CHAPTER ONE: Basics
1.1
PV systems and applications
1.1.1 Stand-alone systems
1.1.2 Grid-connected systems
1.2
Solar radiation
1.2.1 The sun as a source of energy
1.2.2 Distribution of solar radiation
1.2.3 Direct and diffuse radiation
1.2.4 Angle definition
1.2.5 Position and spectrum of the sun
1.2.6 Solar radiation on inclined planes
1.2.7 Ground reflection
1.2.8 Measuring solar radiation
1.2.9 Increasing yield by tracking
1.3
PV solar cells – effect and function
1.3.1 Functional principle of a solar cell
1.3.2 Structure and function of a crystalline silicon solar cell
1.4
Cell types
1.4.1 Crystalline silicon cells
1.4.2 Silicon cells in commercial production
1.5
Anti-reflection coating on crystalline silicon cells
1.6
Surface structure and contacts on crystalline silicon cells
1.6.1 Front contacts
1.6.2 Rear contacts
1.7
Thin-film cells
1.7.1 Amorphous silicon cells
1.7.2 Copper indium diselenide cells (CIS)
1.7.3 Cadmium telluride cells (CdTe)
1.8
New solar cell concepts
1.8.1 Microcrystalline and micromorphous solar cells
1.8.2 Hybrid cells: HIT solar cells
1.9
Comparison of solar cell types
1.10 Electrical properties of solar cells
1.10.1 Equivalent circuit diagrams of solar cells
1.10.2 Additional solar cell models
1.10.3 Cell parameters and solar cell characteristic curves
1.10.4 Standard test conditions (STC)
1.10.5 Spectral sensitivity
1.10.6 Efficiency of solar cells and PV modules
CHAPTER TWO: PV system components
2.1
PV modules
2.1.1 Cell stringing
2.1.2 Cell encapsulation
2.1.3 Types of modules
2.1.4 Design options for PV modules
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.1.5 Module cable outlets and junction boxes
2.1.6 Wiring symbols
2.1.7 Characteristic curves for modules
2.1.8 Module parameters
2.1.9 Electrical characteristics of crystalline PV modules
2.1.10 Hot spots, bypass diodes and shading
2.1.11 Electrical characteristics of thin-film modules
2.1.12 Quality certification for modules
2.1.13 Interconnection of PV modules
Generator junction box, string diodes and fuses
Grid-connected inverters
2.3.1 Wiring symbol and function
2.3.2 Grid-controlled inverters (line-commutated inverters)
2.3.3 Self-commutated inverters
2.3.4 Parameters, characteristic curves and properties of inverters
2.3.5 Inverter types and construction sizes in various power classes
2.3.6 Further developments in inverter technology
Cables
2.4.1 Module lines and line cabling
2.4.2 DC main cable
2.4.3 AC connecting lead cable
Installation material
DC switch disconnector
AC switch disconnector
2.7.1 Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs)
2.7.2 Earth leakage circuit breakers
Accumulators/batteries
2.8.1 Lead-acid batteries – construction and operating principle
2.8.2 Types and designs of lead-acid batteries
2.8.3 Performance and characteristics of lead-acid accumulators
2.8.4 Ageing effects
2.8.5 Selection criteria
2.8.6 Maintenance and safety information
2.8.7 Recycling
Charge controllers
2.9.1 Series controllers
2.9.2 Shunt controllers (parallel controllers)
2.9.3 Depletion protection
2.9.4 MPP charge controllers
Stand-alone inverter
2.10.1 Sine-wave inverters
2.10.2 Trapezoidal inverters
2.10.3 Application criteria for inverters in stand-alone systems
CHAPTER THREE: On-site visits, site survey and shading analysis
3.1
On-site visit and site survey
3.2
3.3
Consulting with the customer
Location analysis and shading of the PV system
3.3.1 Shadow types
3.3.2 Shading analysis
3.3.3 Consideration of shading with the generator interconnection and system
concept
3.4
Checklists for building survey
3.4.1 PV system checklist
3.4.2 PV generator, inverter and meter
3.4.3 Lines and installation
3.4.4 Other
3.4.5 Shading checklist
CHAPTER FOUR: Planning and designing grid-connected systems
4.1
System size and module choice
4.2
System concepts
4.2.1 Central inverter concept
4.2.3 Module inverter concept
4.3
Inverter installation site
4.4
Sizing the inverter
4.4.1 Power sizing
4.4.2 Voltage sizing
4.4.3 Determining the number of strings
4.4.4 Sizing using simulation programs
4.5
Designing and sizing cables
4.5.1 Withstand voltage
4.5.2 Current-carrying capacity
4.5.3 Minimizing the cables losses
4.5.4 Sizing the DC cable
4.5.5 Sizing the DC main cable
4.5.6 Sizing the AC supply cable
4.6
Selection and sizing of the generator junction box and the DC main switch
4.7
Lightning, earthing and over-voltage protection
4.7.1 Direct lightning strikes and external lightning protection
4.7.2 Indirect lightning effects and internal lightning protection
4.7.3 Lightning and over-voltage protection for buildings without lightningprotection systems
4.7.4 Lightning and over-voltage protection for buildings with lightningprotection systems
4.7.5 Earthing and potential equalization
4.7.6 Lightning protection and earthing variants
4.8
Mains connection
4.8.1 Technical issues associated to grid connection in the US
4.8.2 Procedural issues associated to grid connection in the US
4.8.3 Selection of a type-approved inverter
4.8.4 Electrical installation
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.8.5 Connection procedures
4.8.6 Metering
Calculating and producing a quotation
4.9.1 Costs
4.9.2 Time expenditure and construction times
4.9.3 Quotation texts
Yield forecast
Regulations and guidelines
4.11.1 Building regulations
4.11.2 International standards
CHAPTER FIVE: Planning and designing stand-alone systems
5.1
Calculating the electricity consumption
5.2
Sizing the PV generator
5.2.1 Model for calculating the yield of a PV generator
5.2.2 Consideration of cable, conversion and adjustment losses
5.2.3 Summary of the design outcome
5.2.4 Brief summary of the calculation method for designing a PV generator –
example of the small holiday home
5.3
Sizing of the cable cross-sections
5.3.1 Important remark on the battery – charge controller wiring
5.4
Sizing of the battery
5.5
Use of an inverter
5.6
Hybrid system
CHAPTER SIX: Software and simulation programs for PV systems
6.1
Use of software and simulation programs
6.2
Checking the simulation results
6.3
Simulation of shading
6.4
Market overview and classification of simulation programs for PV systems
6.5
Program descriptions
6.5.1 Calculation programs
6.5.2 Time-step simulation programs
6.5.3 Simulation systems
6.5.4 Supplementary programs and data sources
6.5.5 Design and service programs
6.5.6 Web-based simulation programs
6.6
Tabular program overview
CHAPTER SEVEN: Mounting systems and building integration
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Roof basics
7.2.1 The roof’s tasks
7.2.2 Roof shapes
7.2.3 Roof constructions
7.2.4 Roof skin
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.2.5 Sloping roof
7.2.6 Flat roof
Sloping roofs
7.3.1 On-roof systems
7.3.2 In-roof or roof-integrated systems
Flat roofs
7.4.1 On-roof systems
7.4.2 In-roof or roof-integrated systems
Façade basics
7.5.1 External wall structures
7.5.2 Façade types
7.5.3 Façade systems
7.5.4 Façade cladding
7.5.5 Fastenings
7.5.6 Joints, joint sealing
Facades
7.6.1 In front of the façade
7.6.2 In the façade
Glass roof structures
7.7.1 Glass roofs above heated spaces
7.7.2 Glass roofs above unheated spaces
7.7.3 Glass roofs above open spaces
7.7.4 Skylights on listed buildings
Solar-shading devices
7.8.1 Module fixing
7.8.2 Fixed solar-shading
7.8.3 Movable solar shading
CHAPTER EIGHT: Installing, commissioning and operating PV systems
8.1
Introduction
8.2
General installation notes
8.2.1 DC installation
8.2.2 Module interconnection
8.2.3 Cable-laying
8.3
Safety requirements when working on roofs
8.3.1 Scaffolding
8.3.2 Ladder access
8.3.3 Roof ladders
8.3.4 Personal protective equipment (PPE)
8.3.5 Lifting materials to roof level
8.3.6 Manual handling
8.4
Installing a grid-connected PV system
8.4.1 Preliminary remarks
8.4.2 Procedure for installing the system
8.5
Commissioning
8.5.1 Sample domestic photovoltaic electrical installation certificate
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.5.2 Sample application for connection – UK
8.5.3 Sample SSEG installation commissioning confirmation – UK
Malfunctioning, typical failures and maintenance for PV systems
8.6.1 Maintenance and upkeep checklist
Warranty and troubleshooting
Monitoring operating data and system quality
8.8.1 Operating data monitoring
8.8.2 Web-based data transmission and evaluation
Operating results of grid-connected PV systems
Tax issues in connection with grid-connected PV systems
Insurance for solar power systems
8.11.1 Liability insurance for damage to third parties
8.11.2 Damage to the PV system
8.11.3 Comprehensive cover for solar power systems
CHAPTER NINE: Economic efficiency, potentials and ecological aspects
9.1
Economic assessment
9.2
Cost trend
9.3
Technological trends
9.4
The market
9.5
Potential for photovoltaic systems
9.6
Ecological evaluation
9.6.1 Energy assessment
9.6.2 Recycling
CHAPTER TEN: Subsidies for photovoltaic systems and additional market information
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Subsidies in the US
10.3 Subsidies in the UK
10.4 Subsidies in Australia
10.5 Additional sources of information
10.5.1 Sources of information in the UK
10.5.2 Sources of information in the US
10.5.3 Sources of information in Canada
10.5.4 Sources of information in Australia
10.5.5 Sources of information in Scandinavian countries
10.5.6 Sources of information in other English-speaking countries
10.5.7 Sources of information on the EU level