand@seattleresearchpartners.com
P R A C T I C E ,
Michael Williams, Ph.D.
Dean
Thomas Edison State College
School of Business & Management
michaelwilliams4@comcast.net
E D U C A T I O N ,
Les Crall, J.D.
Associate Dean
SWOSU
School of Business & Technology
les.crall@swosu.edu
J O U R N A L :
ADVISORY BOARD
A N D
R E S E A R C H
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LETTER FROM THE EDITOR
2
Patsy Parker
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
EDUCATION
The Targeted Open Online Course (TOOC) Model
Credence Baker & James Gentry
3
Strategies for Attracting and Retaining Teachers
Paul Bland, Edwin Church, & Mingchu Luo
9
Perceptions of Preceptors and Students on the Importance of Writing
Tina T. Fields, Jeff J. Hatala, & Richard F. Nauert
19
Learning from the Past: Dual Credit
Nicole Mansell & Madeline C. Justice
30
Maintaining the Boundaries: Teacher Preparation Program Admission Criteria for Screening
Quality Candidates
Rebekah Miller-Levy, Diane Taylor, & Laurie Hawke
40
PRACTICE
J O U R N A L :
Issue 1 of Volume 4 does not contain a practice-oriented article. Are you working on a manuscript
that would fit this category? Consider submitting a manuscript for review.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
RESEARCH
Organizational Training and Relationship Building for Increasing Public Participation in a Public
School District
John Poynton, Carole Makela, & Don Haddad
50
Principals’ Perceived Supervisory Behaviors Regarding Marginal Teachers in Two States
Bret Range, Paul Hewitt, & Suzie Young
62
Factors that Influence Student Selection of Educational Leadership Master’s Programs at
Regional Universities
Pam Winn, Lesley F. Leach, Susan Erwin, & Liza Benedict
74
Except as otherwise expressly provided, the author of each article in this volume and the Administrative Issues Journal
have granted permission for copies of that article to be made and used by nonprofit educational institutions, provided
that author and Administrative Issues Journal are identified and that proper notice of copyright is affixed to each copy. In
all other cases, the author and the Administrative Issues Journal should be contacted directly.
1
b
LETTER FROM THE EDITOR
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
We have arrived at Volume 4, Issue 1 of the Administrative Issues Journal, a milestone that —speaking as one of the founding board members—delights and
inspires me. We have learned and grown so much since the AIJ began publication in 2009. Our board has transitioned from a small group of professors in
Southwestern Oklahoma State University’s School of Business & Technology
to professors representing two higher ed institutions, as well as several different colleges and departments. Only two original board members remain, but
each new member has brought fresh talent and enthusiasm, filling an important niche and contributing to the journal’s evolution. How wonderful it is to
cultivate professional relationships and friendships across campus and across
the country! The more we diversify, the richer our collaborations on the journal
become.
I S S U E S
In fact, these collaborations will result in a significant change for 2014. This year,
we will not be hosting an academic conference. This decision was not easily adopted because we have been pleased with the conferences we have produced
thus far.
J O U R N A L :
So, if something is good, why change it?
E D U C A T I O N ,
The answer is simply that there is always room for improvement and adaptation, and we are actively seeking new mechanisms for scholarly interaction.
Therefore, in place of a conference this year, we will be branching out in a new
direction, believing it will generate new and even more accessible options for
professional development and networking. This opportunity will be unveiled
soon, and we are certain it will elicit much interest. Stay tuned!
One thing that remains constant is our commitment to quality and the dissemination of knowledge. The AIJ editorial board continues to be impressed by the
quality of the articles submitted to us for review and publication, and we extend
our appreication to those who contribute to this scholarly publication. You are
important to us and to academia.
P R A C T I C E ,
Sincerely,
Patsy Parker
Managing Editor
A N D
R E S E A R C H
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A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
The Targeted Open Online Course (TOOC) Model
Credence Baker, Ph.D.
James Gentry, Ed.D.
Tarleton State University
In an era of increasingly hyped Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) that seem to evoke feelings of both promise and peril for higher education, many institutions are struggling to find their niche among top-tier Ivy League
schools offering courses to thousands of participants for free. While the effectiveness of MOOCs in terms of learning outcomes and student persistence is still unclear (see Daniel, 2012; Kirschner, 2012; and Jordan, 2013), one
benefit of the trend are the innovative adaptations that smaller-sized, regional institutions have begun testing
as alternative in-roads into the MOOC era. The Targeted Open Online Course (TOOC) model allowed one midsized regional institution to leverage existing area partnerships/relationships with stakeholders to offer an online course for professional development and even actual graduate course credit. The following paper presents
a comprehensive description of the TOOC model, including the administrative, enrollment, marketing, student
support, development, and pedagogical considerations of planning and implementation. Additional data regarding persistence rates, affective gains, and recruitment outcomes will be shared.
Keywords: higher education, MOOCs, connectivism, large-enrollment online courses, enrollment marketing/
recruiting
T
INTRODUCTION
he pervasiveness of recent media attention for Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCs) in higher education
has created a sense of urgency for institutions to offer online courses to massive numbers of participants, nobly
for the sake of expanding access of coursework to those who might not otherwise have it. While MOOCs have
become a popular buzzword in higher education, much of the discussion includes thinly disguised promotional material by commercial interests (Daniel, 2012), and despite the millions of participants enrolled in MOOCs in 2012, there
were only 26 related peer reviewed academic publications, most of which were devoted to studying the concept of
MOOCs, and few examining educational theory, pedagogic approaches, and learning outcomes (Liyanagunawardena, Adams, & Williams, 2013). While the effectiveness of MOOCs in terms of learning outcomes and student persistence is still unclear (see Daniel, 2012; Kirschner, 2012; and Jordan, 2013), one benefit of the trend are the innovative
adaptations that smaller-sized, regional institutions have begun testing as alternative in-roads into the MOOC era.
This article describes the structure and processes used to develop a Targeted Open Online Course (TOOC) that blended attributes of a MOOC with the best pedagogical practices of a traditional online course to impact participants
surrounding a mid-sized regional institution in Texas. This paper discusses the planning and administrative/logistical
considerations for implementing the TOOC course, as well as a discussion of the instructional strategies employed to
ensure academic rigor and student engagement. Finally, data regarding persistence rates, impact, participant satisfaction, and recruitment outcomes will be shared.
THE TOOC MODEL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK
In the summer of 2013, a mid-sized, regional university in Texas announced its first Targeted Open Online Course
(TOOC). The TOOC model is an adapted version of the increasingly hyped MOOC model that allowed the University’s
College of Education to leverage existing partnerships to offer free coursework (in this case, for graduate credit and
CPE credits) to area educators. The graduate course, Principles of Instructional Design & Technology was offered July 8
to August 8, 2013, and was designed and taught by a tenure-track assistant professor of educational technology with
Baker & Gentry
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.3
b
the assistance of six graduate team leads. The free online course was advertised to 59 Effective Schools Project (ESP)
schools in north central Texas and could be taken for Continuing Professional Education (CPE) credit and/or graduate
credit at the university. The ESP is one of the nation’s largest and longest-running school-improvement ventures that
links university faculty with campus leadership from over 50 Texas schools in an ongoing effort to enhance school
effectiveness. During the registration period, from April 1st to June 21st, 162 area educators registered to take the
free class.
A primary goal of the pilot TOOC project was to extend the college’s reach to area ESP schools by offering professional development in a high-need subject area (i.e. educational technology) and in a format that was accessible for
teachers and school leaders. The five-week, summer online format was selected with K-12 educators in mind, and was
also the ideal time to foster personal learning communities among participants that could be sustained even after
the course concluded. It is hoped that successful participants will help to raise the institution’s profile as a respected
source of information regarding best practices in education by referring their colleagues to professional development and graduate education offerings in the future.
Another primary goal of the pilot was to positively impact area educators (and thus their students) while testing the
new TOOC model of delivery. A key learning outcome of the course was to arm participants with critical knowledge
and skills for designing and implementing online learning objects, tools, and activities to engage and empower
learners. The large number of students provided fertile research conditions for testing the impact made on participant’s National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (NETS-T) self-efficacy.
Lastly, the pilot allowed our institution to test a new model of delivery in terms of the online course being open to
students not actually enrolled at the university and being offered completely free for graduate degree and/or for CPE
credit.
Planning and Administrative Considerations
Planning for logistical considerations began in early spring of 2013, and meetings included stakeholders from the
College of Graduate Studies, the College of Education, Enrollment Management/Registrar, and the Center for Instructional Innovation. Issues considered included the registration process, transcription, CPE credit processes, marketing/
promotion, learning management system selection, technical support, team lead selection, and recruitment strategies.
Registration, transcription and CPE credit. Initial meetings involved gaining buy-in from administrators and
support departments, and because of the full support of the Provost and deans to test the model, conversations
quickly moved towards logistical considerations. It was determined that participants need not apply to the university
to register for the course. Rather, a web-based form in Qualtrics was used for tracking registration data. The registrar’s
office and graduate dean agreed to a process to retroactively apply graduate credit for successful course completers
who also met COGS admission requirements. It was also determined that successful participants would have one
year to apply to the university and receive credit for the course towards their graduate degree, and the COGS would
maintain completion records for all participants. Another area for consideration was the granting of CPE credits to
successful participants. Because the College of Education is an official CPE provider in the state of Texas, 45 CPE credits could be granted for the three-hour graduate course. This required a separate record-keeping process by COE staff,
and participants were sent documentation of the CPE credits upon successful completion of the course.
Marketing/promotion. In March of 2013, marketing materials that included both print and web-based messages were sent to a targeted population of K-12 educators from our ESP schools. Customized e-mail campaigns and
flyers were sent to administrators at each of the schools, as well as individual teachers who had attended previous
ESP professional development workshops. The marketing messages emphasized the free online graduate course,
CPE credit opportunity, and critical nature of the subject matter.
LMS selection and support. Because registrants would not have university-based user credentials, it was determined that the course should be delivered in Blackboard® CourseSites, a free platform for delivering online content
that functionally mirrors our own institutional platform, Blackboard® Learn. The benefits of selecting this platform,
as opposed to other free learning management systems, was our ability to create the course in a familiar platform,
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
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i.e. one that the instructor and technical support staff was comfortable with, and one that students would recognize
later if they decided to obtain their graduate degree.
Team lead selection. Another area of planning was related to maintaining academic rigor and engagement
in the large enrollment online course. Six graduate students, each of whom had already successfully completed the
course and were near the end of their program in Instructional Design & Technology, were selected to serve as team
leads. Each team lead was responsible for engaging and interacting with 20-25 students in the course, and their experience counted as their program capstone requirement.
Recruitment strategies. Finally, a recruiting plan was created that involved surveying participants to determine
their areas of interest and customizing post-course communications/marketing materials designed to encourage
them to apply the course towards their graduate degree. In addition, each successful participant received a personalized email from both the graduate and education deans encouraging them to continue their studies and providing
them with links to the online application, COE graduate program websites, and scholarship opportunities.
Instructional Strategies
Despite the novel nature of the model and the large number of students enrolled, the academic rigor of the graduate
course was not compromised in the TOOC thanks to the use of team leads and instructional strategies that encouraged engagement and participation. Strategies informed by Siemens’ (2005) and Downes’ (2005) connectivist views
of learning were developed for engagement/outreach, interaction/feedback, and content delivery/assessment in the
course, and are outlined below:
Engagement/outreach strategies. As noted before, participants were divided into six teams, each with “21st
century skill” names inspired by the content of the course, including The Innovators, The Collaborators, The Connectors, The Knowledge Seekers, The Creators, and Team Ignite. Each week, the instructor posted kudos to the most active team, and a friendly competition ensued with members actively encouraging each other and their team.
Participants had the option to receive personalized announcements/updates via text message, and this medium was
used to announce the opening of the course, communicate one-on-one with students, and encourage students to
persist. Of the 162 registrants, 153 (94%) opted to receive text messages.
Mail merge functionality was used to send customized email messages to students. For example, Bb CourseSites
allowed the instructor to run a report of users who had not logged-in by the third class day. Using that data, a mail
merge was sent to those users encouraging them to log-in and participate in the course.
A twitter class hashtag was created to allow the instructor to communicate with the class as a whole. Students
were also required to use Twitter as a communication mechanism (see below), and there were 668 tweets archived
throughout the duration of the five-week course.
Interaction/feedback strategies. Students were required to communicate and collaborate at four levels each
week during the course:
1. To communicate at the class level, students were required to share insights and resources via Twitter using the
class hashtag. Students went above the minimum requirement of one tweet per week, often starting conversations with others and posting multiple times.
2. Students were required to collaborate at the team level in a designated Google+ Community. Each week, they
received a discussion prompt, and could share their responses using text, video, and pictures. These learning
communities have remained open for participants since the course ended, and several participants continue to
post resources and ask questions about implementing technology tools.
3. Students were put into smaller groups of 3-5, and were required to collaboratively contribute to a Google Document to post key points and related resources from the week’s learning material.
4. Finally, students interacted one-on-one with their team lead and the course instructor via their reflection entries
in a shared Google Document. This allowed for personalized feedback and commenting.
Baker & Gentry
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.3
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Another unique form of interaction was the weekly live broadcasts via Google Hangouts. Participants could log-in to
the course at a designated time to watch the instructor and team leads field questions using the backchannel TodaysMeet.com. The video was archived for playback for those participants who were not able to view it live.
Content delivery and assessment strategies. Content was created in interactive SoftChalk lessons that included text, demonstration video, embedded polls, and assessments. Because much of the course involved using
educational technology tools, step-by-step demonstration and how-to guides were created.
Students were required to complete six deliverables each week for assessment, including their team discussion, class
tweet, key point Google Doc contribution, technology “experiment,” weekly quiz, and reflection entry.
Participants
Persistence Rates
Impact of Content
a
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.3
R E S E A R C H
The mean scores and corresponding standard deviations for pre and post ETS-ES scores were 172.39 (30.537) and
194.38 (27.296), respectively. A mean difference and standard deviation between pre and post ETS-ES scores was
21.989 (23.527), an overall average gain of 21 points from pre to post ETS-ES scores. The assumption of normality was
not violated, as assessed by Shapiro-Wilk test (p = .147). Participants’ post ETS-ES scores in technology self-efficacy
significantly increased when compared to ETS-ES pre-scores (95% CI, 17.11670 to 26.86156), t(91) = 8.964, p < .0005.
A N D
A pre- and post-course administration of the Educator Technology Self-Efficacy Survey (Gentry & Baker, 2013) was
used to determine the impact of the content on participants’ self-efficacy toward technology integration. The instrument is comprised of 50 positively and negatively worded items corresponding to the International Society for
Technology in Education (ISTE) NETS-T standards, and Gentry and Baker (2013) reported a high level of internal consistency evidenced with a Cronbach’s alpha of .96. The positive and recoded negative items were summed for each
respondent, yielding a range from low to high (50-250). A higher score represents a higher self-efficacy towards the
blending of best practices and technology. Descriptive statistics were used to compare pre and post ETS-ES scores.
A paired-samples t-test was used to determine whether there was a statistically significant mean difference between
the pre and post-scores for TOOC participants. A Shapiro-Wilk test was utilized to determine if normality could be assumed. Cohen’s d was used to analyze the size of the effect (.2 small, ,5 medium, and .8 large).
P R A C T I C E ,
Of the initial 162 registrants, 122 actively logged-in and participated in the course. Ninety-seven (97) of those participants successfully completed all of the course requirements with a grade of C or better, yielding a persistence to
completion rate of 80%.
E D U C A T I O N ,
RESULTS
J O U R N A L :
Of the 122 participants, 77 (63%) identified themselves as K-12 teachers with varied years of experience. Teachers
with more than five years of experience represented 53.2% (n = 41) while teachers with, at most, five years represented 46.8% (n = 36) of the 77 teacher participants. Forty-seven percent (n = 36) taught at the elementary level while
51% (n = 39) taught at the secondary level. Thirty percent (n = 29) identified their school as urban, and 62% (n = 48)
identified their school as rural.
I S S U E S
Active participants consisted of 122 educators representing 36 schools in North Central Texas. The group was made
up of 12% (n = 14) males and 88% (n = 108) females, ranging in age from 22 to 68 years old, and included 77 K-12
teachers, 15 K-12 administrators/support staff, 16 university faculty/support staff, nine graduate students, and five
that didn’t disclose their status. The ethnic profile of the group included 98 (84%) Anglo/non-Hispanic participants,
nine (8%) Hispanic participants, six (5%) African American participants, two (2%) Asian participants, and two (2%)
American Indian participants.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Feedback was provided to every participant within five days of completion via detailed rubrics for each deliverable.
Team leads were responsible for scoring the rubrics and the course instructor provided comments on each Google
Document and in each Google+ community.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Thus, 93% of the variance in ETS-ES scores was attributed to the class experience (d = .93).
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
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Participant Satisfaction and Initial Recruitment Outcomes
Results of the end-of-course evaluation indicated that 81% of participants would participate in another TOOC if offered, and 80% would refer a colleague or friend to the university for future professional development and/or graduate work.
Initial recruitment outcomes are positive, with 18 new graduate students starting in the summer and fall semesters
in the Instructional Design & Technology program as a result of the TOOC, or a 157% increase over prior enrollments
in the same semesters. Seventeen (17) participants have expressed interest in starting in the spring of 2014 semester,
and all successful completers will have until the summer of 2014 to use the TOOC for free graduate credit.
CONCLUSION
This article describes the structure and processes used to develop a Targeted Open Online Course (TOOC) that blended attributes of the MOOC model with the best practices of a traditional online course. Initial results have shown that
the TOOC model could be advantageous for regional institutions that may lack the resources and exposure to offer
a MOOC, but would like to make an impact and increase their exposure by targeting smaller populations of interest
(e.g. educators, businesses, health care professionals, etc.). Furthermore, smaller enrollments in TOOCs ensure more
rigorous assessment and validation of identity and allow instructors to leverage the best pedagogical practices of
traditional online courses to maintain higher persistence rates. Finally, while the business model for MOOCs remains
unclear (see Freeman, 2013; Raths, 2013; and Rivard, 2013), TOOCs afford institutions the ability to let students “try
out” a college class and use successful completion as a springboard for pursuing their degree.
REFERENCES
Daniel, J. D. (2012). Making sense of MOOCs: Musings in a maze of myth, paradox and possibility [White paper]. Retrieved
from http://www.academicpartnerships.com/research/white-paper-making-sense-of-moocs.
Downes, S. (2005, December 22). An introduction to connective knowledge. Retrieved from http://www.downes.ca/
cgi-bin/page.cgi?post=33034.
Freeman, K. (2013, October 12). There is no business model for MOOCs yet. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from
http://blogs.wsj.com/experts/2013/10/12/there-is-no-business-model-for-moocs-yet/.
Gentry, J., & Baker, C. (2013). Measuring teacher self-efficacy for blending best practices with technology. Manuscript
submitted for publication.
Jordan, K. (2013). Emerging and potential learning analytics from MOOCs. Academia. Retrieved from http://academia.
edu/3264990/Emerging_and_potential_learning_analytics_from_moocs.
Kirschner, A. (2012). A pioneer in online education tries a MOOC. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from
http://chronicle.com/article/A-Pioneer-in-Online-Education/134662/.
Liyanagunawardena, T., Adams, A., & Williams, S. (2013). MOOCs: A systematic study of the published literature 20082012. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 14(3), 202-227.
Raths, D. (2013, August 7). The MOOC business plan. Campus Technology. Retrieved from http://campustechnology.
com/articles/2013/08/07/the-mooc-business-plan.aspx.
Rivard, R. (2013, July 17). No-bid MOOCs. Inside Higher Ed. Retrieved from http://www.insidehighered.com/
news/2013/07/17/moocs-spread-quickly-aided-no-bid-deals-public-universities.
Siemens, G. (2005, August 10). Connectivism: Learning as network creation. e-Learning Space. Retrieved from http://
www.elearnspace.org/Articles/networks.htm.
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.3
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About the Authors:
Dr. James Gentry, EdD (gentry@tarleton.edu), is an associate professor of education at Tarleton State University,
and has researched, published and presented on teaching and learning factors related to 21st century skills and the
incorporation of technology to engage students. He was named to the Texas A&M University System Chancellor’s
Academy of Teacher Educators, and also serves as the editor of the Journal of the Effective Schools Project.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Dr. Credence Baker, PhD (cbaker@tarleton.edu), is an assistant professor of educational technology at Tarleton State
University where she has studied factors that impact student success in the online learning environment for the past
decade. Much of that time has been spent investigating the construct of “presence” in the online environment, and
how it relates to student affect, motivation, and cognition. She is particularly interested in the practical implications
for both K-12 educators and higher education faculty. Baker currently serves on the editorial review board for the
Journal of Online Learning and Teaching and the Journal of Educators Online, and on the Board of Directors for the
Texas Social Media Research Institute.
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.3
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A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
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Stragegies for Attracting and Retaining Teachers
Paul Bland, Ph.D.
Edwin Church, Ed.D.
Mingchu Luo, Ed.D.
Emporia State University
Attracting and retaining high quality teachers is a challenge for many school districts. This is especially true in
a time of increased accountability and limited resources. This report details best practice in the training, hiring,
improvement, and retention of high quality teaching staff. The authors explain how school leaders can attract
quality teaching staff, provide effective new teacher induction programs, and establish procedures that will assist in retaining the best of the best teaching staff.
Keywords: teacher retention, teacher recruitment, new teacher induction programs
L
OVERVIEW
ow expected earnings in teaching relative to earnings in other professions can deter people from pursuing a
teaching license and thereby affect the supply of new teachers. Two content areas among the most susceptible
to teacher shortages are math and science, fields in which salaries are relatively higher in occupations outside
teaching. Regions most susceptible to shortages are large cities and rural areas. In more urban areas the cost of living
is higher, other job opportunities are available for educated workers, and teaching conditions associated with concentrations of immigrant children from impoverished families can be challenging. Rural areas may find it difficult to
attract teachers based on their location and available resources. Districts must develop savvy recruiting practices in
order to attract teachers from the qualified applicant pool (Loeb, Rouse, & Shorris, 2007).
Once recruited, qualified teachers must be improved through on-target, on-time, and on-task staff development
programs, and these teachers must be retained for the benefit of the students the school district serves. The average
yearly turnover rate in education is 13.2% as compared to 11% in other professions. Half of all urban teachers leave
the profession within their first three to five years, and half of those rated as being in the top 20 percent of all teachers
leave within five years. The two most frequently cited reasons for leaving are low pay and problems associated with
teaching (Ingersoll, 2001). The problem areas of concern that beginning teachers share are classroom management,
student discipline, required adjustments to the physical demands of teaching, and managing the instructional demands of profession (Coggins & Deffenbaugh, 2013). Other problems cited include isolation, difficulties managing
interpersonal relationships with parents and staff, heavy workload, government initiatives, stress, the sacrifice of leisure time, and justification of work demands to others outside of the workplace (Heller, 2004).
Recruitment, placement, development, and retention of high-quality personnel at all levels constitute the significant focus of district leadership. Teacher attrition imposes costs not only on the students of the novice teacher who
replaces the outgoing teacher, but also on the school as a whole. For example, administrators and perhaps even
other teachers must take time to orient and train new teachers, especially if the school uses a particular curriculum.
To the extent that principals adjust class sizes or the student composition of classes to provide new teachers with a
somewhat easier load, other teachers in the school will necessarily shoulder a heavier burden. More generally, a staff
with high turnover loses the institutional memory that could help it avoid “reinventing the wheel” or making costly
mistakes (Heller, 2004).
Church, Bland, & Luo
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.2
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CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE RECRUITMENT AND RETENTION PLAN
Recruitment
Planning for teacher recruiting should be a continuous process. School administrators should establish goals and
objectives for the district recruitment plan every year (Webb & Norton, 2008). Effective recruiting starts with a great
reputation. School districts should develop a marketing strategy that illuminates the positive elements of the school
district, the community, and the surrounding area.
Many districts enhance their public relations efforts through a well-designed web site that demonstrates the climate
and culture of the school and community. Effective web pages provide a variety of interesting and helpful information to new and potential employees by highlighting student and employee accomplishments, demographics, and
personnel information that include an on-line application process, policies and regulations, calendars, and contacts.
Web pages should be colorful, include well-designed graphics, and be easy to access and search. In addition, web
pages should provide an authentic story about the school’s vision for teaching and learning; the vision for students,
teachers, and auxiliary personnel; the leadership philosophy; and district and community values, expectations, and
future plans. Offering detailed data on the cost of living and quality of life in the area can entice teachers. It is advisable to include as much data as possible, as the information prospective teachers want varies widely by age and
experience. Having current, reliable information on the web site should be a priority (Gow, 2003).
Administrators and other current employees should attend career fairs at teacher education institutions. Current employees can sometimes be the most effective cheerleaders for the district recruitment program (Morehart, 2001). Allow teachers to be active participants in district recruiting efforts by sending them to meetings, conferences, teacher
fairs, and other activities where they may tell firsthand the great story of their school. The district should develop
recruit visuals such as DVDs, PowerPoint presentation loops, and display boards to use at career fairs. Post-it notes,
ink pens, and other give-away items bearing the district logo should also be available at the district’s station at the
career fair.
The district needs to develop a packet of recruitment materials reflective of the different characteristics and needs in
the district which can be given to prospective teachers at job fairs or made available at all schools and at the central
office. These information packets could also be handed out at meetings and conferences, as well as any other place
that may be a source for teacher recruitment. Information that could be included as part of the packet: a map of the
district and surrounding area; a letter from the superintendent or school board president welcoming the applicant
and describing the basic philosophy of the district; information describing school sites and curricular features; and a
resource describing the community, types of housing available, recreational opportunities, etc. The main characteristic of these packets is the emphasis on the benefits of working in the district. These printed materials would provide
the added advantage of giving the applicants something they can re-read at any time.
Prospective teachers should be encouraged to schedule visits to the schools. School visits should include informal
meetings not only with students, but with other teachers, especially teachers at similar stages in their own careers.
Such meetings can serve as a reality check for prospective teachers against misconceptions they may have initially
formed through the formal interviews.
Some districts have created partnerships with local colleges to encourage students to enter teaching. Districts need
to provide the training institutions with current information so they can encourage prospective teachers to investigate the great things the school district has to offer. District administrators and teachers should volunteer as presenters in university teacher preparation classes. Most programs welcome class presentations from practitioners who can
provide a real-world perspective in dealing with current educational problems and issues. This will not only benefit
the students, but should serve to further expose the special attributes of the school district. Furthermore, the district
and the university should work cooperatively to design fieldwork placements in the district that will increase the pool
of potential teachers who are familiar with the schools. Such placement also encourages new teachers to consider
working in the school. School districts can agree to sponsor internship programs affiliated with a university, with the
hope that the interns will then teach in the school when fully certified. Additionally, pre-service internships build
competence and professionalism in first year teachers.
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District administrators should support the local universities’ efforts to find more teacher candidates to help fill the
shortage of teachers through the alternative certification process in that, for many professionals, the field of education has an appeal to those who are bored with the mundane routine of their current job. The number of teachers
entering the teaching field without an education degree is on the rise thanks to alternative teaching certification programs. Universities and organizations such a Teach for America (TFA) are offering alternative certification programs
that allow teachers to get into the classroom with as little as 5-7 weeks of initial training (Cloud, 2010). According to
studies in several states alternatively certified teachers tend to score as well as teachers with education degrees on
licensing tests and tend to stay on the job as long, or longer than teachers who are trained in traditional certification
programs (Streisand & Toch, 1998).
The term “growing-your-own” sometimes is used in regard to recruiting teachers. Many school districts are able to
grow their own teachers by having active and dynamic future teacher clubs in their schools. This is an excellent way
to introduce students to the teaching profession and provide an opportunity for them to live and work in their local
communities after they become certified. Grow your own programs can also involve district personnel looking within
their classified employee and volunteer groups for potential teachers. District administrators should try to offer incentives to these classified and volunteer groups, and then assist them in obtaining an education degree. This will aid
these people in becoming teachers and build a strong allegiance to the district. Grow your own programs also take
advantage of aspiring teachers’ tendency to prefer to return home to teach. Teachers prefer to teach close to where
they grew up and in areas demographically similar to their hometown (Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2005).
People are more likely to enter teaching when starting teacher salaries are high relative to salaries in other occupations. The fact that average US teachers’ salaries are low relative to GDP per capita indicates both that the United
States has the capacity to pay higher salaries and that current salaries may not be high enough to attract a quality
teaching force (Ladd, 2007). Another financial recruiting incentive is loan forgiveness, whereby school districts offer
to assume full or partial responsibility for payment of student loans and other less expensive debts for beginning
teachers. For example, school districts may contact lending institutions that have new teachers as clients and work
with them to help decrease interest rates or consolidate loans. Other financial recruiting incentives include signing
bonuses for teachers in shortage subject areas, scholarships for newly qualified teachers who voluntarily take classes
in a designated shortage subject area, and tuition reimbursement for advanced educational degrees.
Other recruiting strategies include advertising open positions in newspapers and university placement centers and
making personalized follow-ups to job inquiries in order to foster positive feelings about opportunities in the district.
Retention
Surveys find that lack of support is a key reason why teachers change schools or leave the profession (Ingersoll, 2001).
Many districts have tried to reduce attrition through induction and mentoring programs for new teachers. Members
of all stakeholder groups should be involved at some point in this effort.
Coggins and Diffenbaugh (2013) reference Daniel Pink’s book Drive and recommend three ways to increase the number of teachers who continue working effectively in classrooms for more than a few years. The initial recommendation is for new teachers to obtain mastery. Teachers flourish when they feel good about their work. To assist teachers
in feeling good about their work, schools must not place beginning teachers into the most difficult classrooms with
inadequate support, and all teachers must be provided with frequent quality feedback from knowledgeable practitioners. The second recommendation dwells on the concept of purpose. Teachers are in the classroom because they
want to improve the learning of their students in a manner that will have a positive effect on the students. Teachers
need to be provided with opportunities to work in teams that have the potential of improving instructional practice
so that many students are affected in positive ways. School districts must establish procedures that provide teachers
with opportunities to have a say in school policies, and in the development of comprehensive programed improvement strategies. A final recommendation is for teachers to be allowed autonomy in regard to instruction. A balance
must be struck between the “flee market” classroom, where a teacher “rents the space and does their own thing,” and
a tightly controlled scripted curriculum delivery that provides the teacher no freedom in regard to instruction, pacing, and assessment (Coggins & Diffenbaugh, 2013).
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1. Carefully selecting initial assignments in which placing the new teacher in the most difficult schools or with the
most difficult situations is avoided
3. Setting clear administrative goals
4. Offering regular, clear feedback and specific suggestions for improvement
5. Providing encouragement from administrators and colleagues
6. Working in a non-threatening environment to encourage questions
8. Encouraging experimentation and discussing the results with colleagues
9. Setting clear school rules for student behavior
10.Providing opportunities to interact with parents
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Mentoring programs generally pair novice teachers with experienced teachers, although the type and extent of interaction between the teachers vary considerably. In all cases, mentoring programs must exist separately from evaluative programs. Efforts to provide effective mentoring programs appear to impact beginning teachers in at least
three significant ways. First, mentoring helps new teachers adjust to the organization and philosophy of the school.
Second, mentoring fosters self-confidence and gives new teachers encouragement to not only remain in the district,
but remain in the profession as well. Third, a sound mentoring program allows new teachers to expand their teaching
A N D
Induction programs typically involve meetings, informal classes for new teachers, and peer-support groups. A strong
induction program for new staff members that involves them in an existing learning community must assign a strong
coaching mentor who can grow professionally as much as those they mentor; support and extend innovative practice through active research; and support collegial discussion and learning among experienced staff, new staff, and
the principal through rigorous study groups. Such a framework for induction not only harnesses the enthusiasm and
professional support research has shown necessary for making novices successful, but builds an ongoing commitment to professional learning for all staff members.
P R A C T I C E ,
7. Discussing the role of the teacher with experienced colleagues.
E D U C A T I O N ,
2. Providing opportunities to participate in decision-making, coupled with autonomy in many classroom choice
J O U R N A L :
Rosenholtz (1989) summarized the literature by listing ten components essential for the successful induction of new
teachers:
I S S U E S
In California, the State Department of Education awarded grants to more than 400 school districts in order to test the
effectiveness of various induction models. In urban districts, 93% of new urban teachers continued to teach in their
districts, a gain of over the 70% of the new teachers not in the program. In rural areas 85% of the project’s teachers
continued to teach in their districts, as compared with 50% of other new rural teachers (Henshaw, 1992). A study
conducted at the University of South Florida demonstrates that the lack of an effective system of support may lead
to dissatisfaction with teaching and the eventual attrition of many who might otherwise become successful teachers. Those new teachers who participated in an induction program experienced less job stress, felt more effective as
teachers, and were more likely to continue teaching (Dianda et al., 1991).
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Induction is the term used to describe all the processes through which a new teacher is introduced to the policies and
culture of the school district, including the individual school, the staff, curriculum, and the community. The process of
induction should begin the moment a new teacher is hired. As soon as new teachers sign their contracts, the district
should provide as much information about the school and community as possible and make new hires feel special,
welcome, and appreciated in between the time they sign their contract and when they first report to work. Relationship building is key toward fostering positive attitudes and feelings of belonging among teachers when they arrive in
their new surroundings. Sending weekly postcards or notes relaying the message that the school and community are
looking forward to their arrival and copies of newspapers or other information that will help inform them about their
new community and school are additional ways to build relationships. Keeping in touch with incoming teachers and
having someone available to meet them when they arrive at the school also set a positive tone for these individuals.
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skills and knowledge-base (Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, 2000). The mentor-coach who mentors
novices must ensure that the feedback provided guides and improves practice while engendering trust in the mentor/protégé relationship (Johnson, 2002).
Training of mentors should be a priority for the principal. For effective feedback, mentors should offer nonjudgmental accepting responses, present specific data for discussion, and provide guidelines for growth. The principal must
provide the mentor access to the protégé’s classroom and assure equal access to the mentor’s class. The mentor must
see the protégé in practice, and more importantly, the mentor must be a skilled observer to find subtle teaching and
student learning behaviors that, if improved, can increase a protégé’s effectiveness and competence (Portner, 2003).
At the same time, the protégé must observe the mentor with attention to practice and lesson design that serves as an
exemplary model for the protégé. The principal must develop special schedules to provide the mentor and protégé
time in their day to visit and collaborate because, if mentoring doesn’t happen in the classroom, it quickly becomes
merely a to-do list for the first month of school and little improvement or growth in practice occurs for the protégé.
The protégé’s professional development does not have to be the only outcome of a mentoring relationship. The
mentor is a second beneficiary of the close observation of instructional practice. Mentors must know what effective
instruction looks like and what will result in high student achievement in order to guide the protégé in efforts to
fine-tune instructional skills or classroom management strategies. The protégé who observes the mentor teach can
provide another perspective to the mentor’s practice and help both reflect on what works well and what could work
better. As a result, the mentor can grow professionally along with the mentored teacher.
New teachers need guidance and clear expectations, but they must also find freedom and empowerment to determine how they meet these expectations. Principals must nurture an environment that encourages new teachers to
take control of how they teach and set high standards for student achievement.
New teachers want to make contributions and feel they are a working part of a school culture. A strong retention
program must quickly involve new teachers in the decision making process. Instead of becoming mere spectators,
new teachers must be encouraged by their principal to develop their own identity (Wong, 2003).
Sergiovanni (1996) tells school leaders that a teacher’s participation in a professional community of colleagues has
a powerful effect on his or her ability to effectively work in the classroom and adopt teaching strategies that more
effectively meet student needs. Establishing a learning community that values the ideas and experiences of all its
members will sustain new teachers through their early years. The principal must also develop a community of learners who work toward common goals and make decisions based on shared experiences and results. Most importantly,
this must be a community willing to accept and value perspectives offered by new teachers.
Novices must be encouraged to participate with others in the school to ask questions critical to their practice. Action
research not only puts novices in charge of what results from their instruction, but it identifies effective and ineffective teaching habits that are forming early in their practice. Such identification is the first step in helping to eliminate
those practices that are ineffective.
Study groups provide another vehicle for learning in practice for the novice with the support of veteran colleagues.
Study groups examine theories and practices of experts in the field that help translate into actual classroom practice (Berliner, 1986). The principal must provide staff development that offers a background and a process for staff
research and study. It is also the principal’s obligation to be involved in any staff development, demonstrating his or
her commitment to the process and hard work driving study groups. Perhaps most importantly, the principal must
act on recommendations resulting from study groups.
Professional development such as seminars for new teachers is a way to retain teachers. The U.S. Department of Education Initiative on Teaching (2000) offered the following strategies to help schools improve their staff development
programs:
• Commit more resources to staff development
• Create job-embedded collaborative content-focused professional development opportunities that continue
throughout the academic year
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• Implement year-long contracts for teachers to provide extra time for professional development, curriculum
planning and collaboration
• Restructure the daily schedule to provide longer uninterrupted times for teacher collaboration and planning
• Institute summer programs where teachers may become intellectually re-charged
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Another financial incentive program involves giving teachers the option of being assessed against national criteria for
teaching effectiveness. Those who pass this assessment gain access to significantly higher pay (Johnson et al., 2005).
P R A C T I C E ,
If the goal is not only to attract but also to retain quality teachers in difficult-to-fill positions or locations, the most
logical incentive program is a long-term financial package rather than a one-time bonus. This long-term financial
plan includes targeted bonuses or higher salaries to retain teachers in hard-to-staff schools and subject areas. Researchers have found that the introduction of a bonus payment reduced turnover of the targeted teachers by roughly
12, relative to what it would have been in the absence of the program. Interestingly, the policy seemed to have the
strongest effect for experienced teachers (Clotfelter, Glennie, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2008). Although the evidence to date is
limited, state and district officials might consider a targeted salary enhancement program with clear eligibility rules
and substantial dollar amounts.
E D U C A T I O N ,
A teacher’s decision to enter or remain in teaching depends not only on his or her initial salary but also on the expected growth in that salary over time. One way to improve teacher retention is to increase salaries, either by uniform
increases for all teachers or by targeted salary increases or bonuses. Although higher salaries do boost retention
rates, uniform salary increases seem unlikely to pass a cost-benefit test. The difficulty in retaining teachers varies
dramatically across schools, education levels, and subject areas. Even in highly disadvantaged urban districts, for
example, some elementary schools have little trouble hiring for general education teaching positions. Uniform salary increases will inevitably provide additional compensation to many teachers who would have taught in the same
position anyway. Salary schedules that start low but then rise quite rapidly to a plateau are associated with the most
severe challenges of retaining teachers. High starting salaries with relatively rapid growth to a salary plateau are
most attractive to those who are willing to make a substantial initial commitment to teaching, but this type of salary
schedule may not succeed in keeping teachers in the profession until the normal retirement age. Schedules in which
salaries start low but climb steadily over a long period are less attractive to teachers who are unsure about whether
they wish to become a lifetime teacher; however, the schedule may succeed in retaining teachers as they age (Johnson, Berg, & Donaldson, 2005).
J O U R N A L :
School leadership is too big a job for one person. Teachers should be involved in school leadership opportunities, and
new models of leadership are emerging. A number of schools are experimenting with new leadership roles for teachers. Modeled after colleges and universities, teachers are involved in the same manner that professors are involved in
decisions about curriculum, graduation requirements, scheduling, hiring of colleagues and administrators, finance,
and use of space. All teachers are significant leaders of their students, and when the teachers are allowed take part in
overall school leadership the teacher moves from being an employee to a managing partner of the school. A feeling
of tremendous professional satisfaction accompanies this shift and provides experienced teachers the “middle management” opportunities necessary to effectively retain teachers (Barth, 2013).
I S S U E S
Administration should review the professional growth plans of each teacher at the beginning and middle of the
school year. The purpose of this review is to ensure that the teachers are exposed to professional development activities that enhance their craft. Additionally, this review provides a forum for the principal and the teachers to discuss
the extent to which the teachers seize opportunities to provide leadership in areas of curriculum, instruction, support
services, parental engagement, and community development. Some districts designate an amount of money per
teacher that can be spent on individual professional development and/or cultural enrichment, while other schools
target professional development on school wide goals. In some cases, districts have been successful in situating
high-value professional development resources at a district site. Schools can maximize impact at little or no cost by
encouraging teachers to present at major workshops and conferences or to apply for such high-prestige, funded
programs such as Fulbright and Klingenstein fellowships and National Endowment summer seminars.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
• Evaluate program effectiveness based on improved student learning
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Working conditions appear to be even more important than wages, particularly for teachers in urban schools. Research in this area typically compares the salaries and student characteristics in the schools (or districts) that teachers
leave with those in the schools (or districts) that teachers enter. Generally, studies suggest that most teachers are
attracted to high functioning schools with competent administrators, dedicated colleagues, and reasonably wellbehaved children who are “teachable” even if they may come from poor families and have low skills. These are schools
where teachers feel they can make a difference. However from a policy perspective, the problem is that such a school
is exactly what most school reform efforts are trying to create. Thus trying to improve working conditions in isolation
involves a Catch-22: to improve working conditions to attract effective teachers, it is necessary to reform the whole
school, but whole school reform will not work without effective teachers (Johnson et al., 2005).
Districts can retain teachers by looking at the total work situation to identify ways of making the adult experience in
schools more meaningful, more satisfying, and, ultimately, more productive. Creating a positive family-faculty atmosphere based on the recognition of faculty professionalism can itself be highly significant in teacher retention. Furthermore, public recognition of service for longevity at various stages or for particular achievements in other areas is
an emotional hook to help keep good people (Johnson et al., 2005).
Other retention strategies that guard against teacher burn-out are providing additional support staff for teachers,
sabbaticals, and extended leaves, faculty exchange programs. (Johnson et al., 2005).
Additional financial initiatives that can be put in place to retain teachers include reimbursement of dues for professional association memberships; reimbursement of tuition costs for continued professional development; giveaways
of donated items, such as cultural or sporting event tickets, museum memberships or passes, financial planning, or
other pro bono personal services; merit pay for teachers who demonstrate great results with students; provision of
release time for travel to professional meetings; and housing provisions as teachers who must drive long distances to
work because of a lack of housing are more likely to leave their positions than teachers who live in or near the community where their school is located. (Johnson et al., 2005).
IMPORTANT THINGS TO REMEMBER
Evidence collected on teacher recruitment and retention suggests several important lessons. First, there is no silver
bullet. The problem is too large and too complex to be solved easily. Policymakers and educators must resist falling
into unproductive battles over issues such as certification that tend to pit the free-market camp against the professionalism camp. Second, local responses to this problem are limited in important ways. The importance of geography
and working conditions in teacher decisions suggests that it may be difficult or extremely expensive to solve the
problem through recruitment and retention alone. Third, at least part of the problem may be operational. The inability of districts to make offers to teacher candidates until July or August could be addressed, at least in part, by improving human resource systems and renegotiating certain contract provisions with local unions. Among the causes
for late hiring are policies that allow exiting teachers to provide late notification to the district, policies that allowed
experienced teachers to transfer between schools at the last minute, late state budget deadlines, and antiquated
or dysfunctional human resource departments. Finally, researchers and policymakers should focus more energy on
demand-oriented strategies that would improve the ability of district administrators to identify and hire the most
qualified applicants.
Better screening of applicants could help them improve their workforce considerably. The tremendous variation in
teacher quality, even within schools and among teachers who have the same certification and experience, highlights
the importance of making sure that those making the hiring decisions have a keen eye for talent and have reached
agreement on the characteristics of what makes an effective teacher.
Even districts that are extremely efficient in hiring will invariably hire some teachers who do not perform well in
the classroom. Although it is politically and financially costly to dismiss existing teachers, it is easier to distinguish
between effective and ineffective teachers once they start teaching than to predict which teachers will be effective.
According to an informal survey of the human resource departments in several large urban districts, less than one
percent of the teaching force is dismissed each year, with slightly more tenured than untenured teachers dismissed.
One often-cited explanation is administrative hurdles involving firing outlined in collective bargaining agreements,
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All recruitment and retention efforts that involve additional financial cost to the district have drawbacks. Some existing teachers and teacher candidates find it unfair that teachers newly entering the profession should be eligible for
benefits that they did not get. It can be prohibitively expensive to try to “buy your way around” teacher attrition. No
one knows how large the offsets would need to be or who should bear the burden of the cost. Perhaps the biggest
problem of all is that a willingness to work in a hard-to-staff school or district or content area for an agreed-upon
bonus is no guarantee of effectiveness.
1. Have a recruitment plan.
2. Have an up-to date district website with a variety of interesting and helpful information
4. Encourage prospective teachers to visit schools in the district.
5. Partner with local colleges.
6. “Grow your own” teachers from local residents.
8. Have an induction and mentoring program.
9. Set clear high expectations for new teachers.
10.Include teachers in decision making processes in the building.
A N D
11.Establish professional learning communities.
12.Establish staff development plans incorporating action research.
14.Take an active role in the provision of professional development.
15.Provide middle management opportunities (department chair, teacher leaders, and curriculum leaders) to experienced teachers.
16.Increase teacher salaries.
17.Create a positive work environment (competent administration, dedicated colleagues, and reasonably wellbehaved students).
18.Establish a resiliency-building school culture.
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13.Establish staff-study groups.
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P R A C T I C E ,
7. Offer competitive salaries and other financial incentives, such as loan forgiveness, signing bonuses, and scholarship.
E D U C A T I O N ,
3. Attend career fairs with multi-media promotional materials (giveaways donning the school logo, display boards,
DVD presentation, or packets of printed information).
J O U R N A L :
DO’S IN RECRUITING AND RETAINING QUALITY TEACHING STAFF
I S S U E S
In conclusion, schools must become increasingly creative in developing practices and policies to attract and support
teachers in every phase of their careers. Reflecting traditional school needs as well as the evolving expectations of
members of the work-force, current best practices are focusing as much on the intangible aspects of job satisfaction
as on the material conditions of employment. While money does talk, it is the entire quality of the work experience
that ultimately tells a teacher whether to stay or go.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
including a documentation and appeal process that principals describe as extremely burdensome. Dismissing a
teacher imposes considerable costs on a principal or school, or both. Administrators must take the time and energy
to hire a replacement and integrate the new teacher into the school. Since new teachers are less effective, on average, than experienced teachers, replacing an older teacher with a novice, all else equal, is likely to worsen student
performance in the short turn; thus it will make sense for a principal to dismiss a teacher only if he or she is certain
the teacher is less effective than the replacement will be and if the benefits associated with the new “more effective”
teacher outweigh the costs associated with firing and hiring (Jacob, 2007).
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19.Provide additional support staff to teachers.
20.Provide sabbaticals, extended leaves, and faculty exchange programs.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
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21.Provide reimbursement for professional dues and professional conferences.
22.Provide release time to attend professional conferences.
23.Provide giveaways of donated items: tickets, coupons, services.
24.Provide merit pay to those who demonstrate great results with students.
25.Provide housing options, if needed in your community.
26.Support alternative teacher certification programs.
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disadvantage urban schools. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 24, 113-123.
Clotfelter, C., Glennie, E., Ladd, H. & Vigdor, J. (2008). Would higher salaries keep teachers in high-poverty schools?
Evidence from a policy intervention in North Carolina. Journal of Public Economics, 92, 1352-1370.
Cloud, J. (September 20, 2010). How to recruit better teachers. TIME, 46-52.
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retention. Harvard Report, 37-67.
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A N D
Dr. Mingchu (Neal) Luo (mluo@emporia.edu) is assistant professor in the Department of School Leadership and
Middle/Secondary Teacher Education, the Teachers College, Emporia State University. Before he joined the Department of School Leadership, he had served as senior institutional researcher at Emporia State University. Dr. Luo
earned his doctoral degree in educational administration with concentration on research methodology and statistics
from Nebraska University. His research interests include data-driven decision-making, principalship, college student
persistence, and school climate. His research has been documented in various publications in journals.
P R A C T I C E ,
Dr. Edwin Church (echurch@emporia.edu) is a 1999 Ed.D graduate from Wichita State University. He presents regularly on the topics of learning communities at the local, state and national level. He was the 1999 Kansas Rural Superintendent of the Year and received the 2003 Kansas Rural Schools Association Outstanding Practice Award. Dr.
Church has published in the areas of high school dropouts and teacher perceptions of dropouts, adult learning,
technology delivered instruction, alternative education programs, alternative school district pay systems, distance
learning, learning organizations, and the survival of small schools and school districts.
E D U C A T I O N ,
Dr. Paul Bland (pbland@emporia.edu), Professor of Education, is Director of Secondary Education at Emporia State
University. He earned Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees from Fort Hays State University and was a teacher and coach
for eleven years in Kansas public schools. He earned a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from Kansas State University. He served as coordinator for secondary education at Lindsey Wilson College in Columbia, Kentucky and Department Chair and Director of Teacher Education at Sterling College in Sterling, Kansas. Dr. Bland has been published in
the areas of teacher education design and historical examination of the superintendency.
J O U R N A L :
About the Authors
I S S U E S
Wong, H. (2003). Induction programs that keep working. In M., Scherer (Eds.), Keeping good teachers (pp. 43-47).
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (2000). Mentoring beginning teachers: Lessons from experience in
Texas: Policy Research report. Retrieved (June 13, 2011) from http://www.sedl.org/pubs/policy 23/4.html.
R E S E A R C H
a
Church, Bland, & Luo
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.2
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Tina T. Fields, Ph.D., M.P.H.
Jeff J. Hatala, Ph.D., M.M.C.
School of Health Administration at Texas State University
Richard F. Nauert, Ph.D.
The University of Texas, Austin
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
Perceptions of Preceptors and Students on the Importance
of Writing
Health administration programs vary from other administrative programs based on emphasis in writing. Prior
studies about writing skills in professional degree programs show student writing skills are not at a professional
level. There is no literature at present that identifies important and essential writing skills related specifically to
undergraduate or graduate health administration programs. This pilot study surveys graduate and undergraduate programs’ residency preceptors to identify the important skills and forms of written communication used in
the workplace and surveys students to discover their perceptions of what skills and written work they will perform in their initial job. Results show that preceptor and students differ in their perceptions of forms of written
communication deemed essential, but they do not differ in their perceptions of what is an essential writing skill.
Further research is needed to obtain more in-depth insight into adequate preparation for program graduates’
initial job.
Keywords: written communication, perceptions, writing skills, workplace, students
H
INTRODUCTION
ealth administration faculty often differentiate a health administration degree from a business degree by the
inclusion of core content that trains students to have strong written and verbal communication skills. This
focus seems to be substantiated by the various health administration accreditation bodies that emphasize
the importance of communication. Since the 1990s, there has been an emphasis in health administration on “competency based” curricula that incorporates the skills, including communication, needed in the workforce throughout
the academic curriculum (Gelmon & Regan, n.d.).
In an attempt to clarify and, to some extent, standardize learning across the health administration curricula, health
administration accreditation bodies have embellished the concept of “competency based” education (Messum, Wilkes, & Jackson, 2011). According to the Institute of Medicine (2003), this would include core sets of competencies that
would be shared across the health professions. To be a competency, concepts should be at higher skill sets and have
higher degrees of sophistication. The Commission on Accreditation for Health Management Education (CAHME) addressed the need for an increased emphasis on competency in 2008, the first year that health administration departments demonstrated that their curricula were competency-based.
Across numerous disciplines, faculties have developed competency-based models that identify the skills/knowledge/application that were important for all graduating students to possess as they entered the workforce. These
behaviors were then analyzed to determine the degree of sophistication needed, and faculty members would subsequently seek validation from workforce leaders with whom the faculty had working arrangements. Eventually
skills needed in the workforce were categorized into large components. For example, Bradley et al. (2008) identified
three domains—technical, analytical/conceptual, and interpersonal—needed for the healthcare professional, while
Christensen, Barnes, and Rees (2004) identified ten communication skills needed by accounting graduates. Other researchers (Branz, 2008; Calhoun et al., 2008; Levy, 1995) used similar nomenclature to identify overarching areas that
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
b
were crucial for successful transition into the workforce. Ultimately, CAHME developed a competency model based
on the 1950s Bloom educational hierarchy (Martin & Briggs, 1986).
The original Bloom’s hierarchy identified three domain areas that included knowledge (cognition), skills (psychomotor), and attitude (affective). Within these three domains was a hierarchy of concepts, with subsequent levels being
dependent on previously learned levels. To a certain extent, the three domains were interrelated. Thus, people with
knowledge of a subject and a positive attitude about a subject were likely to practice a skill set because they knew
the importance of the skill; subsequently, practicing the skill led to a competency level of the activity. Thus, the Bloom
hierarchy indicated the need for people who were at a base level of knowledge and skill to practice the skills in order
to increase the level of their competency.
Bradley et al. (2008) found that as health administration programs began to consider the importance of competencybased education, faculty recognized that within the discipline the knowledge, skills, and attitudes were found across
many, and throughout most, of the courses being taught. Thus it was imperative for the entire faculty to determine
what should be the appropriate level of learning needed for entry into the workforce, to determine in which courses
the domains and skill sets were being addressed, and to determine to what extent the domains were being addressed. Working together and truly analyzing courses throughout the curriculum created a matrix whereby faculty
identified courses that placed a strong emphasis on a domain, courses whereby domains were introduced, and domains that were lacking in the curriculum.
Beginning with the Pew Health Professions Commission, health administration departments have analyzed their curricula to ascertain if they are teaching the important skills needed for the health care workforce. A number of terms—
outcome-based education, criterion-reference education, criterion-based outcomes, standards-based instruction,
evidence-based education (Calhoun et al., 2008)—have been used to describe an educational process that teaches
principles and approaches that are meaningful for future employment. Indeed, marketplace and societal changes
have necessitated on-going reevaluation of critical skills required in a 21st century healthcare business environment.
Given the proliferation of e-mail, texting, and social marketing, a disconnect regarding the importance of written
communication skills may exist between students, faculty, and stakeholders.
THE IMPORTANCE OF WRITING SKILLS
Due to a discrepancy between high school graduates’ writing skills and the expectations of college instructors, the
RAND Corporation’s Council for Aid to Education (CAE), in early 2000, encouraged a “value added” (Benjamin & Chun,
2003) concept be considered in academia. This approach has become the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA) project that places emphasis on general education skills rather than content. In the CLA project, three important life-long
skills are highlighted: critical thinking, analytic reasoning, and written communication. Although the CLA encourages
these three skills be emphasized in the general education courses at universities, health administration departments
can certainly relate to the importance of these skills in the discipline. However, a key factor that should be considered
is the relevance of these “value added” concepts to the future employment of students.
To determine the specific writing skills needed within disciplines, many academic departments have implemented
surveys of businesses with a history of hiring students educated in the respective disciplines. For example, Enos
(2010) found proofreading and editing to be of significant importance when business leaders were surveyed. In that
survey, “six of the 10 most distracting items fell into the category of basic sentence-structure errors” (Enos, 2010, p.
264). The report from the National Commission on Writing (Quible & Griffin, 2007) found that American employers
spent over $3 billion yearly to address their employees’ writing deficits. This paralleled the finding from the American
College Test (ACT) study that found “nearly 20% of students entering college [must] take a remedial writing course”
(Quible & Griffin, 2007, p. 34).
Even academic areas that seem to focus on analytical/mathematic skills valued writing skills. For example, Christensen, Barnes, and Rees (2004) found that seven of the top 10 skills gleaned as important for the newly hired accounting graduate dealt with writing. The Christensen et al. research (2004) further found that short essays that
paralleled business memoranda better reflected writing skills needed by new hires as opposed to multi-page reports.
Kelley and Gaedeke’s (1990) survey of entry-level marketing positions substantiated the importance of written com-
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Nearly all written communication studies determined that memorandums, business correspondence, and e-mail
were crucial for today’s workforce. With this concern expressed by business leaders throughout the healthcare field,
the authors and their colleagues questioned if their emphasis on student writing was appropriate. Specific questions
that faculty wanted to answer included the following:
2. Upon graduating with a degree in healthcare administration, do students possess the communication skills
most needed/desired by the workforce?
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
E D U C A T I O N ,
During the same time-frame, The National Commission on Writing (2005) released two landmark report to Congress:
The Neglected ‘R’: The Need for a Writing Revolution and Writing: A Ticket to Work...Or a Ticket Out, a Survey of Business
Leaders. Both of these reports substantiated the importance of writing within the workforce and also cited that over
a quarter of a billion dollars (National Commission on Writing, 2003) was spent annually to enhance new employee
deficiencies in writing. A survey commissioned by the National Governors Association (NGA) had the same conclusion (National Commission on Writing, 2003). With results from 49 of the 50 United States, the NGA found nearly 67%
of professional employees had some responsibility for writing. The survey also determined that “75% of the respondents report that they take writing into consideration in hiring and promoting professional employees” (National
Commission on Writing, 2003, p. 4). Respondents also indicated that poor writing “doomed a candidate’s chance of
employment” (National Commission on Writing, 2003, p. 4). To substantiate this, a 2004 survey of private businesses
sponsored by the Business Roundtable found that businesses “frequently” or “almost always” considered writing in
professional promotions (National Commission on Writing, 2003, p. 4). Within the field of health administration, the
American College of Healthcare Executives (ACHE) suggested five competencies, with communication and relationship management being a key domain (Branz, 2008). The ability to prepare business communication as well as the
ability to produce credible reports was included within this competency.
J O U R N A L :
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
munication. In addition, Kelley and Gaedeke (1990) surveyed their marketing students and found 44% lacked communication skills. A more recent survey (Gray, Emerson, & MacKay, 2005) found that students and employees tended
to have different values of the importance of writing skills. In fact, the survey by Massey University (Gray, Emerson, &
MacKay, 2005) found that employers valued clarity of providing information even more than accuracy of the material.
1. According to leaders within the healthcare arena, what communication skills are needed to be successful in the
health administration profession?
3. Are student perceptions of communication skills needed in the workforce the same as the healthcare supervisors’ perceptions?
To answer these questions, the Massey University Communication Skills Survey of Written Skills (CSSWS) (Gray, Emerson, MacKay, 2005) and a question from the National Governors Association (National Commission on Writing, 2005)
have been revised. The aggregated survey was given to healthcare leaders in central Texas for validation. Afterwards,
preceptors (healthcare leaders who historically have provided oversight for undergraduate and graduate students’
required internship/residency) were asked to complete the Likert-scale survey, with the leaders’ input being based on
their current experiences in the healthcare field.
To understand the writing skills that preceptors of the authors’ master and bachelor degree programs in health administration felt were important for health administration students and to recognize the perceptions of writing skills
that master and bachelor students believe they need in the workplace, the CSSWS was revised to emphasize the
health care industry (Christensen et al., 2002; Gray, Emerson, & MacKay, 2005; Kelley & Gaedeke, 1990; National Commission on Writing, 2005). IRB exempt status was approved through the authors’ university. The revised survey included a 15-item, seven-category Likert Scale on perceptions of skills needed in the workplace. It also included a
nine-item, four category Likert Scale of specific types of writing examples currently used in the field. The one-page,
24-item survey was distributed to both healthcare preceptors and health administration students.
METHOD
Survey Population, Materials and Methods
This pilot study is concerned with two populations: preceptors of the Texas State University bachelor’s and master’s
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
b
degree health administration residencies and students preparing to enter either of the Texas State University health
administration programs or into the health administration residencies. Forty-six preceptors and 203 students were
surveyed.
Instrument
Procedure
a
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
R E S E A R C H
Preceptors and students were asked to identify writing skills they believed to be essential in the healthcare field.
The list included 15 specific writing skills, and the respondents were to indicate the importance of each specific skill,
based on a Likert scale. There were differences between what preceptors and students believed to be essential writing skills needed at entry into the professional career (see Table 1).
A N D
A total of 53 graduate and 150 undergraduate students completed surveys in specifically identified classes during
the first month of the fall semester 2012. Of the 150 undergraduate students completing surveys, 45 (30%) were seniors, 77 (51.3%) were juniors, and 28 (18.7%) were sophomores. No freshmen were included in the survey because
health administration courses are not open to freshmen. The junior and senior students submitted their surveys while
in a required upper division health administration course; the sophomores submitted their surveys while in a prerequisite introductory health administration course. None of the sophomore students had been accepted into the
health administration program at the time they received the survey. A total of 28 students (23 undergraduate and 5
graduate) declared themselves “non-health administration majors” and were not included in the final analysis. The
five non-health administration graduate students were in other health profession programs, taking a health administration course as a requirement for their major.
P R A C T I C E ,
A total of 46 surveys were mailed to 14 undergraduate and 32 graduate preceptors, with a total of 32 (69.6%) being
returned. Of the 32 surveys sent to graduate program preceptors, 25 (78%) returned completed surveys, and seven
(50%) of fourteen undergraduate program preceptors returned completed surveys.
E D U C A T I O N ,
RESULTS
J O U R N A L :
Data were entered into an Excel spreadsheet. This was cleaned and validated for correct entry and was analyzed using SAS 9.3. Subsequently, data were collapsed into dichotomous variables categorized as essential and unessential.
Data about forms of communication used in entry to professional career were also recoded into dichotomous variables with responses of “frequently,” “almost always,” and “always” being collapsed into one category, while “almost
never,” “never,” “occasionally,” and “frequently” were collapsed into a different category. Frequency distributions were
obtained and chi square analysis was used to determine statistically significant differences between student and
preceptor populations.
I S S U E S
The survey was administered differently for each population of concern. Using the departmental list of residencies,
the survey was mailed to preceptors with a cover letter and business reply envelope. The survey was distributed to
students in a randomly selected group of classes to obtain their perceptions at different points in their respective
programs. Because of the small sample size of the pilot students, comparisons between student classes were not
performed. Preceptors were surveyed in summer and fall terms in 2012, while students were surveyed in the fall 2012
term.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Students and preceptors received the same survey except for instructions and demographic questions (questions
were customized for each population). The survey was based on the Massey University Communication Skills Survey
of Written Skills (CSSWS). One question from the National Governors Association was added to the survey. Questions
were reordered. Word changes were made only to reflect more appropriate health administration terminology. Both
surveys have been tested for validity and reliability with some questions collapsed or omitted. The revised survey was
comprised of a 24-item Likert scale instrument.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Table 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
Description of Preceptor and Student Perceptions of Essential Writing Skills
% preceptors:
skill is essential
(n)**
% students:
skill is
essential
(n)**
Collect information from variety of sources*
68.75 (32)
44.77 (172)
Condense materials and clearly convey meaning
68.75 (32)
56.07 (173)
Convey information accurately*
93.75 (32)
76.74 (172)
Write logically
68.75 (32)
63.58 (173)
Write persuasively
43.75 (32)
39.88 (173)
Write clear instructions
54.84 (31)
71.68 (173)
Write in styles appropriate for different readers
43.75 (32)
57.80 (173)
Write in business format for non-professional or non-academic
audience
40.63 (32)
56.40 (172)
Write scientific/academic paper for publication for variety of
readers*
0.00 (32)
31.79 (173)
Write a professional report for academic/medical audience*
6.25 (32)
49.71 (171)
Use a professional writing style*
46.88 (32)
66.86 (172)
Express ideas clearly in writing
68.75 (32)
72.83 (173)
Use correct grammar
71.88 (32)
75.14 (173)
Use correct punctuation
59.38 (32)
74.57 (173)
Spell correctly
65.63 (32)
80.92 (173)
Writing Skill
*denotes statistical significance at p < .05
**differences in n reflect unanswered questions or unidentifiable answers by respondents
In some cases, a greater proportion of preceptors than students believed certain skills were essential, while more students than preceptors believed other skills were essential. Preceptors perceived the following skills more important
than what students perceived:
• Collect information from variety of sources and
• Convey information accurately.
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
b
Conversely, students, more than preceptors, perceived the following skills to be essential:
• Write scientific/academic paper for publication for variety of readers,
• Write professional report for academic/medical audience, and
Of the skills analyzed, the greatest percentage of preceptors reported that conveying information accurately is essential (93.75%), and the greatest percentage of students report that correct spelling (80.92%) is essential. Preceptors
and students report that the ability to write for a scientific/academic paper for a professional audience is the least
essential skill (0.00% and 31.7% respectively) compared to the other skills named.
Description of Preceptors and Students Perceptions of Frequency of Use for Essential Forms of Written
Communication
78.49 (173)
Other memoranda and correspondence
9.38 (32)
16.67 (168)
Oral presentations with slides/visuals
6.25 (32)
20.59 (170)
Oral presentations without visuals
9.38 (32)
8.67 (173)
Formal reports*
3.13 (32)
33.92 (171)
Technical reports*
0.00 (32)
28.49 (172)
Policy alerts*
3.13 (32)
37.57 (173)
Legislative analysis*
0.00 (32)
23.26 (172)
Policies and procedures**
18.75 (32)
55.49 (173)
*denotes statistical significance at p < .05
**differences in n reflect unanswered questions or unidentifiable answers by respondents
Further Results – Do Preceptors and Students Differ on “Important” Writing Skills and Frequently Used Forms of Written Communication?
Data about writing skills was recoded into dichotomous variables, with a ranking of five and higher categorized as
“important” and scores of four and below categorized as “unimportant.” Data about forms of communication used in
early career were also recoded into dichotomous variables, with responses of “frequently” and “almost always/always”
a
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
R E S E A R C H
100 (32)
A N D
E-mail correspondence*
Form of Communication
P R A C T I C E ,
% students:
skills almost/
always used (n)**
E D U C A T I O N ,
% preceptors:
skills almost/
always used (n)**
J O U R N A L :
Table 2
I S S U E S
The second component of the survey identified nine forms of communication frequently used within the healthcare
setting. A greater percent of preceptors, more than students, identified e-mail and oral presentations without visuals
as being used “always/almost always.” A larger percent of students, more than preceptors, identified memorandum,
oral presentation with visuals, formal reports, technical reports, policy alerts, legislative analysis, and policies/procedures to be forms of communication that they would use “always/almost always” in the work setting. The differences
between perceptions of students and preceptors were significantly different at the 0.05 level for six of the skill sets
(Table 2). In all but one skill set, greater percentages of students perceived the item would be used always or almost
always. The five skill sets included formal reports, technical reports, policy alerts, legislative analysis, and policies and
procedures. More preceptors than students believe that e-mail is used always or almost always.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
• Use a professional writing style.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
collapsed into a “frequently” category, while “almost never/never” and “occasionally” collapsed into an “infrequently”
category.
When data were collapsed, 100% of the preceptors identified five writing skills as important (Table 3). These included
ability to condense material; convey information accurately; write logically; express ideas clearly in writing; and use
correct grammar. The preceptors felt that writing scientific papers was least important (34.38%). On the other hand,
the largest percent (97.67%) of students felt that the ability to convey information accurately was important in the
workforce, while they perceived the ability to write scientific papers (76.88%) to be least important. It is interesting
to note that preceptor perceptions about writing a professional report for an academic/medical audience and writing scientific/academic papers for publication for a variety of readers differed significantly from student perceptions.
Table 3
Description of Preceptor and Student Perceptions of Important Writing Skills
%
preceptors:
skill is
important
(n)**
% students:
skill is
important
(n)**
Collect information from variety of sources
96.88 (32)
94.19 (172)
Condense material from variety of sources and clearly convey meaning
100.00 (32)
96.53 (173)
Convey information accurately
100.00 (32)
97.67 (172)
Write logically
100.00 (32)
94.22 (173)
Write persuasively
87.50 (32)
90.75 (173)
Write clear instructions
93.55 (31)
95.95 (173)
Write in styles appropriate for different readers
84.38 (32)
91.33 (173)
Write in business format for non-professional or non-academic audience
90.63 (32)
92.44 (172)
Write scientific/academic paper for publication for variety of readers*
34.38 (32)
76.88 (173)
Write a professional report for academic/medical audience*
59.38 (32)
91.23 (171)
Use a professional writing style
96.88 (32)
92.44 (172)
Express ideas clearly in writing
100.00 (32)
95.95 (173)
Use correct grammar
100.00 (32)
96.53 (173)
Use correct punctuation
96.88 (32)
95.95 (173)
Spell correctly
93.75 (32)
94.80 (173)
Writing Skill
*denotes statistical significance at p<.05
**differences in n reflect unanswered questions or unidentifiable answers by respondents
Four specific forms of written communication—formal reports, technical reports, policy alerts and legislative analysis—were statistically significant at the 0.05 level (Table 4). With all four, students perceived the skills as more important than did the preceptors. The largest percentage of preceptors and students stated that e-mail correspondence
is frequently or almost always used. The smallest percentage of preceptors (15.93%) reported that legislative analysis
is an important form of written communication, while the smallest percentage of students (42.77%) believed that
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
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b
oral presentations without visuals is used frequently, almost always or always. Perceptions of amount of use of formal
reports, technical reports, policy alerts and legislative analysis differed statistically between preceptors and students.
Table 4
100.00 (32)
97.09 (172)
Other memoranda and correspondence
53.13 (32)
69.05 (168)
Oral presentations with slides/visuals
71.88 (32)
66.47 (170)
Oral presentations without visuals
50.00 (32)
42.77 (173)
Formal reports*
50.00 (32)
74.27 (171)
Technical reports*
25.00 (32)
69.77 (172)
Policy alerts*
31.25 (32)
78.03 (173)
Legislative analysis*
15.93 (32)
59.30 (172)
Policies and procedures
71.88 (32)
83.82 (173)
*denotes statistical significance at p<.05
**differences in n reflect unanswered questions or unidentifiable answers by respondents
DISCUSSION
a
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
R E S E A R C H
The percentage of preceptors who say that using correct spelling and punctuation is important is not quite 100%. As
A N D
Preceptors surveyed unanimously state that e-mail is an essential form of written communication used in the workplace. Conversely, fewer than 20% of preceptors report that the other forms of communication are essential. This
speaks to the importance of e-mail use in the career-starting job and suggests that the newly hired may be performing other duties that do not involve written communication outside of e-mail. Interestingly, data reveal that the
smallest percentage of preceptors believe that formal reports and legislative analysis are essential forms of communication, while the smallest proportion of students believe that oral presentations without slides/visuals is an
essential form of communication. This discrepancy suggests that students have low expectations about the need to
be able to present information. Faculty who teach in the traditional setting should consider the value of modifying
their instruction to include assessments where presentations are made without use of technology. In addition, fewer
students than preceptors believe that e-mail is an essential form of written communication. This difference may stem
from students own use of technology to communicate and a belief that, once in the workforce, they will be using
their preferred means of communicating.
P R A C T I C E ,
This pilot study provides preliminary insight about student and preceptor perceptions of needed writing skills and
forms of written communication used in health administration careers, and it sheds light on potential inclusions for
undergraduate and graduate health administration programs. The perceptions of writing skills needed in the workplace and forms of written communication used helps educators identify specific skills to teach and types of assessments to ensure skills are of sufficient quality. Faculty knowing student perceptions, can help identify gaps in present
education, but also provide insight into student beliefs about the activities to be performed after graduation.
E D U C A T I O N ,
E-mail correspondence
Form of Communication
J O U R N A L :
% students:
skills frequently, almost,
always
used (n)**
I S S U E S
% preceptors:
skills frequently, almost,
always
used (n)**
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Description of Preceptor and Student Perceptions of Important Forms of Written Communication to be Used in the
Workplace
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
faculty, that finding is considered low. Perhaps some preceptors do not provide work for students that require grammar skills; such activities could be clerical or organizational in nature. Another reason could be that preceptors view
spelling and punctuation as a function of automatic computer corrections.
More students believe that formal reports, technical reports, policy alerts, and legislative analysis are important compared to the percentage of preceptors that believe the same thing. Such findings suggest that students might believe
they will be doing more complex work in their initial job than what preceptors indicate the students will actually do.
In addition, student perceptions might be a function of the types of writing assignments students are given to prepare them for their careers beyond their residency. If student perceptions are inferred from class assignments, faculty
may need to set expectations or link learning objectives to career skills. Directors of health administration programs
may wish to consider including a course in writing skills with “real world” assignments, or such assignments should
be included in the appropriate course(s) in the curricula. For example, a health policy class could include the development of a policy brief or legislative alert as written assessment.
Future Research
This pilot study was designed to explore the importance of writing skills and written communication in health administration curricula and jobs. Future study should examine the difference in writing skills and forms of communication needed in both residency and post-graduation employment at various stages of the career path (for graduates
of both bachelor’s and master’s degree programs). Future study should also include gaining a better understanding
of the writing skills and forms of written communication needed, as well as student expectations of what their first
job in the field will entail. Similarly, future research should garner a greater understanding of the activities and skills,
including those writing-based, performed during the residency. Additional examination could be performed to see
if there are differences in skills and forms of communication commonly used by graduates of bachelor’s and master’s
degree programs.
Limitations
The study has a few limitations. Pilot study results may not be truly generalizable to the needs of other institutions
and of preceptors in other programs. Although statistically adequate, having greater statistical power would either
confirm or possibly change the results shown.
Students may have answered questions based on what they perceive to be needed after graduation or sometime
during their careers as students are typically unaware of the specific duties or assignments requested as part of their
residency until they begin the residency. No students surveyed were taking their residency course. Collecting data
from residency students would provide valuable insights into how health administration programs could prepare
students for the last learning experience before graduation and in their careers.
Another limitation is the few demographic questions asked of students. Because of the small number of students in
this pilot project, the authors chose to maintain student anonymity at the sacrifice of capturing demographics. These
demographics, including students’ age, sex, and work experience, would be useful in better understanding students
and their perceptions of writing skills.
A final limitation is that the study focuses on traditional classroom learning. With more programs moving toward online or hybrid formats, Power Points are appropriate for these venues, but faculty still should emphasize that Power
Point presentations may not be acceptable in the workforce.
CONCLUSION
This pilot study is the first step to understanding the writing skills needed and forms of written communication perceived as important by health administration students and preceptors of health administration residency programs.
The difference in writing skills needed and forms of written communication used in the field show the need to evaluate course assignments to ensure that students are prepared for their careers.
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
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Benjamin, R., & Chun, M. A. (2003, summer). A new field of dreams: The Collegiate Learning Assessment Project. Peer
Review, 26-29.
Branz, K. A. (2008). ACHE healthcare executive competencies assessment tool. Healthcare Executive (supplement),
1-32.
Calhoun, J. G., Vincent, E. T., Calhoun, G. L., & Brandsen, L. E. (2008). Why competencies in graduate health
management and policy education? Journal of Health Administration Education, 25(1), 17-35.
Christensen, D., Barnes, J., & Rees, D. (2004). Improving the writing skills of accounting students: An experiment.
Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 1(1), 45-52.
Gray, F. E., Emerson, L., & MacKay, B. (2005). Meeting the demands of the workplace: Science students and written
skills. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(4), 425-435.
Kelley, C. A., & Gaedeke, R. M. (1990). Student and employer evaluation of hiring criteria for entry-level marketing
positions. Journal of Marketing Education, 12, 64-71. doi:10.1177/027347539001200309.
Levy, C. M. (1995). The “R” that psychology forgot: Research on writing processes. Behavior Research Methods,
Instruments, & Computers, 29(2), 137-145.
Messum, D., Wilkes, L., & Jackson, D. (2011). Employability skills: Essential requirements in health manager vacancy
advertisements. Asia Pacific Journal of Health Management, 6(2), 22-28.
National Commission on Writing (2005). Writing: A powerful message from state government: National Writing
Project. Retrieved from http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource
Tina T. Fields, Ph.D., M.P.H. (TFields@txstate.edu) is an associate professor in the School of Health Administration at
Texas State University.
Jeff J. Hatala, Ph.D., M.M. (Hatala@txstate.edu) is an assistant professor in the School of Health Administration at
Texas State University.
Richard F. Nauert, Ph.D. (nauert@austin.utexas.edu) is an adjunct associate professor at The University of Texas, Austin.
All correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tina T. Fields, School of Health Administration,
a
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
R E S E A R C H
About the Authors
A N D
Quible, Z. K., & Griffin, F. (2007). Are writing deficiencies creating a lost generation of business writers? Journal of
Education for Business, 83(1), 32-36.
P R A C T I C E ,
Martin, B. L., & Briggs, L. J. (1986). The affective and cognitive domains: Integration for instruction and research.
Englewood Clifts, NJ: Education Technology.
E D U C A T I O N ,
Institute of Medicine (2003). Health professions education: A bridge to quality. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press.
J O U R N A L :
Gelmon, S. B., Reagan, J. T., & Merrill, R. B. (1996, fall). Assessment in a quality improvement framework: Applications
in health administration education. . Funded by HRSA, Contract #HRSA 92-499(P).
I S S U E S
Enos, M. F. (2010, September). Instructional interventions for improving proofreading and editing skills of college
students. Business Communication Quarterly, 73, 265-281. Retrieved from http://bcq.sagepub.com/content/73/3/265.
doi:10.1177/1080569910376535.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Bradley, E. H., Cherlin, E., Busch, S. H., Epstein, A., Helfand, B., & White, W. D. (2008, Winter-Fall). Adopting a
competency-based model: Mapping curricula and assessing student progress. The Journal of Health Administration
Education, 25(1), 37-52.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666. E-mail: tfields@txstate.edu
Fields, Hatala, & Nauert
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.6
b
Learning from the Past: Dual Credit
Texas A&M University-Commerce
a
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R E S E A R C H
It is well-known that there is a positive correlation between one’s educational level and earning potential. Studies
have repeatedly shown the benefits of education as it relates to income as noted by a recent Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) study conducted in 2009 (BLS, 2009). The report indicated that those with only a high school diploma had
median weekly earnings of $626 per week, and those with a bachelor’s degree had median weekly earnings of $1,025
per week, representing an increase of almost 40% per week. Furthermore, unemployment rates were 8.6% for those
A N D
LITERATURE REVIEW
P R A C T I C E ,
At the dawn of the twenty-first century, the state of Texas began an aggressive campaign to increase the number of
Texans participating in higher education. This initiative, known as Closing the Gaps, was adopted in the year 2000 by
the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB) in order to increase student participation rates in college by
an additional 500,000 students by the year 2015 (THECB, 2000). The educational campaign was partly a result of the
need to increase college enrollment numbers to improve the Texas economy. In 2006, the initiative was revised to
increase participation by 630,000 students so as to reflect updated demographic projections (THECB, 2008). Since
2000, Texas legislators set about encouraging, approving, and implementing programs that would allow students to
not only pursue higher education but also allow for a seamless transition between high school and college. One such
way to accomplish this goal was through dual credit coursework. Dual credit enables qualifying high school juniors
and seniors to obtain college credit while still enrolled in a high school setting, thus giving students a jump-start on
higher education, while also preparing them for more rigorous college-level coursework.
E D U C A T I O N ,
INTRODUCTION
J O U R N A L :
Keywords: dual credit, high school students, early college high school, critical incidents
I S S U E S
This study involved identifying, categorizing, and comparing critical incidents related to qualifying dual credit
high school students’ decisions to enroll or not to enroll in dual credit coursework in either a traditional or early
college high school. The purpose of the study was (a) to identify the reasons qualifying students decide to enroll
in dual credit courses in a traditional or early college high school and (b) to identify the reasons qualifying students choose the traditional versus the early college high school. For this qualitative study, the research method
employed was the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) developed by John Flanagan in 1954. The study employed a
written survey to obtain demographic information and the critical incident data. The study was conducted by
appointed high school counselors at both high schools—traditional and early college. Both schools were located within the same school district. Total participants in the study totaled 139. The researcher, along with the help
of a dual credit expert panel, identified, categorized, counted, and reported a total of 643 incidents: 340 effective
and 303 ineffective critical incidents. For both enrolled traditional and early college high school students, “Incentives and Challenges” was the most frequent reason students cited for enrolling in dual credit. Both types of
students also indicated “Culture/Atmosphere” as the top reason they chose to attend one school versus the other.
Not enrolled traditional high school students cited the “Advanced Placement Course” category as the top reason
they chose not to enroll in dual credit. These students also cited “Culture/Atmosphere” as the main reason they
chose the traditional versus the early college high school. Not enrolled early college high school students cited
“Personal Hindrances” as the key reason for not enrolling in dual credit. This same category was also cited as the
top reason that early college students gave for choosing the early college versus the traditional high school.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Nicole Mansell, Ed.D.
Madeline Justice, Ed.D.
possessing a high school diploma compared to 5.2% for those possessing a bachelor’s degree (BLS, 2009).
While there was a clear economic benefit in continuing one’s education beyond high school, the trend of pursuing
a higher education has not been one that is always readily adopted by many high school students. Reportedly there
have been a number of factors that can discourage and prohibit high school students from taking their education to
the next level. These factors included a highly detailed and confusing admissions process, high tuition costs, and the
lack of availability of aid and opportunity cost (Hahn & Price, 2008).
One way to ease the transition process between high school and college is through the dual credit program. Dual
credit is a partnership between high schools and community colleges or universities that enables students to earn
high school credit and college credit simultaneously. Texas legislators and academic leaders have realized that dual
credit programs are one way to increase college enrollment numbers. Dual credit programs in the state of Texas have
increased in popularity since the year 2000. In 2005, Texas legislators passed a law requiring all school districts in the
state of Texas to offer a minimum of twelve hours of dual credit coursework to their students by the year 2008 (Texas
P-16 Council, 2007). Since the fall of 2000, dual credit enrollment numbers in the state of Texas have continued to
increase. In just ten years, enrollment has grown from 17,784 students in the fall of 2000 to 91,303 in the fall of 2009
(THECB Data Center, 2010). Interestingly, while opportunities are now readily available for Texas high school students
to enroll in dual credit coursework, many still do not take advantage of this option, triggering the need to examine
further the reasons students do not take advantage of this opportunity.
One reason for the lack of interest in dual credit coursework can be found in the attitudes and actions of senior high
school students. The senior year of high school can often be described as dismissive, as students tend to be lackadaisical and often take less rigorous courses. This ever-prevalent trend was brought to light in October 2001 by a report
conducted by the National Commission on the High School Senior Year. In the report, the Commission recommended
that school districts provide more rigorous courses and that students be encouraged to enroll in such courses. Additionally, the rigorous courses allow for a seamless transition in order for students to further their education or
work. Furthermore, the Commission recommended that there be a greater opportunity for students to experience
college-level coursework (National Commission on the High School Senior Year, October, 2001). In the state of Texas,
legislators realized the importance of a college educated citizenry and took action, such as the passage of House Bill
1 in 2005 that required all school districts to provide the opportunity for students to earn at least twelve semester
hours of college credit in high school and to encourage high school students to pursue their education beyond the
secondary level.
During the first decade of the twenty-first century, Texas legislators adopted several initiatives that were designed
to assist the state of Texas in becoming a leader in higher education. In October 2000, the Texas Higher Education
Coordinating Board (THECB) approved the Closing the Gaps initiative that outlined four major goals for Texas higher
education: (a) Closing the Gaps in Participation, (b) Closing the Gaps in Success, (c) Closing the Gaps in Excellence,
and (d) Closing the Gaps in Research (THECB, 2000). With the first goal, Closing the Gaps in Participation, the Coordinating Board set out to focus on areas that would increase participation rates in higher education. With the second
goal, Closing the Gaps in Success, one of the areas the Coordinating Board focused on was to create incentives and
requirements for seamless student transition among high schools, community and technical colleges, as well as universities. Based on these goals, dual credit coursework is an important concept as it lends itself toward achieving
goals one and two of the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board’s Closing the Gaps initiatives.
In order to enroll in dual credit courses, a high school student had to meet the requirements set forth by the Texas
Higher Education Coordinating Board (THECB, 2003). The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board stated that
students were eligible to enroll in dual credit courses during their junior and senior years if they had demonstrated
college readiness by attaining the minimum passing standards under the provisions of the Texas Success Initiative
(TSI) or by demonstrating that he or she is exempt based upon the provisions made by the Texas Success Initiative
(THECB, 2003). Junior and senior high school students would be eligible to enroll in dual credit courses if they had
attained a score of 2200 in English Language Arts and/or Mathematics with a sub-score of three on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) examination. Additionally, students must pass all required prerequisite courses
prior to enrolling in dual credit courses (THECB, 2003).
1. What specific reasons do qualifying dual credit students give for choosing to enroll in dual credit courses in a
traditional high school?
2. Why do qualifying dual credit students choose the traditional high school over the early college high school?
4. Why do qualifying dual credit students choose to remain at a traditional high school rather than enroll in an
early college high school?
5. What specific reasons do qualifying dual credit students give for choosing to enroll in dual credit courses in an
early college high school?
8. Why do qualifying dual credit students choose to remain at an early college high school rather than enroll in a
traditional high school?
METHOD OF PROCEDURE
For this study, the researchers employed a qualitative research design in order to obtain the data needed to answer
the research questions regarding dual credit courses. The purpose of this study was to identify causes leading public
high school students to enroll or not to enroll in dual credit courses in either the traditional high school or the early
college high school. This study focused on junior and senior students enrolled in an English course at two types of
a
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R E S E A R C H
7. What specific reasons do qualifying dual credit students give for choosing not to enroll in dual credit courses in
an early college high school?
A N D
6. Why do qualifying dual credit students choose the early college high school over the traditional high school?
P R A C T I C E ,
3. What specific reasons do qualifying dual credit students give for choosing not to enroll in dual credit courses in
a traditional high school?
E D U C A T I O N ,
This research examined the following questions:
J O U R N A L :
Dual credit programs in both the traditional high school and early college high school have the potential to break
educational barriers that prevent students from pursuing higher education. Barriers such as inadequate financial
resources and limited course offerings are no longer issues that students once faced; however, data showed that
students who meet the eligibility requirements to enroll in dual credit courses are continuing to decline the opportunity to begin their college careers while still enrolled in high school. For this reason, additional inquiries were made
to ascertain the reasons qualifying dual credit students choose to enroll or not to enroll in dual credit coursework,
particularly when a traditional and early college high school exists within the same school district.
I S S U E S
The Early College High School was designed to allow students to earn simultaneously a high school diploma and an
associate’s degree tuition free. Generally, students at early college high schools have been first-generation college
goers, economically disadvantaged, and typically members of minority groups who have been underrepresented in
higher education. The number of Texas school districts and/or charter schools partnering with colleges and universities to provide this opportunity for their students has continued to rise (Jobs for the Future [JFF], 2010). While the
numbers of students participating in dual credit coursework in both the traditional high school and early college
high school have risen, there continue to be a number of qualifying students who do not take advantage of this opportunity.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Although a student may qualify to enroll in dual credit each year, he or she might not take advantage of this higher
education opportunity for financial reasons. According to the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, neither
the Texas Education Agency nor school districts across the state of Texas are required to provide funding for dual
credit courses (THECB, 2003). Students who wish to enroll in dual credit courses are responsible for paying for tuition
and books themselves; as a result, students who are economically disadvantaged may miss out on the opportunity
to obtain college credit while still enrolled in high school. In recent years, there has been an effort by many traditional
high schools and colleges and universities to offer dual credit scholarships to economically disadvantaged students.
Additionally, colleges and universities have elected to waive all or part of the tuition and fees, as evidenced most
recently with the birth of the Early College High School concept in 2003 (THECB, 2003).
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
Texas public high schools, traditional and early college. Both high schools were located within the same school district. Students met the criteria for dual credit enrollment as set for the by the Texas Higher Education Coordinating
Board (THECB, 2003).
In order to obtain the data, the researchers employed the data gathering method technique known as the Critical Incident Technique (CIT; Flanagan, 1954). Specifically, the researcher developed and distributed a CIT survey to all qualifying dual credit students whether enrolled or not enrolled in a dual credit course. A brief overview of the steps and
procedures that were taken to obtain the data are as follows: (a) Critical Incident Technique Overview, (b) Creation of
Survey Instrument, (c) Selection of Dual Credit Participants, (d) Data Collection Process, (e) Implementation of Expert
Panel, (f ) Cataloging of Data, (g) Study Findings, (h) Study Sample Population Identifiers, and (i) Treatment of Data.
Critical Incident Technique Overview
At some point in every individual’s life, decisions are made that determine the path one will ultimately follow. These
decisions can be measured through a qualitative approach, such as that of Flanagan’s Critical Incident Technique
(CIT), in order to study their importance and impact on one’s life. The Critical Incident Technique (CIT) was developed
by John Flanagan in 1954 as a systematic, inductive, open ended procedure for eliciting verbal or written information
from respondents (Flanagan, 1954). Flanagan described the CIT method as a flexible set of procedures for “collecting
direct observations of human behavior in such a way as to facilitate their potential usefulness in solving practical
problems” (Norman, Redfern, Tomalin, & Oliver, 1992, p. 591).
Creation of Survey Instrument
The researchers constructed and distributed a critical incident survey to those students who met the criteria to enroll
in a dual credit English course at two Texas public high schools within the same school district. A school district located in a north central Texas town was chosen due to the fact that the school district offered two types of high school
settings for its students—a traditional high school and an early college high school. Additionally, both campuses
provided a diverse student population. The pen and paper survey was distributed to students at both high schools
by qualified counselors who had been trained by the researcher.
Selection of Dual Credit Participants
Working with both counselors at the traditional high school and the early college high school, the researchers obtained a list of junior and senior students who were enrolled in an English course and who had met the criteria for dual
credit English enrollment for the fall of 2011. Counselors at both schools utilized the test scores students received
on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) examination during their sophomore year to determine if
the student was eligible for dual credit coursework. According to the Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board,
students must obtain the following scores on the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) examination to
qualify for English dual credit enrollment: English Language Arts, 2200, and a sub-score of three on the writing portion of the examination (THECB, 2003). Once the number of qualifying students was determined by the high school
counselors, parental consent was obtained prior to the administration of the survey.
Data Collection Process
Prior to conducting the survey, the researchers obtained a signed commitment form from the superintendent of the
school district and the principal at each high school. Once all commitment forms were received, the researchers contacted the lead counselor at each high school and requested that a list of qualifying dual credit English students be
developed for the study. All students remained anonymous as the researchers asked the counselors at each school
to give each participating student a participant code. The researchers provided parental consent forms for the counselor to send home to the parents of qualifying dual credit English students so that the survey could be administered.
At no time did the researchers have contact with the students during the selection process nor during the administration of the survey.
Surveys were dispensed by the high school counselor at each high school to qualifying students for whom parental
permission had been obtained. Furthermore, the surveys were dispensed on a specified date as agreed upon by
both the researchers and the counselor at each high school campus and at a time and internal campus location that
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best suited the needs of the counselor, students and English instructors. All eligible students were informed by their
counselor that they did not have to take part in the survey or that they could elect to answer only the questions of
their choosing contained in the survey. Because students were given a participant code, the identities of all students
participating in the survey remained confidential. Once the surveys were complete, the researcher picked up the
surveys in a sealed envelope on a date agreed upon by both the researcher and the counselor.
Cataloguing of Data
Study Findings
Study Sample Population Identifiers
Treatment of the Data
Based upon the findings of this research study, the following conclusions are provided for each research question.
Question One: Traditional High School Student Enrolled Research
The “Incentives and Challenges” category played a key role in a traditional high school student’s decision to enroll in
dual credit coursework. The ability for a student to earn college credit was the reason that was most cited for enrolling
in a dual credit class because college credit was guaranteed as long as the student obtained a grade of “C” or higher
in the class. Additionally, students also frequently referred to the financial savings that are afforded to them when
taking a dual credit class. Because high schools often partner with local community colleges for their dual credit
programs, students reap the financial savings of community college tuition and fees which are significantly less than
a
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R E S E A R C H
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
A N D
To present the findings of this study, data was shown both visually and in text format. Data was represented visually
through the use of tables. Furthermore, through the use of text, the researcher provided an in-depth explanation of
the findings at the conclusion of the study. By utilizing both methods the researchers were able to explain the overall
themes and categories that helped to identify why qualifying dual credit English students choose to enroll or not to
enroll in dual credit coursework in either a traditional high school or early college high school.
P R A C T I C E ,
The researchers provided a description of the study sample population for reporting purposes. Study sample population identifiers that were reported included gender, age, ethnicity, education level of mother and father, as well as the
participating student’s future college plans. Data were then recorded according to whether a student was enrolled
or not enrolled in a dual credit English course in either the traditional high school or the early college high school.
E D U C A T I O N ,
After reviewing the data and agreeing on the emerging themes, the factors that promoted, as well as prevented,
students from enrolling in a dual credit English course in either a traditional high school or early college high school
were identified and reported. The data was catalogued into each appropriate theme and counted to determine the
frequency of themes.
J O U R N A L :
One of the researchers catalogued the data by placing each participant’s response into the categories and/or themes
that naturally emerged from the surveys. Once catalogued, the researcher reviewed the data collectively with the
expert panel to ensure that the data had been placed into the appropriate category or theme.
I S S U E S
The researchers utilized a panel of experts who were versed in dual credit programs in the state of Texas to assist
with the categorization of the overall themes that emerged from the student surveys. Additionally, the panel had an
understanding of both the traditional high school and early college high school. The panel consisted of the following
individuals: the lead counselor at the traditional high school; the lead counselor at the early college high school; the
instructional dean at the local community college; a dual credit English professor; and a professor from the Department of Educational Leadership at Texas A&M University-Commerce. The researcher provided the panel with the necessary training needed to understand the Critical Incident Technique method so that they could correctly categorize
the overall themes that emerged from the student surveys.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Implementation of Expert Panel
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
that of a four year university or college. Many students also noted that dual credit coursework provided an academic
challenge. The level of rigor in a dual credit course enables students to experience a college level course and become
acclimated with college level expectations.
It is important to note that the traditional high school utilized for this study placed equal weight with regard to Grade
Point Average (GPA) points for both dual credit and advanced placement courses. For this reason, many students
did not refer to obtaining “Extra GPA Points” as a primary reason for choosing dual credit over advanced placement
courses.
The advantage of an “Early College Start” and “College Readiness” was also a key incentive for students to enroll in
dual credit. A large number of student respondents referred to the benefit of graduating from high school with a
number of college credits and being able to enter college ahead of the game. These same students also believed
that being college ready would allow them to have a more enjoyable first year academic experience while in college.
Based on the benefits associated with dual credit, high school administrators and counselors must develop a more
efficient plan of communicating the advantages of dual credit to both parents and students, as many students who
qualify for dual credit do not take advantage of the opportunities it offers. Community college counselors and dual
credit coordinators should work with high school administrators to develop a plan that educates more parents on the
benefits of dual credit. This is crucial as the “Family/Friend/Teacher Influence” subcategory located within category
one, “Incentives and Challenges,” only included five responses. Parents simply do not know about dual credit benefits.
Administrators from both the high school and community college could host dual credit parent orientations in the
evening to notify parents that their child qualifies for dual credit and explain the benefits of enrolling in the program.
Another option to educate parents would be to contact them via phone, either individually or through an automated
phone message. High school counselors should also counsel dual credit eligible students one-on-one during school
hours to ensure they fully understand the program, how to go about enrolling in the program, and to ensure students
are not intimidated by the process.
Question Two: Traditional High School Student Enrolled Research
The “Traditional High School Culture/Atmosphere” category played a significant role in a traditional high school student’s decision to enroll in a traditional versus early college high school. Students cited the ability to participate in
extra-curricular activities, followed by the traditional high school experience, as the top two reasons for choosing to
attend a traditional high school. The number and variety of outside activities offered by the traditional high school,
such as band, athletics, drama, and choir, was a key factor in a student deciding to remain at the traditional high
school. The perception that the traditional high school somehow offered more than that of an early college high
school in the form of outside interests should be investigated more thoroughly by both traditional and early college
high school counselors and administrators. Counselors at both types of schools should provide brochures to parents
and students on all activities offered, academic and social, so that students can make a more informed decision. The
traditional high school experience was also referred to many times by respondents. The ability for students to attend
athletic events, such as a football game, and cheer on one’s alma mater was found to be important and valuable.
The thought of a traditional high school student leaving behind his/her friends to attend the early college high
school played a considerable part in the decision to remain at the traditional high school. Twenty-five percent of survey respondents alluded to “Friends” being the reason for their desire to enroll in dual credit at the traditional versus
the early college high school. Oftentimes high school aged students would rather cling to the security of the known
than step outside of their comfort zone into the world of the unknown. This finding proved to be quite interesting
as high school counselors and administrators from both types of campuses must now take into account the simple
aspect of student friendships playing a major role in a student choosing one high school over another. A simple solution may be for upper-classmen from both types of high schools to share their stories with younger students and how
they overcame change in a positive manner. Counselors may also want to investigate assigning incoming freshman
students to a junior or senior student mentor to minimize the intimidation that change brings.
Question Three: Traditional High School Student Not Enrolled Research
“Advanced Placement Course” and “Financial Circumstances” were the two major obstacles that traditional high
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school students identified that prevented them from enrolling in dual credit. Nearly 25% of students responded
that they believed that Advanced Placement (AP) courses provided more challenging and rigorous coursework than
that of dual credit. Perception also played a role in one’s choice not to enroll in dual credit as students perceived AP
courses as more prestigious. Furthermore, the notion that AP courses are more widely accepted by colleges and universities across the United States was another deciding factor to decline the dual credit opportunity.
a
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R E S E A R C H
The notion of leaving behind one’s friends to attend the early college high school once again played a considerable
part in a student’s decision to remain at the traditional high school. “Friends” was the second highest category mentioned as the reason for not enrolling in dual credit at the early college high school. Yet again, students preferred the
security of the known over stepping outside of their comfort zone into the world of the unknown. High school coun-
A N D
The variety of academic offerings also played a part in student decision making. The early college high school did
not offer advanced placement courses and other academic programs such as cosmetology, welding, and teacher
preparation courses. Furthermore, the early college high school offered a number of science, technology, and math
electives, all of which traditional high school students did not show interest. The “Traditional High School Experience”
was also referred to by respondents. The student’s desire to be a part of the tradition and history of a traditional high
school was important enough to forgo enrolling in an early college high school. Based on these findings, the early
college high school must more clearly demonstrate their offerings, academic and social, to potential students. This
can be done online via the school’s website, with printed and electronic brochures, and through offering individual
and small group campus tours and meetings.
P R A C T I C E ,
Traditional high school students who were qualified to enroll in dual credit and chose not to enroll at the early college
high school cited some of the same reasons as their enrolled counterparts. The desire to experience the “Traditional
High School Culture/Atmosphere” outweighed the benefits of enrolling in dual credit at an early college high school
where tuition is waived. Once again, students cited the ability to participate in extracurricular activities as the number
one reason for choosing to remain at the traditional campus. This reason was closely followed by “Academic Offerings.” Outside activities offered by the traditional high school, such as band, athletics, drama, and choir, were key
factors in students wishing to remain at the traditional high school.
E D U C A T I O N ,
Question Four: Traditional High School Student Not Enrolled Research
J O U R N A L :
High school and community college counselors should provide students and parents with a comparison chart that
shows the long-term savings one would experience when enrolling in dual credit in a community college versus that
of a four year college or university. Another consideration would be for the high school to partner with local businesses and charitable organizations to provide dual credit scholarships for students who qualify. One such charitable
organization may be the school district’s education foundation, if one exists, and another idea would be for the
community college to provide scholarships through fundraisers. Students should also understand that passing an
AP exam does not guarantee college credit. Counselors should provide students with a list of colleges and universities and the AP exam scores required by each college in order to obtain college credit, since many vary. By the same
token, counselors should also have a document showing students and parents the colleges and universities that will
accept the dual credit courses being offered.
I S S U E S
A student’s financial circumstances also weighed heavily on the decision to enroll in dual credit. Many students simply did not have the funds to pay for dual credit tuition, fees, and textbooks. Ironically enough, several students
mentioned that they knew the benefits of enrolling in dual credit and that it would save them money in the long run.
Students also made mention of the fact that Advanced Placement (AP) exams were less expensive should a student
decide to take the AP exam at the end of the course. Lastly, students feared that the financial benefit of enrolling in a
dual credit course did not outweigh the risk of credit transfer.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
The role of the high school counselor in educating students in an unbiased manner on the advantages and disadvantages of advanced placement and dual credit is crucial. Counselors and administrators must be willing to immerse
themselves in both college credit programs and provide students and parents with enough objective information for
them to make an educated, informed decision. The role of counselors should be to inform, and not to sway, students
one way or another based on their personal opinions and preferences.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
selors and administrators from both types of campuses must now take into account the simple aspect of student
friendships playing a major role in a student choosing one high school over another. The ability to clearly demonstrate the advantages of the early college high school in the short and long term to students must be effective, since
emotions such as loss of friendships effect decision making. Perhaps one of the best ways to reach students who are
considering entering the early college high school might be for current early college high school students to share
their personal testimonies. Oftentimes, students will listen and connect with someone their own age which in turn
may make them feel more at ease about leaving behind the familiarity of the traditional high school. Counselors may
also want to investigate assigning incoming freshman students to a junior or senior student mentor to minimize the
intimidation that change brings.
Question Five: Early College High School Student Enrolled Research
Like traditional high school students, early college high school students also cited “Incentives and Challenges” as
the key factor in their decision to enroll in dual credit coursework. The difference between the two types of students
was that early college students believed that being academically challenged and prepared was more of an incentive
to enroll in dual credit coursework than obtaining college credit and experiencing financial savings. Early college
students cited the financial aspect of free college tuition as an incentive only 15% of the time. Ironically, the ability
for early college students to enroll in college level courses and experience college level rigor was the drawing factor
to enroll in the early college high school, and based on the survey respondents, free college tuition appeared to be
a bonus. Counselors may wish to emphasize to students and parents in greater detail the academic challenge that
enrolling in dual credit at an early college high school offers.
“Early College Start” ranked second in most effective responses. Since such a large group of students indicated that
the ability to obtain their associates degree and get an “early start” on their college careers was important, counselors should also provide this information when explaining the differences between a traditional and early college
high school. Given that early college high schools offer dual credit in every subject area and traditional high schools
are often times limited, the early college high school poses a clear advantage with regard to dual credit offerings.
Parents and students must have clear information in order to understand the value that obtaining both high school
and college credit simultaneously holds, which includes saving money and shortening the time to complete degree
requirements.
Question Six: Early College High School Student Enrolled Research
The “Early College High School Culture/Atmosphere” category played a significant role in a student’s decision to enroll in the early college versus traditional high school. Small class size and student population was a major draw for
student attendance, followed by the perception that the environment was superior both academically and socially.
To communicate these ideals, counselors could ask current early college students to share their personal testimonies
with those students who are considering attending the campus. Furthermore, early college high school counselors
may also want to offer campus tours led by the students themselves. Allowing students to connect with one another
may assist apprehensive students and parents to feel more comfortable about the possibility of attending an early
college campus.
Once more, early college high school students cited “Incentives and Challenges” as their reason for choosing the
early college over the traditional high school. Financial incentives and the early college option were key deciding
factors that prompted students to enroll in the early college high school. Since the early college high school model
is relatively new, many parents and students may not realize that all dual credit courses are tuition free. Furthermore,
the ability for a student to obtain up to two years of college credit and gain an early start on college saves both time
and money and will enable students to embark on their careers much sooner. This finding indicated that counselors
needed to clearly explain, more than once, the financial benefits of attending the early college high school.
Question Seven: Early College High School Student Not Enrolled Research
Since the overwhelming majority of students who attend an early college high school enroll in dual credit coursework, there was a very small population of students who were not enrolled in dual credit English. Of those students
who were not enrolled, many mentioned personal hindrances as the factor that kept them from enrolling in dual
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Lack of information was the second category that was touted most by students. Students suggested that they were
unaware of their eligibility to enroll in dual credit English or they did not know where to sign up for the class. Counselors must do a better job in promoting dual credit to those students who qualify even if that means counseling
students individually or in small groups.
Question Eight: Early College High School Student Not Enrolled Research
The findings and conclusions for this research study have brought about the following implications that should be
considered:
5. Community colleges and high schools should partner together and offer parent information sessions to clearly
outline the benefits of dual credit.
6. High schools should partner with their local education foundation to provide dual credit scholarships to assist
students in paying for dual credit tuition and fees. Furthermore, community colleges should also explore ways
to raise funds for dual credit scholarships through events such as a charity golf tournament, black-tie galas or
other activities.
a
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R E S E A R C H
4. Since the number of students who qualify for dual credit may significantly outnumber high school counseling
staff, a plan must be put into place by high school administrators that provides for additional help for counselors during the dual credit notification period.
A N D
3. Students who choose the traditional high school route are eligible to enroll in dual credit at the start of their
junior year. High school counselors must work to quickly identify those students who are dual credit eligible.
This can be done by running a simple report on the school district’s Public Education Information Management
System (PEIMS). Notices of eligibility may be sent home via a parent letter, along with a student’s TAKS scores,
and students can be counseled one-on-one and in small groups. Other ways to communicate include an automated phone message, email, or phone call.
P R A C T I C E ,
2. High school and community college counselors and administrators must work closely with eighth grade
students and parents to provide accurate and detailed information about traditional and early college high
schools. Parents and students must be able to objectively learn the advantages and disadvantages of attending
each campus, including academic and athletic offerings, cost of tuition, fees and books, and the social activities
offered by each. Information could be distributed via parent letters, automated phone messages, and parentstudent campus information nights. Should an information night be held, upperclassmen from each campus
should be available to answer questions and provide information from their point of view.
E D U C A T I O N ,
1. The findings of this study indicated that the eighth grade year is a pivotal turning point in a student’s high
school career since one must make the decision to enter the traditional or early college high school by the start
of his/her ninth grade year. Many times, students and parents simply do not have enough information to make
an informed decision about either type of high school campus.
J O U R N A L :
IMPLICATIONS
I S S U E S
Early college students who chose not to enroll in dual credit at the traditional high school offered the same reasons
for not enrolling in the coursework at the early college high school. Personal hindrances, including lack of self esteem
and holding an after-school job, played a part in student decision making. Early college high school administrators
and counselors must work to alleviate student and parent fears of academic failure by assuring them that the school
will work with students to promote academic success.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
credit English. Many students who enroll in early college high schools come from homes in which a high school diploma is the highest degree attained. The sheer fact that these students may be the first to experience college in their
family may be intimidating. Counselors must work with students to provide academic and mental support and offer
plenty of encouragement to students who may suffer from fear of failure. When considering the early college option,
students and parents must be assured that tutoring is available and that faculty and staff are there to support and
promote student success.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
REFERENCES
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009). Education pays. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep_chart_001.htm
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327-358.
Jobs for the Future. (2010). Early college high school: A portrait in numbers. Retrieved from http://www.jff.org/sites/
default/files/a_portrait_in_numbers_110110_0.pdf
Hahn, R. D., & Price, D. (2008). Promise lost: College-qualified students who don’t enroll in college. Washington,
DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy. Retrieved from http://www.ihep.org/assets/files/publications/mr/
PromiseLostCollegeQualrpt.pdf
National Commission on the High School Senior Year. (October, 2001). Raising our sights: No high school senior left
behind. Princeton, NJ: The Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.woodrow.
org/images/pdf/policy/raising_our_sights.pdf
Norman, I., Redfern, S., Tomalin, D., & Oliver, S. (May, 1992). Developing Flanagan’s critical incident technique to
elicit indicators of high and low quality nursing care from patients and their nurses. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 17,
590-600.
Texas P-16 Council. (2007). Study on dual credit programs in Texas: A report to the 80th legislature from the Texas P-16
Council. Retrieved from http://ritter.tea.state.tx.us/comm/06dcp_report.pdf
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. (2000). Closing the gaps: The Texas higher education plan. Retrieved from
http://www.thecb.state.tx.us/ClosingtheGaps
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. (2003). CB rules and regulations: Chapter 4: Rules applying to all public
institution of higher education in Texas Subchapter D. Dual credit partnerships between secondary schools and Texas
public colleges. Retrieved from http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/tacctx$tacctx.actionquery
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. (2006). Closing the gaps by 2015: 2006 progress report. Retrieved from
http://www.thecb.state.tx.us/reports/PDF/1219.PDF?CFID=22894823&CFTOKEN=48810328
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board. (2008). Texas’ strategies for improving student participation and success.
Retrieved from http://www.thecb.state.tx.us/reports/PDF/1669.PDF?CFID=11821957&CFTOKEN=19654949
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board Educational Data Center. (2010). Dual credit and total enrollments, fall
semesters. Retrieved from http://www.thecb.state.tx.us/reports/DocFetch.cfm?DocID=1443&amp;Format=X
About the Authors
Dr. Nicole Mansell (nmansell@wisd.org) is the Director of Public Relations and the Executive Director of the Education Foundation for Waxahachie ISD where she has served in this capacity for the past eight years. Prior to this, she
gained communications experience in higher education while working for Navarro College for three years. She has
taught collegiate courses at both the community college and the university level. Dr. Mansell holds both a B.B.A. in
Management Information Systems and a M.S. in Interdisciplinary Studies from Texas Tech University and a Ed.D. in
Supervision, Curriculum and Instruction – Higher Education from Texas A&M University – Commerce.
Dr. Madeline Justice (Madeline.Justice@tamuc.edu ) is a Professor and former department head in the Department
of Educational Leadership at Texas A&M University-Commerce where she teaches online doctoral courses in the
Higher Education. She has served the university for 21 years. Her research interest includes curriculum development,
diversity, and reading in the public school and higher education. In addition, she conducts emotional intelligence
and educational research in diverse settings. She holds a B.A. in English & Government, and a M.A. in Government
& History from Texas Woman’s University, and a Ed.D. in Supervision, Curriculum and Instruction - Higher Education
from East Texas State University (now Texas A&M University-Commerce).
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Maintaining the Boundaries: Teacher Preparation Program
Admission Criteria for Screening Quality Candidates
Tarleton State University
eacher preparation programs have the responsibility of providing quality teachers for students across the nation. Embedded in this responsibility is the idea that teacher preparation programs not only prepare quality
teachers, but also need to act as gatekeepers to prevent candidates that are not capable of being quality teachers access to students and classrooms. Given this charge, meaningful admission criteria for teacher preparation programs are essential.
obtained full Texas certification, including appropriate special education certification for special education
teachers, and has not had certification requirements waived on an emergency, temporary, or provisional basis;
holds a minimum of a bachelor’s degree; and has demonstrated subject matter competency in each of the academic subjects in which the teacher teaches, in a manner determined by TEA. (Education Commission of States,
2006, “Texas”)
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R E S E A R C H
The Texas Administrative Code outlines the minimum expectations for teacher preparation program admission. The
rule specifically addresses GPA; minimum semester credit hours in content area; passing score on content test; demonstration of basic skills in reading, written communication, math, and oral communication; an application; and an
interview or some other measure of appropriateness for certification without specifically mentioning screening tools
A N D
However, educators realize there is much more to being highly qualified than just holding a certification and having content knowledge. Casey and Childs (2007) suggest teachers be proficient in content knowledge, pedagogical
knowledge, pedagogical skills, and maintain positive attitudes towards teaching. Given this idea, admission criteria
to teacher preparation programs should focus on all four areas to the extent appropriate to program entry. Research,
however, indicates a strong focus on screening measures to assess content knowledge—including grade point average, number of hours completed, standardized test scores, and types of courses required and completed—and
less emphasis on pedagogical knowledge, pedagogical skills, and attitudes towards teaching (Casey & Childs, 2007;
Cohen-Schotanus, Muijtjens, Reinders, Agsteribbe, van Rossum, & van der Vleuten, 2006; Helm, 2006; Uno, Blackwell,
& Leonardson, 2001).
P R A C T I C E ,
Defining characteristics of a quality teacher is a complex issue. The federal government through No Child Left Behind
(2001) requires each state to define highly qualified teachers and submit a method for producing highly qualified
teachers. Texas defines a highly qualified teacher as one who has
E D U C A T I O N ,
T
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
J O U R N A L :
Keywords: teacher preparation program, teacher certification, teacher preparation program admission
I S S U E S
This study examines several Texas university-based teacher preparation program screening measures and admission criteria. The researchers examined those measures stipulated in the Texas Administrative Code, as well
as criteria that exceeded those required by the state. Identifying these measures and criteria will allow programs
to maintain the boundaries of who becomes a teacher, thus providing the quality teachers required to educate
productive members of society.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Rebekah Miller-Levy, Ph.D.
Diane Taylor, Ph.D.
Laurie Hawke, Ph.D.
for attitude toward teaching (The Texas Administrative Code, 1995).
As university-based teacher education programs continue to come under fire for producing less than quality teachers, it becomes increasingly necessary to maintain the boundaries concerning who qualifies to become a teacher.
Holding high standards of admission to teacher education programs requires a coherent plan for screening and
admitting candidates (Fallon & Ackley, 2003; Salvatori, 2001; Truell & Woolsley, 2008), which, in turn, requires universities to evaluate critically their admission requirements. This study closely examined several Texas university-based
teacher preparation program screening measures and admission criteria, illuminating measures and criteria that either address or neglect to address the candidates’ content knowledge and attitudes towards teaching. Identifying
these measures and criteria will allow programs to maintain the boundaries governing who becomes a teacher, thus
providing the quality teachers required to educate productive members of society. The purpose of this study was limited to identifying the criteria used by selected Texas university-based teacher
preparation programs to guide admission to their respective programs. The central research question for the study
was: What screening measures and admission criteria do the selected teacher preparation programs use?
METHODOLOGY
Researchers conducted a content analysis of the admission criteria for 19 selected university-based teacher preparation programs across the state, using data collected from university websites. Programs included in the study were
medium-sized, regional, public universities in the state of Texas. No alternative certification programs were included
in the study. Data were gathered during the spring semester of 2011, and changes may have occurred to a particular
program’s website that are not reflected in the findings. (See appendix A for a list of university programs included in
the study).
Questions posed to guide the study were formulated based on criteria set forth in the Texas Administrative Code
for undergraduate university-based educator preparation programs (http:/info.sos.state.tx.us). Other topics were included that were of interest to the researchers. (See appendix B for a list of questions for which data were sought).
Once the admission criteria were identified for each university, a content comparison analysis was conducted to
investigate the range of criteria used by each program to determine student admission to the program. Areas of
uncertainty were investigated via follow-up phone calls to the university. An effort was made to ascertain admission
criteria for all teacher preparation programs within the university, but in the absence of general information the research focused on EC-6 certification programs.
FINDINGS
Generally speaking, it appears that all programs met the basic criteria set forth by the state of Texas for admission to
a teacher preparation program. However, there were interesting variations among the requirements of the various
institutions included in the study.
The first area of investigation related to accreditation status. Specifically, is the program National Council of Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) accredited? Of the 19 schools surveyed, three have NCATE accreditation. Two
schools indicated they are currently in the process of seeking NCATE approval.
Information related to the formal application to the program and the processes involved was collected. Must the
student complete an application to be admitted to the program? Must the student pay an application fee? If there is
an application fee, how much is it? Does the application process involve an interview or other screening instrument?
All 19 schools required an application for admission to their teacher preparation program. Application documents required varied from a single application to a portfolio including supporting documentation such as ethics statements,
commitment documents and writing samples. Fifteen of the 19 schools did not mention collecting an application
fee. One school charged $10.00; one charged $20.00; and one a $50.00 fee. The highest application fee was $100.00,
charged by one program.
Only two programs mentioned interviews as part of the admission process, and no other screening instruments were
reported.
Researchers investigated semester credit hour requirements in relation to admission. How many hours must the
student have completed to be admitted to the program? How many hours must be completed in the major teaching
field to be admitted to the program?
Data was collected concerning grade point average requirements. What is the minimum cumulative GPA requirement for admission to the program? Are specific criteria established for GPA for other coursework?
Preparation programs were surveyed to determine criteria related to basic skills. What requirements exist related to
the demonstration of basic skills in reading, written communication, and mathematics or testing for admission to the
program? What minimum requirements for scores are stipulated?
All 19 schools reported information related to this element. Eighteen of the programs required Texas Higher Education Assessment (THEA) or an approved equivalent measure, while one school met the basic skills requirement via
the Texas Success Initiative. Seven programs reported a requirement of a passing score on all parts of the THEA or
an approved equivalent. One school required a THEA reading score of at least 240; five schools required at least 250;
while three required a score of 260 on the reading portion. Two programs required a math score of at least 240, while
one had a required score of 250. On the writing portion, two schools cited a score of 230, and three a 240 on written
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R E S E A R C H
Five of the 19 programs indicated a requirement for candidates to submit letters of recommendation. All five required
three letters, and one school specifically required one of the three be from a university faculty member.
A N D
Professional preparation programs often require applicants to submit letters of recommendation from practitioners
in the field, and the current study included this topic. Are letters of recommendation required as part of the application to the program? If letters of recommendation are required, how many are required and do programs stipulate
who may write the letters?
P R A C T I C E ,
Data was also gathered regarding the demonstration of oral communication skills. Six schools required the applicant
to demonstrate proficiency via a speech communications course. Of these, three required a grade of at least C, and
two a grade of B or better.
E D U C A T I O N ,
All of the schools surveyed required completion of specified coursework prior to admission to the teacher preparation
program. Ten programs specifically mentioned the necessity of applicants completing English classes. Five schools
reported math coursework as a prerequisite to application, and six programs required completion of a speech communication class. Four universities cited a reading skills requirement, with most meeting this criterion via history or
political science coursework. Other courses mentioned included child or human development, educational psychology, and an introductory education course. Some programs surveyed required the applicant earn a certain grade in
the specific courses required for admission. Three schools required English grades of C or better, while one program
additionally required a minimum of C in math and reading.
J O U R N A L :
Researchers surveyed programs regarding required coursework for admission. Are specific courses required to be
completed for admission to the program? If specific courses are required, what are those courses? Are there grade
requirements stipulated for the courses?
I S S U E S
In terms of cumulative GPA, all programs reported a set requirement in this area. Twelve schools required an overall
GPA of at least 2.5, with one citing a 2.5 in the last 30 hours of coursework as an acceptable alternative. Two schools
required a 2.0, and two established a threshold of 2.6. One program reported a 2.7 and one a 2.75 as an overall GPA
requirement. Several programs also established GPA thresholds for major teaching field coursework. Three reported
a 2.5 requirement, two required a 2.6, and one a 2.75 in the teaching field.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Three programs did not mention a requirement for a specified number of semester credit hours (SCH) to be completed prior to admission to the teacher preparation program. Five programs required SCH completion of between
40 and 54 hours, while one required 54 or an associate’s degree. Eight programs had a 60 SCH requirement, and one
required 80 hours and senior standing. An additional program reported all freshman and sophomore level courses
must be completed before admission. Considering SCH completed within the major teaching field, 11 of the programs did not report specific requirements in this area. The remaining programs required the applicant to have at
least 12 hours satisfactorily completed in the major teaching field.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Data were collected concerning criminal history issues. Is a criminal background check required for admission to the
program?
A N D
Two programs made specific mention of demonstration of acceptable teacher behavior in order to be accepted to
the teacher preparation program. Website surveys indicated several schools had mechanisms in place for faculty to
report issues with disposition, but these were not explicitly linked to admission.
Some programs reported specific requirements which were not common to other institutions. For example, two
schools required candidates to pass the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, two had oral language proficiency requirements, and one reported written essays as a requirement. Meeting all requirements under the Texas Success Initiative
was cited by two schools, and one explicitly required no incomplete grades on the transcript. Two universities required candidates to sign statements related to adherence to standards set forth by the specific teacher preparation
program.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
Researchers surveyed programs for inclusion of disposition/fitness to teach as a criterion for admission. Is a disposition or fitness to teach evaluation of the student required for application to the program?
P R A C T I C E ,
A survey of the programs revealed that most schools do not require a full criminal history background check for
admission to the program, although one campus reported a background check as a prerequisite to admission, and
one required self-disclosure of a criminal history on the application. Many universities, however, required a disclosure
form or some other document indicating the student gives permission for a criminal history background check to be
performed by outside entities for field placement purposes.
E D U C A T I O N ,
R E S E A R C H
communication. While THEA was the most commonly reported instrument, approved alternatives included Compass,
Asset, Accuplacer, the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or American College Testing (ACT). Required scores on the alternative measures were variable.
Data was also collected regarding any specific criteria that programs included as part of their application and admission process. Are there other requirements unique to the program?
DISCUSSION
The findings from this content analysis of the admission criteria for the specified teacher preparation programs
were derived from the information posted on the university websites during the spring 2011 semester only. The
discussion of the findings will be framed within the admission criteria required by the State of Texas. Readers are
encouraged to refer to 19 TAC 227.10 (http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/readtac$ext.TacPage?sl=T&app=9&p_
dir=N&p_rloc=148706&p_tloc=&p_ploc=1&pg=3&p_tac=&ti=19&pt=7&ch=227&rl=1) for complete admission criteria required by the state of Texas.
The Texas Administrative Code governing teacher preparation programs requires that some type of application process be followed by candidates seeking admission to teacher preparation programs. The basic admission criteria
required by the Texas Administrative Code (TAC) includes an application, competency in oral communication, a minimum of 2.5 GPA, and either an interview or other screening instrument to determine the candidate’s appropriateness
for certification.
Additionally, 19 TAC RULE §227.10(4) states that “the candidate shall demonstrate basic skills in reading, written communication, and mathematics or by passing the Texas Academic Skills Program® (TASP®) test or the Texas Higher
Education Assessment® (THEA®) with a minimum score of 230 in reading, 230 in mathematics, and 220 in writing. In
the alternative, a candidate may demonstrate basic skills by meeting the requirements of the Texas Success Initiative
(TSI)”.
As stated in the findings, all 19 schools required an application for admission. Four of the universities required an
application fee ranging from $10 - $100, but none specified how the fee was used or what costs it covered, so it is
not clear that the fee is used to meet any type of admission criteria. A variety of documentation requirements for the
application process included ethics statements, writing samples, complete portfolios, and two programs mentioned
interviews. The specific purposes for these requirements were not stated, but the writing samples, portfolios, inter-
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views, and ethics statements could be assumed to relate to the TAC requirements for “appropriateness for certification.”
In regard to the data relating to the 12-credit hour in the certification area requirement, only eight universities addressed this on their website. It should be noted this is a relatively new rule and it is possible the websites of the various programs had not been updated to reflect the change.
Based on available data, all but two universities in the study met the state minimum requirements for GPA, where
the universities listed a required 2.0 GPA, instead of the state minimum 2.5 GPA. As the 2.0 GPA requirement does not
meet state criteria as stated in the 19 TAC 227.10, it was indeterminate whether this was incorrectly reported on the
websites due to webmaster oversight or the universities were non-compliant with the state regulations.
a
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R E S E A R C H
The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) requires Teacher preparation programs seeking
accreditation to identify criteria and assess candidate dispositions in order to meet standards 1 and 3.
A N D
Three of the research questions (letters of recommendation, NCATE, and disposition/fitness to teach) address the
need for candidates to exhibit behaviors indicative of “best-practice” and which have been shown to lead to student
success. As noted in the findings, there is a lack of specific criteria relating to the demonstration of acceptable teacher
behaviors or dispositions. As three of the universities cited NCATE accreditation, and two mentioned seeking NCATE
accreditation, the following information may provide some guidance in this area.
P R A C T I C E ,
Most of the information reported on the university websites did not indicate whether the background check would
be conducted by the university in question, or if the paperwork required was for public school use in field experiences. Although, one program required a background check as a pre-requisite to admission, and one required a selfdisclosure of a criminal history on their application. Many universities have some type of requirement for candidates
to give permission for criminal history background checks to be performed by outside entities before participating
in any field placements. Many school districts will run the background checks on candidates before allowing them to
come into the schools.
E D U C A T I O N ,
The state of Texas 19 TAC RULE §227.10(4) states that “the candidate shall demonstrate basic skills in reading, written
communication, and mathematics or by passing the Texas Academic Skills Program (TASP) test or the Texas Higher
Education Assessment (THEA) with a minimum score of 230 in reading, 230 in mathematics, and 220 in writing. In
the alternative, a candidate may demonstrate basic skills by meeting the requirements of the Texas Success Initiative
(TSI).” Eighteen of the schools required state minimum or above scores on the THEA or approved equivalent, and one
cited the TSI as the adopted measure. Nine schools required reading scores above 240, three math programs stated
math scores above 240, and five schools cited writing scores above 230 on the THEA. Several alternative assessments
were listed by several programs and included Compass, Asset, Accuplacer, SAT, and ACT. Required scores listed for
these alternative assessments varied.
J O U R N A L :
It was also found that five of the programs required three letters of recommendation for the applicants, with one
school specifying the requirement that one letter must be from a faculty member. The specific purposes for these
requirements were not stated, but could be assumed to relate to the TAC requirements for “appropriateness for certification.” It may also be possible that requiring a letter of recommendation from a faculty member might offer information beyond what would be included otherwise, such as insights into candidates’ classroom behavior that has
implications for professional dispositions.
I S S U E S
The successful completion of variety of coursework including English, Math, and Reading was a requirement for most
of the universities in this study. Other coursework cited included Speech Communications, Child or Human Development, Educational Psychology, and History or Political Science. The latter were specifically used for meeting reading
skills requirements. Six schools cited a grade of C or better in a Speech Communications course was needed to demonstrate proficiency of oral communication skills.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
The criteria for the required number of semester credit hours (SCH) also varied. Of the universities listing SCH requirements, all but three required a minimum of 54 hours; nine having a higher requirement of 60+ SCH. This demonstrates
the expectations that teacher education applicants must have the majority of the core college courses completed
before applying to a teacher education program.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
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Standard 1: Candidate Knowledge, Skills , and Professional Dispositions Candidates preparing to work in
schools as teachers or other school professionals know and demonstrate the content knowledge, pedagogical
content knowledge and skills, pedagogical and professional knowledge and skills, and professional dispositions necessary to help all students learn. Assessments indicate that candidates meet professional, state, and
institutional standards.
Standard 3: Field Experiences and Clinical Practice The unit and its school partners design, implement, and evaluate field experiences and clinical practice so that teacher candidates and other school professionals develop
and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and professional dispositions necessary to help all students learn.
NCATE defines
Professional Dispositions as: Professional attitudes, values, and beliefs demonstrated through both verbal
and non-verbal behaviors as educators interact with students, families, colleagues, and communities. These
positive behaviors support student learning and development. NCATE expects institutions to assess professional dispositions based on observable behaviors in educational settings. The two professional dispositions
that NCATE expects institutions to assess are fairness and the belief that all students can learn. Based on their
mission and conceptual framework, professional education units can identify, define, and operationalize additional professional dispositions. (Retrieved July 11, 2011.NCATE Glossary: http://www.ncate.org/Standards/
NCATEUnitStandards/NCATEGlossary/tabid/477/Default.aspx)
Although NCATE offers guidelines to institutions, they do not dictate a set of specific outcomes or assessments. Due
to the limited information on the specific indicators used by each university to meet the criteria relating to dispositions and a lack of specific definition and guidelines from the state of Texas, further research in this area is indicated.
Some programs cited requirements that set them apart from others. Two schools required the Nelson-Denny Reading
Test, but did not state any specific criteria that must be met. The rationale for the use of this particular assessment
instrument for determining admission to a teacher preparation program was not provided by either program. A possible rationale for this requirement may be to meet the reading requirement for admission, but it is not clear how the
results of this assessment relate to candidates success in admission, program, or retention in the teaching field.
One program required successful completion of a written essay and may be directly linked to the written communication skills requirement of the TAC. Two universities had oral language proficiency requirements. As this does not
link directly to the TAC basic admission criteria, with the possible exception of oral communication skills, questions
pertaining to this requirement arose. Is this a part of a bilingual program? Are there certain demographics that impact
these two universities, thus the oral language proficiency requirement?
CONCLUSIONS
After analyzing the variety of data collected from the 19 university-based teacher preparation programs, it soon
becomes apparent the majority of data is quantitative and focuses on content knowledge. The issue becomes the
predictive validity of this type of information in determining quality teaching ability. High GPAs cannot predict responsive teaching strategies. Basic skills in reading, writing, math, and oral communication cannot predict successful
facilitation of student learning. Completing 60 hours of coursework before admission to the teacher education program cannot predict whether a candidate is passionate about teaching.
A major issue emerging from the data is the lack of measures to assess attitude towards teaching. Although NCATE
accredited programs have met a professional dispositions requirement, this is not a general trend. Evaluating for attitude or disposition is much more complex than looking at statistical data. There is no firm quantitative template,
and programs seem to shy away from screening measures requiring professional judgment; however, this could be
the most critical area for admission. Given there is little research support for the predictive validity of the quantitative measures in determining quality teaching ability, it seems reasonable to indicate it is necessary to look through
another lens.
Based on this limited look at several Texas teacher preparation programs, it appears as though most programs are doing a reasonable job of screening for academics. However, most programs have difficulty screening for actual teacher
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Baines, L. A. (2010). The disintegration of teacher preparation. Educational HORIZONS, 89, 152-163.
Cohen-Schotanus, J., Muijtjens, A. M. M., Reinders, J. J., Agsteribbe, J., van Rossum, H. J. M., & van der Vleuten, C. P.
M. (2006). The predictive validity of grade point average scores in a partial lottery medical school admission system.
Medical Education, 40, 1012-1019. Doi:10.1111/j.135-2929.2006.02561.x
Fallon, M., & Ackley, B. C. (2003, April). Standards for admission to teacher education programs. Paper presented at the
Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.
Salvatori, P. (2001). Reliability and validity of admission tools used to select students for the health professions.
Advances in Health Sciences Education, 6, 159-175.
Texas Administrative Code, 19 TAC §227.10 (2008).
Retrieved from
http://info.sos.state.tx.us/pls/pub/readtac$ext.ViewTAC?tac_view=4&ti=19&pt=7&ch=227
Truell, A., & Woosley, S. (2008). Admission criteria and other variables ass predictors of business student graduation.
College Student Journal, 42(2), 348-356. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
a
Miller-Levy Taylor, & Hawke
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National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (2008). Professional Standards for the Accreditation of
Teacher Preparation Institutions. Retrieved from http://ncate.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=nX43fwKc4Ak%3d&tab
id=474
A N D
Helm, C. M. (2006). Teacher dispositions as predictors of good teaching. The Clearing House, 117-118.
P R A C T I C E ,
Casey, C. E., & Childs, R. A. (2007). Teacher education program admission criteria and what beginning teachers need
to know to be successful teachers. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, 67, 1 – 23. Retrieved
from http://umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/.
E D U C A T I O N ,
REFERENCES
J O U R N A L :
Further research on professional dispositions is necessary so teacher preparation programs can develop criteria to
measure the specific indicators related to dispositions during the screening process. This should include identification of specific behaviors of candidates who ultimately may not successfully complete a teacher preparation program or be retained in the profession. Additionally, further research on methods of tracking candidate performance
throughout the program that depend on both statistical data and self-reflection by the candidate, and the program
could enrich the database of knowledge about programs. Finally, further research on program graduates admitted
under current criteria could enlighten needed changes.
I S S U E S
It is imperative teacher preparation programs develop valid and reliable screening measures. Admission criteria
should evaluate content knowledge, problem solving skills, critical thinking skills, reasoning skills, adherence to social ethics and professional dispositions toward teaching and learning. The most logical way to improve the predictive validity of teacher preparation program admission criteria to quality teaching is to tailor the admission criteria
to the definition of quality teaching. Before this is possible, the field of education must agree on a basic definition of
quality teaching and how it can be measured. Teacher preparation programs, however, cannot wait for the field to
navigate the quagmire that defining quality teaching has become. It is necessary for individual teacher preparation
programs to develop a plan for its individual student population.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
behaviors that should make up the majority of a teacher’s day due to the lack of specific guidelines from the state. The
current screening measures and admission requirements neglect teacher behaviors, such as problem solving skills,
critical thinking skills, reasoning skills, and adherence to social ethics. Knowing university-based teacher preparation
programs are currently under attack by the public for producing ineffective teachers, it is critical for teacher preparation programs to demonstrate to the public the thoroughness of their screening measures and admission criteria.
And further, to demonstrate those measures and criteria can be linked directly to quality teaching. As a profession,
are we asking the right questions of our future teachers? This research suggests we may not be.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Uno, T., Blackwell, T. R., & Leonardson, G. (2001). Admission criteria of undergraduate teacher preparation. Education,
101(4), 315-321.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
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About the Authors:
Dr. Rebekah Miller-Levy (rmiller@tarleton.edu) is an assistant professor in the department of Curriculum and Instruction at Tarleton State University. She received her Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction from Texas Tech University
in Lubbock. Dr. Miller-Levy teaches children’s literature, content area literacy, and advises students in the Reading
Specialist/Master Reading Teacher programs at Tarleton. Her research interests include social justice, the use of children’s literature to teach reading, and how children’s literature impacts the lives of children.
Dr. Diane Taylor (dtaylor@tarleton.edu) is assistant provost and an associate professor in the department of Curriculum and Instruction at Tarleton State University. She received her Ph.D. in special education and early childhood
education from the University of North Texas in Denton. In her administrative capacity, Dr. Taylor oversees academic
assessment, institutional research and effectiveness, the writing intensive and general education programs, the Center for Instructional Innovation, and applied learning experiences. In her faculty role, Dr. Taylor teaches graduate and
undergraduate courses in learning disabilities, special education law, inclusionary practices with exceptional learners, and assessment and evaluation of students with learning differences. Her research interests include effective
teacher preparation practices, the scholarship of teaching and learning, special education, and distance education in
teacher preparation.
Dr. Laurie M. Hawke (lhawke@tarleton.edu) is an associate professor in the department of Curriculum and Instruction at Tarleton State University. She received her Ph.D. in secondary education from the University of Arizona. Dr.
Hawke teaches undergraduate and graduate coursework in pedagogy and professional development, curriculum
development, and secondary teaching methods. Her research interests include professionalism in the teaching profession, reflective practices in teacher education, and effective internship experiences for pre-service educators.
APPENDIX A
UNIVERSITIES INCLUDED IN STUDY WITH URL ADDRESSES
• Angelo State University
http://www.angelo.edu/dept/education/advising/educator_prep_prog.html#field
• Midwestern State University
http://education.mwsu.edu/ (in the Policy Manual)
• Prairie View A&M University
http://www.pvamu.edu/Include/Curriculum%20and%20Instruction/Forms/Application%20for%20teacher%20education.pdf
• Sul Ross State University Rio Grande College
http://rgc.sulross.edu/pages/187.asp
• Sul Ross State University
http://www.sulross.edu/pages/3190.asp
• Tarleton State University
http://www.tarleton.edu/eps/TEP/requirements/index.html
• Texas A&M International University
http://www.tamiu.edu/coedu/admission.shtml
• Texas A&M University Commerce
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http://web.tamu-commerce.edu/academics/colleges/educationHumanServices/educatorCertificationAcademicServices/default.aspx
• Texas A&M University Corpus Christi
http://education.tamucc.edu/teacher_education/forms.html
http://www.tamuk.edu/cehp/ceps/epp.html http://www.tamuk.edu/academics/catalog/2010-2012/edu.pdf
• Texas A&M University San Antonio
http://www.tamusa.tamus.edu/undergradcatalog/2009-2010.pdf
• Texas A&M University Texarkana
http://www.tamut.edu/teachcert/index.php?pageid=36
I S S U E S
• Texas Southern University
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
• Texas A&M University Kingsville
http://archive.tsu.edu/pages/436.asp
• University of Houston Clear Lake
• University of Houston Victoria
http://www.uhv.edu/edu/52.aspx
E D U C A T I O N ,
• University of Texas Brownsville
http://www.utb.edu/vpaa/ucatalog/10-11/Documents/Degrees/BAIS_EC-6_ESL_GEN.pdf
• University of Texas Tyler
http://www.uttyler.edu/education/admission.php
• University of Texas of the Permian Basin
• West Texas A&M University
http://catalog.wtamu.edu/preview_entity.php?catoid=4&ent_oid=65&returnto=278
APPENDIX B
R E S E A R C H
PREPARATION PROGRAM
A N D
QUESTIONS ADDRESSING CRITERIA FOR ADMISSION TO TEACHER
P R A C T I C E ,
http://soe.utpb.edu/media/pdf/initial-certification/Application-to-Teacher-Cert-Program.pdf
1. Is the program National Council of Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) accredited?
2. Must the student complete an application to be admitted to the program?
3. Must the student pay an application fee?
4. If there is an application fee, how much is it?
5. Is an interview or other screening measure specified?
6. How many hours must the student have completed to be admitted to the program?
7. How many hours must be completed in the major teaching field to be admitted to the program?
a
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http://b3308-adm.uhcl.edu;UHCL_ONLINE_Catalogue/2010-2011UndergradCatalogue/admission-to-theteacher-education-program.htm
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8. What is the minimum cumulative GPA requirement for admission to the program?
9. Are letters of recommendation required as part of the application to the program?
11.If letters are required, is it stipulated who may write the letters?
12.What requirements exist related to the demonstration of basic skills in reading, written communication and
mathematics or testing for admission to the program?
13.What minimum requirements for scores are stipulated?
14.Are specific courses required to be completed for application to the program?
15.If specific courses are required, what are those courses?
16.Are there also grade requirements stipulated for those courses?
17.Is a criminal background check required for application to the program?
18.Is a disposition or fitness to teach evaluation of the student required for application to the program?
19.Are there other requirements unique to the program?
20.What criteria are reported for the demonstration of oral communication skills?
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
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10.If letters of recommendation are required, how many are required?
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Organizational Training and Relationship Building for
Increasing Public Participation in a Public School District
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
John Poynton, Ph.D.
St. Vrain Valley Schools
Carole Makela, Ph.D.
Colorado State University School of Education
Don Haddad, Ed.D.
St. Vrain Valley Schools
Public participation is defined “as any process that involves the public in problem solving or decision making and
uses public input to make decisions” (International Association of Public Participation, 2006, p. 2). Central to public
a
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RISE OF THE EXPERT
A N D
n a recent issue of the Administrative Issues Journal, Dr. Michael Williams encouraged readers to be ready to “seize
the day” when presented with unexpected opportunities and the accompanying “contexts-of-change” (2012).
“Contexts-of-change are potentials,” wrote Williams, “unique alignments between an opportunity and our knowledge and skills that, if properly used, can enable us to benefit from engaging the opportunity” (p. 3). Williams serves
as the Dean of the MBA Program at Thomas Edison State College (New Jersey) and may have been directing his comments to aspiring entrepreneurs and business leaders, but the advice is equally valid for education. In particular, we
think it valid for the legions of America’s public school administrators now managing a crucible of financial, political,
and social problems impacting public schools. A growing number of these leaders are “seizing the day” by proactively
informing and engaging parents and other stakeholders in increasingly complex problem solving and decision making processes. The purpose of this paper is to describe and share how one Colorado school district responded to its
context-of-change by implementing a robust parent-training program designed to increase the district’s capacity for
more effective engagement and participation of the public in problem solving and decision making.
P R A C T I C E ,
I
INTRODUCTION
E D U C A T I O N ,
Keywords: parent engagement, public education administration, public participation, public deliberation, social capital
J O U R N A L :
The program—known as Leadership St. Vrain—provided citizens knowledge about school district operations
and management (know-how) and relationship-building opportunities with key decision makers (know-who).
This article focuses on the experiences and participation of the citizens from a mixed-methods study that collected data using two original survey instruments, follow-up interviews, and archival documents. Of the five
domains studied, this paper focuses on findings for the domains of knowledge, relationships, and action, as well
as the secondary ripple effect from participants to others who did not participate in the training.
I S S U E S
From the early twentieth century to the present, citizen participation in U.S. public institutions—particularly
schools—has continually decreased. The trend has been linked to the bureaucratization of public schools and
their increasing reliance on expert knowledge for solutions to school- and education-related problems. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of a parent training program designed to increase a school district’s
capacity for public participation by parents and other citizens.
participation is the idea that individuals or groups affected by a particular decision should be given an opportunity
to be engaged in making that decision. However, when institutional leaders bypass the difficult work of inclusionary
decision making, the outcomes can include inadequate or misinformed decisions, diminished stakeholder trust and
buy-in, increased disengagement from public affairs, rejection of institutional policies and decisions, and refusal to
provide advocacy, monetary support and volunteer time.
Fischer (2009) attributed the diminishing connection to the natural tendency that, as organizations grow in size and
complexity, they become more centralized and hierarchical. He stated that public institutions were lacking “welldeveloped political arrangements that provide citizens with multiple and varied participatory opportunities to deliberate basic political issues” (p. 61). Accordingly, administrators of public institutions are evaluating their decision making processes and exploring strategies to authentically and systematically engage stakeholders to better understand
shared problems and the collective well-being (Mathews, 2006). Fostering engagement requires working through
the complexities posed by individual interests, perceptions, and positions to find workable solutions that garner
stakeholder support (Yankelovich & Friedman, 2010).
Public disengagement in public schools became increasingly evident throughout U.S. society in the early 20th century. By 1927, John Dewey, the influential Progressive Era social scientist, predicted that citizens would struggle to fulfill
their democratic duties given the increasingly technical nature of our culture (Fischer, 2009). “The prime difficulty, we
have seen, is that of discovering the means by which a scattered, mobile and manifold public may so recognize itself
as to define and express its interests” (Dewey, 1927, p. 146).
As the role of technical expertise grew among some professional educators, they believed it was their job to coax
citizens to accept a new way of thinking, while others quietly cut citizens out of decision making processes (Mathews,
2006). In education and other public institutions, a growing class of public policy specialists took charge and did their
work without accountability to the public (Dahl, 1989). The transition from citizen-driven to technically-based and
expert-driven institutions pushed citizens to the periphery. In the words of one commentator of the time, Americans
were “living in a time of big decisions, they know they are not making any” (Mills, 1959, p. 5).
For decades since, school district officials have grown increasingly isolated from the public and have made far-reaching decisions with minimal input or collaboration. This growing autonomy among educators has had long-term consequences in reshaping the public’s attitude toward a public institution that was once revered. Citizen distrust in
public institutions increased in the 1960s and 1970s (Mathews, 2006). Despite some efforts of school officials to
build more inclusive organizational cultures, the relationship between citizens and school administrators was further
strained (Gillon, 2000). Some characterize the growth of the charter school movement as an expression of rejection of
mainstream public school administrators who are perceived as having grown insular and unresponsive to the needs
and concerns of parents. In Making Good Citizens, Diane Ravitch and Joseph Viteritti (2001) acknowledged the deteriorating relationship between parents and school leaders documented by researchers in the 1980s and pointed to a
breakdown in the purpose of public schools:
Such critics as Theodore Sizer and Deborah Meier noted a fundamental absence of animating purpose in the
comprehensive public school that attempted to be all things to all students. Others complained of bureaucratic
inertia, of institutions overwhelmed by an abundance of disconnected programs targeting discreet groups of
students. (p. 6)
Developments in the larger society also impacted the ability of public school administrators to deepen their relationship with stakeholders. State and federal court decisions imposed laws and injunctions that, while well-intended,
frequently left citizens with unresolved feelings, resentments, and frustrations, particularly when given no opportunity to offer input on the decisions handed down. For example, the historic ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka (1954) made it unconstitutional for individual citizens and community groups to be involved in determining
local policies about issues such as school segregation (Bauman, 1996). After 1960, many citizens perceived government involvement in general as excessive (Gillon, 2000). Evans (1995) argued that government officials had assumed
a caretaker role of public schools. As public school policies came under increasing control due to court decisions and
government regulations, citizens’ ability to impact local schools declined, and growing numbers of citizens withdrew
their involvement.
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.5
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Unfortunately, without high levels of social capital in a robust culture of stakeholder engagement, disengaged citizens are likely to become adversarial. According to Coleman and Gotze (2001), “The alternative to engaging the pub-
P R A C T I C E ,
Putnam (2000) referred to the ability and willingness for people to engage in productive dialogue as social capital,
a term he defined as “the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from the connections among people
and their social networks” (p. 19). When school leaders engage with citizens in meaningful dialogues about shared
problems, the capacity of community members to address and solve problems is enhanced. This broadens citizen
participation, deepens understanding of differing viewpoints, strengthens personal relationships, builds trust, and
achieves better outcomes. An inclusive and well-facilitated process that nurtures engagement serves to strengthen
social capital and favorably impacts the quality of education (Putnam, 2001). While many educators and other key
decision makers in the community believe the stereotype that non-expert citizens cannot be relied upon to make
valuable contributions to complex problems, extensive research has shown that when provided with information
and other tools, citizens successfully and meaningfully address complex issues (Yankelovich & Friedman, 2010).
E D U C A T I O N ,
Disengagement between educators and citizens also impeded the development of functional relationships and productive dialogue. In the absence of collaborative problem solving, policymaking, and shared governance, administrators grow comfortable conducting business and implementing policies without working through complex or controversial problems with parents and other stakeholders. As citizens attend fewer school meetings, are excluded from
tedious discussions about education policy, and are increasingly unwilling to assume the responsibilities of a PTO
officer or school board member, school leaders operate in isolation and risk estrangement and even confrontation
from their base. Instead of working for important systemic change that most individuals and groups support, they
focus their efforts on garnering partisan support (Farkas & Johnson, 1993). The confrontational nature of communication in that atmosphere leads to even higher levels of distrust. Without a well-planned, well-facilitated, and deliberative process, participants can become enmeshed in “a web of suspicion, extreme partisanship, competitiveness, and
poor communications,” (Mathews, 2006, p. 35). When educators and citizens become alienated, their willingness to
engage in productive dialogue about shared concerns is weakened and the school district administrators’ capacity
for meaningful public participation is greatly diminished.
J O U R N A L :
Insulating schools from citizen involvement strained the formerly close bonds that existed between the citizens and
their schools. Fewer parents attended school-related functions, joined committees, or sought leadership roles on the
Parent Teacher Organization (PTO) and school board (Putnam, 2000). The experiences and perspectives parents had
previously provided to complement the findings and recommendations of professional educators were significantly
lessened. The lack of citizen involvement also resulted in greater distrust and less buy-in for the decisions made. According to McNeil (2002), “There has perhaps been no time in our history when links between public education and
democracy have been as tenuous as they are right now” (p. 234). Some have argued that this distancing between
institution and citizens has resulted in school districts losing valuable input, public support, and commitment for new
policies and change initiatives.
I S S U E S
LOSS OF SOCIAL CAPITAL
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
School administrators, who now had little motivation to seek citizen engagement in policy decisions, were empowered by the strengthening role of government and the decreasing ability of citizens to influence local school policies. Researchers found that school administrators resisted citizen engagement when citizen opinions contradicted
school law or their own inclination to protect the status quo. Administrator resistance to public participation further
alienated citizens and confirmed their perceptions that their public schools did not, in fact, belong to them (Mathews,
2006). After decades of increasing regulations, state administrators assumed a custodial role in public schools (Evans,
1995). Over the years, many school officials professed their support for citizen participation but, in reality, had no interest in allowing citizens to upset their policies and plans (Sexton, 2004). Mathews (2006) described school trustees
as hemmed in by regulation, stymied by litigation and frustrated: “They struggle to cope with externally imposed
restrictions, which many believe undermine their ability to act in the best interest of their schools” (p. xv). Since the
1950s, the vibrant tradition of citizen engagement in local school affairs steadily receded and professional school
administrators and other trained experts increasingly became the dominant force in institutional problem solving
and decision making.
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lic will not be an unengaged public, but a public with its own agenda and an understandable hostility to decision
making processes that ignore them” (p. 12). Further, the likelihood for confrontation is exacerbated when the public is
not represented or when individuals or groups hold highly polarized positions (Putnam, 2000). Without deliberative
processes that proactively engage the public, school administrators unwittingly over empower indi
viduals and groups with extreme interests that are disconnected from the common good of the community. Skocpol
(1999) stated that American values are pushed aside by such interest groups, compromising the obligations of citizenship and the democratic process.
THE CASE FOR PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN SCHOOLS
In the twenty-first century, leaders of U.S. public institutions—town councils, police departments, school districts—
are expected to manage conflicts that emerge from competing interests and values of citizens. Seemingly mundane issues such as school menus, bus schedules, school boundaries, and curriculum choices routinely evoke intense
controversy between citizens and school staff members or central office administrators. When leaders facilitate opportunities for citizens to deliberate on shared school-related problems, citizens develop a greater understanding
of the complexity of issues involved and strengthen their skills of deliberation and judgment (Yankelovich & Friedman, 2010). Unfortunately, officials frequently go the opposite direction when, empowered with expert knowledge,
they develop solutions and then implement a “decide, announce, and defend” strategy (Yosie & Herbst, 1998, p. 24)
to achieve a preferred and predetermined outcome. Even when such an initiative is successfully implemented, increased public distrust resulting from an exclusive process can take years to reconcile.
Alternatively, increased citizen participation in schools has numerous benefits. Deliberative decision making has
been linked to better solutions to shared problems (Fung, 2004) and higher levels of stakeholder agreement and trust
(Langsdorf, 2003). Public participation increases citizen interest, in part, because it signals the willingness of public
officials to listen and engage in a deliberative dialogue. When the intention is to understand one another and work
through a problem to arrive at the best possible solution, everyone benefits. Facilitating such processes requires the
acquisition of new skills, school officials have much to gain by investing time and resources in building their capacity to lead in this way, convening the public and incorporating participatory values into their organizational culture.
Public participation is particularly important at a time when shared problems are becoming more complex and there
is growing urgency that public officials strengthen their capacity to effectively convene and facilitate stakeholders.
Increasingly, our society is faced with problems without clear and singular solutions. Rittel and Webber (1973) described such problems as “wicked” in nature, and contrasted them with “tame” problems, which have a solution and
can be solved. Unlike tame problems, however, wicked problems—the negative impact of child poverty on success
in school, for example—have no solution. According to Rittel and Webber, today’s wicked problems include “nearly
all public policy issues—whether the question concerns the location of a freeway, the adjustment of a tax rate, the
modification of school curricula, or the confrontation of crime” (p. 160). Wicked problems can only be managed and
addressed by those people affected by the problem both now and in the future. All benefit from the interaction when
the intention is to understand one another and work through the problem to arrive at the best possible resolution.
Carcasson (2009) advised leaders to work with facilitators who are trained and skilled in a variety of deliberative techniques that allow public officials and citizens to consider relevant facts from multiple viewpoints, listen to one another, openly evaluate various options, consider the underlying tensions and difficult choices inherent in most public
issues, and arrive at a conclusion for action based on reasoned public judgment. To better understand the capacity of
citizens to address the complex problems encountered in our communities, Yankelovich and Friedman (2010) called
for community-based action research that engages citizens in issues relevant to their world, provides information
and tools on complex issues, and studies how citizens develop views and relationships. This study is one such effort.
LEADERSHIP ST. VRAIN
The study was based on a training program designed to increase the capacity of a public school district for public
participation and stakeholder engagement. In the program, invitations were broadly disseminated, inviting citizens
to a series of meetings to gain information about school district operations and management (referred to as know-
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how) and relationship-building opportunities with key decision makers associated with the school district (referred
to as know-who). The purpose of the study was to determine if the training increased participant knowledge, relationship, and action (among other domains) with or about school district and education-related issues, and whether the
training had a secondary ripple effect reaching other individuals and groups in the school district and community.
1. What knowledge did participants gain from the LSV training?
2. Did the training lead to enhanced relationships between the participants and key decision makers?
4. Has the LSV training had a secondary or “ripple” effect reaching other citizens, schools, or the greater community?
METHODOLOGY
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With regard to the Action Domain, respondents indicted yes or no as to whether after participating in LSV they have
1) shared knowledge about school district-related information with their PTO; 2) written about a school districtrelated issue on a blog, Facebook, Twitter, or other social media site; 3) submitted a letter to the editor of a local newspaper concerning a school district-related issue; 4) gotten involved in an education-related state legislative initiative;
5) communicated with the superintendent or member of the board of education about an education-related issue; 6)
volunteered time at a school district event; 7) made a financial contribution to a school or district-related initiative; 8)
asked another parent or community member to participate in a school or district-related initiative; 9) asked another
parent or community member to make a financial contribution to a school or district-related initiative; and 10) sup-
A N D
To the Relationship Domain, respondents indicate their level of agreement as to whether because of relationshipbuilding opportunities made available to them in LSV that they are 1) more likely to contact a friend or acquaintance
about an education-related issue; 2) that friends and acquaintances are more likely to contact them about an education-related issue; 3) more likely to contact the superintendent about an education-related issue; 4) more likely to
contact a board member about an education-related issue; and 5) more likely to contact a state legislator about an
education-related issue.
P R A C T I C E ,
To the Knowledge Domain, respondents indicate their level of agreement as to whether LSV has significantly improved their knowledge in the areas of 1) school district’s organizational structure; 2) instructional programs; 3) overall policies and practices; 4) the school board’s role in the district; and 5) the state of Colorado’s role in school funding.
E D U C A T I O N ,
The mixed-methods study contained three phases of data collection. Phase 1 was comprised of quantitative surveys
of two citizen populations from the LSV and PTO groups. The LSV group was the 45 individuals who participated in
one of two training cohorts, all of whom were parents of students. The PTO group was the approximately 40 PTO
presidents from district schools who served their term during the period of the LSV trainings. The LSV instrument
was designed as a single-point-in-time report to obtain descriptive and predictive data pertaining to the domains of
knowledge (know-how), relationships (know-who), and action. In total, the LSV instrument included 50 items including thirty 5-point Likert items with a response scale strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (5), ten Yes/No items, and
three multiple-choice items pertaining to the knowledge, relationship, and action domains.
J O U R N A L :
3. What new education-related actions did participants perform after their involvement in the LSV training?
I S S U E S
The study’s research questions included:
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
The training, called Leadership St. Vrain (LSV), took place in the St. Vrain Valley School District (SVVSD), located in
northern Colorado. SVVSD includes 53 schools with a growing enrollment nearing 30,000 students. The purpose
of the program was to raise the school district’s capacity for public participation through knowledge sharing and
relationship building with citizens. Participants, mostly parents, attended 10 meetings over eight months during
the course of the school year, with each meeting approximately 2.5 hours in length. The know-how components of
LSV were based on presentations about all aspects of district operations, including school finance, state education
funding, state and federal school laws and policies, state and district-level governance, school board policies, regulatory requirements, curriculum, and information about school operations and management. Each meeting included
a know-who portion with opportunities for relationship building with SVVSD administrators and board members, as
well as state elected and appointed officials, who were invited speakers.
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ported the campaign of a candidate based in part on education-related issues.
The PTO instrument contained 10 items (yes/no/unsure) and was designed to determine the respondents’ level of
awareness about the LSV training to gauge the ripple effect of education-related information and relationships reaching, informing, or otherwise affecting PTOs. The ten items are 1) I am aware of the school district’s training program
for parents called Leadership St. Vrain; 2) I know a parent (other than myself ) who has been involved in the Leadership St. Vrain Training; 3) When I was PTO president, at least one other PTO parent had been involved in Leadership St.
Vrain; 4) Members of our school PTO routinely discussed information from Leadership St. Vrain at our PTO meetings;
5) At least one member of our PTO shared information at a PTO meeting that was attributed to Leadership St. Vrain;
6) I am aware that members of Leadership St. Vrain frequently met with the superintendent of schools; 7) I am aware
that members of Leadership St. Vrain frequently met with school board members or other elected officials; 8) I think
members of Leadership St. Vrain obtained valuable information about school district affairs in their trainings; 9) Leadership St. Vrain favorably impacted our school’s PTO during my time as PTO president; and 10) I would recommend
Leadership St. Vrain to other PTO members and parents.
Phase 2 of the study collected data from face-to-face interviews of LSV participants and PTO members. Using cognitive interview techniques, the researcher used probes and follow-up questions to enable the interviewees to elaborate on experiences, concepts, and reflections that arose spontaneously. The interviews were included to obtain
detailed qualitative data to further understand the effect of the training on the LSV participants and whether PTO
members who by and large had not participated in the LSV training were aware of the training and its information.
Phase 3 was a review of archival materials documenting the presence and/or influence of activities related to LSV
in the greater community. The materials included local and state newspapers, school and PTO newsletters, Internet
searches for posts and publications that mention LSV and social media forums. Documents were gathered from a
variety of sources and were categorized by several levels: PTO, school district, legislature, community, and a newly
formed parent advocacy group known as Grassroots St. Vrain (GSV). Some of the archival documents were reviewed
for references to or mentions of LSV.
FINDINGS
Knowledge the LSV Participants Gained from the Training
One of the primary objectives of the LSV training was to provide detailed information of knowledge (know-how)
about the school district’s operations. This included knowledge pertaining to organizational structure, instructional
programs, policies and practices, governance, and school finance. During each LSV training meeting, a different area
of know-how was introduced to the participants, with an extensive presentation by a subject matter expert (usually
a department director or state official). Always included in the agenda was the opportunity for participants to ask
questions and engage in a discussion on the topic.
For the knowledge domain, LSV participants (n = 27, 64%) were asked to evaluate whether their knowledge of each
of five specific areas of the school district improved as a result of the LSV training. The statement “LSV has significantly
improved my knowledge of the school district’s overall policies and practices,” with 97 % responding either strongly
agree or agree (M = 1.63) had the highest level of agreement. The lowest level of agreement was “LSV has significantly
improved my knowledge of the school board’s role in the school district,” for which approximately 80% of the respondents marked either strongly agree or agree (M = 1.77). There were no disagree or strongly disagree responses to any
of the knowledge domain items.
When asked to talk about areas of knowledge, which the interviewees (n = 10) recalled learning in the LSV training,
school finance was mentioned repeatedly. In particular, participants referred to presentations by guest speaker Natalie Mullis, Chief Economist for the State of Colorado. One parent referred to the meeting as a “highlight” of the training
experience. She said, “I learned so much about the district and educational funding in general at the state level from
that meeting.” Another parent stated
That was a really important meeting to me, because it put perspective on what the district can do and what the
state is doing for the district. And how the district can do the best job in the world but can still be at the mercy
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of what the state gives us.
Echoing this sentiment, another parent stated, “ The financial piece was very interesting, as well as frustrating…it
seems like we’re always beating our head against the wall in the State of Colorado to support our schools.”
I like how they had different departments come in and explain what their roles were in the school district. Some
of us have mainstream kids who don’t need special education or don’t need resource officers and those types
of things, so that was an interesting piece of knowledge.
This parent further disclosed that these explanations helped dispel the myth that some kids were getting preferential
treatment. “It was an eye-opener for me to understand that’s why we have to do these five things for this one child or
these sets of children that are in a very small set.”
When discussing the various types of knowledge exposed to in the LSV training, two parents, who, apart from participation with LSV, were highly involved at the school level each mentioned other insights. One described a change in
the behavior of her school’s principal, which she attributed to parents having access to information and administrators from “downtown.”
The understanding of the FTE (full-time equivalent). How many kids can be in a classroom? That it’s sometimes
mostly the building, the principal’s judgment, on how many kids can go in a classroom based on if he has open
enrollment. It’s up to his discretion if he should have a mixed fourth and fifth grade.
In the relationship domain (n = 27), respondents (n = 27): In the relationship domain, respondents were asked to
evaluate their likelihood to engage with each of five types of stakeholders including education officials as a result
of relationship building opportunities provided through the LSV training. The highest level of agreement was for
“Because of relationship building opportunities made available to me in LSV, I am more likely to contact a friend or
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Another primary objective of the LSV training was to provide opportunities to develop relationships with individuals who had influence in leadership and decision-making at the school district level or regarding education-related
issues. I referred to these key relationships as “know-who,” and included the superintendent of schools, the president
of the board of education, and other board members, school district department directors, state officials, and other
elected and appointed officials who impacted education policy. Each LSV training session provided participants the
opportunity to meet these key education leaders. The guest speakers—whether a department director or the president of the Colorado Senate—were asked to provide participants with their contact information for follow-up.
A N D
Enhanced Relationships between the LSV Participants and Key Decision Makers
P R A C T I C E ,
Another parent described an improved sense of insight into what decisions could actually be made by the principal
at the school level that determined important issues such as class size. Prior to the LSV training, the principal could
attribute unpopular decisions to the central office. This parent obtained knowledge at LSV that increased principal
accountability. She said
E D U C A T I O N ,
Everything was downtown. It was the fault of downtown no matter what went on in that school. “The folks
downtown are telling us we’ve got to do that.” It was pretty bad. The big black hole in the middle of town that
was mandating all this terrible stuff in the schools. The principals would wash their hands of it. “Downtown
told us to do that.” They weren’t really part of the structure or part of the team or part of the solution. But that’s
changed, hugely.
J O U R N A L :
I wanted to look at things more at the state level and a broader level, not just how education was impacted in
my kids’ immediate schools. But how it impacted kids on a broader level, Boulder County and our state.
I S S U E S
Another knowledge area mentioned by interviewees was a greater understanding of district-wide operations. One
parent expressed gratitude for the opportunity to “not just learn about my school, but the district as a whole.” Another
parent commented,
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
When asked about any valuable knowledge gained in the training, one parent disclosed that she had taken away
basic information that “educated people should know.” With regard to presentations by different school district administrative staff, the same parent stated,
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acquaintance about an education-related issue,” to which 82% marked strongly agree or agree (M = 1.81). The lowest
level of agreement was for “Because of relationship building opportunities made available to me in LSV, I am more
likely to contact a state legislator about an education-related issue,” to which 67% marked strongly agree or agree (M
= 2.30).
When interviewees were asked whether they had been given the opportunity to develop meaningful relationships
with school staff, elected officials, and other parents, as a result of LSV, all responded in the affirmative. Many referred
to specific individuals with whom they had follow-up contact. When asked about valuable relationships developed
in the training presentations, one parent said, “They all seemed to be department heads or in charge of something…I
know Randy’s name because I call their department [transportation] on a regular basis.” Regarding the value of these
relationships, she added, “You could put a face to a name. Oh, if I need information I can go talk to that person.” Another parent said,
The structure was very good, too. Because each time you would bring in a different director or different leader
of a different department of the district. Some were better than others or I just had more of an interest in. But
it was the first time I was exposed to the legislators, like [State Representative] Jack Pommer. I think he was a
congressmen at the time…[Senator] Eve Hudak was another one who came I and talked about the Colorado
growth model three years ago when it was just being developed and how it was going to change the CSAP tests.
Superintendent Don Haddad routinely attended the LSV meetings, a fact that participants repeatedly mentioned in
the interviews. “I loved having Don come and update us at each meeting to let us know what he was working on,” said
one parent. To further elaborate a parent stated,
Oh, I think it helps tremendously on the level of trust. We live in an environment of distrust now against government, public services in general. When the school district opens their doors and invites people in and takes
time out of their day to bring in the directors, executives, and Don, to shoot straight and tell us what’s going on.
Another parent said,
I think the fact that there was always a representative…the superintendent or one of the administrators to
come to our meetings, and that they felt we were important enough to listen and to tell us information. I think
that started a level of trust.
In response to the survey item “Because of relationship-building opportunities made available to me in LSV I am more
likely to contact the superintendent about an education-related issue,” 77% of the respondents (M = 1.92) marked
strongly agree or agree. Interviewees also made reference to their access to school board president, John Creighton.
Understanding the school board. In particular, the board president, John Creighton, came in, and I was really
impressed with him. Understanding how the board worked and what role the board played.
Later in the interview, this same parent said,
I mean, I got to talk to people and ask questions. I can’t think of an event where people ducked my questions
in any way, even the difficult questions. I started to understand the motivations and why people did what they
did. Through that personal contact I trust those folks now…[I] talk to the school board. I disagree with [and ask]
“What are you doing about this?” I do that now. Absolutely.
In survey responses to “Because of relationship-building opportunities made available to me in LSV I am more likely
to contact a board member about an education-related issue,” 81% of the respondents (M = 1.96) marked strongly
agree or agree.
New Education-related Actions Participants Performed after Their Involvement in the LSV
Training
The ten yes/no/unsure items included in the action domain were intended to investigate respondents’ involvement
in a variety of education-related activities after their LSV training. The two items in this domain resulting in the highest number of yes responses were “ After getting involved in LSV I have volunteered my time at a school or district
event,” to which 100% marked yes and to “I have asked another parent or community member to participate in a
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school or district-related initiative,” with 92% yes. The two items that received the highest number of no responses
were: “I have submitted a letter to the editor of a local newspaper concerning a school district-related issue,” with 27%
no, and “I have asked another parent or community member to make a financial contribution to a school or districtrelated initiative,” with 42% no.
I find myself not as involved with the actual teachers as much because I don’t share. I’m politically pretty conservative and they’re pretty liberal and we have a fairly difficult time communicating across that gap with many of
the teachers. I certainly respect them. I try to understand their point of view a lot more now.
LSV Training’s Secondary or “Ripple” Effect Impacting Other Citizens, Schools, or the Greater
Community
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A N D
Comments from PTO presidents suggested LSV participants who were either asked by the PTO or volunteered to
serve as liaisons for PTO groups were routinely part of their PTO meeting agendas and shared know how and know
who information obtained from the trainings. In PTOs in which the president had a higher level of knowledge about
LSV, there was a more robust level of communication by LSV members and their reports were a fixed item on the PTO
meeting agenda. In some cases, LSV information was made available to the entire community of parents via school
newsletters. These PTO presidents also served as conduits of information to other parents, particularly by answering
their questions or directing the parents to a reliable source of information and leveraged their relationships with
district-level contacts arranging for more district administrators to attend school PTO meetings, make presentations,
P R A C T I C E ,
In addition to conducting interviews with former LSV participants, five former PTO presidents were interviewed in
2012 to learn about possible ripple effects of the LSV trainings to the school level. Each interview took place at the
school district’s administrative offices and lasted approximately 45 minutes. Each of the interviewees had been president of their elementary school PTO when one of two cohorts was participating in LSV. Of the five interviews, one
president had little awareness of the LSV training, one president had some information about LSV due to a PTO
member’s participation, and three presidents were highly informed about LSV and actively facilitated the transfer of
information between the groups.
E D U C A T I O N ,
The PTO presidents’ (n = 20) instrument was designed to determine the respondents’ level of awareness about the
LSV training and to gauge the secondary effect of education-related information (know-how) and relationships
(know-who) resulting from LSV reaching, informing, or otherwise affecting PTOs. The items that received the highest
percentages of yes responses were “I am aware of the school district’s training program for parents called Leadership
St. Vrain,” with 65% yes, and “At least one member of our PTO shared information at a PTO meeting that was attributed
to Leadership St. Vrain,” with 63% yes. The items with the highest percentage of no responses were “Members of our
school PTO routinely discussed information from Leadership St. Vrain at our PTO meetings,” with 60% no, and “I am
aware that members of Leadership St. Vrain frequently met with the superintendent of schools,” with 45% no. While
responses from the PTO presidents reflected a significant level of uncertainty about Leadership St. Vrain, 65% indicated that they were aware of the LSV training, 63% of respondents recalled at least one occasion when one member
of their PTO shared information attributed to LSV at a PTO meeting, and 55% of respondents said yes when asked if
they would recommend the LSV training to others.
J O U R N A L :
I don’t think I would have been confident enough to talk about those things with as many people as I did, just
because when you feel informed, you feel very empowered, much more powerful.
I S S U E S
This parent also mentioned that the nature of his participation in conversations about education had changed. Before
participating in LSV, the respondent said, “ I would have had some of those conversations, but they would have been
more of chiming in or agreeing or disagreeing at a lunchtime conversation, rather than an informative conversation.”
Another interviewee echoed this experience, saying that prior to LSV her conversations would have been different.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Several interviewees (n = 10) mentioned sharing information learned in LSV with friends and PTO members at their
children’s schools. Two parents disclosed that specific information from LSV was included in school newsletters. Another parent talked about informal conversations with parents at school, with colleagues at work, and with members
of the school board. During this interview, this parent described himself as “pretty conservative” and shared some
challenges having discussions.
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and answer PTO member questions.
The interviews with PTO presidents provided evidence of a ripple effect of information moving from participants in
the LSV trainings back to the PTO organizations and school communities. This qualitative evidence was supported by
the quantitative data from the PTO presidents’ survey instrument, which reflected an increase in awareness of LSV by
PTO members. The PTO president who included an LSV report as a fixed agenda item in every PTO meeting stated,
“It flowed nicely into our agenda and our committee reports. Of course, one minute it’s sock hop, the next minute it’s
fundraiser, the next minute it’s LSV.” In this case, the LSV representative also took questions and concerns from the
school PTO members back to the LSV meetings.
I think it was such a benefit that we had to have—like I said—this window of what was going on in the district
and the venue to go back and forth…If we brought up issues in the meeting, we knew it would be carried back
to the district [at next LSV meeting]—it was bureaucratic but nonetheless it was going somewhere.
As further evidence of a ripple effect of the LSV training beyond the experience of the individual participants, a variety of archival data documenting the presence and/or influence of activities related to LSV in the greater community
was compiled. Documents were gathered from a variety of sources including PTO newsletters, school board minutes
and video recordings, newspaper articles and video content and Internet postings. Collectively, the archival documents provided evidence of a growing ripple effect from LSV to the larger community. In addition, formal presentations about the LSV training were provided at the request of the Colorado Association of School Boards (CASB), the
Colorado Association of School Executives (CASE), the Colorado School Public Relations Association (COSPRA), and
the National School Public Relations Association (NSPRA) for the benefit of their respective conference attendees.
IMPLICATIONS
As evidenced by the repeated references made by LSV participants, a key element to the overall impact of the LSV
training was the executive leadership of the district—the superintendent, his leadership team, and the board president—and their consistent availability, credibility, and support. While the data indicated that the training curriculum
and experience motivated the participants’ subsequent increase in engagement, among other findings. Among
members of the district leadership team, the superintendent maintained expectations concerning deliberative problem solving and recognized the efforts of staff to proactively ensure citizens were involved in district deliberations.
To effectively advance the cause of public participation, we cannot expect the public to be the prime mover and
sustainer of an institution’s participatory culture. Fischer (2009) stated, “There are relatively few instances in which
citizens have proceeded successfully without some sort of assistance and support from experts who emerged to
help them along the way” (p. 110). Thus, trusted advocates within the district—leaders to whom citizens can turn for
accurate information, reciprocity, and rapport—are the ingredient that provides a viable environment for meaningful
public participation. Without that, trainings such as LSV would likely not provide measurable and observable value,
and parent engagement in school and education-related activity would surely continue to trend downward.
The tendency for today’s media leaders to limit access to a broad range of perspectives and information makes the
role of participatory practitioners even more critical. Fishkin (2009) agreed with this perspective and argues that instead of becoming broadly informed about an issue and exposed to how others think, citizens were more likely to be
exposed to people who shared their opinions and were, therefore, more likely to be manipulated. Today’s local, state,
and national media culture, much of which has supplanted traditional journalism standards with gotcha reporting
(i.e., reporting designed to inflame partisanship and controversy) and infotainment, intensifies the need for leaders
who proactively inform and engage citizens. While it may be counterintuitive that we have less information about the
interests and beliefs of our fellow citizens, or that the media supplants the role of citizens, this is what is occurring in
communities across the country. The expansion of online communications, social media tools, and other technology
advances may be exacerbating divisions among citizens with opposing political identifications (Bishop, 2005).
As citizens become more insular in their beliefs, the need for leaders who believe in and act upon participatory
decision-making and the need for citizens who are willing to gain knowledge and hone their skills as participants
will increase. Because public school communities are particularly vulnerable to divisive disputes, school leaders and
citizens need skills to effectively navigate conflicting values and competing priorities.
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SUMMARY
REFERENCES
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Dewey, J (1927). The public and its problems. New York, NY: Holt.
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Fischer, F. (2009). Democracy and expertise: Reorienting policy inquiry. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
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Mathews, D. (2006). Reclaiming public education by reclaiming our democracy. Dayton, OH: Kettering Foundation.
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I S S U E S
In response to declining citizen engagement and trust in public schools, education leaders must reevaluate their
district’s internal and external (outreach) problem solving and decision making processes and redouble their efforts
to raise their district’s capacity for effective public participation. When effectively engaged, parents and other community stakeholders will provide a wealth of valuable insight into both routine and complex issues as well as wicked
problems. Additionally, by actively providing parents and others with opportunities to acquire the know-how and
know-who about their schools, education leaders will increase the social capital of stakeholders to effectively participate in school and district-related activities and reverse the decline of public trust for their institution.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
The goal of the program should be to systematically raise the capacity of citizens to effectively participate in school
district problem solving and decision-making processes by providing the spectrum of knowledge and relationships
they need to be successful. School leaders should be cautious not to seek to implement a program such as LSV as a
means to a achieving a particular political victory such as passing a local tax initiative. School officials might expect
that their work with parents and citizens in general would be lessened as a result of implementing such a program.
On the contrary, it would likely increase citizen participation and the need for greater access, attention, and deliberative activities by district staff.
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Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Ravitch, D., & Viteritti, J. P. (Eds.) (2001). Making good citizens. Binghamton, NY: Yale University Press
Rittel, H., & Webber, M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4, 155-169.
Sexton, R. F. (2004). Mobilizing citizens for better schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
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Fiorina (Eds.), Civic engagement in American democracy (pp. 461-509). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
Williams, M. (2012). Seizing opportunity. Administrative Issues Journal, 2(2), 3-6.
Yankelovich, D. (2010). How to achieve sounder public judgment. In D. Yankelovich & W. Friedman (Eds.) Toward
wiser public judgment (pp. 11-32). Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.
Yankelovich, D.. & Friedman, W. (2010). Toward wiser public judgment. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press.
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About the Authors
John Poynton, Ph.D. (poynton_john@svvsd.org ) is the Executive Director of Organizational Development and Communications at the St. Vrain Valley School District in Longmont, Colorado. John holds a B.A. in History from Loyola
University of Chicago and a M.A. and Ph.D. in Education and Human Resource Studies from Colorado State University.
Carole J. Makela, Ph.D. (carole.makela@colostate.edu ) is a professor in the School of Education, College of Health
and Human Sciences, Colorado State University. Active in faculty governance and curriculum review, Carole teaches
at the undergraduate and graduate level and advises doctoral students with a focus on research methodologies.
Don Haddad, Ed.D. (haddad_don@svvsd.org) is the Superintendent of Schools for the St. Vrain Valley School District
in Longmont, Colorado. Don holds a B.S. in Science from Colorado State University, a M.A. in Educational Leadership
from the University of Colorado and an Ed.D. in Educational Leadership from Nova Southeastern University.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
Putnam, R. D. (2001). Community-based social capital and educational performance. In D. Ravitch and J. P. Viteritti
(Eds.), Making good citizens: Educated and civil society (pp. 58-95). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Poynton, Makela, & Haddad
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.5
b
Principals’ Perceived Supervisory Behaviors Regarding
Marginal Teachers in Two States
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Bret Range, Ed.D.
University of Wyoming
Paul Hewitt, Ed.D.
University of Arkansas
Suzie Young, Ph.D.
University of Wyoming
Range, Hewitt, & Young
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
R E S E A R C H
a
A N D
School principals are at the center of teacher evaluation reform because they are charged with supervising, evaluating, and removing ineffective teachers from the profession (Range, Duncan, Scherz, & Haines, 2012; Yariv, 2004).
Principals fulfill this charge through formative supervision and summative evaluation (Nolan & Hoover, 2008; Zepeda,
2012b) which requires they routinely visit classrooms, collect data concerning teacher performance, and assign merit
to teachers’ instructional delivery. Blacklock (2002) and Chait (2010) reported that when principals improve the practice of incompetent teachers or remove them from the profession there should be an immediate and observable
positive impact on students’ academic performance. In addition to improving student performance on tests, Steshly,
Gray, and Frase (2012) argued that principals who do not carry out the effective evaluation of teachers are violating
an ethical responsibility and committing “administrative malpractice” (p. 186) that denies students a fundamental
right to a quality education.
P R A C T I C E ,
he effectiveness of the classroom teacher is viewed as the single greatest factor in improving student achievement (Hanuschek, 2008; Leithwood, Seashore-Louis, Anderson, & Wahlstrom, 2004; Stronge & Tucker, 2000). In
fact, Stronge, Ward, and Grant (2011) concluded that “the common denominator in school improvement and
student success is the teacher” (p. 351). Variables like district funding and class size are important to student learning; yet, it is the competency of the classroom teacher that appears to be critical for student success (Cawelti, 1999;
Darling-Hammond, 1996; Stronge & Hindman, 2003). Researchers have isolated the behaviors of competent teachers and found they exhibit characteristics such as having high student expectations, managing student behavior
in a proactive manner, emphasizing critical thinking skills, routinely assessing student performance, and maximizing instructional time (Glatthorn, Boschee, Whitehead, & Boschee, 2012; Sternberg, 2003; Stronge, 2007; Stronge,
Ward, Tucker, & Hindman, 2008). As a result of this link between student success and teacher effectiveness, reforming
teacher evaluation has been the focus of both state and federal policymakers following the passage of the No Child
Left Behind Act of 2001 (Jacob & Lefgren, 2008; Mead, 2012; NCLB, 2002).
E D U C A T I O N ,
T
INTRODUCTION
J O U R N A L :
Keywords: marginal teachers, formative supervision, summative evaluation, principals’ perceptions
I S S U E S
This descriptive study used an online survey to determine how principals in two states viewed the supervision
of marginal teachers. Principals ranked their own evaluation of the teacher as the most important factor when
identifying marginal teachers and relied on informal methods to diagnose marginal teaching. Female principals
rated a majority of supervisory methods and data sources as being more useful and the importance of formative
assessments and teachers’ self-reflection as significantly more important than did male principals. Female principals adopted a procedural style, while males identified with the situational style when working with marginal
teachers..
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Related to the challenge of removing incompetent teachers is another difficult task: the identification, supervision,
and evaluation of marginal teachers. Identification and intervention with marginal teachers is critically important
for principals. Hanushek (2008) stated that “students with ineffective teachers are harmed. Students can probably
recover from a single year of having a bottom 5 percent teacher, but a few years might lead to lasting problems” (p.
172). Principals view the supervision of a marginal teacher to be one of the most difficult tasks they must perform
and indicate that it requires a disproportionate amount of time with little guarantee of improvement (Ehrgott, Henderson-Sparks, & Sparks, 1993; Fuhr, 1993). According to Tucker (1997), principals have scarce available time to deal
with marginal teachers. Many principals evaluate over 20 teachers, meet with parents, discipline students, implement
new programs, and meet the demands from their district office. These responsibilities leave little time to adequately
address the needs of marginal teachers.
A review of the literature did not readily reveal studies that determined whether male or female principals differ in
their views in supervising and evaluating marginal teachers. This lack of research is surprising given past literature
reporting the dichotomous leadership styles of male and female supervisors (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992; Guramatunhu-Mudiwa, & Bolt, 2012; Lee, Smith, & Cioci, 1993; Powell, 1993; Shakeshaft, 2006). To expand the understanding of how male and female supervisors view the challenge of identifying and working with marginal teachers, this
study examined the perceptions of male and female principals’ about the identification of marginal teachers and the
strategies they use to supervise and evaluate them.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical underpinning for this study is supported within the literature concerning formative teacher supervision and gender’s nexus with leadership styles (Guramatunhu-Mudiwa & Bolt, 2012; Nolan & Hoover, 2008; Northouse,
2012; Ponticell & Zepeda, 2004; Range et al., 2012; Zepeda, 2012a). Formative supervision is carried out by principals
to coach teachers in their professional growth and build their capacity to deliver effective instruction (Range, Scherz,
Holt, & Young, 2011; Sullivan & Glanz, 2000). This study focused on Glickman, Gordan, and Ross-Gordon’s (2005) description of the directive control approach to formative supervision, a style within their developmental supervision
theory. In sum, the authors argue the directive control approach should be used with marginal teachers because
many exhibit low developmental levels and may not have the knowledge and awareness to improve their practice
without direction. With this style, principals direct all aspects of the supervisory process. Zepeda (2012b) expanded
on this notion of the directive control approach by suggesting principals might instead adopt a directive informational approach in which principals share information with marginal teachers and emphasize what must be achieved.
Regardless of how the directive approach is carried out by principals when working with marginal teachers, this supervisory stance creates a unique working relationship between principals and teachers in which principals rely less
on teacher autonomy and more on coaching and compliance (Daresh, 2001; DiPaola & Hoy, 2008).
The conceptual framework supporting this study’s analysis of gender and supervision is supported by Northouse’s
(2012) model of a leadership labyrinth, a framework to better understand females in leadership positions. Northhouse addresses gender and leadership differences concerning style, effectiveness, commitment, motivation, selfpromotion, negotiation, and traits. For this study, the researchers utilized the model’s focus on style as the lens to
view how males and females approach the supervision of marginal teachers. Specifically, style might help explain the
data male and female principals collect to detect marginal teachers, the methods by which male and female principals collect data once marginal teachers have been identified, and the approach male and female principals adopt
when working with marginal teachers to help them improve.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A marginal teacher is defined by Platt, Tripp, Ogden, and Fraser (2000) as a teacher who is “not quite good enough
or of middling quality or second rate” (p. 4). Zepeda (2013) defined marginal teachers as those who “manage to perform just well enough to keep their jobs, to the detriment of student learning” (p. 71). Streshly et al. (2012) believed
marginal teachers are consistently low performers who have limited teaching potential. Sweeny and Manatt (1984)
examined data from 750 principals to identify the characteristics of a marginal teacher. They concluded that a marginal teacher is
Henderson-Sparks, Ehrgott, and Sparks (1995) profiled the marginal teacher and concluded that a marginal teacher
was characterized as one who has a negative attitude about teaching and exhibits on-going classroom management problems. Often the inability to relate well with others including teachers, parents, and students is viewed as a
greater problem than the technical-pedagogical skills of teaching. In a study of teachers who were assigned to assist
marginal teachers, Kaye (2004) found that the assigned teachers felt the marginal teacher had a negative effect on
the academic, personal, and emotional well-being of students. These teachers also believed that marginal teachers
place a disproportionate burden on the resources of the school and have a negative impact on the overall climate at
the school.
1. What data sources do principals use to identify marginal teachers, and how do their views differ by gender?
2. What supervisory methods do principals use when attempting to improve marginal teachers, and how do their
views on the methods differ by gender?
a
Range, Hewitt, & Young
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
R E S E A R C H
The study followed a descriptive format and used an online survey to measure respondents’ attitudes. Three questions guided the study:
A N D
METHODS
P R A C T I C E ,
When studying gender and teacher supervision, many studies approach the issue through the lens of teachers (Brimblecombe, Ormston, & Shaw, 1996; Guramatunhu-Mudiwa & Bolt, 2012). For example, Lee et al. (1993) found that
female teachers feel more empowered when working with female principals while male teachers feel less powerful when working with female principals. Male teachers viewed female principals’ oversight as “intrusions into their
domain” (p. 170). However, Nogay and Beebe (2008) found what seems to be a contradiction, reporting that male
teachers perceived female principals as more effective in supervising and evaluating instruction than male principals.
Ballou and Podgursky (1995) reported teachers tend to rate principals of their own sex as more effective. However,
none of the studies reviewed focused on the supervision of marginal teachers by male and female principals. As a
result, this study attempts to determine if differences exist in how male and female principals view the supervision
of marginal teachers.
E D U C A T I O N ,
Researchers have found female principals tend to display a more personalized leadership style by communicating
with teachers more openly, visiting classrooms more routinely, and being more involved in the workings of schools
(Charters & Jovick, 1981; Eckman, 2004; Shakeshaft, 1987). Female principals interact directly with teachers more
often than their male counterparts and seem to take a vested interest in the teachers’ personal lives (Lee et al., 1993).
As a result, some studies argue that female principals focus more on instructional leadership issues by supporting
instructional risk taking in classrooms and provide more instructional support to teachers (Guramatunhu-Mudiwa &
Bolt, 2012; Shakeshaft, 2006).
J O U R N A L :
About 44% of elementary and secondary principals are female, while approximately 75% of the teacher workforce is
female (Nogay & Beebe, 2008; Shakeshaft, Brown, Irby, Grogan, & Ballenger, 2007). As a result, both Lee et al. (1993)
and Ion and Folch (2009) postulated that, when studying leadership issues, gender interaction and leadership characteristics are critical to understanding group and individual dynamics. Past research has attempted to link gender
to overall leadership styles such as participative and democratic leadership (Gilbertson, 1981; Gross & Trask, 1976;
Pitner, 1981), transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Van Engen,
2003), contingent reward (Northouse, 2012), and servant leadership (Fridell, Belcher, & Messner, 2009). The findings
of several studies suggest females are more democratic and team oriented than males, who tend to manage more
autocratically and are results oriented (Eagly & Johnston, 1990; Helgesen, 1990; Ion & Folch, 2009; Northouse, 2012).
I S S U E S
Supervision and Gender
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
one who appears to have sufficient command of subject matter but whose lack of classroom management skills
get in the way of student learning. Put more bluntly, the marginal teacher often butchers a lesson, failing to effectively check for understanding, use modeling appropriately, or attend to student motivation. (p. 25)
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
3. How do principals working with marginal teachers describe their supervisory styles, and do they differ by
gender?
An online survey was distributed to principals in two states: a Rocky Mountain state and a Midwest state. The Rocky
Mountain state was mostly rural and sparsely populated. Because of the limited number of principals, the survey was
sent to all 281 principals in the state. The Midwest state was significantly larger in population, with two large urban
areas and several other medium to large cities. Because of this larger population, a random sample of 1000 principals
was identified to receive the survey. After the survey had been distributed, two follow-up emails were sent to non-respondents to serve as a reminder to complete the survey. Of the 281 surveys sent to principals in the Rocky Mountain
state, 94 principals responded, with a response rate of 33%. Of the 1000 surveys sent to principals in the Midwestern
state, 246 responded, with a response rate of 25%. The total response rate for the study was 27%.
Instrument
The instrument used in this study was adapted, with permission, from a previous inquiry about ineffective teaching
(Jankord, 2000). To validate the survey, Jankord piloted the survey with two groups of National Distinguished Principals (NDP) and one panel of experts, including legal counsel to one education association in one state. Because
Jankord’s study looked at only incompetent teachers with tenure, elements of the survey were modified to meet the
needs of this study. In all, the survey included three sections designed to measure principals’ perceptions about the
importance of data sources when identifying marginal teachers, principals’ perceptions about supervisory methods
they use to improve marginal teachers, and principals’ perceptions about their supervisory relationship with past or
current marginal teachers. To establish internal reliability, Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated on the three sections of
the survey: the supervisory methods section (0.75), the supervisory data sources section (0.78), and the supervisory
relationship section (0.60).
The first section of the survey included 10 items where respondents rated each item using a five-point scale (1= rarely
important, 2=seldom important, 3= sometimes important, 4= frequently important, 5= almost always important) designed to measure principals’ perceptions about the importance of selected data sources when identifying marginal
teachers. Items in this section included (a) parent complaints, (b) state achievement tests, (c) standardized achievement tests, (d) formative assessments, (e) teacher made tests, (f ) teacher self-evaluation, (g) your evaluation of the
teacher, (h) feedback about the teacher from colleagues, (i) students’ perceptions about the teacher, and (j) another
qualified administrator’s observation.
The second section consisted of 10 items where respondents rated each item using a five-point scale (1= rarely
useful, 2=seldom useful, 3= sometimes, 4= frequently useful, 5= useful most of the time) designed to measure supervisory methods principals used to improve the capacity of marginal teachers. Supervisory methods included (a)
classroom walkthroughs, (b) informal classroom observation, (c) improvement plan for remediation, (d) observation
by an instructional coach, (e) formal classroom observation, (f ) summative evaluation forms, (g) another administrator’s observation, (h) observation by a teacher colleague, (i) student survey results, and (j) parent survey results.
The third section of the survey consisted of six items where respondents rated each item using a five-point Likert
scale (1= not typical at all, 2 = slightly typical, 3 = somewhat typical, 4 = generally typical, and 5 = very typical) designed to measure principals perceptions of their working relationships with current or past marginal teachers. The
six working relationships were (a) avoidance (the principal avoids confrontation with the teacher), (b) confrontational
(the principal directly confronts the teacher), (c) intimidating (the principal attempts to force improvement), (d) procedural (the principal builds a systematic case for improvement), (e) rescuing (the principal convinces the teacher to
improve to avoid a worst case scenario), and (f ) situational (depends on the teacher’s specific needs).
RESULTS
Overall, 158 respondents were male principals, while 145 were female. In the Midwest state, 101 were male principals,
120 were female principals, and 25 did not report their gender. In the Rocky Mountain state, 57 were male principals,
25 were female principals, and 12 did not report their gender. The respondents who did not include their gender were
excluded from the study. Overall, 56% of respondents were elementary principals; 26% were high school principals,
12.2% were junior high/middle school principals, and 5.7% supervised a K-12 campus. Respondents’ average years in
Range, Hewitt, & Young
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
b
their current position was 6.36 years, and their average years as a principal was 10. Respondents reported they currently supervised an average of 33 teachers, and of those teachers 10% (3) were marginal.
Data Sources and Gender
Table 1
Principals’ Perceptions about Importance of Data Sources in Identifying Marginal Teachers
Midwest
State
Male
Female
(n=101)
(n=120)
Rocky Mountain
State
Male
Female
(n=57)
(n=25)
4.63
4.60
Another qualified administrator’s
observations
3.81
4.05
3.84
4.09
3.75
3.83
Parent complaints
3.45
3.71
3.52
3.70
3.32
3.76
State achievement tests
3.49
3.54
3.46
3.48
3.55
3.80
Standardized achievement tests
3.49
3.50
3.42
3.46
3.63
3.67
Students’ perceptions about the
teacher
3.46
3.57
3.40
3.51
3.58
3.88
Feedback about the teacher from
colleagues
3.29
3.49
3.26
3.47
3.35
3.60
Teacher self-evaluation*^
3.05
3.40
3.02
3.39
3.11
3.46
Formative assessments*^
3.01
3.42
2.99
3.45
3.05
3.29
Teacher-made tests
2.88
3.10
2.88
3.13
2.89
2.92
Among all three groups, male and female principals rated their evaluation of the teacher as the most important data
source when making their decision to provide additional support to a marginal teacher. Similarly, male and female
principals in all three categories rated another qualified administrator’s observations as the second most important
data source when identifying marginal teachers, with the exception being the female principals in the Rocky Mountain state who scored students’ perceptions about the teacher (M=3.88) as the second most important data source.
Male and female principals in all three categories rated teacher-made tests as the least important data source when
a
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
R E S E A R C H
Note: * denotes a statistically significant difference between Overall males and Overall females at the 0.005
(.05/10) level; ^ denotes a statistically significant difference between Midwest males and Midwest females at the
0.005 (.05/10) level; Scale ranges from 1=rarely important to 5=almost always important
A N D
4.58
P R A C T I C E ,
4.53
E D U C A T I O N ,
4.58
J O U R N A L :
4.57
I S S U E S
Data Source
Principal’s own evaluation of the
teacher
Overall
Gender
Male
Female
(n=158)
(n=145)
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Principals were asked to rate the importance of the following data sources when making their decision to address
marginal teachers: (a) parent complaints, (b) state achievement tests, (c) standardized achievement tests, (d) formative assessments, (e) teacher made tests, (f ) teacher self-evaluation, (g) principals’ personal evaluation of the teacher,
(h) feedback about the teacher from colleagues, (i) students’ perceptions about the teacher, and (j) another qualified
administrator’s observation. In order to control for an inflated Type I error rate, a Bonferroni adjustment (.05/10) was
applied to independent samples t-tests. Table 1 displays the means for these items.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
identifying marginal teachers.
Results of the independent samples t-tests indicated that overall, female principals believed that formative assessments (t = 3.94, p < 0.000) and teachers’ self evaluation (t = 3.14, p < 0.002) were significantly more important than did
male principals when making a decision to address marginal teachers. This same pattern was present for the Midwest
state, where female principals believed that formative assessments (t = 3.82, p < 0.000) and teachers’ self-evaluations
(t = 2.87, p < 0.004) were significantly more important than male principals when assessing whether teachers were
marginal. In the Rocky Mountain state, while the pattern was similar, there were no significant differences between
male and female principals on the importance of various data sources.
Supervisory Methods and Gender
Principals were asked to rate the usefulness of the following 10 methods by which to collect data on marginal teachers: (a) classroom walkthroughs, (b) informal classroom observation, (c) improvement plan for remediation, (d) observation by an instructional coach, (e) formal classroom observation, (f ) summative evaluation forms, (g) another
administrator’s observation, (h) observation by a teacher colleague, (i) student survey results, and (j) parent survey
results. Table 2 displays the means for these items. In order to control for an inflated Type I error rate, a Bonferroni
adjustment (.05/10) was applied to independent samples t-tests.
Table 2
Principals’ Perceptions about the Usefulness of Supervisory Methods with Marginal Teachers
Method
Overall Gender
Male
Female
(n=158)
(n=145)
Midwest State
Male
Female
(n=101)
(n=120)
Rocky Mountain State
Male
Female
(n=57)
(n=25)
Classroom walkthrough
4.03
4.19
4.04
4.19
4.02
4.20
Informal classroom
observation
3.96
4.18
3.95
4.18
3.96
4.21
Improvement plan for
remediation
3.89
3.93
3.87
3.96
3.93
3.29
Observation by
instructional coach
3.47
3.72
3.40
3.72
3.61
3.72
Formal classroom
observation
3.47
3.46
3.34
3.40
3.71
3.76
Summative evaluation
forms
3.23
3.26
3.14
3.31
3.38
3.04
Another
administrator’s
observation
3.18
3.30
3.11
3.31
3.30
3.28
Observation by a
teacher colleague
2.98
3.26
2.98
3.22
3.61
3.72
Student survey results
2.56
2.64
2.57
2.66
2.54
2.58
Parent survey results
2.41
2.53
2.39
2.53
2.43
2.54
Note: Scale ranges from 1=rarely to 5=most of the time
Range, Hewitt, & Young
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
b
Supervisory Style and Gender
Principals were asked to rate how typical the following supervisory styles were when supervising marginal teachers:
(a) avoidance, (b) confrontational, (c) intimidating, (d) procedural, (e) rescuing, and (f ) situational. Again, to control
for an inflated Type I error rate, a Bonferroni adjustment (.05/8) was applied to independent samples t-tests. Table 3
displays the means for these items.
Table 3
Midwest
State
Male
Female
(n=101) (n=120)
Rocky Mountain
State
Male
Female
(n=57)
(n=25)
3.96
3.82
3.93
3.91
4.08
Procedural: Build a systematic case for
improvement*^
3.80
4.12
3.72
4.06
3.95
4.40
2.96
2.69
2.92
2.79
3.02
2.17
Intimidating: You place pressure to
improve
2.55
2.53
2.64
2.48
2.39
2.80
Avoidance: Removed from the teacher
2.29
2.02
2.28
2.01
2.32
2.08
Confrontational: Communication
difficult with teacher
2.03
1.72
1.97
1.73
2.14
1.67
Rescuing: Convince improvement to
avoid dismissal
Note: * denotes a statistically significant difference between Overall male and Overall females at the 0.006 (.05/8)
level; ^ denotes a statistically significant difference between Midwest males and Midwest females at the 0.006
(.05/8) level; scale ranges from 1= not typical to 5 = very typical.
a
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
R E S E A R C H
Results of the independent samples t-tests indicated that overall, between female and male principals, female principals preferred the procedural (t = 3.34, p < 0.001) supervisory style significantly more than male principals. Moreover,
female principals in the Midwest state preferred the procedural (t = 2.92, p < 0.004) supervisory style significantly
more than did their male counterparts. There were no significant differences in preferences between male and female
principals in the Rocky Mountain state.
A N D
Male principals’ overall mean score (M=3.85) and male principals’ overall mean score in the Midwest state (M=3.82)
rated the situational supervisory style as the most typical style used when working with marginal teachers. However,
in the Rocky Mountain State, male principals rated the procedural supervisory style (M=3.95) as the most preferred
when supervising marginal teachers. Female principals in all three categories rated the procedural supervisory style
as the most typical for working with marginal teachers.
P R A C T I C E ,
3.85
E D U C A T I O N ,
Situational: Depends on the teacher
J O U R N A L :
Supervisory Style
Overall
Gender
Male
Female
(n=158) (n= 145)
I S S U E S
Principals’ Perceived Supervisory Style with Marginal Teachers Based on Gender
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
As shown in Table 2, when data are viewed from the overall perspective and broken down by states, similar patterns
become apparent. Male and female principals in all three groups (overall, Midwest state, Rocky Mountain state) rated
classroom walkthroughs and informal classroom observations as the most frequently used methods by which to diagnosis marginal teaching. Male and female principals in all three categories rated parent survey results and student
survey results as the least frequently used methods by which to detect marginal teaching. There were no statistically
significant differences between male and female principals in any of the three groups.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
I S S U E S
J O U R N A L :
E D U C A T I O N ,
P R A C T I C E ,
A N D
R E S E A R C H
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study sought to measure principals’ perceptions about the supervision and evaluation of marginal teachers
and to highlight how male and female principals differ concerning this task. Findings can be summarized into three
general themes: (1) both male and female principals perceived their evaluation of the teacher as the primary data
source when making decisions to address marginal teachers; (2) male and female principals primarily use classroom
walkthroughs and informal classroom observations to diagnosis marginal teaching; and (3) the procedural supervisory
style was selected the most by female principals when addressing marginal teachers, while male principals primarily
perceived their style as situational.
Male and female principals reported they currently supervised an average of 10% marginal teachers, which is consistent with other literature (Hanushek, 2008; Tucker, 1997), thus acknowledging marginal teachers are present systemwide in schools. The identification of marginal teachers appears to be based on the subjective judgment of the
people most closely associated with the teacher. As reported in Table 1, principals ranked, by a substantial margin,
their own evaluation of the teacher as the most important data source when identifying a marginal teacher. The
observation of another qualified administrator was identified as the second most important data source when identifying a marginal teacher. Following the professional judgment of administrators, the third and fourth ranked data
sources were parental complaints and the perceptions of the students about the teacher. Clearly, when it comes to
the identification of a marginal teacher, principals rely first on their own judgment, then that of another administrator, followed by those who could be considered the “customer” of the educational process: the parent and the
student. Principals’ confidence in their own ability to assess teacher effectiveness contradicts what some researchers
have reported about this topic (Jacob & Lefgren, 2006). For example, Jacob and Lefgren (2008) found that principals
could identify the poorest teachers who produced the smallest gains in student achievement but had difficulty identifying those that were truly marginal.
Additionally, the study sought to determine what supervisory methods were most useful in providing assistance to
the marginal teacher. Similar to other studies by Ikemoto, Taliaferro, and Adams (2012) and Yariv (2004, 2009), male
and female principals in this study relied on informal supervisory methods to diagnose marginal teaching. These informal techniques included classroom walkthroughs and informal classroom observations. As reported in Table 2, the
classroom walkthrough was ranked by male and female principals in the two states as the most useful supervisory
technique. The only minor deviation from this finding was that the female principals in the Rocky Mountain State
scored informal classroom observation slightly higher than classroom walkthroughs. With the exception of the female
principals in the Rocky Mountain State, all other principal groups ranked informal classroom observation in second
place. The findings are important to note because both classroom walkthroughs and informal classroom observations allow principals to evaluate teachers’ instruction on a more routine basis, thus painting a clearer picture of
teacher effectiveness (Marshal, 2005, 2012b; Yariv, 2009). This also allows principals to observe teacher practice in a
natural, unplanned fashion as opposed to formal classroom observations in which teachers have prior knowledge
they will be observed (Marshal, 2009, 2012a; Range et al., 2011; Sather, 2009).
When studying the principalship, it is important to consider how gender influences the application of leadership
skills (Lee et al., 1993; Shakeshaft et al., 2007). As a result, the primary focus of this study was how male and female
principals differed in their supervision and evaluation of marginal teachers and our findings indicate there are differences. When looking at supervisory methods principals utilize in helping marginal teachers, female principals rated
all methods expect one, formal classroom observations, as more frequently used than male principals. This pattern
was similar when looking at data disaggregated by the Midwest and Rocky Mountain states. Furthermore, although it
was not statistically significant, female principals rated all data sources used in making decisions to address marginal
teachers as more important than did male principals. This pattern of female support concerning the importance of
data sources was also present in the Midwest and Rocky Mountain states. Additionally, there were significant differences in how female principals, overall, rated the importance of formative assessments and teachers’ self-reflection,
with female principals rating these data sources as significantly more important than their male counterparts did.
Finally, female principals rated their supervisory style when addressing marginal teachers as more procedural, while
males believed their style was situational.
Range, Hewitt, & Young
DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.7
b
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Second, as superintendents hire principals, it is important for them to consider how the gender of school leadership
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I S S U E S
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A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
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Bret Range, Ed.D. (brange@uwyo.edu) is an assistant professor in Educational Leadership at the University of Wyoming. His research interests include teacher supervision and evaluation and grade retention. His prior experience
includes 13 years as a principal and teacher in Missouri.
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About the Authors
Paul Hewitt, Ed.D. (phewitt@uark.edu) is an Associate Professor in Educational Leadership at the University of Arkansas. Prior to joining the University of Arkansas, he spent 35 years in public education with 17 years experience as a
superintendent in California.
Suzie Young, Ph.D. (eSYoung@uwyo.edu) is a professor of Educational Research and Statistics at the University of
Wyoming. She taught in the Colorado public school system until 1992. She earned both of her graduate degrees from
the University of Northern Colorado, a Master of Arts degree in Educational Technology and a Ph.D. in Educational
Psychology, emphasizing Statistics, Research, and Measurement.
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Factors that Influence Student Selection of Educational
Leadership Master’s Programs at Regional Universities
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Pam Winn, Ed.D.
Lesley F. Leach, Ph.D.
Susan Erwin, Ph.D.
Liza Benedict
Tarleton State University
a
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.4
R E S E A R C H
As institutions transform to meet learner needs, program planning and recruitment hinges on students’ preferences
(Stevens-Huffman, 2006). At the same time, Texas Educational Leadership graduate programs grapple with declining
enrollment, funding cuts, increasing tuition and fees, and fewer jobs in the field for graduates.
A N D
Faced with declining enrollments, graduate Educational Administration programs in Texas recognize their need to
change. Traditionally, geographic limitations required full-time working professionals to pursue graduate degrees
close to home. Universities that tout personal relationships, individual attention, and smaller learning environments
believe online delivery impedes student learning. Nevertheless, enrollment trends support online options for graduate students with busy schedules.
P R A C T I C E ,
istorically, recruitment strategies serve as a vital part of university admission processes; however, traditional
recruiting practices falter in a marketplace of fierce competition from digitally delivered programs and forprofit universities. Online program delivery frees students from geographic boundaries. Massive open online
courses (MOOC) aimed at large-scale participation through free and open access expand the reach of premiere university programs (e.g. Harvard, Stanford, MIT) worldwide through the Coursera consortium (Johnson, 2012). In addition, for-profit universities (e.g. University of Phoenix) successfully out-recruit public universities by thousands of
students (Institute of Educational Sciences, 2010).
E D U C A T I O N ,
H
INTRODUCTION
J O U R N A L :
Keywords: recruiting, graduate programs, Educational Leadership, Master’s degree
I S S U E S
Graduate enrollment numbers in Educational Leadership programs have dwindled at many public higher education institutions. At the same time, for-profit institutions and institutions with private marketing partnerships
have experienced increasingly greater enrollments. Many public institutions are reevaluating their marketing
and recruiting strategies as they struggle to compete for students. Central to any marketing strategy is knowledge of the needs and wants of consumers; in the case of higher education, the consumers are students. This
study sought to determine the needs and wants of Master’s-level Educational Leadership students by investigating the factors that influenced students’ selections of programs as well as the recruiting strategies that students
perceive as most effective via survey research methods. Results indicate that Master’s-level students (n = 47) selected particular Educational Leadership programs primarily based on the course delivery methods (with hybrid
courses most preferred) and the convenience that the programs offer. Participants perceived online advertising
as well as face-to-face contact with university or program representatives as top recruiting strategies. University
leaders would be wise to consider marketing efforts that highlight Educational Leadership programs’ blended
learning opportunities and convenience through a combination of online advertisements and face-to-face recruiting events for Master’s-level students in Educational Leadership.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Trends in Higher Education
Calls for accountability, efficiency, and productivity in graduate programs result in increased costs, tightened budgets, and the comparative value of a graduate degree. The 11th century university model operating on a 19th century
calendar is out of sync with 21st century students no longer willing to passively absorb lecture-delivered content
(Mehaffy, 2012). Turner and Carriveau (2012) suggest the result is a perfect storm, in which, low general education
success rates, skyrocketing costs, changing demographics, and failure to address the learning process face off against
the expectation that schools produce evidence of the value added by their education.
Failure to effectively address these issues at the University of Texas and Texas A&M University resulted in a mandate
for education more responsive to learner needs with fewer tenured faculty and more part-time instructors with professional experience (Burka, 2012). Increasingly popular online degrees and certifications have seen an estimated 6.1
million postsecondary students engaged in online courses in 2010-2011, an increase of 560,000 students from the
previous year. Almost 30% of all higher education students take at least one course online (Sloan Consortium, 2011).
In 2010-2011 an estimated 2.7 million students were enrolled in fully online postsecondary programs. Online enrollment is estimated to increase to 3.44 million students in 2015 encompassing 15.9 % of total postsecondary enrollment (GSV EDU, 2012).
MOOCs dramatically change educational opportunities for large numbers of students at a much lower cost (Burka,
2012). For example, Harvard and MIT created a joint experiment utilizing free online courses (edX), testing new ideas
for massive online courses and digital education. Providing students with personalized feedback, web-based Crowdsourcing software breaks homework submissions into chunks to be reviewed by teaching staff, fellow students, and
alumni volunteers (Parry, 2012). In addition, the Coursera consortium created by Stanford, the University of Michigan,
Princeton, and the University of Pennsylvania, provides free, high-quality courses (MOOCs) from other top-rated universities.
While economic downturns historically increase enrollments in graduate programs, recent recession trends indicate
new graduate student enrollment fell by 1.1% between fall of 2009 and fall of 2011 (June, 2011). Possible explanations include reduction in endowments funds, state budget cuts, and limited availability of financial aid. In addition,
budget restrictions have increased scrutiny of the educational practices at colleges and universities, and have applied
pressure to follow corporate paths of efficiency (Mehaffy, 2012; Redwing, 2012).
To create a university growth model by transforming traditional on-campus programs to an online learning format,
Academic Partnerships (AP) piloted a model of a contractual partnership between the company and university in fall
2007. Using Academic Partnerships’ model, Lamar University increased its enrollment in two graduate educational
programs from 226 to 4,100 (Academic Partnership, 2012). In the fall of 2010, Academic Partnerships contracted with
the University of Texas Arlington in the Master’s degree in Educational Leadership and increased enrollment from 173
in the fall of 2009 to 558 in the fall of 2010 and 695 in the fall of 2011 (THECB, 2012). These dramatic changes impacted
enrollment at many universities across the nation. One unintended consequence was an oversupply of graduates in
the area of Educational Leadership. Other Texas programs maintained graduate enrollment by shifting to online and
hybrid course delivery.
Marketing in Higher Education
While public universities struggle to reinvent themselves, market share trends for private for-profit institutions continue to increase. Representing 11% of the 2009 university market (Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System
[IPEDS], 2010) revenue from for-profit degree-granting institutions was 19 billion dollars in 2008-09 (U.S. Department
of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics, 2011).
Over the last forty-year period, institutions of higher education have shifted from social institutions to an industry (Anctil, 2008). Marketing in educational institutions was once discouraged as undermining academic standards
of quality and excellence (Anderson, 2008). However, with government deregulation and increasing competition
(Hemsley-Brown& Oplatka, 2006; Jongbloed, 2003; Maringe, 2006) institutions of higher education must market to
compete (Constantinides & Zinck Stagno, 2011). Gumport (2000) attributes this change to the increase of academic
management, the rise of academic consumerism, and the “restratification of academic subjects and personal to a
use-value and exchange-value of particular knowledge in a wider society” (Gumport, 2000, pp. 67-69). The intense
pressure for accountability, student enrollment, retention, and academic performance all drive institutions of higher
education to operate in a more commercial manner (Anctil, 2008).
a
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DOI: 10.5929/2014.4.1.4
R E S E A R C H
Determining the most effective types of communication is key in marketing. While increased mobile technologies
influence student communication, social media marketing focuses on customer engagement, improved communications, and increasing brand loyalty (Constaninides & Zinck Stagno, 2011). Ohio State University students preferred
communication from the school via email (82%) followed by the website (17.8%). For general updates, 68.9% chose
email, while 33.7% chose the web site (Ohio State Office of Student Life, 2010). Conversely, Robinson and Stubberud
(2012) found students most preferred face-to-face communication, followed by email. Paper communication was
A N D
The Graduate and Professional School Enrollment Management Corporation (GAPSEMC) notes graduate programs
must develop a strategic campaign to compete in today’s competitive market. On average, 6-12 contacts (e.g. mail,
phone, email, social media, and special events) must be made before students enroll in a program (GAPSEMC, 2012).
Like other markets, colleges and universities must successfully define their niche and their market; this includes analyzing demographic data of current students to identify prospective students (Aldridge, 2010). Defining the higher
education marketplace must focus on the variation in student demographics, psychographics, and behavioral characteristics, all of which have contributed to the “age of individualism” in which the dominant movement is viewing
customers as individuals. However, it is important to extend the demographic data beyond the prospective students
to all people served by the university, such as alumni, employers of graduates, financial supporters, and for statesupported universities. This would include tax-payers and the legislature (Lewison & Hawes, 2007).
P R A C T I C E ,
Marketing Tools
E D U C A T I O N ,
Other forms of marketing include collaborative relationships (Gibbs, 2002) and relationship marketing (Helgesen,
2008, Klassen, 2002). Relationship marketing in higher education focuses on building and maintaining the relationship of value exchange between the institution and three main customer groups: future students, current students,
and alumni (McAlexander and Koening, 2001). The quality of these relationships is connected to the customers’ longterm loyalty.
J O U R N A L :
Views differ as to the best marketing model for higher education. More universities are moving to direct marketing
plans to compete with for-profit universities. Sevier (2004) supports a model using brand marketing to create awareness, direct marking to generate responses, and customer relationship management for client retention. With the
increase in competition and resources constraints, more universities are focusing on a target marketing approach to
identify and pursue prospective students (Lewison & Hawes, 2007). Students are no longer just viewed as learners,
citizens, scholars, and ambassadors, but are seen as investors who are investing in their own future (Reader, 2011).
I S S U E S
As public universities seek ways to engage the market, for-profits continue to experiment. 2009 was a banner enrollment year for the University of Phoenix, raising stock prices to $90.00 per share. Recruiting strategies behind this
spike included implementation of highly trained enrollment and financial-aid counselors and a technically sophisticated 24-hour-a-day recruiting operation (Blumenstyk, 2011). In 2013, Academic Partnerships announced changed
traditional online courses to MOOCs to recruit new students. Successful course completion resulted in free course
credit when students were admitted to the university (Kolowich, 2013). The online for-profit Western Governor’s University created a competency-based model in which students pay a set price per semester to complete an unlimited
number of courses. On the other hand, for-profit institutions are notorious for hiring lower paid, non-unionized, and
non-tenured faculty with lower qualifications and no research obligations (Mehaffy, 2012). Lowered personnel costs
allow for-profit universities to dedicate more resources to recruiting and new technologies (Kirschnir, 2012).
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Hemsley-Brown and Oplatka (2006) found few results of effective graduate recruiting and marketing plans in the
professional literature because the emphasis at most universities is on undergraduate recruitment. While traditional
recruitment methods abound, more aggressive methods are on the rise. Higher education is a highly competitive
market seeking effective recruiting strategies.
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least preferred, while Facebook ranked last for work/school, but fourth for social communication.
A 2011 Pew Research Center Report noted 65% of adult internet users use social networking sites (Madden & Zickuhr,
2011); however, review of literature on social media and marketing in higher education revealed that, while recruiting
officers and potential students both use social media, they use it for different purposes. Although universities used
social media to connect with prospective students and to market their institution, there is no indication these media
are used by said students to seek college admission (Nyangau & Bado, 2012). In contrast, Hays, Ruschman, and Walker
(2009) found a significant relationship between the students who engaged in the university’s social media network
and eventual university admission.
Barnes and Mattson (2009) found admission officers in 2007and 2008 increasingly using social media to research and
recruit potential students. In 2008, admission officers identified various social media platforms (blogging, video blogging, social networking sites) as marketing tools and felt social media were an important admission tools. In 2010,
Barnes and Mattson discovered 95% of college admission offices using at least one form of social media and 91%
identifying social media as “somewhat important” to their recruiting future. Barnes and Lescault (2011) found Facebook to be the most widely used social media tool (98%) followed by YouTube (86%), Twitter (84%), and blogs (66%).
The Center for Marketing Research found benefits of using social media for recruiting to include reduced printing
costs (33%), and fewer monies spent on newspaper ads (24%) and radio and television (17%). In addition, 92% of
undergraduate admissions agree social media is worth the investment, and report social media to be 44% more effective in recruiting for top MBA programs. The same report identified the most successful tools for recruiting undergraduates to be Facebook (94%), YouTube (81%), Twitter (69%), and Downloadable Mobile Apps (51%). Mobile apps
were a favorite tool for top MBA programs, with 82% crediting them for being an effective recruiting tool (Barnes &
Lescault, N.D.). Noel Levitz Incorporated identified the most popular social media tool as Facebook, followed by YouTube and Twitter (Noel-Levitz, Inc., 2012).
PBP Executive Reports (2010) reviewed major social network sites to assess ways intuitions of higher education could
effectively use these tools for marketing. Facebook’s fan pages, personal page, and group features offers institutions
of higher education an excellent opportunity to maintain a viable online social presence. Twitter is useful to provide
quick, admissions–related information to students and to direct them to the university’s website for more information. Fusch (2011a, 2011b) found digital tools can be used for specific marketing purposes; YouTube is a valuable
platform to reach prospective students; Facebook can generate the desire for campus visits; and Twitter provides
admission officers the opportunity to provide personalized services to prospective students.
Purpose
Central to any marketing strategy is knowledge of the needs and wants of consumers; in the case of higher education
the consumers are students. This study sought to determine the needs and wants of Master’s-level Educational Leadership students by investigating the factors that influenced students’ selections of programs as well as the recruiting
strategies that students perceive as most effective via survey research methods. Specifically, this study sought to
answer the following research questions:
1. What factors influenced Master’s-level students’ decisions to attend Educational Leadership programs?
2. What recruiting strategies do current Master’s-level students perceive as most effective in influencing their decisions to attend particular Educational Leadership programs?
METHOD
Participants
Current Master’s-level students from Educational Leadership programs at three public regional universities in the
southwest United States were recruited for participation in the study (n = 47, Mage = 36.89, SDage = 8.06, age range: 2555 years, 75% female). Participants self-identified as belonging to the following ethnic categories: African American/
Black (4%), Asian (2%), Caucasian (76%), Hispanic/Latino/Chicano (16%), and none of the above (2%).
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Procedure
Analyses
Participants’ responses were analyzed descriptively. Frequencies, percentages, and averages of the aggregated and
disaggregated data were calculated for interpretation. Data from the open-ended responses were analyzed thematically.
RESULTS
J O U R N A L :
Figure 1. Primary reason that Masters’ level students identified for attending graduate school (n = 47).
I S S U E S
Participants were asked to identify their primary motivation for attending graduate school. Figure 1 displays the
frequencies of responses. Note that most participants (n = 47) identified furtherance of their career (77%) as the
primary motivation for attending graduate school. Markedly fewer participants identified goals of expanding their
knowledge and skills or improving their earning potential (13% and 9%, respectively).
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Consenting participants were asked to complete an online survey that invited them to retrospectively identify the
factors that impacted their choice of Educational Leadership program. Participants were requested to provide additional information concerning the factors they selected; the survey was designed using branching logic as to elicit
additional information about a particular factor only if the participant initially selected that factor as important. For
the sake of brevity, a copy of the survey was not included in the article. The survey is available from the authors upon
request.
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Factors that Influenced Program Selection
Participants were asked to identify from a prepopulated list or entry in an open-ended comments box any and all
factors that influenced their choice to attend their current program. Figure 2 presents the factors that were identified
by students. Delivery of coursework and convenience were identified by the majority of participants as influential
factors. Tuition cost and reputation were the third and fourth top factors, respectively. Interestingly, although tuition
a
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Figure 2. Factors that participants identified as influential in the selection of their current Master’s level Educational Leadership program (n = 47). Note that participants could choose multiple factors, so percentages will
add to greater than 100%.
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cost was identified by 43% of participants as important, the same participants indicated that the availability of scholarships and financial aid mattered much less, with only 2% identifying either as a top factor, respectively.
Males and females were found to identify similar factors, but there was disparity when the data was disaggregated
by age category (see Figure 3 for results). Participants who were 30-39 years old overwhelmingly chose delivery of
coursework as the most important factor (100%; n = 26), whereas only 20% of students that were 20-29 years old (n =
5) thought that the delivery of coursework was influential. Participants who were 20-29 years of age identified reputation, convenience, the fact that they had attended the university previously, and family/friends’ recommendations as
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top factors (40% for each factor; n = 5). The 30-39 year old age group (n = 26) chose delivery of coursework (73%) and
convenience (65%) as the top two influential factors on the program selection. Participants in the 40-49 age range
(n = 10) also identified delivery of coursework (100%) and convenience (100%) as top factors along with reputation
(70%). Finally, participants who were 50-59 (n = 4) years of age identified reputation (75%) and convenience (75%) as
the most important factors.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Figure 3. Factors that participants identified as influential in the selection of their current program by age category (n = 45). Note that participants could choose multiple factors, so percentages will add to greater than
100%.
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Delivery of coursework. When asked how the delivery of coursework impacted participants’ decisions to attend their current universities, participants’ (n = 47) selections were varied, with the greatest percentage indicating
a preference for a mixture of online and face-to-face instruction (34%), but followed closely by preferences for more
online instruction (28%). Only 15% identified more face-to-face instruction as impacting their decision (see Figure 4).
From these results, it appears that some Master’s-level students prefer a mixture of online and traditional face-to-face
instruction (called hybrid or blended learning), but most tend to prefer at least some online component.
a
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The top two factors identified by participants across all age groups as impacting their selection of program were
delivery of coursework and convenience. Participants that identified either factor were asked in subsequent survey
questions to elaborate on how that factor influenced their decision.
VOLUME 4, ISSUE 1
Note that participants could choose multiple factors, so percentages will add to greater than 100%.Participants were
asked to provide additional open-ended responses to the question of how the delivery of coursework affected their
program choice. Participants identified the flexibility of location and pacing as impactful of their program selection
in programs with at least some online instruction (whether fully or partially online). Two participants noted that they
chose a program with online components due to family obligations. In contrast, two participants mentioned that
they chose their program because of the face-to-face components. Clearly, while many students prefer online coursework, some still desire the face-to-face components that are available in many programs.
Convenience. Figure 5 presents the aspects of convenience that participants identified as impactful of their
program choice. Results were varied. Almost half of master’s-level students (n = 47) noted they preferred a program
that was close to their home (49%) and the convenience of scheduling classes was important (43%). Overall, Master’slevel students were less concerned about the program being located close to their work (13%).
Figure 5. Aspects of convenience that participants identified as affecting their decision to attend their current
program (n = 47). Note that participants could choose multiple factors, so percentages will sum to greater than
100%.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
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Figure 4. Aspects of the delivery of coursework that participants identified as affecting their decision to attend
their current program (n = 47).
Participants were asked to provide additional open-ended responses to the question of how the delivery of coursework affected their program choice. One participant discussed his or her familiarity with the campus and the belief
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that his or her institutional choice would help prepare him or her for a principal position. Another student discussed
her or his preference for the orderly way the course work was planned so she or he could plan properly.
Recruiting Strategies
From these rankings, it appears that students value online advertisements, yet it is interesting to note the category
with advertising via social media was not ranked in the top three list of strategies. The second and third ranking that
placed contact as important shows that, much like the factors that influenced their program selection, students still
value personal contact when it comes selecting an educational program.
Table 1
Recruiting Practice
2
Contact from program representative
3
Contact from university representative
4
Face-to-face information session
5
Advertising via social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter)
6
Online information session
7
Advertising in popular print sources (e.g., newspapers, magazines)
8
Advertising in education-related trade journals
9
School district/service center contact
10
Word of mouth
11
Mailings
P R A C T I C E ,
Online advertising
E D U C A T I O N ,
1
J O U R N A L :
Rank
A N D
Participants identified delivery of coursework and convenience as the two most influential factors in choosing their
current Educational Leadership graduate program. They reported a preference for a mixture of online and face-toface delivery. Students mentioned family and professional obligations as key to the desire for at least some online
instruction. Participants were also clear in their desire for a program that was convenient both in location and course
scheduling. Scheduling was identified by participants as most important while convenience of location from home
seemed to matter as well.
Given the increasing popularity of the fully online programs of for-profit universities and universities with for-profit
marketing partnerships, it is not surprising to learn from the study results that students prefer convenience and at
least some online delivery of coursework—two components that undoubtedly make up the fully online programs of
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DISCUSSION
a
I S S U E S
Participants’ Rankings of Recruiting Practices from Most to Least Effective in Master’s-Level Educational Leadership
Programs (n = 47)
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Participants were asked to rank the three factors that they believed to be the most effective in recruiting Master’slevel students for Educational Leadership programs. The Condorcet method was used to analyze the ranked data (see
Table 1 for the results). Online advertising was ranked as the top choice by most respondents, followed by contact
from a program representative. The third highest was contact from a university representative.
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many for-profit institutions. It is interesting to note, however, that many of the participants indicated a preference to
include at least some face-to-face instruction in a graduate program in Educational Leadership.
When it comes to recruitment strategies, students perceived online advertising and contact with university/program
representatives as the most effective recruiting strategies. Combination of these strategies suggest university leaders should consider a mix of traditional, face-to-face recruiting methods, and new technological methods like social
media to market their institution to prospective students. From these results, it is clear that Masters-level students
believe that connecting with a face-to-face university representative is important. Yet the majority also chose online
advertising as potentially effective. Future research could explore this further by investigating the kinds of online
advertising that Masters-level students perceive as effective recruiting.
Implications for Practice
Results of the current study point to hybrid delivery of coursework and convenience as key to most graduate students’
selections of Educational Leadership programs. Master’s-level students are largely in agreement that a mixture of online and face-to-face coursework is preferred due to the flexibility that it offers for family and professional obligations.
Note, however, that all of the current study participants attend Educational Leadership programs at public institutions
and, for that reason the results could be non-representative of the population at large. In addition, the respondents
were largely female (75%) and Caucasian (76%), which could allow for potential bias. Regardless, the results offer
interesting information concerning Educational Leadership programs at public regional institutions in the southwest
United States. It may be that the students who chose public regional institutions valued at least some face-to-face
instruction and chose a public institution as a direct result. Future studies could investigate that issue.
In sum, the results suggest that administrators of Educational Leadership would be wise to consider the convenience
of their programs and hybrid course delivery options in order to maximize recruitment efforts and subsequent student enrollment. Results indicate that Master’s students in Educational Leadership programs at public regional institutions prefer at least some face-to-face instruction, but enjoy the convenience that the online components offer
as well. University leaders should consider utilizing employees to help recruit Master’s-level students into their programs as contact with a person ranks high on effective recruiting strategies. The study results also revealed the fact
that effective recruiting likely begins with catching prospective Master’s students’ attention via online advertising
and following up with face-to-face contact to help boost enrollment. Reasoned action based on these results may
help strengthen the marketing of Educational Leadership graduate programs at regional universities across the nation and their enrollment numbers as a result.
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About the Authors
Pam Winn (winn@tarleton.edu) holds an Ed.D. in Educational Administration from the University of Texas A&M-Commerce. She has served in both public and higher education, with experiences ranging from teaching to administration and has trained principal assessors across the state. Winn presently serves as an associate professor, director of
the New Century Educational Leadership Program (NCELP), Master’s Coordinator.
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Lesley F. Leach (leach@tarleton.edu) holds a Ph.D. in Educational Research from the University of North Texas. Prior
to her current appointment as associate professor and doctoral program coordinator in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies at Tarleton State University, Lesley spent five years as an elementary mathematics teacher and over three years as a research scientist with the Charles A. Dana Center at The University of Texas at
Austin.
Liza Benedict (elizabeth.benedict@go.tarleton.edu) is currently working on her doctoral dissertation about social
media and marketing in higher education. She has thirteen years of public relations experience, twelve of which have
been focused in the academic field. Liza presently serves as a doctoral fellow at Tarleton State University.
A D M I N I S T R A T I V E
Susan Erwin (erwin@tarleton.edu) holds a Ph.D. in instructional leadership and academic curriculum from the University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. With 23 years K-12 public school experience and 11 years in higher education, Erwin presently serves as graduate program coordinator for the TSU department curriculum and instruction.
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