Enhancing Active Learning through Teachers’ Peer and Self Reflections
in Selected Primary Schools in Ethiopia1
Daniel Desta Dolisso2
Addis Ababa University
Abstract
Quality of education at pre-primary and primary levels is a foundation for quality education at
subsequent higher levels. The factors that may be responsible for quality of learning could relate to
the way the teaching-learning process takes place, the extent to which teachers examine their own
practice of teaching, how much school supervision is directed towards helping teachers improve
instruction and making the learning process active and learner-centered are some to mention.
Despite the strong criticisms on the conventional teacher based approach in education, the teaching
leaning process in most schools in Ethiopia has persisted to be teacher dominated. Most classes are
characterized by a situation where students are made to listen to their teachers and copy notes from the
blackboard.
This paper, as part of the main study on “Enhancing Active Learning through Teachers’ Peer and self
Reflections in Selected Primary Schools in Ethiopia” examines policy background, teachers’
conceptions, and availability of minimum inputs as well as practices in relation to active learning. The
paper intends to give a background for the main study, which is already in progress.
The findings indicate that the education system functions well in terms of making education accessible
to children. There is a rapid growth in students’ enrollment. Nonetheless, quality of education has
become a notably serious problem. The primary education in the country is increasingly characterized
by high teacher-pupil ratio, lack of adequate textbooks and teaching aids, repetition, dropout and many
other problems. The government has developed policy directions that help in improving quality in
education. Accordingly, schools and teachers are encouraged to adopt the learner-centered approach in
the teaching learning process. There are some visible actions along this line. This initiative, however,
needs further research and hard work in order to bring about significant and sustainable improvement
in the quality of education.
1. Background
Providing quality primary education for all school age children by the year 2015 is a commitment of
many countries. This commitment arises from the basic conviction of nations that education is one of
the basic rights and at the same time the key for individual and societal development. Moreover,
quality basic education is a foundation for education at subsequent higher levels. The right to
education involves central questions of access, quality, equity, relevance and concerns about disparity.
Human knowledge and perspectives held at different times have played important role in guiding the
teaching learning strategies in a wide variety of settings including home, school and work place. It
follows that the choices teachers make on the strategies of teaching their students, among other
conditions, depend on their knowledge of the nature of human learning as well as principles and
factors that affect the teaching learning process. The question of how learning takes place, however, is
not a central question among quite many teachers. Rather, many teacher focus on the question of to
1
Note: This paper presents a review of policy perspectives, teachers perceptions of quality education and
classrooms practices as a background for the ongoing main research.
2
Assistant Professor, Institute of educational Research, Addis Ababa University
teach. This lack of attention to the nature of learning inevitably leads to an impoverishment of
education.
Some of the key factors responsible for quality education include inputs made available, the way the
teaching-learning process takes place, the extent to which teachers examine their own practice of
teaching, the extent school supervision is directed towards helping teachers improve instruction and
making the learning process active and learner-centered. Policy framework and subsequent strategies
that are in place also place an important role
The most important factors that may be responsible for quality of learning could relate to the way
the teaching-learning process takes place, the extent to which teachers examine their own practice of
teaching, how much school supervision is directed towards helping teachers improve instruction and
making the learning process active and learner-centered are some to mention. Accordingly, improving
quality of the teaching learning process require multiple of interventions.
Active learning, one of the variables studied in this research, is explained in the constructivist
perspective of learning. The works of Dewey, Montessori, Piaget, Bruner, and Vygotsky among others
provide historical precedents for constructivist learning theory. Constructivist epistemology assumes
that learners construct their own knowledge on the basis of interaction with their environment. Four
epistemological assumptions are at the heart of what we refer to as "constructivist learning." First, it is
assumed that knowledge is physically constructed by learners who are involved in active learning;
second, knowledge is symbolically constructed by learners who are making their own representations
of action; third, knowledge is socially constructed by learners who convey their meaning making to
others; fourth, knowledge is theoretically constructed by learners who try to explain things they don't
completely understand ( George and Michelle, NY ).
Learning cannot be forced upon anyone; neither can it be exacted from the learner on command.
Students must be willing to learn and they must be prepared to take the initiative. This ‘do-it-yourself
‘ principle implies that the more active the students are in their learning, that is the increasing number
of different activities they undertake in mastering a skill, the better the result will be
(http://www.ou.nl/eCache/DEF/22/873.html)
Active learning and the do-it-yourself approach do not mean that a student has to learn all alone, that
the role of the teacher disappears or is reduced to the level of process support. They rather imply that
an environment has to be designed so that different partners and learning resources, and the different
content, roles and tasks which the student is required to master are clearly specified to optimize the
learning outcomes. This environment should be carefully designed, as should the educational
approach to be used.
Active learning can be enhanced through teachers’ effective design of their classes which takes in to
account the kind of students are involved, the setting learning is expected to occur, learners level of
knowledge, the skills they have, etc. Teacher’s conception of education, the curriculum content and
methodology the teacher uses to facilitate students’ learning also go in to the design education. The
intention of the design should be to inspire active learning on the part of the learners.
Quality of learning as characteristics of quality education has been a concern of different societies at
different times in history. Nineteenth century American schools had bleak learning conditions.
"Teaching was by rote and drill. Encouragement was by the rod. Obedience (to God, parent and
teacher) was the foundation rock for the mansion of learning" (Withers, 1963, p. vii).
Pestalozzi extended Enlightenment ideas into education by having students learn from experiences
and observation rather than from the authority of the textbook and the teacher (Elkind, 1987; Rillero,
2
1993). "After the experts in getting knowledge discovered that it was far more profitable to examine
real things and observe how they did work than merely to speculate and argue about them, and that it
was unsafe to trust the authority of any man's opinion without testing it by its accordance with facts in
nature, the experts in education also began to advocate teaching by direct study of things and
experimental verification of opinions" (Thorndike, 1920, p. 176).
Pestalozzi's ideas of using objectives for teaching were spread in America in the 1860s. The Object
Teaching Revolution occurred as a direct result of teacher education (Rillero, 1993). This movement
challenged the dominance of the textbook in education and promoted active learning by students. The
evolution of methodologies used in science education including science activities, field trips, and
school science collections were influenced by object teaching (Rillero, 1993).
Student-centered learning encourages active participation of learners in the teaching learning process
which in turn would enhance the development of learners’ abilities for creative thinking, problem
solving and relating learning to real life experiences thereby achieving the envisaged goal of schooling.
The extent to which teachers understand the concept of active learning, and the skills they have to
implement it are among quite many essential conditions for effective learning and teaching.
The Ethiopian Education system with the New Education and Training Policy (TGE, 1994) and
consecutive Education Sector Development Programs (ESDP I and ll) has made significant efforts to
creating access to thousands of children. Consequently, the primary enrollment has increased
dramatically. However, the quality of students’ learning has been a challenge.
In Ethiopia, the problem of quality in primary education has become a serious concern of the
government, educators and teachers. The problem could be related to input factors like studentteacher ratio, student-text book ratio, teachers’ qualification, etc. However, of the most important
factors that may be responsible to learning quality could relate to the way the teaching-learning
process occurs, the extent to which teachers examine their own practice of teaching, how much school
supervision is directed towards helping them improve instruction and making the learning process
active and learner centered are some to mention. Accordingly, the quality of the teaching learning
process can be improved can be improved by a multiple of interventions. Along wit those input factors,
teachers can be assisted to improve their practices through school based – collegial and collaborative
supervision. Involving teachers in action research can also be another important means of improving
teaching and learning. In this respect, teachers can also be supported through peer assessment based
feedback. Most important complementary move to peer assessment is self-reflection of once practice
as a measure of improving the quality if teaching and learning. This is based on the assumption that
the more teachers make their classrooms and their teaching practices open to peer observation and
assessment, the better the lesson they obtain to improve their practice and thus, improved student
learning. Student centered learning would encourage active participation in their lessons which in turn
would have positive contributions to develop abilities for creative thinking, problem solving and
relating learning to real life experiences thereby achieving the envisaged goal of schooling. This can
be more consolidated when a teacher is ready to engage in a continuous professional reflection on
his/her own practice. Moreover, peer assessment would further enhance the professional development
of teachers which have greater contribution to active learning and quality education.
The present study focuses on making an intervention to enhance active learning through the
employment of teachers’ peer assessment and personal reflections of their lessons.
Statement of the problem
Despite the strong criticisms on the conventional teacher based approach in education, the teaching
leaning process in most schools in Ethiopia has persisted to be teacher dominated. Most classes are
characterized by a situation where students are made to listen to their teachers and copy notes from the
3
blackboard. Learning by doing, problem solving, cooperative learning and group approaches are
limited. Consequently, there is a widely shared concern that the quality of learning in schools is very
low.
The Education Sector Development Program III (2005) underlines that the education system faces
serious problems pertaining to teacher qualification, shortage of text books, and high student-teacher
ratio. The dropout rate has been high. The survival rate at grade 5 is only about 55 per cent. In
addition to this, there is a wide gender gap of 18% favoring boys. Moreover, research findings,
Pauline and et al, 1997; a study by Women’s Affairs Department, 2000, indicate lower participation of
girls in class activities. Studies also indicate that teachers do not encourage girls’ participation in their
classes. These situations have lead to a serious concern among educators and the ministry of education
about quality of education.
The Ministry of Education has reacted to this situation in different ways. The Ministry in its Education
Sector development program III (ESDPIII 20005/20006/- 2010/2011) document indicates the
following main points as part of quality enhancement endeavors:
•
In the School Improvement Program among the major focus areas student –centered learning,
professional development and collaboration and quality of instructional program.
•
Improvising teachers professional capability in continuous professional development
• Strengthening Cluster based local in service training mainly focus on active learning
methodology action research, etc.
•
Strengthening In-school-supervision so that experienced, skilled and innovative teachers can
share their experiences and coach the inexperienced teachers. It further indicates that the
content of pre-service and in-service teachers training programs will be revised to enable
teachers acquire and develop appropriate pedagogical skills that are academically sound,
child friendly, and gender sensitive together with individual life skills which takes into
account the current HIV crises.
To this end, this study is timely and will have positive contribution to the implementation the
policy statement in to action (ESDPIII August 2005 MOE).
Concerning active learning, the extent teachers understand the concept and the skills they have to
implement it are essential conditions. Moreover, the quality and amount of feed back teachers get on
their own teaching, the extent of their readiness to accept constructive comments of their peers on
their teaching are issues that are subject for investigation. Moreover, the practice of self reflection and
making continuous effort to improve once own work (teaching) is not visible in the schools. Hence,
this study is designed to assess the role of teachers’ peer assessment and self reflections in enhancing
active learning in selected primary schools in Ethiopia. The study also attempts to develop workable
mechanisms for self reflection and peer assessment practices in order to enhance active learning.
2. Statement of the problem
Despite the strong criticisms on the conventional teacher based approach in education, the teaching
leaning process in most schools in Ethiopia has persisted to be teacher dominated. Most classes are
characterized by a situation where students are made to listen to their teachers and copy notes from the
blackboard. Despite policy provisions and some practical endeavors to move to learner-centered
approach, learning by doing, problem solving, cooperative learning and group approaches are limited.
Consequently, there is a widely shared concern that the quality of learning in schools is very low.
This paper, as part of the main study on “Enhancing Active Learning through Teachers’ Peer and self
Reflections in Selected Primary Schools in Ethiopia” examines policy background, teachers’
conceptions, and availability of minimum inputs as well as practices in relation to active learning. The
paper intends to give a background for the main study, which is already in progress.
4
3. Research questions
1. What is the education policy perspective on strategies of teaching and learning? What does
the general performance of the education system look like along this line?
2. What is the teacher’s perception of active learning?
3. To what extent are the students actively involved in the learning process? Are there
differences between boys and girls in class participation?
4. Are there constraints that affect implementation of active learning strategy in the primary
school classes? If yes, what are the constraints? How can they be improved?
5. What role do teachers’ peer assessment and self-reflections play in improving teachers’
instructional skills to enhance active learning?
4. Objectives
The study is aimed at:
• identifying the education policy perspective of teaching and learning strategies in schools
• finding out teachers’ perceptions of active learning and practices that prevail in schools and
classrooms
• finding out the major constraints of ensuring active learning in schools
• introducing peer assessment and self reflection practices in order to enhance active learning in
schools
5. Methodology
The education policy and government strategies are examined in order to learn about the policy
perspectives. The general performance of the education system is briefly reviewed in reference to key
indicators of quality of education.
The study was conducted in selected three schools in the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
Regional State. The data for this was collected in January 2006 as part of another main study of
teacher professional development professional development in Ethiopia with the US AED financial
assistance. Data for the present study include:
• inventory of facilities that affect active learning
• Observation students’ learning in grade four classes in selected three schools
• Interviews with teachers
• Focus group discussions with three groups of teachers and
• Interviews with principals of the three schools
5.1 Research design
Both Qualitative and Quantitative approaches shall be employed for conducting the study.
Observations, interviews and focus group discussions shall be employed in connection to
the quality approach. The quantitative approach would rely basically on questionnaires
and some of the observation data.
5.2 Selection of Schools
A total of eight primary schools shall be selected from four areas namely Adama, Addis Ababa,
Bahir Dar and Gondor. The selection shall be done purposefully to include schools that have been
actively involved in school cluster programs and schools that have not been involved in such a
program or inactive in terms of benefiting from the cluster program. In other words, in each of the
5
four areas, one of the schools shall be from those schools that are organized in a cluster whereas the
remaining one school shall be outside the cluster program.
In each school, one section shall be selected from grades 4. The selection shall be done on the basis of
teachers’ willingness to collaborate in the project. Teachers who are willing to allow peer observation
shall be given the priority.
5.3 Instruments
Observations, interviews, questionnaires and focus group discussions shall be used to collect data on
the teaching-learning process. Relevant documents and reports on the subject under investigation shall
also be consulted.
5.4 Observations
Observation shall be carried out on general school facilities and on class interactions. Separate
checklists shall be developed for the general school facilities observation and for class observation.
Peer observations (which will be conducted three times in sample grade four science classes in the
selected schools) as well as researchers’ observations on general school facilities and classroom.
5.5 Interviews
Interviews will be conducted with 8 teachers and 8 principals. Teachers’ and principals’ conceptions
and views of active learning as well as peer and self-reflections shall be assessed with the help of the
interviews. The participants’ views on mechanisms to enhance active learning shall also be assessed
through the interviews. Two interviews shall be conducted with each of the 8 teachers. The first
interview shall be conducted before the intervention (training, reflection meeting) whereas the second
interview takes place after the intervention.
5.6 Focus Group Discussions
A focus group discussion consisting of 7 teachers shall be conducted in each school. Moreover, one
focus group discussion of parents (community members) shall be conducted in each school.
5.7 Policy perspectives and trends in the quality of education
The Ethiopian education system has been notably poor in terms of perspectives that are widely held
among teachers on the place of the learner in the teaching learning process. Teachers are generally
considered agents for transmitting knowledge to students. Students, on the other hand, are considered
passive recipients of what the teacher has to give. This situation has adversely affected quality of
education and performance of the learners at all levels of education.
The educational system operates quite well in terms of access. In 2004-05 the primary school age
population (grades-8) was estimated to be 14,342,358. In the same year, the total enrollment in
primary schools in the regular and evening programs was 11,448,641 (79.8%) which exceeds the
target set for the year. Nonetheless, quality indicators in the same year show very poor performance of
the educational system.
6. Percentage of Certified Primary School Teachers as quality indicator
According to the national standards, the first cycle (1-4) primary education requires teachers with
minimum qualification of Teacher Training Institutes (TTI) certificate. Similarly, Teacher Training
Colleges’ diploma is required for teaching at second cycle (5-8) primary school teachers.
The graphs below show the proportions of certified primary school teachers at regional and national
level for the two cycles of primary education. At national level, the target set for 1997 E.C.
6
In 2004/05, as reported by the ministry of education, 97.1% of the first cycle primary and 54.8% of
the 2nd cycle teachers were certified for the respective levels. This shows that much effort has to be
made to attain the target set for the 2nd cycle primary.
ire
D
aw
Male
96.5
97.8
Et
hi
op
ia
a
89.0
94.7
98.0
97.0
sA
ba
ba
dd
i
A
D
81.3
88.2
ar
ar
i
H
la
am
be
l
G
PR
SN
N
um
uz
89.2
85.1
99.4
99.5
100.0
100.0
91.6
91.9
i
sh
an
gu
l-G
ro
m
iy
a
O
So
m
al
Be
ni
97.1
97.9
m
ha
ra
A
A
fa
r
81.6
85.6
91.3
94.3
Ti
gr
ay
96.1
98.8
% Certified Primary (1-4) School Teachers
Female
7
80.3
79.5
83.3
87.0
54.2
57.4
68.5
70.2
Male
Et
hi
op
ia
aw
a
D
D
ire
Ab
ab
a
Ad
di
s
H
ar
ar
i
be
lla
G
am
SN
N
PR
al
i
ha
ng
ul
-G
um
uz
Be
ni
s
So
m
iy
a
O
ro
m
Am
ha
ra
Af
ar
Ti
gr
ay
4.5
1.9
39.3
35.2
42.0
49.4
51.5
52.9
38.0
57.4
57.7
69.4
70.6
65.9
84.2
87.0
% Certified Primary (5-8) School Teachers
Female
Pupil-Teacher Ratio (PTR) is another factor that influences classroom interactions. Increase in the
PTR, particularly beyond the national standards, is generally undesirable and could limit the scope of
learning opportunities and its outcome. In Ethiopia, the standard set for the pupil/teacher ratio is 50
and 40 for the primary and secondary respectively.
Primary Pupils per Teacher Ratio (PTR) 1993-97 E.C.
(2000/01-2004/05)
PTR
63
64
65
66
60
2000/01
2001/02
2002/03
Year (G.C.)
2003/04
2004/05
Primary PTR in the last five years shows consistent increasing at national level, i.e., the PTR that was
60 in 2000/01 has increased to 66 in 2004/05. Pupil-Teacher Ratio PTR at national level is 71 for the
first cycle primary and 55 for the second cycle primary in 1997 E.C (2004/05). The observed trend
shows failure to meet the standards set by the ministry of education.
8
7. Repetition and Dropout Rates
A student goes through three paths in a particular academic. He/she gets promoted. The other two
possibilities he’ she repeats or drops out. The rates of promotion, repetition and dropout are commonly
used to measure the efficiency of the education system in producing graduates of a particular
education cycle or level.
Repetition and dropout rates are among indicators of inefficiency in a given system of education.
Repletion indicates the proportion of students who have remained in the same grade over one year,
and have used additional resource for the same grade. The resources are in the form of teacher salary,
school materials, facilities etc. This reduces the internal efficiency of the system. The policy allows
promotion with continuous assessment for the first three grades of primary. However, repeaters in
these grades are still being reported since it is not fully implemented in all schools, especially in nongovernment schools. For instance the repetition rate in 2003/4 school year was 3.7% for grades 1-8.
Repetition rate (1-8)
12
10
9.7
9.1
8.2
Rate
8
6.7
6
3.7
4
2
0
1999/00
2000/01
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
Year
School dropout is among the major problem related to lack of efficiency of the education system. As
can be observed from the graph below the dropout rate was reduced from 19.2% in 2002/03 to 14.4%
in 2003/04. Between 1999/2004, the national average dropout rate for grades 1-8, as it could be
observed from the graph below, ranges between 14.4 to 19.20. It appears, there is a slight fall in the
dropout rate in 2003/04.
rate (1-8)
12
25
20
8.2
17.8
9.1
16.2
9.7
17.1 6.7
19.2
14.4
15
10
2000/01
Year
20
02
/0
3
1999/00
20
01
/0
2
19
98
/9
9
0
20
00
/0
1
5
19
99
/0
0
Rate
Rate
Repetition
rate
Dropout
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2001/02
Year
2002/03
2003/04
The proportion of pupils who leave school varies from grade to grade. In most cases this figure is
higher for grade one. At national level, 22.4% of pupils enrolled in grade 1, in 2003/4 have left school
before reaching grade two in 2004/5. The figure below shows that dropout rate is highest at Grade
one and lowest at Grade 6. The average duration of study for dropouts i.e. the average number of years
9
they stayed in the education system before they dropout is 3.5 for boys, 3.6 for girls and 3.5 for both.
Even though it is not significant, the figure tells us that girls stay more in the primary education than
boys do.
Dropout Rates in Primary (1-8)
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Grades
Boys
7
8
Girls
Both
The figure above illustrates that in all grades the rate of dropout is higher for boys than for girls.
8. Survival Rate to Grade 5
Survival rate at this grade is used to estimate the percentage of students who will complete the first
cycle of primary education, since the completion of at least 4 years of schooling in Ethiopia is
commonly considered as a pre-requisite for a sustainable level of literacy. Survival rate approaching
100% indicates a high level of retention and low incidence of dropout.
51
.7
. 0 0. 6
39 4
37
.8
2
.7
43 44.
41
.5
44
.4
45 43. 8
.6
55 53. 4
.3
4 0 8. 8
3
Percent
42
.8
.7
Survival Rate to Grade 5
1999/00
Boys
2000/01
Girls
Total
2001/02
2002/03
2003/04
Year
The cohort flow model constructed for the last five years, as indicated in the above graph, shows that
survival rate to Grade 5 did not have a definite trend. It was at its highest in 2000/01 and a decrease in
2002/03 followed. The survival rate to grade 5 for the year 2003/04 was 51.7% for male, 55.6 % for
10
female and 53.4% for both sexes. This shows that more than 45% of the pupils didn’t continue in the
second cycle of primary in the last four years under consideration.
9. Coefficient of Efficiency (CE)
This efficiency indicator is calculated based on the result of the cohort analysis. It mainly depends on
graduates (out puts) and the time required to produce the graduates. It is based on the definition that
one school year spent in a grade by a pupil is counted as one pupil-year. The coefficient of efficiency
is the ratio of the ideal (optimal) number of pupil-years required (with no repetition nor dropout) to
produce a number of graduates from a given school cohort in primary education expressed as a
percentage of the actual number of pupil-years spent to produce the same number of graduates. It is
the reciprocal of the input-output ratio. It is used as an alternative indicator of internal efficiency. It
measures the impact of dropout and repetition combined in relation to graduates from the primary
level. The maximum value of CE is 100, which indicates highly efficient system and smaller CE
implies lower efficiency of the education system.
.1
33
1999/00
.2
41
.3
34
2000/01
2001/02
Year
47.3
49
.2
35
.3
39
.1
34.3
41.9
42
.8
31
.8
30.9
Percent
43.7
Coeficient of Efficiency (CE) for Priamay (1-8)
.0
52
.6
36
2002/03
Boys
2003/04
Girls
Both
The 35.3 coefficient of efficiency in 2002/03 was increased to 49.2 in the year 2003/2004. For the last
five years the CE ranges between 31.8 and 49.2.
10. School Facilities
School facilities have impact on access, quality, efficiency and equity. The school facilities are tools
to attract students in general and girls in particular. About 65 % of primary schools have reported that
they have pedagogical centers. In 2004/5, 36.7% of primary schools have reported that they use shift
systems.∗
The Ministry of Education has reacted to this situation in different ways. The Ministry in its Education
Sector development program III (ESDPIII 20005/20006/- 2010/2011) document indicates the
following main points as part of quality enhancement endeavors:
•
Improvement Program among the major focus areas student –centered learning, professional
development and collaboration and quality of instructional program.
∗
Primary schools in 1-12 are considered in secondary.
11
•
•
Improvising teachers professional capability in continuous professional development
Strengthening Cluster based local in-service training mainly focusing on active learning
methodology, action research, etc.
Strengthening in-school-supervision so that experienced, skilled and innovative teachers can
share their experiences and coach the inexperienced teachers. It further indicates that the
content of pre-service and in-service teachers training programs will be revised to enable
teachers acquire and develop appropriate pedagogical skills that are academically sound,
child friendly, and gender sensitive together with individual life skills which takes into
account the current HIV crises.
•
Strengthening school-based supervision so that experienced, skilled and innovative teachers
can share their experiences and coach the inexperienced once. It further indicates that the
content of pre-service and in-service teachers training programs will be revised to enable
teachers acquire and develop appropriate pedagogical skills that are academically
sound ,child friendly, and gender sensitive together with individual life skills which takes into
account the current HIV crises. TO this end this study is timely and will have positive
contribution to the implementation the policy statement in to action (ESDP111, August 2005
MOE).
11. Teachers’ Perspectives on Active Learning
(Results of teacher interviews and focus group discussion3s)
Learner-centered approach and active learning enhance quality of education, successful teaching and
successful learning. Summary of primary school teachers views on these issues are presented below.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Active learning leads to improved quality and success in education
‘Active participation of students’ in a class is an indicator of successful teaching
Good teaching involves students as participants. It provides an opportunity to extend
learners’ horizon of thinking. It encourages learners to generate their own ideas. This type
of teaching and learning arrangement brings in ideas and knowledge, which could be new
even to the teacher. In my own class [grade four science class), for instance, students were
required to explain different advantages of map. One of the students brought a new and
interesting point. The student mentioned that “an airplane can not fly without a map. The
map guides the flight”...
(d)
(e)
Employing learner-centered methodology helps improve quality of learning.
In the past, students were generally passive. They were not given enough opportunity for
talking. The class used to be teacher dominated. Now, after introduction of the learnercenter approach, students have enough opportunities to talk and to argue in a class. This
situation results in improved learning…
(f)
Student-centered approach is superior. I use this approach in my class; it allows students
to learn through exploration and problem solving methodology where students are actively
engaged and work hard. The teacher-centered approach, on the other hand, emphasizes
teacher’s activities and learning heavily depends on what he/she does in contrast to what
students do.
Students are encouraged to learn from each other through group work;
(g)
3
Data collected for the AED-EQUIP pilot study of teacher professional development in Ethiopia in January
2006.
12
12. Efforts made to promote student-centered approach in schools (results of teacher interviews
and focus group discussions)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
‰
Teachers are required by the policy to employ learner-centered approach in their
classes.
Series of workshops are being organized for teachers on student-centered
approach and active learning methodology
Teachers make efforts to use active learning methodology.
The short-term training programs have enhanced quality of leaning many ways.
The implementation of continuous assessment methodology has helped in
motivating the learners;
... In this program (Cluster program), teachers share resources as well as
experiences. Students in the cluster schools participate in question-answer
competitions. This situation enhances learning among students
I use both learner-centered and teacher-centered approaches in teaching. I use teachercentered approach when the topic to be taught is more appropriate to present through
teacher explanations. On the other hand, students are organized in groups in case of
learner-centered approach. Groups are formed for question answer competitions between
groups. They do a lot of group activities. They study in groups...
13. Impact of the new efforts on quality of students’ learning (results of teacher interviews and
focus group discussions)
‰
‰
‰
‰
‰
The training on student-centered approach has helped a lot. Although the concept is not new,
in the past group activities were linked mainly with non-academic subjects. Academic
subjects are now taught using learner-centered approach. The learner-centered approach
encourages students to be actively engaged in the teaching learning process; it encourages
creativity and innovation. The learner centered approach also promoted interactions and
relationships among students. This methodology is superior and helps to achieve better
results. I have observed this in my own students.
As a result of different short-term training programs, teachers are now close to their students.
Now we understand problems of out students and help in many ways. … We have better
understanding of problems of different groups of children such as girls, orphans. I work
closely with parents of my students. I was able to bring drop outs back to school. In one case,
I was able to help an abducted girl to continue her education. I have learned to be patient in
my relationship with students. Now I respect and love my students. Students have benefited a
lot. There is a lot of improvement in students’ learning.
Student-teacher relationship has improved; the teachers know their students better than
before; they have started working in close relationship like that of a family. Teachers have
started treating their students like their own children.
Students are showing a better sense of responsibility. For instance, now they do better care
for school property.
…students are encouraged to participate in the teaching learning process with no fear.
14. Obstacles to using learner-centered methodology
(results of teacher interviews and focus group discussions)
‰
‰
…. We cannot employ learner-centered approach fully as there are no textbooks and teaching
aids. ...
Class size is large; for instance, there are 72 children in my own class..
13
‰
‰
‰
‰
‰
Classrooms are extremely poor. In quite many cases, the rooms do not have doors and
windows. As a result, classes are often repeatedly distracted by noise from outside.
There is … lack of adequate desks for students;
Parents and the community do not make adequate effort to support education of their
children…
The poor living conditions of parents affect children’s interest in education;
Teachers’ salary is low and it does not match the cost of living.
15. Summary and Conclusions
The contemporary perspective on learning as learners’ construction experiences in a least restrictive
environment is a major shift from the conventional teacher-based approach.
The constructivist paradigm values the rich and diverse experiences students bring to their classes.
One of the implications of the learner-centered approach is that the teachers thinks about how to
organize what learners will do rather than plan their teaching behaviors. When designing and
organizing a learning experience in the student-centered approach, teachers focus on what students
will do.
ƒ
The education system takes constructivist perspective as the reference to the preferred
approach to teaching and learning. Accordingly, schools and teachers are expected and
encouraged to adopt the learner-centered approach to learning. The education system
functions quite well in terms of access. There is a rapid expansion of education at all levels.
The government budget as well as private investment in education has shown significant
growth.
ƒ
Nonetheless, quality of education has become a notably serious problem. Quality is, now a
concern of all stakeholders of education including the learners, teachers, researchers, parents,
policy makers as well as employers. Teachers’ qualification is a serious problem particularly
at the second cycle primary education.
ƒ
In 2004/05, 54.8% of the 2nd cycle teachers were certified for teaching at second cycle of
primary level education. About 45% of teachers at this level do qualify to teach at the second
cycle.
ƒ
Pupil-Teacher Ratio PTR at national level is 71 for the first cycle primary and 55 for the
second cycle primary in 2004/05. This is in contrast the national standards of pupil-teacher
ratio which is 50 and 40 for the primary and secondary respectively. The observed trend
shows failure to meet the standards set by the ministry of education.
ƒ
Repetition rate in 2003/4 school year was 3.7% for grades 1-8. Drop out rate at the same level
ranges between 14.4 to 19.20.
ƒ
The survival rate to grade 5 for the year 2003/04 was 53.4% at national level. About 45% of
the pupils could not continue their education at second cycle of primary level.
ƒ
The coefficient of efficiency (proportion of children that complete grade 1-8) in 2003/2004
was 49.2 in the year indicating inefficiency of the educational system. In other words, the
proportion of grade one students who complete grade eight is less than 50%.
ƒ
Teachers’ have reasonably good level of awareness about active learning and the learnercentered approach in a teaching learning process.
Some efforts are underway to promote students’ active learning in primary schools.
It was found that lack of essential resources such as books, teaching aids, etc; is one of the
obstacles that affect quality of the teaching learning process.
ƒ
ƒ
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16. Recommendations
ƒ Improving the physical inputs such as books, classrooms, and other facilities need special
attention. Moreover, mechanisms to raise parents and community support to education of
children need to be worked out.
ƒ Introducing the practice of peer and self-reflection would further strengthen the currently
observed initiatives to improve the teaching learning process through learners’ active
involvement.
References
Education Sector Development Program (1999). Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia.
Education and Training Policy, Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1994). Addis Ababa.
Education Information Management system, Oromia Region Education Bureau, August 2004/05,
Addis Ababa
Farrell, J.P. (1989) International Lessons for School Effectiveness: The view from the
Developing World. In M. Holmes et al (Eds.) Educational Policy for Effective Schools.
Toronto, Ontario. OISE Press.
Fuller, B. (1986) Raising School Quality in Developing Countries: What Investments Boost Learning.
Discussion Paper No. 2, Washington D.C. World Bank.
Grisay, A. & Mahlck, L. (1991) The quality of education in developing countries: a review of some
research studies and policy documents
MacDonald, J. 2005. Rules of Engagement: Fostering Active Learning for Performance Improvement.
Interservice/Industry Training, Simulation, and Education Conference (I/ITSEC) Paper No. 2139,
2005. Pensacola, Florida. Intelligent Decision Systems, Inc.
Hill, P. 1993. A Study of School and Teacher Effectiveness: Results from the First Phase of the
Victorian Quality Schools Project http://www.ou.nl/eCache/DEF/22/873.html
Smith, M. K. (1999). 'Learning theory', the encyclopedia of informal education,
www.infed.org/biblio/b-learn.htm, Last update: 1999, 2003
MAIN STUDY (OUTLINE)
{ PREPATATIONS
{ Organization of the research teach
- four sub-projects in four different areas; each team is composed of 3-4 persons
-the sub-projects are planned in a such a way that each project is conducted on the basis of the main
research proposal; the sub-teams conduct their own research with support (financial,
workshops)from the center
Preparations (Cont’d)
{ Developing research instruments
-observation checklist
- Interview guide (teachers +
principals)
-FGD for teachers
-Questionnaires for teachers
Preparations (cont’d)
{ Visiting schools, selecting collaborating teachers (teachers to be observed and observers) for
the lesson study in grade four science)
15
Data Collection
{ Reviewing grade four science curriculum and text books
{ Reviewing sample lesson plans of grade four science
{ Administering questionnaire
{ Conducting first class observation
{ Conducting first interview with teachers that are willing to invite peer observers in to their
classes
{ Interview with school principals
Preparation (cont’d)
{ Developing training materials
In learner-centered approach, self and self reflections (purposes, techniques, )
Conducting training
School based workshops involving selected teachers shall be conducted
Conducting peer observations & discussions
{ Three observations shall be conducted in each of the selected grade four science classes
{ Discussions shall follow each after each observation
Data collection (cont’d)
{ FGD with participant teachers
{ Second interviews with collaborating teachers
Final activities
{ Writing the research report
{ Conducting workshop (s)
{ Scaling up (if positive results are obtained)
Review of Related Literature
Active learning
The theoretical framework of the proposed research is grounded in the constructivist’s perspective and
assumptions about learning. Active learning, one of the main concepts in this research, refers to a
situation where "learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions
of experiences. Active learning environments simply mean students taking an active role in their
learning, and instructors moving beyond teacher-centered “instruction,” coming to see themselves
along with their students as part of a learning community. The instructor provides collaborative
learning experiences, encouraging multiple perspectives in problem solving. Such diversity allows
learners to develop new ideas and understanding in conversations and increase retention. Broadly
speaking, active learning refers to a methodology that requires the learner to take responsibility for his
or her learning through active participation in learning activities. In this methodology, students are
engaged in higher-order thinking skills as analysis, synthesis and evaluation to build, test and revise
their knowledge. Gagnon and Collay have summarized six important elements: Situation, Groupings,
Bridge, Questions, Exhibit, and Reflections as central for active learning.
1. Situation: that enable children solve problems, answering questions, create metaphors, make
decisions, draw conclusions, or set goals. This situation should include what you expect the students
to do and how students will make their own meaning. The work of Duckworth (1987) describes
situations to engage students in having their own wonderful ideas about science, Steffe and Ambrosio
16
(1995) use situations for students to explain in math, and Fosnot (1996) provides similar examples
from writing and art.
2. Groupings: depending on the teacher’s expectations and the types of resources students are
provided. Schmuck and Schmuck (1988) introduced group process dynamics to classrooms, and
heterogeneous groupings are common to the cooperative learning work of Johnson and Johnson
(1975) or Slavin (1980a). The materials category is often included in lesson plans.
3. Bridge: between what they already know and what they might learn by explaining the situation.
This might involve such things as giving them a simple problem to solve, having a whole class
discussion, playing a game, or making lists. This has some grounding in the set induction described by
Gagne (1970), the anticipatory set of Madeline Hunter (1982) and the advanced organizer of Ausubel
(1978).
4. Questions: guiding questions to be used to introduce the situation, to arrange the groupings, to set
up the bridge, to keep active learning going, to prompt exhibits, and to encourage reflections. There is
precedence in Bloom's (1956) taxonomy of educational objectives in the cognitive domain which led
to higher level thinking questions, Sanders' (1966) work on kinds of classroom questions, and
Flanders' (1970) work describing classroom questioning strategies.
5. Exhibit: involves having students make an exhibit for others of whatever record they made to
record their thinking as they were explaining the situation. The work of Theodore Sizer (1973) and the
coalition for essential schools includes an exhibition as part of the learning process. The passages of
the Jefferson County Open School in Colorado and the validations of the St. Paul Open School in
Minnesota put into practice authentic assessment approaches from a variety of sources including
Wiggins (1995). Documentation from Engel (1994), portfolios from Carini (1986), and alternative
assessment from the North Dakota Study Group on Evaluation led by Perrone (1988) encouraged
teachers to move from testing memorization of information to demonstration of student learning.
6. Reflections: students' reflections of what they thought about while explaining the situation and then
saw the exhibits from others. We see earlier work in Hunter's (1982) description of "transfer," the
work of Schon (1987) about reflective practice of teachers, which also applies to student learning,
reflection about learning through journaling as described by Cooper (1991), and Brookfield's (1986)
work on critical reflection. These precedents provide a theoretical framework for a constructivist
learning design.
Teacher Self- and Peer reflection and Active learning
Reflective practice is a vehicle that allows teachers the ability to explore, contemplate, and analyze
experiences in the classroom. Reflecting on experiences helps individuals improve their actions and
professional practice (Kolb, 1984; Schön,1983). According to Osterman and Kottkamp (1993, p. 19),
“reflective practice is a means by which practitioners can develop a greater level of self-awareness
about the nature and impact of their performance.” This awareness of one’s performance makes
individuals think about and mull over their experiences, classroom activities, and assignments, leading
to improved practice.
Teachers use reflection to facilitate their own learning as well as for the facilitation of students’
learning. According to Sch ö n (1983, 1987), reflective practice is the integration of theory and
practice, a critical process in refining one’s artistry or craft in a specific discipline and bringing to the
conscious level those practices that are implicit. Schön further describes the reflective practitioner as
not just skillful or competent, but thoughtful, wise, and contemplative. Two types of reflection
facilitate professionals’ learning: reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action (Schön, 1983, 1987).
Reflection-in-action occurs during the activity; the activity is reshaped while in progress. Reflectionon-action occurs either following an activity or when an activity is interrupted, a retrospective
17
thinking about an experience. According to Kottkamp (1990), reflection-on-action takes place after an
activity and an analysis with the potential assistance of others. Reflection-on-action brings about an
understanding of practice and is a way practitioners may learn from their experience (Clarke, James,
&
Kelly,
19960)
Schön (1991) identified three stages or levels of reflection: conscious reflection, criticism, and action.
Boud et al. (1985) presented a four-stage model of reflection: analyze, interpret information, prepare
an evaluation report, and prepare an action plan. The four-stage model focused on the behaviors, ideas,
and feelings that comprise experience. Atkins and Murphy (1993) conducted a literature review of
educational theorists that analyzed processes of reflection. Based on the commonalities of the authors
cited, Atkins and Murphy developed a three-stage reflective process that included awareness, critical
analysis, and reflection.
Peters (1991) described a four-step process called DATA: describe, analyze, theorize, and act. In the
first step, the critical aspect of practice was described. The second step included the identification of
assumptions that supported practitioners’ current approaches and underlying beliefs, rules, and
motives governing teaching and learning. In the third step, practitioners theorized about alternative
ways to approach learning, taking theory developed from the previous step, and creating a new theory.
In the fourth step, the practitioner tested the new theory. Success of this process would occur only
through additional thought and reflection.
The reflective cycle by Rodgers (2002) encompassed Dewey’s (1933) conception of reflective thought.
Rodgers illustrates reflection as a cyclical process comprised of four phases:
1. Presence in experience: learning to see
2. Description of experience: learning to describe and differentiate
3. Analysis of experience: learning to think from multiple perspectives and form multiple
explanations
4. Experimentation: learning to take intelligent action
According to Rodgers, practitioners move forward and backward through the reflective cycle,
especially between description and analysis.
. Teachers reflect because they want to improve their teaching experiences and the learning
experiences for students. A number of researchers state the importance of reflective practice. As a
result of engaging in a reflective process, individuals acquire knowledge and understanding (Clarke et
al., 1996; Schön, 1983), learn from their experiences (Kolb, 1984; Schön, 1983), apply knowledge to
practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schön, 1996), and explore
assumptions they bring to the workplace (Brookfield, 1995). As reflective practitioners, teachers gain
a deeper understanding of their teaching approaches and effectiveness as teachers.
The critical self reflection of teachers would be enhanced by peer observation and reflection.
Conducting observations on peer classes and engaging in critical conversations is another important
tool in promoting active learning. When discussing events teachers have experienced, colleagues
describe what has happened benefits the teacher being observed; and at the same time they examine
their own experiences and check, reframe, and broaden their own theories of practice. Reflection
within one’s classroom is the first step of the reflection process but should not be the final step. When
teachers discuss their experiences with others, the reflection process enhances their own individual
practice (Bruner, 1990).
Summative evaluation rarely provides sufficient information to teachers for
improving teaching. In recent years, in fact, time-honored practices of faculty evaluation have been
rather harshly criticized.
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In response to this, scholars have recommended that --assessment specifically designed to improve
teaching--be put into place alongside, but apart from, summative evaluation. Other scholars have
suggested that formative peer-assessment, a process in which work collaboratively to assess each
others' teaching and to assist one another in efforts to strengthen teaching, be developed and
implemented. Collaborative peer review probably should include opportunities to teachers to learn
how to teach more effectively, to practice new teaching techniques and approaches, to get regular
feedback on their classroom performance, and to receive coaching from colleagues (Menges 1985).
The thrust, thus, is developmental rather than judgmental.
A number of methods have been employed in formative peer evaluation. They include direct
classroom observation,, evaluation of course materials, an assessment of the academic work of his
students, and analysis of teaching portfolio .The following have been identified as events occurring
during delivery that should be focused at .by knowledgeable colleagues.
1.Physical factors
2. The procedures used by the teacher in conducting the class;
3. The teacher's use of language to inform, explain, persuade, and motivate
4. The roles played by teacher and students as they interact;
5. The relationship of what is occurring in a particular class to other classes,
6. The outcomes of teaching, as reflected in student learning methods (1987).
Scholars have suggested that a number of personal and institutional benefits might be realized from
teachers participation in the formative peer evaluation of teaching. These include improvement
teaching, teachers’ morale, collegiality and student learning.
References
Ausubel, D. (1978). In defense of advance organizers: A reply to the critics. Review of Educational
Research, 48, 251-259.
Bloom, Benjamin. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive domain.
New York: David McKay.
Brookfield, Stephen. (1986) Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Cooper, Joanne. (1991) Telling our own stories: The reading and writing of journals or diaries. In
Stories Lives Tell, (eds. Witherell, C. & Noddings, N.) New York: Teachers College Press.
Duckworth, Eleanor. (1987) The having of wonderful ideas. New York: Teachers College Press.
Engel, Brenda. (1994) Portfolio assessment and the new paradigm: New instruments and new places.
The Educational Forum, 59 (Fall, 94) 22-27.
Flanders, N (1970) Analyzing teacher behavior.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Ministry of
Education (2005) ESDPIII. Addis Ababa
Fosnot, Catherine. (1996) Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Gagne, Robert. (1970) The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. .
Hunter, Madeline. (1982) Mastery Learning. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications.
Johnson, David and Johnson, Roger. (1975) Learning together and alone. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Perrone, Vito. (1988). Alternative assessment. Alexandria, VA: ASCD
Sanders, Norris. (1966). Classroom questions: what kinds?. New York: Harper & Row.
Schmuck, Richard. & Schmuck, Pat. (1988) Group processes in the classroom. Dubuque, IA: W. C.
Brown.
Schon, David. (1987) Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Slavin, R. E. (1980a). Cooperative Learning. Review of educational research, 50, 317-343.
Sizer, Theodore. (1992) Horace's school: redesigning the American high school. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.V
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