University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative
Exchange
Doctoral Dissertations
Graduate School
8-1976
Cades Cove During the Nineteenth Century
Durwood Clay Dunn
University of Tennessee - Knoxville
Recommended Citation
Dunn, Durwood Clay, "Cades Cove During the Nineteenth Century. " PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 1976.
http://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_graddiss/1623
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been
accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Trace: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more
information, please contact trace@utk.edu.
To the Graduate Council:
I am submitting herewith a dissertation written by Durwood Clay Dunn entitled "Cades Cove During
the Nineteenth Century." I have examined the final electronic copy of this dissertation for form and
content and recommend that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy, with a major in History.
LeRoy P. Graf, Major Professor
We have read this dissertation and recommend its acceptance:
Charles O. Jackson, John Finger, Lee Greene, John Muldowney
Accepted for the Council:
Dixie L. Thompson
Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School
(Original signatures are on file with official student records.)
To the Graduat e Counc i l :
I am subm i t t ing h erewi th a d i s s ertation wri t t en by Durwood C l ay
Dunn ent i t l ed " C ad e s Cove Dur ing the N i ne t e enth C entury . " I r ecommend
that it be accepted in par t i a l fu l fi l lment of the requ i remen t s for the
degr ee of Doctor o f Phi lo s ophy , w i th a maj or in H i s tory .
We h av e read thi s d i s s ertat i on
and recommend i t s accep t ance :
Accepted for the Counc i l :
V i c e C hanc e l l o r
Graduat e Stud i e s and Res ear ch
;
-
;
,
. I
'
i
·l
CADES COVE DUR I NG THE N I N ETEENTH CENTURY
A D i s s ertat i on
P r e s en t ed for the
Do ctor of Phi l os ophy
D egree
The Univer s i t y o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e
Durwood C l ay Dunn
Aug u s t 1 9 7 6
1"'·
·,....,sa L.J:
�; c,.�
...
G) Copyr ight
by Durwood C l ay Dunn 1 9 7 6
A l l Right s Res erved
ABSTRACT
Al though the Southern mountaineer h as emerged as a d i s t in ctive f i gur e
in the f i c tion o f l ocal c o l o r i s t s s ince the 1 8 8 0 ' s , few actual his t o r i c a l
inv e s t ig a t i ons o f s p e c i f i c l oc a l e s in the r e g i o n h ave b e en undert aken t o
exam in e t h e confu s ing p l ethora of s t ereotypes and hypothe s e s surround ing
the Appa l ach i an South .
U s ing fami l y record s , ora l hi s t ory , and manu s cr ipt
c ensus r eturn s , the p r e s en t s tudy of Cad e s Cove , a sma l l mountain
communi t y in East T ennes s e e , a t t empt s to r emedy t h i s s ituat ion by
c ar e fu l l y ana l y z ing the n atur e and degr e e o f change within the commun i t y ,
and the extent t o whi ch cul tur a l cont inu i t y exi s t ed t hroughout the
n i n e teenth century .
Enormous e conom i c and s o c i a l changes marked the c ov e ' s d ev e l opment
from i t s fir�t s et t l ement by the O l iver fami l y in 1 8 1 8 through the decad e
of the 1 850 ' s .
During thi s p er i o d o f growth , new imm i gr an t s brought
both cu l tural d i v er s i t y and innovative ideas ; entrepreneurs such as
D an i e l D . Foute and D r . Calvin P o s t undertook numerous proj e c t s to
improve and d ev e l op the cove ' s economy ; and the regi ona l boom in farm
p r i c e s comb ined w i th the high fert i l ity of the s o i l a l l owed the av er age
farmer great l y to increase h i s ho l d ings and per c ap i t a inc om e .
The
period was al s o charact eri z ed by mov ement of fami l i es in t h e mainstream
o f the Wes tward Movement into and out o f the cove from many parts o f the
Un i t e d S t at e s and s ev er a l foreign c ountr i e s .
Po l i t ic a l change in the form o f the C iv i l War dras t i ca l l y a l t ered
the l iv e s o f the cove peop l e , however .
iii
Reject ing innova t i on in the
iv
p o l it i cal ord er , they opp o s e d the confed er a t e s surround ing them , and
wer e in turn brut a l l y attacked by North Caro l in a guerri l l as whose
r et a l i at ory p i l l ag ing o f the community s ys t emat i ca l l y d estroyed both
l ives and proper t y .
The r e su l t in g p o stwar b i t t ern e s s brough t a bas ic
change in the inhab itant s ' a t t i tud e ; they b ec am e susp i c i ous o f s t r angers
and h os t i l e to many typ e s of innov at i on .
Thei r s o c i a l r etro spe c t i on was
under l ined by a c ont inuing p o s twar r eg iona l d epres s ion in agr i cu l tura l
p r i c e s whi ch s l owed , but d i d not c omp l e t e l y d e s troy , the ir market
econ omy .
C u l tural cont inu ity was a l s o evident in the cove ' s d ev e l opment .
The s urrounding w i l d ernes s remained a c on s t ant factor in the i r l iv e s
throughout t h e c entur y .
T h e d iffi cu l t i e s o f i n i t i a l s et t l ement and t h e
l at e r ordeal o f the C iv i l War b ound the communi t y c lo s e l y toget her , and
th i s c l o s en e s s was r einforced after the war by the growth o f l arg e ,
extended fami l i e s .
R e l i g i on a l s o prov i d ed a thread o f continui ty as the
d ominan t Prim i t ive Bap t i s t church a t t empted to maintain its orthodoxy in
the face of many s ecu l ar chang e s .
Out o f their s en s e o f communi t y and
d e s ir e for cont inuity emerged a d i s t inctive fo l k c u l tur e , marked b y a
shared c ommuna l cons ciousne s s--of one ano th er , inci dent s in their l ives ,
and an int ima t e know l ed g e o f the cove ' s geography .
Thi s s tudy concludes that the p eop l e o f C a d e s Cove appe ar far more
c omp l ex in thei r h i s to r i ca l d ev e l opment than the s t andard s t ereotyp e s of
the Southern mountaineer in f i c t ion or p opu l ar l i t erature wou l d ind i c at e .
I n t h e final ana l y s i s , they were r epr e s ent at ive o f the br o ad mainstream
o f ninet e en th c en tury Ameri c an cu l ture and s o ci e t y from when c e they c arne ,
v
and their con d i t ion at the end o f the c en tury i s exp l ained both b y the
enormous change s in their po l i t ic a l and economic env ironment , and by the
continu i ty of their c ommuna l l i fe s ty l e and g e o graph i c a l i so l at ion .
PREFACE
A l though the mountain peop l e and c u l tur e of Southern Appa l ach i a
w e r e not iden t i f i ed or s e r i ous l y examined a s a s eparate ent i t y from
mains tream Amer i c a unt i l the 1 8 8 0 ' s , in the int erv en ing years they h av e
b ecome the sub j e c t o f both enduring s t e r eo types and l it erary , i f n o t
s cho l ar l y , d eb at e .
B e fore 1 88 0 , o n l y thr e e humo r i s t s -- Augustus Bal dwin
Lon g s tr e et , George Washington Harr i s , and Hard en E . Ta l i aferro--had
cons idered th e Southern mountaineer no t eworthy or d i s tinct enough t o
c ar i c ature .
W i th the advent o f l o ca l c o l o r i s t s such a s Mary Noai l l es
Mur fr e e , howev er , the ent ire mountain cu l ture was d ep i c t ed in fict i ona l
works wh i ch brought nat iona l r ecogn i tion t o the area .
1
Murfr ee painted a sympath e t i c--if unreal i s t i c and h i g h l y roman t ic i z ed-portrait of the mountain p e op l e .
By the l at e 1 8 8 0 ' s , h ow ever , a r i v a l
group , mot ivat ed b y both g enuine r e form i s t impu l s e s and a natura l i s t i c
reaction to t h e saccharine exc e s s es o f t h e l o ca l co lori s t s , b e gan a
sys t emat i c l i terary counterat tack .
The s e "Mountain Muckraker s , " ob s es s ed
w i th th e d egradat ion and m i s fortune of the mountain p e op l e , d ep i ct ed them
as l iv ing l ives o f s tark brut a l i ty and despera t i o n , an ex i s t ence
par t i cu l ar l y ch arac t er i z ed by exc e s s ive crue l t y to women and chi l dr en .
Y e t another group o f wr i t e r s at the turn o f t h e c entury i d e a l i z ed the
1
Rob ert Love Tay l o r , Jr . , Mai n streams of Mountain Though t :
Att i tud e s o f S e l e c t ed F igures in the Heart of the Appa l achian South ,
1 8 7 7 - 1 9 0 3 (Doctoral d i s s ertat i on , Univer s it y o f T enn e s s e e , Knoxv i l l e ,
197 1 ) , 2- 2 2 .
2
I b id .
vi
2
vii
S outhern moun t a in eer as the l as t v e s t ig e of "pur e" Ang l o - Saxon Amer i cans
l iv ing an exi s t ence far superior to thei r fe l low Ameri cans in a nat i on
b e s e t by the comp l i cat i on s o f burgeoning indus tr i a l i zat i on , urbani zat i on ,
and an inf lux o f "un-Amer i c an " for e i gn immi grant s .
Confronted w i th thi s b ew i l d e r in g p l ethora o f s t er e otypes , few
s cho l a r s hav e mad e any e ffort to ana l y z e the cong l omerate area we ca l l
South ern App a l ach i a .
The pre s ent s tudy o f Cades C ove , a sma l l mountain
communi t y in the heart o f the Great Smoky Moun t ains , was undert aken to
examine a sp e c i f i c g eograp h i c a l ent ity a s i t grew and d eve loped
throughout the n in e t een th c en tury .
The advan t ag e s o f such a s tudy in
cons idering bas i c que s t i on s about the l arger r e g i on are obvious .
Was
Cad e s C ove a "n eo- front i er , " a front i er ar ea whi ch had s i mp ly never
d ev e l oped further , or a front i er whi ch had r etrogr e s s ed due to par t i cu l ar
g eograph i c a l or envi r onmenta l factors?
How did the cove d eve l op i n r e l at i on to the reg ion and s t a t e ?
Was
i t a l ways backward , or had i t s comparat ive p o s i t i on in , s ay , 1 8 4 0 , b e en
much c l o s er to the mains tream o f the Wes tward Movement than after the
C iv i l War ?
When and how did i t s c i t i z en s d ev e l o p a s epar a t e culture ,
and wha t were the d i s t ingu i sh ing charact eri st i c s of that cul tur e ?
In
a l l the s e ques t i on s , the key prob l em throughout t h i s s tudy h as b e en the
or i g in , degr e e , and n ature o f chang e--how and wh en Cade s Cove d ev i ated
from r eg i on a l and nat iona l n orms o f d ev e l opmen t -- and the caus es of this
ch ang e .
The g o a l o f thi s d i s s er t a t i on -- to ana l y z e c arefu l l y the deve l opment
of a s in g l e communi ty in Southern Appalachia-- imp o s e s cr i t i c a l l im i tat ions
viii
on forming broader g eneral i zations about t h e r e g ion as a who l e , however .
Key f eatures in the cove ' s d ev e l opment , notab l y the h i gh fer t i l i t y o f
i t s s o i l from the days o f e ar l i e s t s et t l emen t , d e termined t h a t the
c ommuni ty wou l d d ev e l op qui t e d i fferent l y from o ther l e s s fortunat e
areas o f the l ar g er r eg ion .
Ac tual l y , the uniquen e s s o f the s e ind ividu a l
mount ain c ommun i t i e s , o ften s ituated onl y a few mi l e s acro s s h igh
mountains from each o ther , yet qui t e d i s t in c t iv e in their cu l tur e and
economy , d emons trat e s the dangers of making any broad genera l i z at i on
about Southern Appal achia or the mountain peop l e .
With t h e s e l im i t at ions
c l e ar l y in mind , the pre s en t s t udy shou l d n everth e l e s s s erve a s a u s efu l
t e s t ing g round for l arger hypothes e s long h e l d by r e g i onal s cho l ars .
The main s ourc e o f primary materia l s for thi s s tudy i s the O l iver
fam i l y co l l ec t ion , wh i ch the wr i t e r inher i ted .
Th e fir s t p ermanent
whi t e fami l y to s et t l e in the cov e , the O l iver s kept exten s ive r ecords
of the c ommun i ty ' s h i s tory in the form of d i ar i e s , church r ecords ,
unpub l i shed sk etches and h i s tor i e s , and m i s ce l l aneous memorab i l i a-- C iv i l
War pas s e s , s to r e r e ce ipts , t ax r ecord s , d e e d s , and o ther quas i - l eg a l
tran s a c t i ons -- wh i ch made thi s s tudy pos s ib l e .
I n add i tion t o the s e
wri t t en sources , many o f the fo l kways and trad i t i ons o f t h e ninet eenth
c en tury community have been p r e s erved ora l l y , and hav e b een c arefu l l y
u t i l i z ed th roughout thi s s tudy b o t h a s cited s ourc e s and a s a constant
mon i t or for wr i t t en r e c ord s .
Through int ervi ew s w i th former r e s id en t s ,
a t t i tudes and person a l rea c t i on s o f the cove p eop l e to various cr i s es
are thus i l l uminated by the fo l k memory to a d e gr e e impo s s i b l e to obtain
from wr i t t en records a l one .
ix
Regarding the h e avy u s e o f O l iver fami l y record s , an inev i t ab l e
que s t ion o r crit i que o f thi s s tudy mus t b e :
to what ext ent d id the
O l iv er s form an e l it e , or h ow r epr e s entat ive were they of the average
cove farming yeomanry throughout the cen tury?
The an swer l ie s in the
type of l eader s h ip whi ch the fam i l y exer c i s ed ; their influence was
primar i l y mora l and d ep ended on the vo l un t ary r e s p ec t or e s teem they
commanded from t h e ir neighbo r s of equal or grea t er proper t y .
They were
certainly never w ea l th y them s e l v e s , and their s o c i al p o s i t ion was
comparab l e to any o ther "respectab l e" fami l y in an e s s en t i al l y egal i tar i an
s oc i ety whi ch judged b o th individu a l s and fami l ie s on the bas i s o f their
b ehavior--pub l ic and private--rath er than o n the amount o r type o f their
mater i a l pos s e s s i ons .
In thi s s ens e , the O l ivers wer e c er t a in l y
" repre s entativ e " o f t h e av erage cove farmer--repr e s en t at ive i n a way
such entrepreneurs a s D ani e l D . Fout e cou l d nev er b e .
Other primary s ourc e mater i a l from out s ide ob s ervers wh i ch
corroborates the conc l u s i on s drawn from the O l iver records i n c l ud e
Dr . Abraham Jobe ' s Memo irs and the r ecord o f Lt . Char l e s G . D av i s , a
Uni o n s o l di er e s caping Confederat e prisons who was a s s i s ted by the cove
peop l e dur ing the C iv i l War .
Par t i c u l ar l y u s e fu l in d e l ineating economic
and d emographic change s were the manus cript c en sus returns from the cove
b etween 1 8 30 and 1 8 8 0 .
Final l y , the work o f genea l o g i s t s and l o c a l
h i s tor i an s , no tab l y t he exc e l l en t work of I n e z Burns on B loun t Coun ty ,
has i l l uminated the cove ' s d eve l o pment w i th i n the larger r e g i on and
as s i s t e d the wr i t er in placing many otherw i s e l o o s e end s in a mean ingfu l
context .
X
The wr i t er i s par t i cu l ar ly indeb t ed t o the w i s e coun s e l and
encouragement of the l at e S t an l ey J . Fo lms b e e , dean of Tenne s s e e
h i s tor ians .
T o t h e l at e Dr . Norber t R i ed l , grat i tude i s due for expo s ing
me to the bro ader ques t i ons and oppor tun i t i e s of the German Vo l k s kund e ,
a branch o f cu l tur a l anthropo l ogy par t i cu l ar ly s u i tab l e to the s cho l ar l y
analy s i s o f E a s t Tenn e s s ee ' s fo l k cul ture .
Dr . LeRoy P . Graf d e s erves
spec i a l c ommenda t i on for his p a t i enc e and innumerab l e va luab l e sugg e s t ions
throughout th i s s tudy .
Fina l l y , apprec i at ion mus t be expr e s s e d to
Dr s . John R . Finger and Charle s 0. Jackson for their c ar e fu l r eading o f
the manus cript and fo r their inc i s iv e c r i t i c i sms .
TAB LE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
III.
IV .
V.
VI.
VII .
PAGE
E X P LORAT I ON AND EARLY SETTLEMENT
1
THE IMPACT OF THE W I LDERNESS
34
THE MARKET ECONOMY
74
R E L I G I ON AND THE CHURCHES
1 26
THE C IV I L WAR .
167
.
THE FOLK CULTURE
1 99
CONCLUS I ON
226
B I B L I OGRAPHY
233
A P P E ND I X
248
V I TA .
252
.
xi
L I ST OF F I GURES
F I GURE
PAGE
1.
John O l iver Cabin
57
2.
P et er C ab l e Cabin
58
3.
Cart er Sh i e l ds C ab i n
59
4.
E l i j ah O l iver Hou s e
61
5.
Henry Whi t ehead Hou s e
62
6.
O l iver- Tipton Hous e
63
7.
Cades Cove Tour Map
249
8.
Th e Cov e s o f B lount County
250
9.
Cades Cove Quadrang l e , U . S . Dept . o f the Inter io r ,
G e o l o g i c a l Survey Map
.
. .
.
.
.
Xll
.
.
.
251
CHAPTER I
EXPLORAT I ON AND EARLY S ETTLEMENT
C ad e s Cove i s f i r s t and foremos t a d i s t in c t ive g eo l o g i c a l ent ity
whos e v ery s tructural uniquenes s h a s from e ar l i e s t t imes shaped the
char acter of h er inhab i tant s and cond i t i oned , if not d et ermine d , the
p at t ern of the i r d ev e l opment .
S e c luded within th e we s t ern par t of the
Great Smoky Mount ains , whi ch l ie in east ern T enn e s s e e and w e s t ern North
C aro l ina , the cove and its env irons form a s egment of the much l arg er
Appa l ach i an H i gh l and s , that l ong b e l t o f mountain r anges extending
through the South e as t ern s t at e s from V irginia to Georg i a .
r ight the Appa l a ch i an High l ands are qui t e uniqu e .
1
I n their own
D e s c r i b ing the Unaka
Chain , of whi ch the Great Smoky Mountains are a part , one o f Tenne s s e e ' s
p ioneer g e o l o g i s t s , James M . Safford , over a hundred years ago apt l y
char ac t er i zed t h i s r ange:
I t s "bal d " summ i t s , i t s s emi - ar c t i c p l ant s and b a l s am peaks ,
the magn i f i cent s c enery i t afford s ; i t s roar ing rap i d s and
w i l d c a s c ad e s ; i t s gam e , and the " trou t " o f i t s c o l d s t r eams ,
a l t ogether , m ak e i t an e l y s ium . 2
What is mos t s urpr i s ing ab out the geo lo g i c a l structur e of Cad e s
Cove i s the f l atne s s , or p l ain o f low r e l i ef , o f thi s e l l ip t i c a l v a l l ey
in s harp contras t to the rough mountainous t opography on a l l s ides .
G eo l o g i ca l l y , the cove i s b e s t d e s cr ibed as a fenster , or w indow , formed
1
Ph i l ip B . K ing and Arthur Stupka , "Th e Great Smoky Mount ains , The ir
G e o l ogy and N atur a l Hi story , " S c i en t ific Month l y , LXX I (Ju l y , 1 950) , 3 1 .
\
"·_'.
2
James M . S a fford , Geo l ogy of T ennes s e e (Nashv i l l e , 1 8 6 9 ) , 2 2 .
1
2
by the overthru s t o f Un ico i r o c k s o f Lower Camb r i an ag e over Knox
do l omit e o f Canadian age at such a l ow ang l e that the h ang ing wal l h as
b e en worn through , expos ing the footwa l l .
3
B e c au s e o f t h i s Greak Smoky
Thrust and sub s equent different i a l ero s ion , there is cons iderab l e
vari at ion i n the typ es o f so i l o n the v a l l ey f l o or and i n the surrounding moun t ains , a fact which l at e r wou l d hav e imp ortant imp l i c at i ons for
the s e t t l ement p a t t ern of the cove .
Two n e i ghbor ing coves , Wear and
Tuck al eechee , are o ft en grouped w i th Cades Cove by geo l og i s t s for the
sake o f compar i son , but n e i th er c an match the r e l at iv e evennes s of the
f lo or o f C ade s C ove, w i th an average e l evat ion o f 1 , 7 50 fee t , or c ompete
w i th its almost comp l et e enc l o sure by the surrounding moun t a ins , the
h i gh e s t of wh ich r i s e 2 , 00 0 feet above the cove .
4
I n addi t ion to des crib ing the phys i c a l contour s wh ich mak e C ad e s
C o v e un i qu e , g e o l o g i c a l res earch a l s o exp la i n s the s i ng l e mos t imp ortant
charac t eri s t i c of the cove for human hab i tan t s :
soil .
the fert i l i ty o f the
I n 1 8 69 , S afford argued that b ecaus e o f the ir remarkab l y produ c t ive
s o i l s , the l imes tone cove areas of E a s t Tenn e s s e e , par t i cu l ar l y Cade s
Cov e , des erved mor e att ention from geo l o g i s t s than they had rec e ived .
He character i z ed the l at t er as " r emarkab l e for i t s r i ch b o t toms and i t s
3
charl es W . Wi l son , Jr . , "Th e Great Smoky Thrus t Fau l t in the
V i c in i ty of Tuck a l eechee , Wear , and C ades Cove s , B l ount and S ev i er
Count i e s , Tenne s s e e , " Tenne s s e e Ac ademy o f Sc i en c e Journa l , X (January ,
1 9 3 5) , 58 - 59 . S e e a l so Fred H . R i t t ger s , A G e o gr aph i c a l Survey of
B lount C ounty , Tenn e s s e e (Ma s t er ' s the s i s , Univers ity o f Tenn es s ee ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 4 1 ) , 4 4 - 57 .
4
wi l l iam W . Bur ch f i e l , Jr . , Th e Unaka Mounta ins of Tenn e s s e e and
North Car o l ina (Mas ter ' s thes i s , Univer s ity o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e ,
1 94 1 ) , 1 5 - 1 7 .
3
meadow- l i k e featur e s , " adding t h at i t was "not ed a s a gra s s produc ing
area .
.
. we l l su i t ed to sma l l grain , gras s and frui t . "
5
He a l so
prai s ed the sup e r i or c l imat e and e l evat ion of the cov e , which made i t
"coo l , and i n the summer , de l igh t fu l . "
Later g eo l og i s t s have confirmed
S a fford ' s content ion that th e coves u su a l l y contained more fert i l e so i l
than mo s t surrounding areas in the va l l ey o f E a s t Tenn e s s ee .
6
I r o n i ca l l y , the l imes tone b a s e of C ades Cove , whi ch g iv e s such
fert i l i ty to the s o i l , accoun t s for the g e o l o g i c deve l opment o f the cove
a s a fen s t er through di fferent i a l ero s i on , b ec au s e l im e s t one is so l ub l e
and p o o r l y r e s i s t ant t o ero s ion , par t i cu l ar l y i n an area o f h eavy
r ainfa l l .
7
E i gh t e en s treams and branche s enter the cover , a l l of which
eventua l ly c ontr ibut e to Abram ' s Creek , whi ch f l ows out the w e s t s ide
over tough b lu e s l a t e s o f the O c o e e S er i e s o n e m i l e we s t of the c ove at
Abr am ' s Fa l l s .
Th e s e s l ate s , wh i ch are very r e s i st ant , check the
eroding p ower of the creek and a l l ow th e dev e l o pment of a t emporar y b a s e
l ev e l o f ero s ion in the cove .
A l though the streams a r e int ermitt ent ,
the a l l uv i a l mater i a l on the f l oor o f the c ove ab sorb s m o s t o f the
exc e s s water .
Thus "the ground ret ains mo i sture and is exce l l ent for
farming in even the dr i e s t year s . "
5
8
(See Figure 7 , Appendix . )
Safford , Geo l o g y , 5 2 , 2 26 .
6
r b id . ; C . H . Gordon , "Not e s on the Geo l ogy o f the Cove Ar eas o f
Eas t Tenn e s s e e , " Sc i enc e , L I (May , 1 9 2 0 ) , 4 9 2 .
7
8
King and S tupka , "Great Smoky Mountains , " 3 6 .
Robert B . N euman , "No t e s on the G eo l ogy o f Cad e s C ov e , Gr eat Smoky
Mountains Nationa l Park , Tennes s ee , " Tenn e s s e e Academy o f S c i ence Journa l ,
XXI I (Ju l y , 1 94 7 ) , 1 67 - 68 .
4
Thi s natural abund anc e o f C ad es C ov e , and the obv i ous su i t ab i l i t y
of
�s
fert i l e s o i l t o even t h e most primi t iv e forms o f agr i cu l tur e ,
mus t have ear l y attracted human a t t ention .
The c ov e ' s meadow - l ik e
feature s h ave a l ways lured many typ es o f game , notab l y d eer , to feed on
the l ush gras s e s a long Abr am ' s C r e ek .
Whether any o f the tribes which
pr e - d at e the Ch eroke e u s ed the cov e for their hun t ing g round i s unknown .
Cherok ee I nd i an s were l ivin g there at t h e t ime o f the firs t permanent
wh i t e s e t t l ement in 1 8 1 8 , but unfortuna t e l y the ear l y p i on eers took
l i t t l e d e s criptive not e in their d i ar i e s and rec ord s o f the cove ' s f ir s t
1nh a bo1tants .
0
9
By 1 8 3 8 , the l as t r emnant had b e en r ounded up to j o in
t h e ir k i n smen in the infamous " t r a i l o f t e a r s " march t o Ok l ahoma Territory .
A few fasc inat ing c lues do rema in , however , to whe t our curi o s ity .
Ab ram ' s Creek i s gener a l l y a s s umed to have b e en named a ft er O l d Abram ,
the f i er c e Cherokee chi eftain who was such a t error to ear l y Tennes s ee
s et t l ers and who l ed the l as t war p arty agains t the b e l eagu ered Watauga
s et t l ements at t h e c 1 o s e o f t h e R evo 1 ut1onary
0
w
ar .
10
Cad e s Cove was
9
R ecent r e s e arch in e ar l y Amer i c an Ind i an -wh ite r e l at i ons ind i cates
that conc l u s ive ev id ence conc erning t he number o f Ind i an s in any
p ar t i cu l ar area is almo s t impo s s ib l e to obt ain from Ang l o - Saxon s ourc es .
S in c e the overal l e s t imate o f Ind ians l iv ing in North Amer i c a has b een
dra s t i c a l ly rev i s ed upward , it is not unr easonab l e to as sume that the
numb er of Cherok ee l iving in C ad es C ov e in 1 8 1 8 who were d i s p laced by
whi t e s e t t l ement is much high er than the p i oneer records wou ld indi c at e .
S e e Wi l bur R . Jacob s , "Th e Tip o f an I c eb erg : Pr e - C o l umb i an Indian
D emography and Some I mp l ications for Rev i s io n i sm , " Wi l l i am and Mary
Quar t er ly , XXXI (January , 19 7 4 ) , 1 2 3 - 2 9 .
10
Paul M . F ink , "Smo ky Mountains H i s to ry as To l d in P l ac e-Name s , "
E a s t Tenn e s s ee Hi s t o r i cal S o c i ety ' s Pub l i ca t ion s , No . 6 ( 1 9 3 4 ) , 5
(hereaft er c i ted a s ETHS Pub l i cations ) ; J . G . M . Ram s ey , Anna l s o f
Tenne s s ee (Char l e s ton , 1 8 5 3 ) , 1 56 .
5
nam ed after ano ther l es s er Cherokee chi e f , Kad e , l iv ing there at the
t ime o f init i a l whi t e s et t l ement and we l l known t o the ear l y s ett l er s .
11
Unfortunate l y , whi t e s et t l em en t r es u l t ed in an a lmos t comp l ete d ecu l tur i zat i on i n t erms o f the Ind i an p la c e -nam e s , wh ich m i ght o therwi s e have
grea t l y contribut ed to th e store of fo l k cul tur e .
Mo s t of the l o c a l
g eo graph i c features o f t h e c o v e cons equent l y b ear nam e s g iven by t h e
f i r s t generat i on o f whi t e s et t l er s .
The Indian name for Cades C ov e , or at l eas t for a s e t t l ement in the
cove on C ov e C reek , was Tsiyah i , or ot ter p la c e ( from T s i � , o t t er , and
v
.
y 1 , 1 o c at 1ve
).
12
I n h i s memo i r s L i eutenant Henry Timb e r l ake ment ions
s ee ing many "brook s w e l l s t or ed w i th f i s h , o t t ers , and b eaver s , " in
13
. . 1. ty o f Ca d e s Cove 1n
.
t h e genera 1 v1c1n
1762 .
But the ini t i a l whi t e
11
Th e O l iver fam i l y ' s account o f Chi e f Kade i s c orroborat ed by the
pap er s of Peter Snider ( in the p o s s e s s i on of a great - gr anddaughter , Mi s s
B ertha Dunn , Town s end , Tennes s ee ) , an ear l y trader w i th t h e Cherok ee
I nd ian s who l ived in neighboring Tucka l eechee C ov e . Th e s tory that
Cad e s Cove was named after Ch i e f Abr aham ' s w i fe , Kat e , is spur ious , but
has unfortunat e l y been s o o ft en repeated in the h i s tori c a l l i t eratur e o f
the period th at i t i s now a lmo s t a c c epted a s fact . Th e ear l i e s t correct
pub l i shed ac count o f Chi e f Kade is g iven in Robert L indsay Mason , Th e
Lur e o f the Great Smo k i e s ( B o s t on , 1 9 2 7 ) , 1 1 . Th e l a t e s t a s s er t ion on
th e or igin of the name Cad e s Cove wa s mad e by Ade l e McKen z i e , a staff
wri t er for the Maryv i l l e-Al coa Daily Times , wh i c h pub l i sh ed a l et ter
r e c ent l y d i s covered from one J . Cade s to H . W . Myer s in Cades C ove in
1 88 1 . Mc Ken z ie a s sumes that the name i t s e l f i s ev idence that the cove
was named aft er this J . Cade s , who said in the l etter he had once l iv ed
But the name Cades d o e s not o ccur in any of the ear l y r ecord s ,
ther e .
d e e d s , grant s or census o f Cades Cov e , and the l ate date o f thi s l et t er ,
1 88 1 , makes i t h i g h l y que s t ionab l e a s evid en c e wi thout o t h er c orrobora­
t ion . S e e the Maryv i l l e- Al co a D a i l y Time s , June 1 4 , 1 9 7 4 .
12
James Mooney , comp . , "Myths o f the Cherok ee , " Bureau o f Amer i can
E thn o l o gy , Ninet een th Annual R eport (2 vo l s . Wash ington , 1 9 0 0 ) , I , 538 .
13
Samue l Co l e Wi l l iams , ed . , L i eut . Henry Timberlake ' s Memo i r s ,
1 7 5 6 - 1 7 6 5 (John son C i ty , 1 9 2 7 ) , 6 9 . Timb er l ak e at t h i s point was
v i s i t ing Ch i lhowey (Chi lhowe e) , a Cherokee t own wh i ch h e ind icat e s on
6
s ett l ers do not ment i on otters in their w r i t t en records or o r a l
trad i t i on s ; i t i s probab l e t h a t t h e s e anima l s h ad been hunt ed t o
e xt inct i on for their p e l t s b efore 1 8 00 .
Th i s import ant Cherokee p l ac e -
n ame was d i s covered by t h e p i oneer Ameri can ethno l og i s t , J ames Mooney ,
dur in g the l a s t d ecade of the ninet eenth century .
Mooney ' s pr imary
sources were the remnant Cherokees l ivin g on the Qua l l a r e s e rv at i on in
w e s t ern North Caro l in a and e l de r l y emigran t s in Ok l ahoma who h ad l eft
th lS are a over h a l f a c entury ear 1 ·1 er .
·
14
Thus wh at s c ant know l edge we
h ave of pre-wh i t e Cherokee l i fe or c iv i l i z at ion in C ad e s Cove is not
transmi t t ed through the peop l e who d i sp l ac ed them .
Yet Ts iyah i mus t have h ad s ome s i gn i f i can c e to the Cherokee
po l i t i c a l ent ity b efore 1 8 00 , if for no other r e ason than the s tr ateg i c
l oc a t i on o f t h e c ov e in re l at i on t o some o f t h e more import ant Ind i an
trai l s o f the reg i on .
One such rout e ext ended from the w e s t prong o f
L i tt l e P i geon River up the w at e r s o f Wa l den Creek , and entered Wear
Val l ey by fol l ow ing C ove Creek s everal mi l e s through a n arrow gorge o f
c as cade s .
15
Th i s route eventual ly reached L i t t l e River i n Tucka l e e ch e e
C ov e , where s everal trai l s l e d to C a d e s Cove , t en mi l es ov er a h i gh
a map of h i s own mak ing to b e j u s t s outhw e s t o f Cades Cove . T imb er l ak e ' s
map a l s o d e l ineat e s the C h i lhowee Mount a ins and out l ines the c our se o f
Abr am ' s Creek , whi ch drains C ad e s Cove . S e e Paul M . F ink , "Ear ly
Exp l orers in the Great Smok i e s , " ETHS Pub l i cat ion s , No . 5 ( 1 93 3 ) , 5 7 - 58 .
14
Mooney , "Myths o f the Cheroke e , " 1 1 - 1 2 ; Wa l ter Hough , "James
Mooney , " in A l l en Johnson and Dumas Ma l one , ed s . , D i c t i onary of Ameri can
B i ogr aphy ( 2 0 vo l s . , 2 supp l ements , and index ; New York , 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 5 8 ) ,
X I I I , 1 10- 1 1 .
15
I n e z Burns , " S ett l ement and E ar l y H i s tory o f the Coves o f B l ount
County , Tenne s s e e , " ETHS Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 24 ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 44 .
7
range o f mount ains .
Writ ing in 1 8 2 3 , John Haywood s t at e s that a Virg i n i a
trader , Mr . Vaughan , u s ed th i s r o u t e as ear l y a s 1 74 0 t o reach the
Ch erok ee Nat ion , and that it "was an o l d path wh en he fi r s t s aw it . "
16
Ano ther maj or route to Cades Cov e was the Tucka l eechee and Southeast ern Trai l wh i ch s eparated from the Gr eat I nd i an Warpath where i t
cro s s ed t h e French Bro ad R iver .
Th i s t ra i l pas s ed near p r e s ent - d ay
S ev i e rv i l l e t o the Tuck a l eechee vi l l ag e s on L i t t l e River , and from there
went in a s outh e a s t e r l y direction through I n d i an Gap t o the l ower
Cherokee s et t l ements in South Caro l in a .
17
A short rou t e from the Val l ey
towns to the Ov erh i l l towns o f the Cherokee p a s s ed through Egwanu l t i Gap
( c orrup t e d by wh i t e pronun c i at i on to the pr e s en t Ekanet e l ee) and s k i r t ed
18
. s way t o t h e L 1. t t 1 e Tenne s s ee R 1ver
"
.
t h e 1 ower en d o f C ad e s C ove on 1t
Th i s l at t er trai l l ead ing into Cades Cove through Ekanet e l ee Gap was
prob ab l y the most important rout e for l at er wh i t e s e t t l er s , p ar t i cu l ar l y
for t h o s e from the Pennsylvan i a - German s e t t l emen t s i n Rowan County , North
19
.
C aro 1 1na
.
( S e e Figure 8 , Append ix . )
The proximi ty to Cades Cov e o f al l th e s e maj or tra i l s wh i ch
connected the V a l l ey Cherokee in South C aro l ina with their Ov erh i l l
16
John Haywood , Th e C iv i l and P o l i t i c a l H i s t ory o f the State of
T enne s s e e ( Knoxv i l l e , 1 8 23) , 4 0 - 4 1 .
17
W i l l iam E . Myer , comp . , " I nd i an Tr ai l s o f the Southeas t , " Bureau
o f American E thno l ogy, Forty - S e cond Annual Report (Washington , 1 9 2 8 ) ,
7 7 2 . Myer ' s d e s cript i on o f the maj or Cherokee trai!s and their exact
l oc ation in refer ence to pr e s en t t owns and l andmarks is the mos t comp l et e
pub l i shed record .
18 .
F 1n k , "Ear l y Exp l orers , " 56 .
19
Burns , "S ett l ement and E a r l y H i s t o ry , " 4 5 .
8
r e l at iv e s ind i c at e s that T s i yahi mus t h av e h ad s ome spat i al s igni f i c ance
t o the Cherokee po l i ty before 1 8 00 .
P o s s i b l y i t was no more than a
hunt ing camp , but i t s s tr at e g i c l ocation n ear maj or art er i es o f commerce
and commun i cation w i th in the Cherokee Nat i on cou l d we l l h ave j us t i f i ed a
l arger p ermanent s e t t l ement .
A s the Cherokees w i thdr ew s t e ad i ly from
the pres sures of continuing whi t e encroachmen t s in upper E a s t Tennes s ee
fo l l owing the i r d e feat in the Rev o lut ionary War , the s e s ame rout e s and
trai l s first l ed wh i t e exp l orers and l a t e r p e rmanent s et t l er s into Cades
C ove and the s urrounding area s .
Th e i dent i t y o f the f i r s t whi t e exp l orers o f Cad e s Cove r emains
c l ouded in obscur it y b ecau s e such r ecords as were kept on the South ern
front i er were o ft en l o st or d e s troyed during the tumu l tu ou s years of the
R evo l u t i onary War .
The gener a l ar ea remained nomina l ly in North
Caro l ina ' s contro l unt i l Tennes s ee b e c ame a fed eral t erri tory in 1 7 9 0 ,
fo l lowing North Caro l ina ' s b e l at e d r a t i f i c at i on o f the Cons t i tu t i on .
20
North Caro l in a ' s l ong-s tand ing neg l ec t o f h e r c i v i l and j ud i c i a l
respons ib i l it i e s in even t h e more s e t t l ed areas o f E a s t Tenn e s s e e had
b een the bas ic source of d i s s at i s fact ion and imp etus toward s e l f ­
government from t h e Wataugans t o t h e Frank l in i t e s .
21
Such peripheral areas o f E a s t Tenn e s s e e a s C ad es Cove d i d attract
the interest of l arge l and specul ators in North C aro l in a , however .
20
S t an l ey J . F o l msbee , Robert E . Cor l ew , and Enoch L . Mitche l l ,
H i s t ory o f Tenn e s s ee ( 2 vo l s . N ew York , 1 960) , I , 1 8 9 .
21
s amue l C o l e Wi l l i ams , H i s t ory of the L o s t State o f Frank l in
(John s on C i ty , 1 9 2 4 ) , 26- 3 3 .
9
B ecaus e many o f t h e s e l arge specul ators were a l s o prominent in the s t at e
g ov ernment , North C aro l ina t ook great p a i n s i n t h e c e s s ion l aw o f 1 7 89
t o res erv e for her c i t i z ens a l l p r i or l and c l aim s , i n c l ud ing those under
the not o r i ou s L and Grab Act of 1 7 83 and various acts r e s erving l and as
payment for her Revo lution ary s o l di ers .
So a l th ough her W e s t ern l and s
w e re formal l y ceded to the Uni t ed States in 1 7 89 , in actu a l fact North
Caro l ina res erv e d much , if not mo s t , o f the bes t Wes t ern l ands of
22
.
T enn e s s e e l. n prlor
grants .
I t i s therefore l og i c a l that the f i r s t r ecord ed c l aim to l and in
the cove was a North Caro l in a grant for 5 , 0 00 acres in a p l ace c a l l ed
Cades Cove on the s outh s i d e o f the French Broad and Ho l ston rivers and
w e s t o f Big P ig eon , i s sued in 1 79 4 to Hugh Dun l ap .
I n 1 8 09 , Dunl ap was
rei s sued the grant from the new s t a t e of Tenne s s e e b ec au s e the ear l ier
23
. Nort h Caro 1 lna
.
.
gran t h ad b een l o s t f rom t h e s ecretary I s o fflce
ln
.
The fact that th i s s econd grant was subj ect to prev i ou s o c cupan t - entr i e s
and s cho o l res ervat ions indi cates o ther s et t l er s had c l a imed l and i n
C ad e s C o v e during the interim .
I t i s evident from the remaining l and gr an t s and from al l u s ions to
l and granted in Cades Cov e in w i l l s and o ther record s , for wh ich no
22
Fo lmsbee and other s , Tennes s e e , I , 1 8 9 . See a l s o Wi l l i am H .
Mas t erson , Wi l l i am B l ount ( B at on Rouge , 1 9 5 4 ) , 3 5 0 . B l ount was an
exce l l en t examp l e of a prominent North C aro l ina government offi c i a l
who s e po l i t i c a l c areer was inextr i c ab l y c aught u p i n " t h e overwh e l m ing
bus in e s s pro j ect of his age - l and specu l a t i on . "
23
N orth C aro l ina Grant No . 1 7 2 , reg i s t ered Apr i l 1 8 , 1 7 9 4 , E a s t ern
D i s tr i c t , Book 7 , p . 2 6 3 ; Book 9 , p . 1 5 5 . Tenn e s s y e S t at e Archiv e s ,
Nashv i l l e .
10
actual deed o r gran t c an b e foun d , that i n the decade aft er 1 8 0 0 the
cove ' s r i ch l and attracted many p o t ent i a l s e t t l er s .
Yet the s e ear l ier
exp l orers l eft few t races o f their v i s i t t o the cove , and no exp l anation
o f why they did not remain .
I n 1 8 09 , John Smith and Wi l l i am Crows on
p et i t i oned the s t ate l eg i s l atur e for entry r i ghts in C ades Cove bas ed on
e ar l i er North C ar o l ina l and grant s .
The s e rights were confirmed in 1 8 2 0
when Aaron Crowson , s on of Wi l l iam , p e t i t i oned the Tennes s ee l eg i s l ature ,
c l aiming that h i s father and a Mr . James Ros s had both p o s s e s s ed "the
Ri ght o f Occupancy and preemp t ion to a Tract o f l and in Cades Cove on
t h e waters of t h e T enne s s e e on the 6 th day o f F ebruary 1 79 6 . "
24
Th e
f i r s t Tennes s ee gr ant , b ased on t h e s e o l der c l a ims o f the Crowsons , was
i s s ued t o Wi l l iam ( " F i ghting B i l l y" ) Tipton on March 2 3 , 1 8 2 1 , for 640
25
acr e s 1. n C ad e s c ov e .
From the confu s i on o f c l aims t o the l and o f the cove in i t s
pre s et t l ement p er i od defin i t e p a t t erns emer ge which cou l d character i z e
l and ownership throughout the n in e teenth centur y .
Aft er 1 8 00 , two
d i s t in c t i v e typ e s o f indiv idua l s cha l l enged the wi ldern e s s for t i t l e t o
the l and .
The f i r s t was the l arge , o ft en ab s ent e e o wner , who through
k ey po l i t i c a l connect i ons l aid c l aim to th e l and without ever actua l l y
s ee ing i t , o r aft er on l y a cursory v i s it .
The Crowsons and Wi l l iam
Tipton certain l y repr e s ented thi s type ; n e i ther ev er l ived in the
24
25
P e t i t i ons , Box 2 4 , Tenne s s ee S t a t e Ar chiv e s , Nashv i l l e .
R e g i s t er o f E a s t Tenne s s e e , Book " 0 , " p . 5 3 8 , Tennes s ee State
Archive s , Nashv i l l e . Th is deed i s also recorded in B l ount County
records in Deed Book 3 , p . 3 , B l ount C ounty Courthou s e , Maryv i l l e ,
Tennes s ee . Hereafter c i t ed as B l ount Deeds , Wi l l s , e t c .
11
c ov e .
26
Tipton , at l e as t , specu l at e d in l and throughout E as t Tennes s ee ;
s carce l y any s t i l l undeve l oped tract o f l and in the are a d o e s not b ear
do cument ary t e s t imony to h i s w i d e - r ang ing int ere s t s .
A l though i t i s c ert ain l y dangerous to at t empt t o charact e r i z e o r
repres ent Wi l l i am Tipton o f C ar t er C ounty a s any part icu l ar t yp e , h e
neverth e l e s s p layed a n imp ortant ro l e as the f i r s t l arge s ca l e l andowner
in C a d e s Cove .
A Revo l u t i onary s o l d ier at the age o f fift e en , he
fo l l owed a fam i l i ar p at tern on the Amer i can fro n t i er of an entrepreneur
who first buys l arge amount s o f undev e l oped l and and then a t t empt s t o
interes t o thers in s e t t l ing on thes e l ands t o improve t h e i r v a l u e .
27
A
cur i ous b l end o f s e l f- inter e s t and pub l i c sp i r i t prompt ed men l ik e
W i l l i am Tipton t o d ev e l op areas such a s Cad es C ov e , and the entrepreneur
s e en in this l i gh t emerg e s as a n e c e s s ary and not ma l i gn cata l ys t in the
s et t l ement proce s s .
Wi l l i am ' s brother , John , was the mor t a l enemy of John S evi er ; b o th
Tip t on broth er s h ad l ed the opp o s i t i on to S ev i er ' s popu l ar movement for
i ndependence in E a s t Tenne s s e e which cu lminat ed in the e s t ab l i shment of
the abort ive s t at e o f Frank l in .
John T ip t on was act ing on b eh a l f o f
l arge l and sp ecu l ators i n North Caro l in a who d i d not wish t o s e e their
26
Ano ther ins tance o f abs en t e e l and s p ecu l at ion i s found in a
Tennes s ee grant for 3 2 0 acres in C ad e s Cove to George Snider , d at ed
Novemb er 1 7 , 1 8 1 7 , as an o ccupant c l aim , r e c orded in the o ff i c e of Jam e s
Ca l l oway , princ ip a l surveyor o f t h e Hiwas s e e D is tr ic t on F ebruary 2 8 ,
18 2 2 . Char l es A . Ri chey , C h i e f o f Land P l anning , Department o f the
I n t er i or , Wash ington , to I n e z Burns , October 2 , 1 950 . G e orge Sn ider , an
anc e stor of the autho r , was definite l y not l iv ing in Cades Cove in 1 8 1 7 .
27
Knoxv i l l e , Reg i s t e r , November 1 7 , 1 84 9 .
12
c l aims under the notorious L and Grab Ac t o f 1 7 8 3 jeopardi z ed b y an
independent government in Tenne s s e e .
28
In perspectiv e , then , the T ipton
entrepreneur did not h e s i t at e to a l i gn h i ms e l f against a popu l ar c aus e ,
i f such a cau s e thr eatened h i s own imm ed i a t e c l aims o r intere s t s .
Fortunat e l y , however , no such conf l i ct was in i t i a l l y invo lved in
s et t l ing Cades C ov e .
Wi l l i am Tipton fre e l y s o l d l and t o h i s numerous
r e l at ive s , b e g inning w i th 42 6 acres in 1 8 2 1 to Jo shua Jobe .
The
fo l l owing year h e s o l d ano th er 4 2 6 acr e s to I saac Tipton of C arter
County ; in 1 8 2 4 , 1 07 acr es to Jacob Tipton , his s on ; in 1 8 2 5 , 80 acres
to his daughter , Marth a Hart ; in 1 8 2 7 , 1 03 acre s to James Henr y ; and in
1 83 0 , 640 acres to Thomas Tipton .
29
Even after a l l thes e s a l es , th e
extent o f Wi l l i am Tipton ' s ho ldings in the c ove i s r eve a l ed in h i s w i l l
o f 1 8 4 8 , in whi ch he l eft 1 , 2 5 6 acr e s known as the " I ron Works tr act , "
the "Potato Patch" of 500 acres , and a surv ey of unnamed acr eage on
R i ch Gap .
30
I t was one thin g , howev er , to own l and in the cove , and qui t e
another actu a l l y t o s e t t l e in thi s r emo t e s i t e , c omp l et e ly c u t off from
n e i ghboring s e tt l emen t s by high mountain s .
Cades Cove wa s not l e ga l ly
open to s ett l ement unt i l aft er Ca lhoun ' s Tr eaty o f 1 8 1 9 w i th the
28
carl S . Driver , John S ev i er , P ioneer o f the Old Southwe s t ( Chap e l
Hi l l , 1 9 3 2 ) , 9 2 - 9 5 .
29
B l ount D eeds , Books 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ( 18 2 1 - 1 83 6 ) .
" S e t t l ement and E a r l y H i s to ry , " 5 9 .
30
B l ount W i l l s , Book 1 , p . 1 9 7 .
S e e a l s o Burns ,
13
Cherok e e s ,
31
b u t t h i s l eg a l n i c ety d i d n o t prevent trans i tory p ioneers
from moving into the c ove b efore that dat e , or the Ind i an s from r emaining
there aft erward s .
Th e comb inat i on , however , of i s o l at i on and hos t i l e
I n d i ans c er t a i n l y d e l ayed permanent whi t e s ett l ement i n C ad e s Cove unt i l
N e ighboring Tucka l eechee C ov e was by compar i s on s et t l ed in the
1818 .
1 7 90 ' s by P e t e r Snider , and r ap i d l y fi l l ing up during the f i r s t decad e
o f t h e n in e t e enth century .
And even there Snider , a fri end l y trader
w i t h the Che ro kees who spoke t h e i r l anguag e , had been for c e d to l eave on
one occas i on unt i l I n d i an ho s t i l i t y sub s ided .
32
So the pro b l em o f actual s et t l ement devo l v ed on the s econd type o f
indiv i dua l character i s t ic o f C ad e s Cove dur ing the nineteenth c entury :
the sma l l yeoman farmer who s e ma in intere s t was in farming inten s e l y a
smal l acreage (usu a l l y l es s than 1 3 0 acres o f l and) .
I t i s curi ou s that
t h e s e sma l l farmers , who wou l d cons t i tut e the bul k of the cove popu l at ion
and d e t ermine i t s s o c i a l s t ructure , usua l l y were uninte r e s t ed in
31
Wi l l i am R . G arrett and Alb ert V . Goodpastur e , H i story o f Tennes s ee
(Nashv i l l e , 1 9 03 ) , 1 3 5 and map . For a more c omp l et e d i s cu s s ion o f
C a lhoun ' s Tr eaty , s e e F o lmsb e e and other s , Tennes s ee , I , 2 7 3 , 2 8 7 - 88 .
C a lhoun ' s Tr eaty ceded thr e e tracts o f l and not inc l uded in former
treat i e s . Two of these were i n Tennes s e e , inc lud ing the H iwas s e e
D i s tr i c t i n whi ch Cad e s Cove i s l o c at ed . Actua l l y , t h e treaty gav e a
resp i te from immedi a t e pres sure for r emoval o f the Cherok e e s to the Wes t ,
s in c e a prov i s i on o ffering indiv idua l Ind i an s c i t i zenship and a s quare
So the I n d i ans were not
mi l e o f l and was r enewed from a former treaty .
immediat e l y removed from the H i wa s s e e D i s t r i c t in 18 1 9 , as is erroneous l y
s ta t ed b y Rand o l ph A . S h i e l d s , "Cades C ove i n the Grea t Smoky Mountains
N at i onal Park , " in Robert M. Mc Br id e , ed . , Mor e L andmarks of Tenn e s s e e
H i s tory (Nashv i l l e , 1 96 9 ) , 3 2 .
32
I n t erv i ew on March 2 3 , 1 9 7 3 , w i th M i s s Bertha Dunn , Town s end ,
T enne s s e e , a great - g randdaughter o f P e t er Snider . Sni der wa s warned of
impending danger and adv i s ed to l e ave t emporari l y by a fr i en d l y ch i ef ,
T i ck in is k i . S ee a l so Burns , " S et t l ement and Ear l y H i s t ory , " 4 7 .
14
s pecu l at ing in oth er trac t s o f l and , even when they had the c ash .
33
If
they r e c e ived boun t y l and for war s erv i c e s , they usua l l y s o l d i t quick l y
to the l arge l and speculators .
34
Th e r i chne s s o f t h e cove s o i l o ffers
one exp l anat ion for such intense a t t achment t o re l at ive l y smal l farms ,
for even mod e s t effo r t s cou l d not fai l to reap sub s t an t i a l harves t s from
the cove ' s fer t i l e l im e s t one b a s in .
Such a m an was John O l i ver , Cades C ov e ' s fir s t permanent whi t e
s ett l er .
H e was b orn i n 1 79 3 in C ar t er County , Tennes s ee , but pract i ca l l y
n o trace o f hi s par ent s o r any c l o s e r e l at iv e s c an b e found there .
Th e
one dominating fact surrounding O l iv er ' s ear l y years in C ar t e r C ounty i s
the abysmal pov erty i n wh i ch h e l ived .
In the front i er s o c i e t y o f upper
Eas t T ennes s e e dur ing the f i r s t d e c ade of the nineteenth c entury , ev en
the poore s t of men cou l d afford to own some l and , s i n c e l and was
p l en t i fu l , and l abor w a s s carc e .
35
Y e t n o trace remains to ind i cate that
33
c o rre l ation of the 1 8 30 , 1 8 4 0 , and 1 8 5 0 c ensus r ecords o f Cad es
Cove with the l and d e ed s in the B l ount County Courthous e , Maryv i l l e ,
Tenne s s ee , c l e ar l y sub stant i a t e s the fact that mo s t o f the mountain l and ,
usual l y cons ider ed specu l at ive , was h e l d by l arge entr epr eneur s such a s
D an i e l D . Fout e , and b y out s ide h o l d ing compan i e s . One po s s ib l e
exp l anat ion i s that th e cov e peop l e h e l d t h e s e mounta i n ar eas t o b e
communa l , s ince the ab s entee l andowners exerted l it t l e contro l over
their mountain ho l d i ngs .
34
An exce l l en t examp l e o f thi s very common prac t i c e are two trac t s
o f bounty l and wh i ch John O l iver rec eived for h i s s erv i c e s i n the War
o f 1 8 1 2 and p romp t l y so l d . The fir s t , warrant No . 3 1 57 7 , for 8 0 acr es
und er the act of 1 8 50 , was s o l d June 1 5 , 1 8 5 2 , to Jacob Ha l d erman ; the
s ec ond , warrant No . 4 6 3 5 2 , for 80 acr e s under the act of 1 8 5 5 , was s o l d
May 2 1 , 1 8 58 , t o No ah N . Kaufman . Commi s s i oner o f the G ener a l Land
Offi ce , United S t at e s D epartment o f the I n t erior , Was hington .
35
From the O l iver fam i l y h i s tory , " Sk et ches o f the O l i vers , " wr i t t en
b etween 1 9 3 1 and 1 9 34 by a grand son o f the fir s t John O l iver , Wi l l i am
H ow e l l O l iver , who was born in Cade s Cove May 1 6 , 1 8 5 7 , and d i ed there
S ept emb er 1 3 , 1 94 0 .
I n manuscript form , thi s 1 5 1 page h i s t ory , in the
15
John O l iver owned even an acre o f l and i n Carter County b e fore he l eft
in 1 8 1 8 .
O l iver was a co l l i er by trad e , and there i s some ev idenc e that
h e l iv ed on l and b e long ing to Samu e l Tipton , a Cart er County entrepreneur
who owned a forge among h i s w i d e - r anging pos s e s s i ons , in add i t ion to a
tract o f l and in Cades C ove .
36
The trans forming catalyst whi ch changed t h e shy , una s suming O l iver ,
r e s i gned to l iv ing at the bot tom o f the Car t er County econom i c and
s o c i a l s c a l e , into an intrepid p i oneer w i l l ing t o r i s k h i s l i fe to
po s s e s s l and of his own , was Andrew Jac k s on .
C aught up in the patr i o t i c
fervor o f the War o f 1 8 1 2 , s o popu l ar in t h e W e s t , John O l iver enl i s t ed
at Knoxv i l l e , on January 5 , 1 8 1 4 , in Captain Adam Win s e l l ' s C ompany ,
C o l o n e l Ewen A l l i s on ' s Regimen t , E a s t Tenne s s ee M i l i t i a , and fought in
the b at t l e of Hors eshoe B end on March 2 7 , 1 8 1 4 .
37
Hor s e shoe B end wou l d
author ' s po s s e s s i on , repres en t s t h e o l d es t , and with c ertain cri t i c a l
l im i t a t i ons , t h e m o s t comp l et e narrative sour c e o n Cad e s Cove . Becau s e
o f i t s importance to thi s s tudy and fr equent u s e , it i s hereafter c i t ed
as W . H . O l iver , Sketches .
36
wi l l o f S amue l Tipton , Augus t 2 3 , 1 8 2 2 , Carter C ounty Wi l l s and
I nventori es , 1 7 9 7 - 1 84 7 , pp . 1 0 7 - 1 2 , Car t er C ounty Courthou se , E l i zabethto n ,
Tenne s s e e . On p age 1 1 2 , Tipton mentions "a tract of l and of twenty
acre s inc luding John O l iver ' s improvemen t in C ar t er County , " which wa s
probab l y the home s t ead wh i ch O l iver l ived in b efore he mov ed to C ad e s
I t i s not unl ik e l y that h e worked in Samu e l Tipton ' s
Cove in 1 8 1 8 .
forge , wh ich i s men t i oned on the s ame page .
37
George Andr ews , The Adj utant Genera l , War D epartmen t , Washington ,
t o John W . O l iver , June 1 3 , 1 9 1 4 ; A . D . H i l l er , Execu t ive As s i s tant to
the Admin i s trato r , Vet erans Admini s trat ion , Wash ington , to W. Wayne
O l iv er , January 1 6 , 1 9 3 7 .
Both l e tters in author ' s po s s e s s ion .
For the
o n l y pub l i shed l i s t of the so l d i er s in Co l on e l Ewen A l l i son ' s Reg iment ,
E a s t Tenn e s s e e Mi l i t i a , War o f 1 8 1 2 , s e e P ene lope Johnson A l l en , tran s . ,
Tenne s s e e S o l d i er s in the War o f 1 8 1 2 : R egiments o f Co l . A l l corn and
C o l . A l l i son (Chat t anooga , 1 94 7 ) , 50 .
16
remain a s ignal exp e r i ence thr oughout O l iver ' s l i fe ; even the ons l aught
of th e C iv i l War , near l y five decades l ater , cou l d not ob s cure in h i s
mind the p i c ture o f Jackson exhort ing hi s troops t o batt l e .
His
grandson , Wi l l i am How e l l O l iver , l a t er rec ord ed John O l iver ' s often
r e counted experienc e s at Hors e shoe B end :
He often t a l k ed o f the war and said that Gener a l Jackson was
one of the b e s t men h e ever s een he never s t ood b ack and pushed
h i s men int o b at t l e but fought h ims e l f a s h ard a s any o f them ,
s aying hurrah , boys , hurrah .
Another inc ident that Granfather t a l ked about wa s The
Hors esho e b at t l e in the b end of the A l abama River . The I nd i ans
had bui l t bu lwar k s acro s s th e neck of the R iver and l eft port
ho l e s to sho o t through . G eneral Jackson and h i s men engaged
awh i l e at the port h o l es unt i l h e gave c ommand to charge the
wal l s . My Granfather said that he was th e s econd man that
went ov er the wal l s th e firs t man was k i l l ed and fe l l against
h i m . He s a id i t was s o dark f o r a t ime that you cou l d s carc e l y
t e l l a wh i t e man from an Ind ian . H e s a i d they turned the but t s
o f their gun s and fought that way , G eneral Jackson ho l l owing
hurr ah boys , the I nd i ans h ad their c anoe boats t i ed up around
the bend and in c a s e they had to give up they wou l d j ump into
their b o at s and g e t away . The chero k e e I nd ians fought w i th
G en eral Jack s on and there was one o l d Cherokee by t h e name o f
Junaluskee , h e s wum the r iver around the b end and cut their
bo ats l o o s e , he said that h e wou l d d iv e a s far a s he coul d ,
and then come up and the bu l l et s wou l d h i t the water al l
around him ; h e then wou l d dive again and in t h i s way he
suc ceeded in cut t ing their boat s l o o s e . Th i s ru ined the
Creek s , s o they surrend ered the great er part o f their prop ert y
to t h e Uni ted States . At the c l o s e o f thi s war the Uni t ed
States gave Junaluskee a good farm in Gr aham County , N . C . for
cut t ing tho s e c ano es l oo s e . 38
38
w . H. O l iver , Sketche s , 1 -4 . Wh i l e an ind ividua l s o l d i er ' s
account o f h i s own ro l e in any g iven bat t l e mus t be r egard ed w i th hea l thy
s k ept i c i s m , O l iver ' s account of Chi e f Junu luska ' s exp l o i t s is confirmed
by o ther accoun t s o f the b a t t l e . S e e Grad e S t e e l e Woo dward , Th e
Cherok e e s (Norman , 1 9 6 3 ) , 1 3 2 . Extended quo tat i ons from manu s cript
source s are hereafter given with no emenda t i on of the original spe l l ing
o r orthography un l e s s some c l ar i f icat ion i s n e c e s sary to the meaning o f
t h e p a s sage .
17
The respect and admirat ion whi c h Andrew Jackson engendered in thi s
humb l e private from E a s t Tenn e s s e e had profound p s ycho l og i c a l and
i de o l o gi c a l imp l icat ions for the futur e p o l i t ic a l and s o c i a l deve l o pment
of Cades Cov e .
Obvi ou s l y Jacks on nev er knew O l iv er p ersona l ly , and at
one point during the war the G eneral had become so exas p er a t ed at the
"want of coop erat ion from the East Tenn e s s ee troops at a moment wh en
their cooperation was indi spensab l y nec e s s ary" that he denounced them
b i t ter l y to t h e Secretary o f War .
39
But i t i s n o t Jackson h ims e l f , w i th
h i s m any incons i s t en c i e s , but the r e f l e c t ion o f h i s egal i t ar i an ideo l ogy
among the mas s of p o o r and inart i c u l a t e Ameri c ans such as John O l iv er ,
which o ffers the b e s t key t oward unders t anding the incorporati on of the
c ommon man into the American p o l i t i c a l s tructure .
To b e sur e , O l d H ickory ins t i l l ed a s en s e o f b e longing , o f t aking
p art in a great national cru s ade , in the troop s who fought under him .
But for John O l iv er , the effect o f Jackson ' s p er sonal i t y w a s more
p er sona l and t an g i b l e .
I t was a s though Jackson had ins t i l l ed hi s o wn
s en s e o f inconquer ab i l i ty , o f supreme s e l f- confidence in the fac e of
s eemi n g l y impo s s ib l e odds , into thi s admiring p r ivat e .
And th i s new
s e l f- c on fidence , once ins p ired , wou l d c arry John O l iver through a l l the
tri al s o f pioneer rigor inv o l ved in s ett l in g al one in Cades C ov e .
Later ,
when s t at e and r eg io n were caught up in the confus ion o f confl i c t ing
l o ya l t i e s and ideas at the outbreak of the C iv i l War , the Jackson i an
39
Jackson to the Secr e t ary o f War , John Arm strong , D ec ember 1 6 ,
1 8 1 3 , in Ame ri can State P apers , Mi l i tary Affairs (7 v o l s . Washington ,
1 832- 1 861 ) , I I I , 787 .
18
i d eo l og y , und immed and una l t er e d b y t ime , wou l d d ic t a t e again t o O l iver
the correct att i tude and cour s e o f action for him and h i s fami l y , and
through them , for the l arger communi t y o f Cades Cove .
40
On Apr i l 28 , 1 8 1 4 , O l iver marr i ed on l eave o f ab s ence from h i s
mi l i tary s erv i c e Luc r e t i a Fra z i er , an o rphan g ir l , who i n t h e termino l ogy
of the day had been "bound " over to a fami l y at the death of h er Eng l i sh
p aren t s .
They h ad b een engag ed s in c e 1 8 1 2 , and Lucr e t ia , w ith charac t er -
41
.
.
s.
1. s t "lC f 1" ery t emp er , h ad force d t h e 1ssue b y t h e t h reat o f o t h e r su1tor
S o after h i s d i scharge from serv i c e on May 2 6 , 1 8 1 4 , O l iver r e turn ed t o
C ar t er County in much t h e same outward c i rcums tan c e s a s when h e had l eft ,
w i th the added r e spons ib i l i t y o f a h igh- t empered wife t o support .
And
it was indicat ive of Lucret ia ' s char act e r that she s e l d om fa i l ed to spur
her husband on , or n e g l ected to make h im c omp l et e ly s en s ib l e o f h i s
r espon s i b i l i t i es to her .
I n contrast , the m i l d e s t que s t i on ing on
O l iv er ' s part ab out the content o f h i s breakfas t , for ins tanc e , m i ght
40
w . H . O l iv er , Sketches , 4, 2 3 - 2 5 . S e e a l so the manu s cript h i s t ory
of the O l ivers ent i t l ed " Fi fty Years in Cades Cove" by .John W . Ol iver ,
son o f Wi l liam Howe l l . .John W . O l iver , born in Cades C ove October 1 4 ,
1 87 8 , and educated at Maryv i l l e Co l l ege , sp ent much o f h i s l i fe co l l ec t ing
document s and info rmat ion r e l a t ing to the h i story o f the cove , and
b etween 1 9 2 9 and 1 9 3 5 , l ed a s er i es o f bat t l e s b efore the Tenn e s s e e
Supreme C ourt in oppo s i t ion t o condemnat i on proc eedings aga i n s t Cad es
Cove by th e N a t i on a l Park Serv i c e . The three manuscript books wr i t t en
b etween 1 9 3 8 and 1 9 4 6 are a synthe s i s o f much of the information h e had
co l l ec t ed ear l i er . They are hereafter c i t ed .J. W . O l iver , Cades C ov e ,
w i t h appropriate vo lume and page number s .
41
Marriage bond , .John O l iv e r and Lucr e t ia Fra z i er , Apr i l 2 2 , 1 8 1 2 ,
Marr i age Record s , Car t er C ounty Courthous e , E l i zabethton , Tennes s e e ;
A . D . Hi l l er t o W . W . O l iver , .January 1 6 , 1 93 7 ; W . H . O l iver , Sketches ,
4-5 .
19
prompt the iras c ib l e Lucr e t i a t o dump w ithout further c er emony the
ent ire contents out into t h e yard .
42
S o J ohn O l iv er was qui t e amenab l e t o the idea o f s e t t l in g i n Cades
Cove and carving his own hom e s t ead out of t h e w i ld ern es s , when Joshua
J ob e , an o l d fr i end and fe l l o w s o l d i er in the War of 1 8 1 2 , approached
h im in 1 8 1 5 .
A man o f s ome wea l th , Jobe was anxious t o improv e h i s own
pro spec t s but unw i l l ing to l eav e the comparative s afety of C ar t er
County .
43
I n r eturn f o r l and and the n e c es s ary equipment , O l iver was
induced by Jobe to s et t l e a l on e w i th his fam i l y in Cad es Cove in 1 8 1 8 ,
wher e they woul d l a ter be jo ined b y their Cart er County n eighbors when
a l l s e emed s afe .
Cons equen t l y , i t was a co l l ec t ive e ffort , as was so oft en the c a s e
on the American front i er , that l ed to the s e t t l em ent in Cades Cov e , but
w i th one important d i ffer ence .
The ent ire p l an r e s t ed on the w i l l ingne s s
o f o n e ind ivi dual , John O l iv er , to take h i s fami l y a l one into t h i s i s o l ated
area in order to d e t ermine wh ether p ermanent wh i t e s e t t l ement was po s s ib l e
there .
O l iver was cons cious l y a t t empt ing to improve h i s s o c i a l a s w e l l
a s economi c s tatu s , b ecause i f the experiment succeeded , h i s compar a t ive
p o s i t ion in the new communi t y w ou l d be much h igher than his proper t y l es s
exi s t en c e i n Carter County .
I n t erms o f mo t ivation , the effect of the
Jacksonian i d eo l ogy on John O l iver c annot b e overemph as i zed .
42
43
Both the
w . H. O l iv er , Sketch e s , 1 8 - 1 9 .
F or Jobe ' s s erv i c e record in the War o f 1 8 1 2 , s ee A l l en , Tenne s s ee
S o l d ier s , 50 ; for more deta i l ed informa t i on on the Jobe fam i l y , s ee
Samu e l Evans Mas s eng i l l , The Mas s engi l l s , Mas s engal es , and Var i ant s ,
1 4 9 2 - 1 931 ( Br i st o l , Tenne s s e e , 1 931 ) , 8 4 2 .
20
theoret i ca l r ight to a new and b et ter l i fe , and t h e p sychi c energy
n e c e s s ary to achieve i t , were c l ea r l y d e fined by his unde r s t anding of
44
.
.
J ac k s onlan
ega 1 ltarlan
l. sm .
"
Yet th e l one l iness and i s o l a t ion o f the cove mus t have ch i l l ed even
the s t ou t e s t h e ar t s as John and Lucr et i a d e s cended the anc i en t Indian
trai l acro s s R ich Mountain w i th their baby daughter in the ear l y fal l o f
The exa c t d a t e o f their arrival i s not known , but Joshua Job e did
1818 .
accompany them on the init i a l tri p .
The c ov e l ay before them in
primord i a l sp l endor ; there were no c l eared l ands or roads , and no o th er
whi t e inhab i tant s .
45
The d es c end ing I n d i an trai l acro s s R i ch Mountain
o cc a s iona l ly opens up on a wide prospect o f the cove b e l ow , s o that one
entering the cove by that route c anno t fai l t o b e aware o f th e t errain
below.
A t such p o i n t s th ey cou l d c l ear l y s e e that the c ov e was c omp l e t e l y
enc l o s ed b y h i gh mountains and was covered b y dense for e s t s broken o n l y
by the swampy are a in t h e l ower end .
Occa s ional g l imps es o f the Cherokee
I n d i ans then l iv ing in Cade s Cove could on l y add to their uneas ine s s .
But John and Lucr e t i a were determined to r emain , even after Jobe d ep ar t ed .
44
45
J . W . O l iver , C ades C ove , I , 8 .
w . H . O l iv er , Sketche s , 5 . The f i r s t O l iver chi l d , Mary , was
born Jul y 1 8 , 1 8 1 7 , in Car t er County , and their s econd , Martha , was born
Jul y 2 8 , 1 8 1 9 , in Cades Cove . J . W . O l iver , Cad e s C ov e , I , 8 . So i f
their f ir s t chi l d was a year o l d , the d a t e o f arriva l in the ear l y fa l l
mus t h av e been 1 8 1 8 . Th e O l ivers were i l l e ga l trespa s s er s on Cherokee
l and , but the c our t s of Tenn e s s e e d e c l ined to hand l e cases invo lving
r emoval o f whi t e s from Indian Country , a l though such j ur i s d i ct i on h ad
been spec i fi ca l l y granted t o them . S e e Franc i s Paul Prucha , Amer i can
I n d i an P o l icy in the F ormat ive Year s : The I n d i an Trad e and I nt ercour s e
Act s , 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 3 4 (Cambridge , 1 9 6 2 ) , 1 64-6 5 .
21
After spend ing their fir s t n i ght i n an abandoned Indian hut , th e
O l iver s decided t o s e tt l e in the upper end o f the cove , becau s e the
lower end was swampy , an env ironment they b e l ieved unh e a l thy and
a s s o ci a t ed w i th p es t i l ence .
N ear the b a s e o f the mountain , wher e they
wou l d be par t ia l l y protected from the b i t t er mountain wind s , John O l iver
bu i l t h i s fir s t crude hom e s t ead .
46
1 8 2 0 ' s , i s s t i l l s t and ing today .
A l a t er cabin , bui l t in t h e ear l y
A p i l e o f s tones some twenty- five feet
north of the p r e s ent bui l d ing mark s the chimney o f the orig ina l 1 8 1 8
s t ructur e .
F i fty- five yar d s from the cab in i s the spr ing wh i ch probab l y
d et ermined t h e s e l e c t i on o f thi s p art icu l ar s i t e .
Lying in a cre ekb ed ,
i t i s b e s t l o cated when the s tr eam dr i e s up in the s ummer , l eav ing on l y
a smal l trick l e of co l d water from the spring it s el f .
Th e fact that
th i s spring is apparent on l y in the dry s ea s on is corroborat ive ev i d ence
that the O l iver s arrived in the ear l y part of autumn .
The winter o f 1 8 1 8 - 1 8 1 9 proved cruci a l t o their surviva l .
N e i ther
the I nd i ans , who gra z ed their cat t l e a long Abram ' s Creek and wint ered
th em in the canebrak e s , nor the wo l v e s , wh i ch n i ght l y cou ld be heard
how l ing up in the encircl ing moun t a ins , thr eat ened the O l ivers as
s er ious l y as d id the prospect o f starva t ion .
A co l l i er in C ar t er Count y ,
John O l iver had h ad l i t t l e prev i ou s exp er i ence in farming o r hunt ing .
Arr iv a l i n the cove after the l as t growing season soon proved to b e a
s er ious m i s t ak e .
S o i n sp i t e o f the abundant game i n the cov e , the
O l iver fami l y had exhaus t ed their s tore o f food and were facing
s tarvat ion when the firs t snow began to fa1 1 .
46
w . H . O l iver , Sketch e s , 1 0 .
47
47
I b id . , 5 - 6 .
22
They were r es cued , ironi c a l l y , b y the Ch erokee Indians l iv ing in
the area , who h ad in i t ial l y b e en such a s ource of anx i e t y to Lucr et i a .
The I nd ians , evident l y , d i d not f e e l threat ened b y t h e pr e s en c e o f on l y
one whi t e fam i ly and brought t h e s tarving O l iv er s dri ed pumpk in , o n
wh i ch the fami l y main l y sub s i s t ed unt i l the fo l lowing spr ing .
48
It is
intere s t ing t o not e that in sp i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t the Cherok e e s had
s aved th e ir l ive s , th e O l iver fami l y l at er cou ld not rememb er ind ividual
I nd i an s , but a lways both refer r ed to and concep tu al i z ed them as a
c o l l e c t ive ent i t y :
the Indians .
The one exc ept ion wa s C h i e f Kad e , for
whom the cove was named , but nothing remains about h i s persona l ity or
individual char ac t er i s t i c s o th e r than h i s name .
Th e spr ing o f 1 8 1 9 brought s everal b ad l y n eed ed improvement s for
the O l iv er s .
Lucr e t i a , nev er one to suffer in s i l ence , b l amed Jo shua
Job e , who had p er suaded them to come to Cad es Cove in the f ir s t p l ace ,
for a l l their troub l es .
When Jobe v i s i t ed them in the spring to s e e how
they had fared , John b e gged h i s angry w i fe t o ho l d her t emper .
"How are
you g e t t ing a l ong in this beaut i fu l new c ountry , " Job e a s k ed Lucr etia
when h e s aw her .
retorted .
49
" I am s t arving to d eath , S i r , that ' s how , " she sharp l y
But Jobe r ep l i ed pat ient ly and prom i s ed her the cho i c e of
two cows from the herd wh i ch his brother was bringing into the c ove to
g r a z e during the summer month s .
So Lucr e t i a was pac i fi ed w i th the
promi s e of two m i l k cows , and both the O l iv er s were p l ea s ed a t the
48
49
I nt ervi ew w i th John W. O l iver , Jul y 1 8 , 1 9 63 .
w . H . O l iver , Sketch e s , 6 ; J . W . O l iver , Cad e s Cov e , I , 1 3 - 1 4 .
23
pro sp e c t o f s o on having new n eighbors from among their o l d fri ends in
Carter County .
50
The sufferings and privati on s o f their fir s t wint er in C ades Cove
were never forgot t en by the O l iver fami l y , but the fert i l i t y of the cove
s o i l soon amp l y r ep a i d them for th e i r s a c r i f i c e s .
Lucret i a made the
firs t s oap they had s ince l eav ing Carter C ounty out of but t er from her
John c l eared the fir s t fi e l d s
n ew cows , with lye made from wood ashes .
o f t imber b y hims e l f , u s ing h i s hor s e to pu l l u p the s tump s .
t oo l arge t o b e c u t h ad to be g i rd l ed .
51
Tr e e s
I n a pro c e s s u s ed throughout the
Amer i can fron t i er , the farmer cut a g i rd l e or c i rc l e around the tree
d e ep into the c ambrium l ayer ; the tree eventua l ly d i ed and cou l d then be
burne d to c l ear the l and .
Wh eat grew p art i cu la r l y we l l on the new l y c l eared fie l d s in the
c ov e up l ands , but O l iver a l s o grew corn , rye , o at s , and v e g e t ab l e s in
abundan c e .
The pump k ins whi ch had s aved their l ives dur i n g the prev ious
winter grew so abundant ly that John l at er as s er t ed he coul d " wa l k over
the fi e l d s on them wi thout ever touch ing ground . "
Th e O l iver s fo l l owed
the I n d i an examp l e o f k eep ing their cat t l e a l ong Abram ' s C r e ek , wh er e
they g r a z e d on r i ch gr a s s e s dur i n g the summer and found forage and
pro t e c t ion among the canebrak e s dur ing the winter .
The comp l e t i on of a
l o g barn with two pens and a threshing f l oor between them provided space
to s tore much of the first amp l e h arve s t .
50
51
Fina l l y , John dug a we l l
Ibid .
w . H . O l iver , Sketche s , 1 0 - 1 1 , J . W . O l iv er , C ad e s Cov e , I , 1 4 .
24
s ixty- four feet d eep , and w a l l ed i t up w i th smooth s tone s wh i ch he
g at hered from the f i e l d s .
52
Th i s we l l , wh i ch was d e s t ined nev er t o run dry i n ov er a hundred
years of cont inuous u s e , l ater rep r e s ented the d e ep r oo t s wh i ch the
O l ivers had s unk into the fert i l e c ove s oi l .
But it g av e an erroneous
s en s e of p ermanence whi ch s imp ly did not exi s t in the 1 8 2 0 ' s .
Life ,
r emained very t entative on the front i er , and no better examp l e of this
s i tuat ion exi s t s than the fact that John O l iver d i d not bo ther to ob tain
l ega l t i t l e to his l and unt i l as l at e as 1 8 2 6 , when h e b ought f i ft y - five
a cr e s from I saac H art for one hundr ed do l l ar s in c ash .
53
Even by 1 8 3 0 ,
m o s t o f the inh ab i tants l iving in Cades Cove according t o the c ensus had
n o t formal l y reg i s t ered their d e e d s at the county courthou s e , and many
fam i l i es fai l e d t o d o so throughout the nineteenth centur y .
54
I n th i s
s ens e , traces o f the front i er ment a l ity r emained i n Cad es C o v e l ong
aft er p eop l e l iv ing in other areas o f B l ount County ins i s t ed on s t r i c t
l e g a l i t y i n matt er s o f l and o wnersh ip and t i t l e .
52
I b 1' d . ,· J . W . 0 1 ·1ver , C a d es C ove , I , 7 .
53
B l ount D e ed s , Book 2 , pp . 4 8 0- 8 1 ; T enn e s s e e Grant No . 3 3 9 7 ,
February 3 , 1 8 2 7 , t o John O l iver by Ab s a l om C . Renfro , G eneral Ente�er ,
Entry Taker ' s Offi c e o f the Hiwas s e e D i s t r i c t , for forty acre s , in
B l ount County , s eventh rang e , east of the mer id i an , s ec ond frac t i on a l
township , t h e s outh hal f o f l o t No . 24 f o r e i ghty acres . Ori g ina l grant
in author ' s po s s e s s i on .
54
A carefu l correl at ion b e tween the inhab itants in Cad es C ove
enumerated by the 1 8 3 0 censu s , and B l oun t Deed s , 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 3 0 , shows that
l e s s than 1 0 percen t had r e g i s t ered the ir d e ed s . Many fami l i es reported
t h e ir l and h o l dings t o the captain of their l o c a l m i l i t ia for tax
purpo s e s , but mo st of thes e e ar l y B l ount C ounty tax l i s t s h ave unfortu­
nat e l y been d e s troyed . Manu s cr i p t Returns , Fi fth C ensus o f the Uni t ed
S t at e s , 1 8 30 , Popu l ation Schedu l e , B l ount C ounty , Tennes s ee , m i crof i l m
ro l l no . 1 7 8 (National Arch iv e s ; hereaft er c i t ed a s 1 83 0 C en su s ,
Popu l a t i on , B l ount County) .
25
The succ e s s o f t h e O l iver fami l y i n surv iving dur ing the year s 1 8 1 8 1 8 2 1 p aved the way for th e deve l opment o f Cad es Cove a s a communi ty
rather than a s a mere geograph i c ent i ty .
I n 1 8 2 1 , Jo shua Jobe s et t l ed
t h er e , a l ong with numerous r e l a t ives and friend s from Carter County .
55
Th e exact number o f fami l i es making this ini t ia l migrati on i s hard to
d e t ermine , s in ce many o f them moved on t o other areas b e fo r e the 1 8 3 0
census , and t h e extant deeds are v ery inconc l us ive .
But an exce l l ent
p i ctur e of l i fe in Cade s Cove dur ing the 1 8 2 0 ' s has b e en l eft by Jobe ' s
son , Dr . Abraham Job e , who in l at er years b ecame a prominent East
Tennes s ee phy s i c i an and attended Andrew Johnson on h i s d eathbed .
Dr . Jobe d i s t inct l y rememb ered mov ing w i th h i s fami l y t o the cove in
1 8 2 1 , when he was o n l y four years o l d "on a ccount of the fert i l ity of
56
.
. ra1. s 1ng
.
t h e so 1. 1 , an d t h e sup er1or
a d vantages 1n
s t o ck . "
With the advent o f many new wh i t e s e t t l ers to the cove in 1 8 2 1 , the
p o stur e of the I n d i ans sudden l y changed .
They had to l erat ed and ev en
as s i s t ed the l one O l iver fam i l y , but thi s sudden influx o f s et t l er s
threat ened their p o s s e s s ion of t h e l and i ts e l f , and they became abrup t ly
55
Dr . Ab raham Jobe , of E l i z ab ethton , Tennes s ee , Autobiography or
Memo irs (wr i t t en b etween 1 8 4 9 and 1 9 05) . A comp l et e typ ed copy is in
the Tenne s s e e S t a t e L ibrary , Na shvi l l e . Th e orig ina l manu s cr ipt i s in
the pos s e s s ion of Mrs . Har l o w (Sophi e Hunter) D i xon , Durham , N . C .
Hereaft er cited as Jobe , Autobi ography . An entr epreneur of unusua l l y
varied bus ine s s intere s t s , Dr . Jobe received h i s med ic a l d egree from
Tr an s y l vania Univer s i ty in Lexington , Kentucky , in March , 1 84 9 . H i s
autob i ography spans m o s t of t h e nineteenth century , from h i s chi ldhood
in Cad e s C ove through his harrowing exper i ences during the C i v i l War .
Jo shua Jobe ' s pur ch a s e from Wi l l i am Tipton o f 4 2 6 acr es in Cad e s Cove
on Decemb er 3 , 1 8 2 1 , is reco rded in Blount Deed s , Bo ok 2 , p . 3 2 4 .
56
Job e , Aut obi ogr aphy , 7 .
26
hosti l e .
Dr . Jobe r eca l l ed v ivid l y h i s fam i ly ' s experi enc e w i th the
I n d i an s and d e l ineated th e h ardening att i tude o f the s e tt l er s towards
them :
The Cherok ee Ind ians who h ad b een such a t error to the
s et t l ement in the Wat auga Val l ey and surround ing count ry ,
c aus ing the s e t t l ers to l ive in Forts for safet y , were s t i l l
l ingering in smal l b and s , in the mountain fas tne s s e s a l ong the
range of the Smokey Mountains , wh i ch l i e immed i ate l y south of
Cad e s Cove and form par t of its boundary .
. .
. . .
. . . .
. . . . .
. .
.
. .
A l l went we l l for a whi l e .
Ind i ans could be s een on l y
occas i ona l l y prowl ing around ; but wou l d soon l eav e , and get
back into the d e ep mountain gorges . G ame b e ing very p l en t i fu l ,
my unc l e was out hunt ing on e d ay and had wand er ed farther than
usua l in to the mount ains , and did not r eturn that n i ght , and
when s earch was made for him next d ay he was found in a
d e s erted I n d i an camp , on h i s knees l eaning against the s id e o f
th e camp , wh ere h e had b een murdered by the Indians . They h ad
cut off one o f h i s fingers and f l ed . 5 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
T h e Cherokee " threat , " as the I nd i an s w e r e n o w r egarded , was ended in
1 83 8 when the las t o f the cove ' s fir s t c i t i z ens were r emoved for the
" tr a i l of tear s " march t o Ok l ahoma Terr i tory .
I t i s both s ad and ironi c
that John Ol iver w a s among the l o c a l mi l i t i a ch arg ed w i t h t h e fina l
roundup o f the r emaining I nd ians .
I n add i t ion to the O l iv er s , Tipton s , and Job e s , three o th er
ind i v i dua l s mer i t p ar t i cu l ar att ent ion for the ir ear l y contr ibut ions t o
bui l d ing the new community .
R i ch ard and Wi l l iam Dav i s , bro ther s , were
ins trument a l a l ong with the O l ivers in obtaining an independent Cades
C ov e Bap t i s t Church , e s tab l i shed a s an arm of the Wear Cov e C hurch on
June 1 6 , 1 8 27 .
57
I b id .
R i chard served as moderato r and Wi l l iam as c l erk from
27
1 8 2 7 unt i l 1 8 3 9 , when b o th brothers moved t o Wa l k er C ounty , G eorgi a .
58
The e s tab l i shment of the f i r s t c hurch in C a d e s C ove repr e s ented to the
cove p eop l e their s ing l e mos t important accomp l i s hment i n bui l d ing the
n ew commun i t y .
Fo l l ow ing a patt ern very charac t er i s t i c of front i er
educat i o n in T ennes s ee , Wi l l iam Dav i s a l s o s e rv ed a s one o f the fir s t
s choo l t e achers i n t h e cov e .
59
T h e other ind ividual who d e s erv es part i cu l ar at tent i o n in t h e ear l y
h i s tory o f t h e cov e was P e t e r C ab l e .
B orn in P ennsylvan ia o n D ec emb er 2 0 ,
1 7 9 2 , he bought l and in Cad es C ove a s ear l y as 1 8 2 5 .
60
Unc l e P e t e r and
Aunt Catherine , as he and h i s w i fe were affe c t ionat e ly c a l l ed , "were
l eaders in church and communi t y l ife and were honored and hi gh l y r espected
by both o l d and young . "
Th ey were o f P enns yl v an i a - Dutch s t o c k , whi ch
probab l y accoun t s for P eter ' s l eadership in t echno l o g i c a l s ki l l s and h i s
w i d e l y acc l aimed innovat ive genius .
I t was he who c arefu l l y d e s i gned
and superv i s ed the e l aborat e sys t em o f d i k es , s lu i c e s , and l o g booms
p laced acros s the cre ek s , whereby the lower end of the cove was drained
and tran sformed from an unu s ab l e s wamp into the cov e ' s r i che s t farml and .
61
Both pub l i c and private bui l d in g s in the cove b ore eviden c e o f hi s
bui ld ing craft , and the farm too l s wh i ch he inv ented w i l l be d escribed
in a l at er chap t er .
58
Burns , " S et t l ement and E a r l y H i s t ory , " 6 0 ; J . W . O l iver , C ad e s
Cove , I , 1 0- 1 3 .
59
60
61
Jobe , Aut ob i ography , 1 5 - 1 6 ; Fo lmsbee and o thers , Tennes s ee , I , 2 3 2 .
J . W . O l iver , C ades Cove , I , 23 .
I b id . , 2 4 - 2 5 .
28
I n 1 8 30 , Jos hu a Jobe mov ed t o G eorg i a , attracted b y the prospect
of the Cherokee l ands in the pro c e s s of b e in g v a c ated .
62
Mos t of the
Tiptons l eft dur ing the 1 8 3 0 ' s , al ong with many fami l i e s who h ad been
63
.
t h e cov e .
p art o f t h e 1 8 2 1 C art er C ounty m 1. grat 1. on 1nto
D e s p i t e the
cove ' s r e l at ive i s o l at i on , its p opul at ion increas ed or dimini shed w i th
the many int ernal s h i ft s o f popu l at i on in the Uni t ed S t at e s .
The
attr ac t i on of t h e G eorgia l ands o f t h e Cherokee Nation dur ing th e 1 83 0 ' s ,
and l ater , the opening up o f new t e rr i t or i e s in the West caus ed p e r i o d i c
fluctuat i ons as o l der s et t l ers l eft and new s et t l ers ent ered t h e cove .
I n thi s s ens e , the cove b ecame a way- s t a t i on , even during the g ene s i s of
its c ommuni t y l i f e during the 1 8 2 0 ' s , for the l arger We s tward Movemen t .
64
The s e rap i d sh i f t s in popu l a t i on wou l d enri ch C ad e s Cove by th e
v ery d i v ers i ty o f new peop l es arriving there .
But the fami l ie s who
cho s e to mak e the cove their p e rmanent home from the b eg inning actu al l y
bui l t t h e communi t y .
They were t h e one s who bui l t t h e s choo l s , churches ,
m i l l s , and road s , and who are buri ed in the qui e t ceme t er i e s which are
62
Job e , Aut obi ography , 2 0 .
63
I b id . ; J . W . O l iver , Cades C ove , I , 1 0 ; Burns , " S et t l ement and
E ar ly H i s tory , " 6 2 .
64
J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I , 1 0 .
Former r e s i d ents frequent l y
maint ained an active correspondence with the ir friends and r e l atives
b ack in C ades Cove , and wer e often out spoken about t h e d i s advantages as
we l l as the advantag e s of the i r Wes t ern l and s .
For an exce l l ent examp l e ,
s e e Jacob and Ann Tipton , Newton C ounty , Mi s souri , t o John and I s aac
T ipton , Cad e s Cov e , Augus t 1 6 , 1 84 7 , in author ' s pos s e s s ion . The l arger
imp a c t o f the popu l at i on f lu ctuat ion on the state of Tennes s ee , and the
contribut ions o f mi grat ing Tenn e s s e ans to the nat ion , i s acut e ly anal y z ed
in Thomas Al l an Scott , Nat i on a l Imp act o f Tenn e s s e e Through her Migrating
Sons , 1 8 3 0 - 1 9 0 0 (Mas t e r ' s thes i s , Univer s it y o f Tenn e s s ee , Knoxvi l l e ,
1 96 6 ) .
29
o n e o f the f e w v i s ib l e s i gns o f t h e i r p re s en c e in t h e c o v e t od ay .
65
J ohn O l i ver and P e t e r Cab l e , who remained the best of friends throughout
their l ives , contr ibuted something more to the spiri tual than to the
mater i a l deve l opment o f the cove , however .
They gave t h e ideo l ogi c a l
b a s e f o r deve l op ing a permanent s en s e o f c ommuni t y , a comp l e x sys t em o f
ideas and values wh i ch woul d det ermine t h e qua l ity o f l i fe in Cad es C ove
throughout the n inet eenth c entury .
Thi s rang e o f at t i tudes and i deas were imp l i c i t , o ft en intangib l e ,
and a l ways d i fficu l t t o do cument o r measure , but any s tudy o f Cad es Cove
whi ch does not t ak e them into account mak e s a fundament a l error in
a s s uming that the commun i ty ' s character was predominan t l y d e t ermined by
i t s g eography o r economic s t ructure .
The id eas and v a l u e s of its e ar l y
s et t l ers provi d ed t h e cove w i th an ideo l og i c a l modus operand i throughout
the n inet eenth century in the form of a f l exib l e framework wh i ch cou ld
accommodate both new ideas and old d i s appo intmen t s .
Other chapt ers wi l l
exp l ore the r o o t s o f the s e ideas , and their mani fes t a t i on , but the
imp ort ance of Andrew Jackson ' s equ a l i tarian ideo l ogy to J ohn O l iver , and
through h im , to the l arger community of Cad e s Cov e , has a l r eady b een
du l y noted .
66
Certain l y , however , a fundament a l l ove of the l and p l ayed a pr imary
ro l e in the fo rmat i on of the new commun i ty .
Thi s inten s e a t tachment to
their f ert i l e l and is nowh ere exp l i ci t l y record ed by the smal l farmers
65
66
J . w. O l iver , Cades Cove , I , 1 0 .
w . H . O l iv e r , Sketches , 1 - 4 .
30
o f C ad e s Cove , who in any event wou l d b e g en er a l l y in ar t i cu l at e ab out
b as i c as sump t i ons whi ch they he l d in regard to the l and .
But evi d ence
o f s uch d evot i on i s c l ear l y d emons trated b y t h e fact that they c arefu l l y
n amed , a s they wou l d their chi l dren , each t iny subd i vi s i on , e ach f i e l d
or sma l l r i s i n g , wi t h in t h e cove .
The creeks they named earl y :
Forg e , Mi l l , Rowan ' s , and Abram ' s were the main ones .
Anthony ,
I n add i t ion ,
s cores o f sma l l e r t ribut ari e s were named , o f whi ch C ad e s , S e a , Tat er ,
Wi l dc at , and Whi s t l ing are but a few .
67
The important fact here i s that
even the sma l l e s t t opographi c al feature s , s i gn i fi cant t r e e s and
i n s igni ficant springs , wer e named with equal l y c areful at t ent ion .
The s e p l ace-names appear ear l y in the l and d e ed s , where they are
fr equent ly men tioned to mark boundar i e s .
68
But they repres ented an
invi s i b l e map , a v as t , d et ai l ed d e s cripti v e know l edg e of C ad es Cov e w i th
which a l l the inhab i tants o f the commun i t y w ere fami l i ar , but wh i ch no
out s i der cou l d b eg i n t o mas t e r unt i l after l ong years o f r e s i d enc e .
Once named , t h e s e sma l l er geograph i c ar eas as sumed an i d en t i t y o f their
own , qui t e ind ep end ent from the ori g inal owner , who might l on g since
h a v e d i ed or moved out o f the cove .
67
68
69
69
They a l mo s t a s s umed t h e
I n t ervi ew w i th John W . O l iv er , August 1 4 , 1 9 6 3 .
B l ount D eeds , B o ok 5 , pp . 3 4 5 - 4 6 ; B o ok 2 , pp . 4 8 0 - 8 1 ; 5 0 3 - 504 ; 3 2 4 .
An exc e l l ent examp l e o f thi s pract i c e i s the Hyatt Lane , a main
r oute acro s s the cove . Th e Hyat t fami l y , for whom the l ane was named ,
was ment ioned a s having moved t o M i s sour i dur ing the 1 8 4 0 ' s by Wi l l i am B .
Tip ton in a l etter to John Tipton in 1 8 4 7 . S e e W i l l i am B . Tipton ,
Newton County , Mi s s our i , to John Tipton , Cades Cove , August 1 6 , 1 84 7 , i n
author ' s pos s e s s i on . See a l so Ine z Burns , H i s tory o f B l ount County ,
Tenn e s s e e (Maryvi l l e , Tenne s s e e , 1 95 7 ) , 2 7 5 .
31
p er s ona l i t i e s o f peop l e ; w i th the p a s s a g e o f time , each ent i t y might
d ev e l op a h i s tory of its own , d e s cribing the human even t s wh i ch had
transpired at that p ar t i cu l ar l o c at i on .
70
So the l and b l end ed w i th t h e peop l e who s et t l ed i t into one
funct ional uni t y , and thi s uni t y repre s ent ed in i t s b e s t s en s e a
communi t y .
B inding t h e peop l e t og ether was thi s poo l o f shared
knowl edg e , t h i s internal , inv i s i b l e map , w i th a l l the accompanying
fo l k l ore , whi ch they shared w i th no out s i d er .
71
Th i s int ima t e know l edge
and fami l iari ty with the l and a l s o p r e s erved the s en s e of commun i t y by
providing Cades Cove with an unchang ing cons tant when the great
migrat i ons , int o and out of the cov e , b egan in the ear l y 1 8 3 0 ' s .
And i t
g ave the f i r s t s et t l ers a c l ear advantag e , b ecau s e such kno w l edge , and
throu gh such know l edge , ful l part i c ipat i on in the commun i t y ' s con s c ious
l i fe , cou l d be acquired and p erfected by cov e r e s idents on l y through the
p a s s a g e of t ime .
The s e t t l ement p eriod had s c a r c e l y ended in 1 8 2 7 when the cove was
introduced t o the indu s tr i a l age with the construc t i on on Forg e Cr eek of
the C ad e s Cove B l oomary Forg e , bui l t and operat ed by Dan i e l D . Fout e ,
the cove ' s s ing l e most impor t an t entrepreneur during the ninet eenth
70
r nterview with John W. O l iver , Augus t 1 4 , 1 9 63 . The importance
o f p l ac e trad i t ions conne cted w i th l andmark s i s succ inc t l y d i s cu s s ed by
Richard M . Dorson , Ameri can Fo l k l or e and the H i s t o r i an (Ch i cago , 1 9 7 1 ) ,
155 .
71
rbid.
For an inter e s t in g ana lys i s o f the fun c t i ona l v a l u e o f
p l ac e- names , s e e Rona l d L . B aker , "Th e Ro l e o f F o l k L egend s i n P l ac e ­
Name Res earch , " Journal o f Americ an F o l k l or e , LXXXV (Octobe r - Decemb e r ,
1 9 7 2 ) , 3 67 - 7 3 .
32
c entur y .
72
Acco rd i n g to trad i t ion , the no i s e whi ch r e s ound ed throughout
the cove from the f i r s t b l ow of the huge fo rge h ammer prov ed to be too
much for the wo l ve s .
Unab l e to cope with t h i s n o i s e , the fr i ght ened
anima l s l e ft that day , and wer e n ev er s e en o r heard in Cad es Cove again .
73
To John and Lucre t i a O l iver , t h e d eparture of the s e w o l v e s repres ent ed
the w e l come know l e dg e that a dangerous and o ft en threatening symb o l o f
their w i l dern e s s exp erience had fina l l y ended .
But t o the remnant
Chero k e e Ind i ans s t i l l l iv i n g in the cove , the wo l f (wi y a ) was r ev ered
as a hunter and wat chdog ; the ord inary Cheroke e wou l d never k i l l a wo l f
74
l' f h e cou l d po s s 1' b l y avo 1' d 1. t .
To the s e r ema in i n g Cherokee , then , the depar tur e o f the wo lves
foreshadowed a t ime in the immed i at e future when they , t o o , woul d b e
b an i sh ed forever from th e i r hom e s in the cov e .
In the v ery g enes i s o f
the n ew c ommun i t y were imp l anted s eeds o f d e s truc t i on for the o l der
Cherokee c iv i l i z at ion .
How the Cherokee l iv ing ther e r egarded thi s fate
is undi s coverab l e , but i t is r easonab l e to a s s ume that they l oved the ir
fert i l e cove l and n o l es s than d i d the peop l e who d i s p l ac ed them .
Yet
they wer e unques t i onab l e trapped in an impo s s i b l e s i tuat i on ; regard l es s
o f t h e i r behav i or , wh ether t hey kept the l one O l iver fam i l y from
72
J . P . Le s l ey , I ron Manufactur er ' s Guide ( Phi l ad e l ph i a , 1 8 5 9 ) , 2 0 2 .
L e s l ey s t ates in 1 8 5 9 that the Cad e s Cove B l o omary For ge was l o cated t en
mi l es s outh o f the Amer ine Forg e , and was abandoned in 1 8 4 7 . S igns o f
c o a l ing and excavat ion are s t i l l v i s i b l e there today . S e e Burns , B lount
County , 6 0 .
73
74
Interv iew w i th John W . O l iver , Ju l y 1 8 , 1 9 63 .
Mooney , "Myths o f the Cherok ee , " 2 64 - 6 5 .
33
s t arv a t i on in t h e wint er of 1 8 1 8 - 1 8 1 9 , or murd er ed J o s hua Job e ' s b rother
in an abandoned I n d i an camp l at e r , their fate was a s inexorab l y fixed ,
or predet ermined , as that of their fe l l ow hunter , the w o l v e s .
F o r the p i oneering wh i t e fami l i es , however , the d e c ad e o f the 1 8 2 0 ' s
had b r ought pr o s p e r i ty and a s en s e of p e rmanence to their new l y
e s t ab l i shed community a s they c l eared t h e i r fi e l d s , p l an t ed orchard s ,
drained s wamp s , and e s t ab l i sh ed s choo l s and chur che s .
They were s t i l l
an i s l and o f s et t l ed l and within the s urrounding wi l d erne s s o f the Great
Smoky Mountains , and the l ar g e r prob l ems o f finding r ou t e s out of the
cove for thei r mark etab l e c rops were yet un s o l v ed .
But fam i l i e s such a s
the O l iv e r s l ooked forward t o the futur e growth o f t h e c o v e in 1 8 3 0 ,
confident that no prob l em wou l d ever again ari s e wh ich thr eatened th eir
survival as h ad s tarv a t i on in the winter of 1 8 1 8 - 1 8 1 9 .
Nor wou ld they
ever again fa ce such d i ffi cu l t i e s a l one ; the growing s ecur i t y o f the
c ommun ity within the cove s e emed to counterbal anc e any p o s s ib l e d an ger
from the surr ound in g mountains out s ide .
CHAPTER I I
THE I MPACT O F THE W I LDERNESS
Reca l l ing his appointment to the Maryv i l l e c ircui t s ixty- four year s
ear l i er , I saac P . Mart in , a Method i s t m i n i s ter i n the Ho l ston C onference
for ov er ha l f a c entury , g av e the fo l l owing account of h i s f ir s t v i s i t
t o C ad e s C ov e i n 1 89 0 :
Th e sun was h igh in the h e avens when I p as s ed the cr e s t
o f t h e mountain and b eg an t h e d e s cent to ward Cade ' s Cov e .
My f i r s t g l imps e o f the Cove was through openings i n the
fores t , but pre s en t l y I c ame t o a c l i ff from wh i ch I cou l d
s e e a l m o s t t h e ent ire c o v e whi ch n e s t l e s there amon g the
cr e s t s of the gr eat moun t a i n s . I had never s een anyth ing
qui te s o b eaut i fu l . Thunderhea d Mount a in , s tand ing 5 5 3 0
feet , r o s e t o t h e s outheas t , r i s ing near l y 3 000 feet above
the l ev e l of C ade ' s C ov e .
On the shou l der o f Thund erhead n es t l ed Spence F i e l d ,
for ever a t t e s t in g man ' s d e s ire to dwe l l on the l ofty h e i ght s .
A l it t l e further away t o the s outhw e s t was Gregory ' s B a l d
w i th i t s park l i k e t r e e s and i t s meadows in the sun l i ght . To
the north wa s R i ch Mount ain , which I had j us t cro s s ed ; w ith
Abr am ' s Creek r i s ing in the northea s t and runn ing ob l iqu e l y
northwe s t t o sp i l l i t s waters at t h e p i ctur e s que Abr am ' s
F a l l s , Cade ' s Cove i s th e dr eam o f the Smoky Mounta ins . !
Mar t in ' s d e s c r i p t ion of Cad e s C ov e i s s ign i fi cant not b e c au s e o f
i t s uni quene s s ; few v i s itors dur ing th e n in e t e enth c entury fai l ed t o
c omment favorab l y , often u s in g s up er l at iv e s , on t h e natural b e auty o f
t h e cove and i t s env irons .
I t d id not r equi r e the s k i l l o f Mary No ai l l es
Murfr ee or S idney Lan i er , both of whom u s ed Cad e s Cov e as the background
for m any o f t he i r wr i t ings , to awaken the ord inary p erson ' s s e n s ib i l it i es
1
I s aac P . Mar t in , A Min i s ter in the T enne s s e e V a l l ey :
Years (Nashvi l l e , 1 9 5 4 ) , 6 5 .
34
S ixty - Seven
35
t o the extr aordinary b eauty o f the cove .
2
Even Parson Brown l o w , the
v i tup e r at ive edi t or of the Knoxv i l l e Whi g , who s e sharp g a z e s e l dom fai l ed
t o uncover the m o s t minut e f l aw in human or natural phenomena , had o n l y
pra i s e f o r the c o v e and i t s surround ing mount a in s .
3
Mart in ' s d e s c r ip t ion o f Cades Cove i s s i gn i f i cant b e c au s e i t
indi c a t e s the primacy and p ermanence of t h e wi l derne s s s et t ing of the
cove i n 1 89 0 , three years b efore Frederick Jacks on Turner l amented the
p a s s ing o f the fron t i er exp e r i ence for the r e s t o f the nati on .
Cove i n t h i s res pect was c e r t a i n l y an anomal y .
4
Cad es
Other s ec t ions in the
Uni ted S t ates , once s e t t l ed , soon l o s t the f l avor o f the ir o r i g in a l
w i l dernes s env i ronment a s farms w e r e surround ed by more c l eared l ands
in the forward p r o gr e s s ion o f the Wes tward Mov emen t .
Yet howev er
inten s e l y cul t ivated the fert i l e bas in o f the cove mi ght b ecome , the
surrounding moun t ains , and v a s t s tr et ch e s of wi l d erne s s areas , r emained
a con s tant fact or , an ever -pres ent e l emen t , in the l ives of the cove
p eop l e th roughout the ninet eenth c entury .
Th e purpo s e o f thi s chap t e r
2
Natha l i a Wr ight , "Montval e Spr ings und er the Propr i etorship o f
S t e r l ing Lan i er , 1 8 5 7 - 1 8 6 3 , " ETHS Pub l i c ations , No . 1 9 ( 1 94 7 ) , 5 9 ; Mason ,
Lur e of the Great Smok i es , 1 1 .
3
Knoxv i l l e Whi g , Augus t 2 7 , February 5 , 1 8 5 3 , January 3 , 1 8 5 7 .
W i l l iam G . Brown low , ed itor o f the Knoxvi l l e Wh i g from the time o f h i s
r emov a l from Jonesboro to Knoxv i l l e in 1 8 4 9 unt i l the C i v i l War , was
" w i thout que s t i on the most r egul ar and ardent patron" of Montva l e
Spring s . From th i s r esort h e v i s i t ed the surrounding mountains and
cove s , and wro t e frequent and g lowing account s o f the ar ea in h i s
newspaper . Wr i ght , "Montva l e Spr ing s , " 5 4 - 5 5 . S e e a l so the Knoxv i l l e
Whi g , 1 8 5 0- 1 8 6 0 p as s im .
4
Ray Al l en B i l l in gton , Freder i c k Jackson Turner : H i s to r i an ,
S ch o l ar , Teacher ( N ew York , 1 9 7 3 ) , 1 84 - 9 0 ; Freder ick Jac k s on Turner ,
The Fron t i er in Ameri can H i s tory (New York , 1 9 2 0 ) , 1 - 3 8 .
36
i s to exp lore t h e fun c t i on o f the wi ldern es s -- those uno ccup i ed mountain
areas out s id e the cove proper-- in the l iv e s o f the p eop l e l iv ing i n
C a d e s Cov e .
5
The ins eparab i l i ty o f the phy s i c a l wi l dernes s and the geographi c
ar ea o f Cades C ov e , and the cont i nu ing interac t ion o f t h e i r l ives in the
d en s e ly s et t l ed cov e w i th the w i ld ernes s out s id e do e s not n e c e s s ar i l y
mean that the a t t i tude s o f the cove peop l e t oward the ir environment d i d
not chang e o r a l t er during t h e c our s e o f the c entury .
An exam inat i on o f
t h e records o f the peop l e ac tua l l y l iv ing in t h e cove , who wer e fu l l
p ar t i c ip ants i n i t s c ommun ity l i f e , can prov i d e an swer s t o the impor t ant
que s t i on s o f their att itude s toward and the funct ional value o f the
wi l derne s s .
L a t er v i s i tors and wr i t ers , s e eing the natural s e t t ing o f
Cade s C ov e , o ft en made qui t e erron eous as sump t i ons about t h e impo r t ance
o f the wi l dernes s in the l iv e s o f the nat ives .
One might as sume , for examp l e , that the w i l dern e s s imp eded the
deve l opment o f an organ i z e d s o c i ety and r e t arded a gr icul tur a l prac t i c es
and the devel opment o f a market economy in the cove .
A r e c ent s tud ent
of an area w i th many s im i l ar i t i e s in Wes t V i r g i n i a conc l ud ed that the
v ery m eans wh i ch the p ione er s were ab l e to d ev i s e in order to surv ive in
5
rh i s s imp l e d e fi n i t ion of w i l dernes s , a far cry from the modern
s cho lar ' s soph i s t i cated concept , r e f l e c t s the c ontempor ary r e s ident s '
i d e a o f the uninhab i ted mounta inous regions surrounding them . W . H .
O l iv er , Sketches , 2 6 - 2 7 . Rod er i ck Nash has po inted out that the main
app ea l of the w i l d erne s s has a l ways b een to tho s e mo s t removed from i t ,
the g entry inte l l ec tua l s who d e s ir e to conceptual i z e natur e , not to the
p ioneers who exp lo i ted i t . "American fron t i e rsmen , " h e conc l ud es ,
" r ar e l y j udged w i l dern e s s w i th cr i teria o ther than the u t i l i tar ian . "
Rod erick Nash , Wi l derne s s and the Amer i c an Mind (New Haven , 1 9 6 7 ) , 2 3 - 4 3 .
37
a n inho s p i t ab l e mountain r e g i o n added to the g eographi c i s o l ation o f t h e
area and eventua l ly created a b a s e o f arr e s t ed d ev e l opment wh i ch l eft
the ent i re area far behind the r e s t of the s t a t e and nation .
6
On fir s t ob s ervat ion , t h i s s ame s i tuat ion m i ght have occurred in
Cad e s Cov e , b ec au s e the cove suffered a s e r ious r etrogr e s s ion after the
C iv i l War and h ad b e c ome increas ing l y the s t ereo t yp ed s t at i c s o c i ety of
S outhern App a l achia by the end of the c entury .
was very d i ffer ent in the cov e .
Yet the who l e s i tuat ion
F ir s t , the r i ch s o i l o f the cove bas in ,
unl i k e the poorer s o i l in W e s t Virgini a , a l l owed farmers to produ c e an
abundanc e of marketab l e crop s .
E conomic d e c l ine came not b ec au s e th e ir
l and cou l d no l on g er produc e , but b ecau s e the market d emand s eri ous l y
d e c l in ed after the C i v i l War , due t o the g ener a l l y d epres s ed economy o f
E a s t T ennes s ee and the l ar g er r e g i on .
7
S econd , the cons t ant influx o f
n e w s et t l ers into Cade s Cove , often from d i s tant p l aces , abrup t l y s topped
after 1 8 60 .
6
8
ot i s K . R i c e , The A l l egheny Front ier :
1 7 3 0 - 1 8 3 0 ( Lexing t on , 1 9 7 0 ) , 3 7 6 - 79 .
We s t Virginia Beg innings ,
7
F o l msb e e and other s , Tenne s s e e , I I , 9 7 , 1 2 9 . That Tennes s e e
agr icul ture remained depr e s s ed through mo s t o f t h e peri od b etween 1 8 6 5
and 1 9 0 0 i s i l lu s tr at ed b y t h e fact that in 1 8 9 0 the av era g e value o f
farm l ands p e r acre i n the s t a t e w a s s t i l l 9 3 c ents b e low t h e 1 8 6 0 l ev e l ,
and the to t a l v a l u e o f Tenne s s e e ' s farm produc t s in 1 8 9 0 wa s 3 6 perc ent
b e low that of 1 8 7 0 . U . S . Depar tment o f Commerc e , Bur eau o f the C ensu s ,
Twe l ft h C ensus o f the Uni t ed S t at e s , 1 9 00 : Agr i c u l tur e , Part I , 6 9 4 - 9 5 ,
7 0 3 . The s e census s t at i s t i c s r ev e a l not on l y a dras t i c drop in T enne s s e e ' s
farm property and product s after 1 8 6 0 , but a l s o a dec l ine b etween 1 8 7 0 1890 .
8
Even a cur sory compar i s on o f the 1 8 7 0 and 1 8 8 0 c ensus r eturns o f
B l ount C ounty w ith pre- war returns ind i c a t e s that the s t eady influx o f
n e w s et t l ers abrup t l y s t opp ed a fter 1 8 6 0 . The s e demograph i c changes
w i l l be ana l y z ed more thorough l y in Chap t er I I I , but th e l o s s of new
s et t l er s , and the sub s equent lack of diver s ity among the cov e popu l at ion ,
obvious l y had a v ery d e l e t er ious effect on the entire fabr i c o f c ommun i t y
l i fe .
38
Thus the g eneral economic d e c l ine aft er the C iv i l War was due t o
po l it i c a l and external fac tors and n o t to t h e i s o l at ion o f t h e cov e or
the effect of the w i l d ern e s s o n the l iv e s o f the cove peop l e .
Dur ing
the 1 8 4 0 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s , new road s and fr equent c ommerce w i th the market
centers of E a s t T ennes s ee , as we l l as many new immi grant s , had made the
cove a prosperous and progre s s iv e agr i cu l tural commun i t y .
9
I t s d e c l ine
after the C iv i l War was r e l at i v e to th e g ener a l d e c l ine of the ent ire
r e g i o n ; the 1880 c en sus , for examp l e , i l l u s t r at ed the fact that th e
s ix t e enth civi l d i s t r i c t o f B loun t C ounty (Cades Cov e ) was no l es s , and
oft en mor e prosperous , than other more acc e s s ib l e areas of the county ,
a l t hough the ent ire county and r eg i on were s t i l l b e l ow prewar
l ev e l s .
10
G i v en a spat i a l defin i t i on of w i l d ernes s , what were the phys i c a l
chara c t er i s t i cs o f thi s surrounding area o f for e s t s and mount ains wh ich
today compr i s e the Great Smoky Mountains Nat i onal Park?
Thi s southern
s e c t io n of the Unaka Chain is char ac t er i z ed by an ama z in g v ar i ety o f
f lora and fauna , a var i ety due i n part to w i s p s o f fog and l ow-hanging
c l ouds wh i ch make the s e mountains the nation ' s region of highest
prec ip i t at ion out s i d e the Pacific Northwe s t .
From the F r a z i er fir , or
" b a l s am , " wh ich account s for the bulk of for e s t s in mount ains over 6 , 0 00
feet , to t h e cove h ardwood fores t s , th e v ar i e ty and s i z e o f more than
9
w . H . O l iv er , Ske tche s , 1 9 - 2 0 ; J . W . O l iver , Cad es Cov e , I , S - 6 ;
Burns , B l ount County , 27 6 .
10
1 8 8 0 C en su s , Popu l at io n , B l ount C ounty .
39
one hundred nat ive trees in the area g iv e s th i s r e g i on a b o t an i c a l
11
.
v ar 1. ety unmatch e d e 1 s ewh ere 1n
t h e Un1. t e d S t at e s .
F r o m th i s array o f natural b ounty wou l d come great economic benefit
to the inhab i tan t s o f Cad es C ov e .
One tree , the ches tnut , wh ich i s now
extinct , p l ayed an import ant r o l e in the e c o l o g i c a l sys t em affect ing
both w i l d l i f e , dome s t icated animal s , and human res id ent s of the area .
12
"Th e b i g tree o f the Great Smo k i e s fore s t s , " w i th s ome spec imens ach i eving
t runk d i ameters of nine t o t en feet , the c h e s tnut was r eg ar d ed as the
b e s t h ardwood tree in Amer i c a b ec au s e " it s l umb er was s t ra i ght grained ,
eas i l y worked , exc ep t i onal l y durab l e , and o f the h i g h e s t qua l ity . "
13
Th e nut s were sweet and p a l a t ab l e , and formed a s t ap l e and h i gh l y
d e s irab l e p ar t o f the averag e p ioneer ' s d i e t .
Th ey were a l s o a v ery
11
Ar thur Stupka , Great Smoky Mountains Nat ional Park (Washington ,
D . C . , 1 9 60) , 1 - 1 5 .
12
A par as i t i c fungus , f i r s t d i s covered in New York i n 1 9 0 4 , rap i d l y
spread throughout the for e s t s of t h e ea s t ern Un i t ed S t at e s , and dur ing
the 1 9 2 0 ' s and 1 9 3 0 ' s , k i l l e d mo s t o f the ch e s tnut tr e e s in the Great
Smoky Mountains . Frank W . Wood s , Natur a l R ep l ac ement o f Ches tnut by
Other Spe c i es in the Great Smoky Mountains ( Doctoral d i s s er t a t ion ,
Un ivers i t y o f Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 5 7 ) , 2 - 4 . Th e cau s a l fungus ,
Endo t h i a par as i t ic a , has pract i ca l ly e l iminated the Ame r i c an ches tnut
( C a s t anea dent ata) as a memb er of the dec i duou s fo r e s t comp l ex of the
e a s t ern Uni t ed Stat e s , and o r i enta l spec i e s and hybrids ar e not
s a t i s fac tory r e p l ac ement s . The importan c e o f the che s tnut in the cove
areas , and of the ches tnut to o ther typ e s o f tr ee s , sugg es t s that th e
po s t - b l i ght for e s t s w i l l b e c o n s i derab l y d i fferent in compo s i t ion from
tho s e s ame ar eas in the nine t e enth cen tury . S e e a l so Pau l Edward
Barne tt , A C omparativ e Study of Pheno l ic s in Ches tnut (Cas tanea) , and
Their Re l at ionship s with R e s i s tanc e to Endoth i a para s i t i c a (Do ctor a l
d i s s er t at ion , Univers ity o f Tenne s s ee , Knoxv i l l e , 1 97 2 ) , 1 1 6 - 2 0 .
13
s tupk a , Great Smoky Mountains , 2 3 - 36 . C h e s tnut was w i d e l y u s ed
in ear l y Amer i c a for kitchen utens i l s , bow l s , boxes , and ware that had
hard u s ag e . Mary Ear l e Goul d , Ear l y Amer i can Wooden Ware and Other
K i t chen Utens i l s (Rutl and , V ermont , 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 7 .
40
mark e t ab l e b y- produc t , and e ach fa l l chi ldren 1n the cove co l l ec t ed
ch es tnut s to s e l l in the l ar g er urban marke t s o f Eas t Tennes s ee , usual l y
Maryv i l l e or Kno xv i l l e .
14
N e ed l es s t o s a y , the ext inc t i on of t h i s fine
tree ser i ous l y d im i ni shed many species o f w i l d l i fe , part i cu l ar l y b l ack
b ears , who fed d i r e c t l y o n the nut s .
15
A s e eming l y end l es s supp l y o f trees from the surround ing mountains
supp l ied the cove peop l e w i t h wood for hous e s , fenc e r ai l s , and a great
variety of hous eho l d imp l ement s and agr i cu l tural too l s .
Th i s form o f
t h e w i ld erne s s , the trees , had a very cond i t i on i n g effect o n t h e dome s t i c
economy o f t h e cove , s i nce s ome d i v i s ion o f l abor -- i . e . , coffin -mak er ,
c ab inet maker , e tc . , -- was v ery ear l y nec e s s ary to ut i l i z e thi s bas ic
14
ches tnut s a l s o furn i shed mas t for hogs wh i c h gr a z ed i n the wood s .
J . W . O l iv er , Cad es C ov e , I , 5 . A common s ight on the s tr e e t s o f
Kno xv i l l e and mo s t o ther e a s t ern c i t i e s dur i n g t h e l a s t c entury wa s the
ches tnut v endor , who s o l d r o a s t ed ch e stnuts for a n i c k e l a bag . A s i d e
from i t s s ent iment a l app ea l to t h e nat i on , the ches tnut had h i gh
I t was
commer c i a l v a lu e b ec au s e o f i t s dur ab l e and r o t - r e s i s t ant wood .
a l s o an impor tant source o f t anni c acid . Amanda U lm , "Rememb er the
Ch e s tnut , " Annua l Repor t of the Smi th s on i an I ns t i tut i on , 1 94 8 (Wash ington ,
1 94 8 ) ' 3 7 7 - 8 2 .
15
s tupka , Great Smoky Mountains , 2 6 . The ext inc t i on o f the che s tnut
and the consequent d iminut ion of an ima l s such a s the b l ack b ear , wh ich
d epended on c h e s tnut s for food , h e l p s exp l ain s ome bas i c e c o l o g i c a l
chan g e s b e tween t h e w i l dern e s s environment o f nineteenth and twent i e th
century Cad e s C ov e . A surv ey of the South ern App a l ac h i an for e s t s in
1 90 5 r ev e a l ed th e fo l l owing propor t ion o f trees in the Cades C ove
d i s tr ic t : ches tnut , 30 percent ; che s tnut o ak , 2 0 percen t ; heml o ck ,
1 2 p er c en t ; sugar mapl e , 6 p ercen t ; red gum , 4 percent ; b lack b irch ,
4 percent ; b l ack oak , 6 p ercent ; and other s , 6 percent . Th e p er centage
of ches tnut ( 3 0 p e rc en t ) in the Cades Cove d i s t r i ct wa s c o n s iderab l y
h i gher than r e g i ona l avera g e s ( 2 0 p ercent) in the L i t t l e Tenne s s e e R iver
b a s in .
So at the end o f the century the che s tnut was c l ear l y the most
impor tant tree in Cad e s Cove quan t i t at iv e l y , and its d i s tr i but ion was
much greater there than in the l arger r e g i on . H . B . Ayr e s and W. W .
A sh e , "The Southern Appal ach ian For e s t s , " U . S . G e o l o gic a l Survey
Profes s i onal Paper No . 3 7 (Wash ington , 1 90 5 ) , 1 7 7 - 8 1 .
41
commo d i ty .
I t a l so b ound t o g ether the t i e s of communi t y , s i n c e a l ar g e
unde r t ak ing such a s bui l d ing a house o r barn , invar i ab l y r equi red a
c o l l ec t ive effor t .
And so c i al l y , the abundanc e and fr ee a c c e s s to wood
had a l ev e l ing effect , s i n c e the poor e s t fam i l y had on ly to g ather it in
order to hav e a fue l supp l y e qual to that of i t s riche s t n e i ghbor .
16
Another pract i c a l function o f the wi l d erne s s was t o s upp ly an
abundance of many typ es of g ame .
Here , a s w ith the for e s t s , it i s
imp o r t ant t o b e ar i n m ind that i n the mountains surround ing Cad es Cove ,
g ame remained cons tant as a food s ourc e thr oughout the c en tury and d id
not , as was so o ft en the c a s e in o ther areas , become s carc e o r thinned
out w i th the i n f l ux of new s et t l er s .
One r ea s on for thi s s it ua t i o n was
t h at the surrounding mountains and wi ldern e s s ar eas were never actua l l y
. remo t e r e g 1. ons . 1 7
s et t 1 e d , or o n 1 y very sparce 1 y so 1n
As a food s ource , by far the mo s t imp or t ant game was deer .
W i l l iam
How e l l O l iver r ec a l l ed in h i s Sketches that h i s father , E l i j ah , was an
exc e l l en t hunter who could averag e thre e to s i x d e er in a good day .
Ki l l i n g d e er invo l v ed m in im a l w a s t e , inasmuch as the meat was s a l ted and
cou l d be pres erved for fair l y l o n g per i o d s o f t ime .
E l i j ah Ol iver o ft en
r e fus ed to k i l l sma l l er game b ecause deer was such an exc e l l ent quar r y ,
and f i ri n g one ' s r i f l e a t a s quirre l might s c a r e the mor e valuab l e d eer
16
17
w . H . Ol iver , S k etch e s , 5 1 - 58 ; J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I , 2 4 .
comment ing o n agr i cu l ture in the L i tt l e Tenn e s s e e R iv e r bas in ,
Ayr e s and Ash e s tated in 1 9 0 5 that "a l l of the l and avai l ab l e for
t i l l a g e has been c l ear ed , " and that out s id e of a few a l luv i a l bo t t oms
and fert i l e cove s , this area cont ained " some of the mos t rug g ed l and in
the S outh ern Appal ach i ans , " c omp l e t e l y unsui tab l e for cu l t ivat i on .
Ayres and Ashe , "Southern App a l achi an F o r es t s , " 1 8 0 .
42
1
away . 8
V en i son r emained abundant throughout mo s t o f the c entury and
was a l ways a favor i t e d i e t o f the cove p eop l e .
I n the b e ginning o f s e t t l ement , hun t i n g was a prac t i c a l nece s s i ty ,
s inc e g am e supp l i ed an impor t ant part o f the t o t a l food supp l y .
As
farms b eg an t o produce an abundan c e of v ar i ou s typ e s of crops , how ev er ,
k i l l ing game b ec ame l e s s a nec e s s i ty th an a l ei sur e pas t im e , o r spor t ,
for t h e men o f the cov e .
Hunt i n g became a r i tua l , usual l y s o l i tary ;
mos t cove men p referred to hunt a l one t o e s c ap e , i f onl y t emporar i l y ,
from the int en s iv e effort r equired i n farmi n g and from any p er s ona l or
dome s t i c cri s i s .
Thus through t h i s r i tual the wi ld ernes s b e c ame a t yp e
9
o f p s ych 1. c s a f ety v a v e f o r t h e men o f t h e c ommun 1. ty . 1
1
Hunt ing wa s a comp l i cated a c t i v i ty .
I t r equired not o n l y an
accur ate know l ed g e of the geography of the moun t a in s , but the abi l i ty t o
d e t ermine weather cond i t i ons , to track g ame , and to bui l d s i mp l e traps
if one shou l d run out of ammun i t ion .
In the proce s s , or cour s e o f t h i s
r itua l , an indiv idua l hunter frequent ly devel oped a n intense fondne s s
f o r h i s gun , i l l u s t rated by the fact that favor i t e guns were frequent l y
g iv en names such a s " O l d Bean , " or " O l d B e t s y , " and t h e c o v e men c ou l d
.
o f t en 1" d ent1" fy var 1ous
guns b y t h e s oun d o f t h e 1 r d 1" s c h arg e .
.
20
1 8 w . H . O l iver , Sketches , 3 3 .
19
I b id . , 2 6 ; J .
W.
Ol iver , Cades Cove , I I , 8 - 9 .
J . W . Ol iver , Cades Cov e , I I , 9 . Th e e s t e em in wh ich individua l
guns were h e ld by cove hun t e r s i s d emon s t rated by the fact that many o f
th e s e f l i n t l o c k s survived w i th r eputat i on s intact into the twent i eth
c entur y . An examp l e was "Old B e t s y , " the gun o f "Unc l e" G eorge Powel l .
Th i s Baxter Bean gun wa s "a sp l endid examp l e o f the O l d Smoky f l int l o ck . "
Powel l was p ar t i cu l ar l y fond o f a c er t a i n kind o f "gr eas e " f l int , wh i c h
g av e o f f a p ar t i cu l ar l y b r i gh t spar k . The s e f l ints wer e found in
20
43
Th e transmi s s i on o f t h i s knowl edge o f how t o survi v e i n the
w i l dern e s s formed an impor t ant part of the fo l k , or i nformal educat i on
pas s ed from father to son .
Manua l sk i l l s such a s how to bu i l d fir es o r
tr ap s , skin wi l d animal s , and u s e firearms t ended to b e mal e prero g at iv e s
w i th o n l y rare except i ons .
I t o c c as i ona l l y repr esent ed the r i t e s o f
pas s ag e from ado l es c en c e t o adu l thood , but was usua l ly a gradua l and
cumu l at iv e l earning pro c e s s b egun in ear l y ch i l dhood .
21
The ind i v i dual
exp er i ence o f g o i n g a l one into the mountains provi ded a s trong i f
inar t i cu l ate b ond b e tween father , son , and grand son .
The t ransm i s s ion
o f such s ki l l s a l s o prov i d ed a cont inuing guarantee that in any emerg ency ,
a son a l one in the wi l d ernes s wou l d not b e at a l o s s in knowing how t o
surv iv e , pro t ec t , and feed hims e l f .
22
p l en t i fu l quant 1 t 1 e s near the o l d "Equanu l ty" ( Ek an e t e l e e ) Trac e , and
"were much s ought after by Unc l e G eorge ' s n e i ghbors , the Cherok ees , in
the famou s days of o l d Jun i a luska and Younaguska (Drowni n g B ear) . "
Mason , Lure o f the Great Smo k i e s , 1 4 1 - 5 7 .
21
I n t erv i ew w ith John W . O l iv er , July 1 9 , 1 9 63 ; W . H . O l iver ,
S k e t ch e s , 2 2 - 2 3 .
22
I b i d . Sk i l l in hunt ing was a l so due to the s k i l l o f the
indiv idual gunmaker in the cove throughout the c entury . Mason argued
that "the very fact that the South ern mountain frontier gun smith and
marksman cou l d manufacture , at h i s crude forge , with i t s s c anty , hom e ­
m a d e quipment , a shor t - range f irearm of c ompar at iv e l y unvarying accuracy
and hard - h i t t ing qua l i t i e s , is extraord inary , and no feat to r iv a l it i s
found anywhere i n h i s to ry .
I t s e ems a l l the more remarkab l e when one i s
thoroug h l y conversant with the c i rcums tanc e s o f h i s env ironment and h i s
l ack o f s c i en t i f i c too l s . " The f l int lock r i f l e gradua l ly g av e way to
the " store- bough t " barr e l and rough - c a s t mount ing s for wh ich the gunmaker
p a i d twe l v e do l l ars . Lat er the more mod ern percu s s ion cap - l o ck became
w i d e l y u s ed in the cov e . "When the store-bought gun c ou ld be purcha s ed
in rough - ca s t form more read i ly b y the mountain gunmakers , guncraft smen
sprang up l i k e gras shopper s in every mountain cove and cab in , and the
o l d t ime armor er , who proud l y p l ac ed his nam e - p l a t e in s i lver in the
b arre l o f his br ain - ch i ld , s tored his headbl oc k and s cr e w - g u i d e away
44
Thus hun t in g , f i r s t a n e c e s s i ty duri n g the s e tt l ement p er iod ,
g r adua l l y in the three decades a ft er 1 8 3 0 became a r i tu a l c ar e fu l l y
tran sm i t t ed t o t h e younger s on s o f Cades C ov e .
Becau s e o f th i s
transmi s s ion , mos t of the cove peop l e wer e ab l e to survive t h e d ev a s t a t ion o f the C iv i l War .
I n the geographi c al c ent er o f a Confe d erat e
S outh , E a s t Tenn e s s e e r ema ined s t aunch l y Union i n sympathy , an i s o l ated
i s l and i n hos t i l e reb e l t er r itory on a l l s id e s .
The Confederates ,
r e g arding Eas t Tenn e s s e ans a s traitors , unl eashed guerr i l l a warfare
agains t the c i v i l ian popul at i on .
P er i od i c r a i d s by North C aro l in i ans ,
o ften l i t t l e b et t er t h an mar auding out l aws , s tr i pped the cove peop l e
t im e and again o f their cumul ated supp l i e s o f food , a s we l l a s their
l iv e s t o c k and s e ed corn .
23
Th e s e North C aro l ina raiders , who had easy acc e s s to the cove
through Ekanet e l e e and other g ap s , wer e no t unaware of the v ar i ou s type s
o f food the nat ives rai sed , nor o f where such supp l i es were usua l l y
s tored around their home s t e ad s .
I t was not unusual for them to t ak e
food , o ft en the l a st b i t e , from the tab l e and s t r ip the inhab i tant s o f
th e i r b es t c lo th e s and sho es or boot s .
Thus dur ing the dark e s t days o f
the C iv i l War , wh en a l l food supp l i e s and domes t i c animal s had been
forever . Hi s trade was gone , but not h i s r eput at ion , for he had for g ed
a repub l ic at h i s b ackwoods anv i l . " Mason , Lure o f the Great Smo k i es ,
1 4 8 - 59 .
23
w . H . O l iver , Sketche s , 2 4 - 2 7 . C ad e s Cove wa s the s c en e o f mor e
guerr i l l a r a i d s than any other are a of B l ount C ounty , probab l y becau s e
o f i t s a c c e s s ib i l i ty to North Caro l ina .
Burn s , B l ount County , 6 5 .
45
s to l en , the w i l dern e s s once again prov id ed sub s i s t ence for t h e peop l e o f
Cades Cov e , a s i t had dur i n g the ear l y years o f s e tt l em en t .
24
Dur ing th e war years , E l i j ah O l iver supp l i ed hi s fami l y with food
by trapp ing many t yp e s of sma l l er anima l s , s in c e powd er for hi s gun was
o f t en d i ffi cu l t to obtain .
Wi l l iam Howe l l , h i s son , reca l l ed that h i s
fath er mad e a very s imp l e type o f trap , which they ca l l ed a "fal l , "
wher eby s quirre l s we re b a i t e d into a sma l l p i t w i th a few grains o f
corn .
Aft er d e er , s quirr e l s and r abb i t s were probab l y the most important food
source w i th an o c cas ional wi l d turkey , if the hunter was part i cul ar l y
s k i l l fu l and l ucky .
Bear s were o f t en hun t ed for sport , b e c au s e t h ey
prov i d e d something o f a cha l l en g e , and many cove peop l e pri z ed bear
meat .
Var ious by-products from the b ear , n o t ab l y gr e a s e or o i l , were
26
.
.
t h oug h t to b e e ff 1cac
1. ous f o r a w 1" d e var1ety
o f rn a 1 a d 1" e s .
The d i s advantages o f an abund ance of g ame was the corre spond ing
p l en t i tude of predatory anima l s .
Opposum s , foxe s , and weas e l s p o s ed a
cons tant threat to chickens , duck s , and other domes t ic fow l in the cove .
B ear s s l aughtered c a t t l e on the open rang e and often mad e forages into
the cove for hogs and sheep .
Ev ery fal l r a id s wou l d b e exp e c t ed from
the b ears , lured into the c u l t ivated areas by r i p ening corn .
24
Often
w . H . O l iv er , S k etches , 24 - 2 7 . B e c au s e the s e North C aro l ina
raiders l ived in an environment v ery s im i l ar to that of Cad es Cove , it
required the great e s t ingenu i t y on the part o f the cove p e op l e to hide
any o f their food or l iv e s tock . Mor eover , frequent pre -war commerce
w i th North Caro l ina meant that many o f th e s e raiders knew spe c ific
g e ograph i c d e t a i l s about the cove and its environ s .
25
I b id . , 34 - 3 5 .
26
Ibid . , 54 .
25
46
farmers wou l d l i e camoufl aged in the f i e l d s during the harv e s t s e a son t o
27
pro t e c t t h e 1. r corn crop aga 1. n s t t h e s e maraud ers .
Wo lves , a l though they d i s app eared from the cove at an ear ly date ,
cont i nued to b e a prob l em to v ar i o u s anima l s graz ing i n the mount a i n s .
Th ey wer e al ways much more numerous on the North Caro l ina s id e o f the
Great Smok i e s , b e c aus e th i s w i l dern e s s area was l es s dens e l y popu l ated .
N ev erth e l e s s , cov e hunters r anged the s e mountains in s earch o f wo l v e s
unt i l the C iv i l War .
The s t a t e o f Tenn e s s ee h ad dec l ar ed a bounty on
them i n 1 8 1 2 , and by th e 1 8 3 0 ' s , three d o l l ars per scalp was the going
p ayment .
Between 1 8 34 and 1 8 4 0 , the B l ount County r ecord s show payment
for wo l f sca lp s to thr ee cove men .
Dur ing the C iv i l War , the wo lves
great l y incre ased b ec au s e fewer men were av ai l ab l e to hunt them .
After
th e war , the herders banded t o g e ther in a conc entrat ed e ffort to thin
out the wo l f popu l at ion and suc c e eded in ext erminating them in al l but
the m o s t r emot e areas of the G reat Smoky Mount ains .
28
T h e wi l d erne s s a l s o prov i ded a w i d e v ar i ety of p l ant s , or herb s ,
h i g h l y v alued by the cove peop l e fo r th eir medi c inal proper t ie s .
27
28
U s ing
r n t erv i ew w i th John W. O l iver , Ju l y 1 9 , 1 9 63 .
Sca lp s were pr e s en t ed to t h e County Court , wher eupon t h e c l erk of
the court i s sued a voucher co l l ec t ab l e from the s t a t e treasurer . Robert
Burch f i e l d , John Jones , and Jam e s M . S h i e l d s o f Cad e s Cove were paid for
a t o t a l of s even s c a lps in the 1 8 3 0 ' s .
B l ount Minut es , 1 8 34 - 1 8 4 0 pas s im .
J ohn Pr e s ton Arthur r e l ated that hunters o ft en sought wo l v e s for t h e ir
bounty i n Western North Caro l in a . They wou l d fo l l ow the gaunt mo ther
wo l f to her d en and k i l l her l i t t er , wh i ch usua l l y numbered six to t en
pup s . For each s ca l p , hunters r e c e iv ed $ 2 . 5 0 , regard l e s s o f the animal ' s
By k i l l ing on l y the pups and a l l ow ing the mother w o l ves to e s cap e ,
s i ze .
they a s s ured another year ' s l i tt er . John Preston Arthur , W e s t ern North
Caro l ina : A H i s tory ( Ra l e i gh , 1 9 1 4 ) , 5 2 3 .
47
such pub l i s hed r eferences as D r . Gunn ' s D ome s t i c Med i c ine , as we l l as
th e i r own fam i l y r ecipes , mo s t hous eho l ds in the cove prac t i c ed s ome
form of fo lk or home r emedy for v ar ious d i s e a s e s .
B ecau s e the herbs
were av ai l ab l e t o anyone , as we l l as the know l ed g e o f how t o u s e them ,
n o s ing l e per son , or "med i c ine man , " evo l ved in the cove t o monopo l i z e
such cures .
And s ince doctors , s uch as wer e av ai l ab l e , wer e usual l y
l ocat ed i n d i s t ant t owns l i k e Maryv i l l e o r Knoxv i l l e and wer e o ft en
p r oh ib i t iv e l y expen s iv e , the use o f herb a l med i cines s erved a v a l uab l e
29
s o c l. a 1 en d .
The North Ameri can var i et y of g i n s en g , P anax quinque fo l i um , g r ew
abundant l y in the G r eat Smoky Mount ains and i n a n economy s tarved for
s p e c i e furnished a money crop g r e at er than the che stnut .
30
G i n s eng had
e a r l y p l ayed an import ant ro l e in the Ameri c an t r ade with China , wher e
the r o o t s of t h e p l ant had long been val ued as a cur e for many i l l s and
inform i t i e s and was in great demand bec au s e of the p opul ar b e l i e f there
31
.
t h a t l. t was an ap hr o d l. S lac .
29
w . H . O l iver , Sketches , 3 9 ; John C . Gunn , Gunn ' s D ome s t i c Med i cine
( Knoxvi l l e , 1 8 3 0 ) . The enormous popu l ar i t y of this work i s r e fl e c t ed in
its numerous ed i t ions :
se cond e d i t ion , 1 83 4 , Mad i s onvi l l e , Tenne s s e e ;
third ed i t ion , 1 83 9 , Pumpkintown , Tennes s e e . Th e s e subs equent ed i t ions
were a l t ered v ery l i t t l e , and Gunn ' s pub l i sher c l aimed in the p reface
of hi s new book ( 1 8 5 7 ) that one hundred thou s and cop i e s o f the o l der
I n 1 8 5 7 Gunn great ly en l ar g ed
work h ad b e en pr int ed in a short t ime .
and r ev i s ed the o l der work into Gunn ' s New Dome s t i c Phys i c i an , cont aining
1 , 04 6 pages . Thi s s econd en l arg ed work r e c e ived wide c r i t i c a l acc laim .
John C . Gunn , Gunn ' s New Dom e s t i c Phys i c i an ( 3 rd ed . , C incinnat i , 1 8 6 0 ) ,
i , 1 04 7 - 4 8 .
30
w i l l iam 0. Doug l as , "The Peop l e of C ad e s Cove , " Nati onal Geograph i c ,
C XX I I (Ju l y � 1 9 6 2 ) , 8 5 .
31
sydney and Mar j or ie Bar s t ow Greenb i e , G o l d o f Oph i r : Th e Ch ina
Trade in the Mak i ng o f Ame r i c a (New York , 1 93 7 ) , 3 2 - 3 7 , 8 4 - 8 6 , 1 5 1 . The
48
Andr e M i chaux d e s cribed in 1 8 0 2 the abundance o f the p l ant in the
moun t a i n s of Tenne s s ee and Kentucky , and the method of prepar at ion for
sale :
I t grows i n the dec l i v i t i e s o f moun t a i n s , in fre sh and
cons tant l y shaded spot s , where the s o i l i s r iches t . A man c an
s c a r c e l y draw in one day more than e i gh t or n ine pounds of
fre sh root s , wh i ch are a lways less than an inch in d i amet er ,
ev en aft er f i ft e en years growth , i f the numb er o f impre s s ions
may be re l i ed on that may be o b s erv e d on the upper p art of the
neck of the root , and wh ich are produc ed by the s t a l k s that
annual l y succeed . The form of the roo t i s g ener a l l y e l l ip t i c ;
and when i t i s b i furcated , wh ich i s not o f t en , one of the
d iv i s ions i s much thicker and l onger than the o th er . The
s eeds , wh i ch are o f a s t r i k i n g red co l our , and attached
t o g ether , c ome to matur i ty b etween the 1 5th Sept emb er and the
1 s t Octob er .
I n the Un i ted S tat es . . . they beg in t o c o l l ec t i t i n spring ,
and s top at the commencement o f winter .
I t s root , whi ch i s
then soft and watery , grows wr ink l ed b y d e s i ccat ion , but
afterwards b ecome s extreme l y hard , and at l ength l o s es a th ird
of i t s bu l k , and near l y h a l f of i t s weight . 3 2
The s e s ame methods o f recogn i z in g the p l ant and preparing the roo t s
for s a l e were us ed by t h e cov e peop l e .
Dr . Gunn stated i n 1 8 3 0 that
g i n s eng ' ' i s found in great p l enty among the h i l l s and mountains of
Tenn e s s e e , and brought into Knoxv i l l e d a i l y for s a l e . "
t o co l l e ctors v ar i ed .
33
Th e p r i c e paid
I n 1 8 0 2 , M i chaux s a id that merchant s in
s ai l ing in 1 7 84 of the Emp r e s s of Ch ina from N e w York w i th a cargo o f
g i n s eng h as become a s tand ard detai l i n pract i c al l y ev ery survey o f
Amer i can h i s tory .
32
F . A . M i chau x , Trav e l s to the Westward o f the A l l egany Mountains
t o the S t at e s of Oh io , Kentucky , and Tennes s ee in the Year 1 8 0 2 , trans .
from the French ( London , 1 8 0 5 ) , 7 1 - 7 2 .
33
Gunn , Dome s t i c Med i c ine ( 1 8 3 0 ) , 3 69 .
49
Phi l ade lp h i s p aid s i x or s ev en do l l ar s per pound .
34
Dr . Gunn l at er
ind i c at ed that an o cc as iona l g lut o f the mark et brought the price down .
35
But the cont inu ing d emand o f the C hina market mad e " sang , " as the
mountain peop l e ca l l ed i t , a pro f i t ab l e by-produ c t throughout the
c entury .
36
Th e w i s e r g in s eng co l l ec t ors r ep l an t ed the bright red s e e d s when
they dug up the roo t s in order to insure another year ' s crop .
A l though
many cove peop l e engaged in " s an g in , " or gathering g ins eng root s to s e l l
in Knoxv i l l e , there i s no evidence that they ever u s ed the herb in any
h ome remedy or were ev en cogn i zant o f i t s r eputed propert i e s .
They s eem
to have agr eed comp l et e ly with Dr . Gunn ' s conc l u s ion that :
The G ins eng has b een fu l ly t e s t ed by the b e s t phys i c i an s in
the Uni t ed Stat es , and they ascribe to it nothing more than
i t s being a p l easant b i t ter , and a g ent l e s t imu l ant for
s t r engthening the s t omach . 3 7
34
Mi chaux , Trav e l s , 7 2 . Market pri c e s do not , of c our s e , fur n i s h
any ind i cat i on o f what t h e ind i v i du a l c o l l ec t ors w e r e paid . B u t the
fact that the cove peop l e cont inued to g ather g in s eng throughout the
c entury , and cons i dered i t a "money" crop , ind i cated that the pri c e they
received s eemed worth the effort .
35
Gunn , Domes t i c Med i c ine ( 1 8 3 0 ) , 3 6 9 .
36
The average price per pound o f g in seng ro s e s t ead i l y throughout
the nineteenth c entury from . 4 2 in 1 8 2 2 ; . 7 1 in 1 8 4 1 ; . 84 in 1 8 6 1 ; 1 . 04
in 1 8 7 1 ; 1 . 6 5 in 1 8 8 1 ; 3 . 39 in 1 8 9 1 ; 5 . 3 8 in 1 9 0 1 .
So g ins eng was one
of the v ery few products who s e v a l u e cont inued to r i s e in the pos t - C iv i l
War per i od . Va l Hardacr e , Woodl and Nugg e t s o f Go l d : The S tory o f
Ameri can Gins eng Cul t iv at i on ( N ew York , 1 96 8 ) , 2 9 8 .
37
In the rev i s ed 1 8 6 0 ed i t ion ,
Gunn , Dome s t i c Med i c ine ( 1 8 3 0 ) , 3 6 9 .
Dr . Gunn had changed h i s mind . Here h e s t at ed that g i n s eng was · � s efu l
in nervous d eb i l it y , weak d i ges t i on and fe eb l e app et i t e , as a s t omachic
It is con s id ered a very valuab l e medic ine for c h i l dr en ;
and r e s t orat ive .
and has been recommend ed in as thma , pal sy and nervous affe c t i ons
g ener a l l y . " Gunn , New Dome s t i c Phys i c i an ( 1 8 6 0 ) , 7 9 6 . There i s no
50
Another w i l d ern e s s product was t h e vari ou s anima l fur s wh i ch a l s o
comm anded exc e l l en t c a s h pr i ce s throughout the n inet eenth c entury .
Mink
and muskrats a l ong Abr am ' s Creek were trapped , as were foxes , opp o s ums ,
and racoons in the mountains .
Very few ins t an c e s ar e r ecord ed of
t r apping as b e ing the s in g l e o c cupation o f any indiv i dua l i n the cove .
Rather , i t was a w i d e l y prac t ic ed p a s t ime to g a i n extra c as h , engag ed i n
b y mos t o f the cove farmers dur ing the winter month s after t h e i r crops
had b een harv e s t ed .
Tr ap l in e s were l ai d in the usu a l fashi on , and
r ev enues from th e s e fur s r emained a s t eady , if not exces s iv e , s ourc e o f
i n com e .
Even aft er the C iv i l War , when r e g i on a l mar k et s were d epr es s ed ,
the demand for furs r emained c on s t ant , b e c au s e the s y s t em was supp l ying
38
.
an 1nternat
1. on a 1 mark e t .
� ..
I n the mountains surround ing C ad e s Cove are a numb er of op en areas
wh ich grow exc e l l en t gras s e s and are known a s b a l d s , b ecaus e no t r e e s
ev idenc e , howev er , that the c o v e p eop l e u s ed g in seng thems e l v e s , even
after 1 9 0 0 . S e e D oug l as , " Th e P eop l e o f Cades Cove , " 8 5 .
38
The trapp ing o f anima l s and export ing o f fur skins t o Europe
compri s ed most of the fur bus ines s in the Uni t ed States unt i l 1 9 0 0 .
V i c tor R . Fuch s , The Econom i c s o f the Fur I ndus try (New York , 1 9 5 7 ) , 4 .
There i s no ev id enc e that d e er s k ins were ever expor t ed in gr eat numbers
from the cov e , a l though the s e hides had earl i er furn ished the bu l k of
the trade on the co l on i a l South ern fron t i er . Vern er W. Crane , Th e
Southern Front ier , 1 67 0 - 1 7 3 2 (Ann Arbor , 1 9 2 9 ) , 1 1 1 . There are two
exp l an at i ons for thi s dec l ine . F ir s t , commer c i a l r e s t r i c t i ons growing
out of th e Nap o l eonic wars c l o s ed the Europ ean market after 1 8 00 . P r i c e s
d e c l ined s o dras t ica l ly that t h e Cherokee fac tory at H iwa s s ee was
d i s cont inued in 1 8 1 0 . Second , after the War of 1 8 1 2 , gov ernment p o l icy
d i s couraged any sub s idy for fur trading , s ince i t wa s b e l i ev ed to imped e
the agri c u l tura l devel opment o f the South ern I n d i ans . B ecau s e such a
p o l i cy wou l d a l so add to the e conomic pres sur e on the Ind i ans to remove
to the We s t , the governor s of G e or g i a and Tenne s s e e r eadi l y c oncurr ed .
P au l Chri s t l er Phi l l i p s , The Fur Trade ( 2 vo l s . , Norman , 1 96 1 ) , I I ,
78-80 .
By the 1 8 3 0 ' s , cow h id e s had l arg e l y rep l aced d e er s k i n s i n the
domes t i c tannery indus try .
51
grow on them .
Sp enc e F i e l d , l ocated on the s t ate - l in e r i d g e , and
dome l ik e Gr eg o, ry ' s B a l d , whi ch r i s e s 3 , 00 0 feet above the c ov e in the
s outhw e s t , are the two maj or b a ld s , a l though there ar e a numb er o f
sma l l er ones , such a s Pars()n ' s , immed i a t e l y acces s ib l e through t h e cov e .
39
Very ear l y i n the i r h i s tory the cove p eop l e u s ed the s e gras sy up l and s to
gra z e their c at t l e dur ing the summer month s .
Both c att l e , and l ater ,
s h e ep , cou l d graze in the s e h i gh l ands th roughout the s ummer month s ,
l eav ing the cove l and avai l ab l e for growing whatever crops wer e
neces sary .
40
39
The or i g in o f these b a l d s has l ong b e en s omething o f a s c i ent i fi c
myst ery . Th e two b e s t summar i e s o f the prob l em are V . C . G i l b ert , Jr . ,
Vegetat ion of the Grassy B a l d s o f the Great Smoky Mountains Nat iona l Park
(Mas t er ' s th es i s , Un iv ers i t y o f Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 5 4 ) , and A . F .
Mark , An E c o l o g i c a l Study o f the Gra s s B a l d s of the Southern Appal achian
Mountains (Doctor a l d i s s er t a t i on , Duke Univer s i t y , Durham , N . C . , 1 9 58 ) .
Th e r ecords o f Cad es C ov e ind ic at e c l ear l y that the s e b a l d s wer e not
"natura l . " J . W . O l iver stated that Jam e s Spenc e burned t r e e s and
c l eared the Spence F i e l d in the 1 8 3 0 ' s . Other sour c e s from Cades Cove
ind i c a t e the pre s ence o f l arge s t umps ear l i er in the c entury , an
ind i cat i on of a p r i or for e s t cover . Yet the pres enc e of some of thes e
b a l d s i s recorded in Ch erokee I n d i an l e g end b efor e whi t e s ett l ement .
G i l ber t , Veg e tat i on o f The Gras sy B a l d s , 1 5- 1 6 .
The mo s t r e c ent
s c i ent i f i c s tudy of the b a l d s ind i cates that the fore s t c ov er is r ap id l y
r eturning . Th e r ap i d i ty o f the invas ion rate by var ious tr e e s m i ght
ind i c at e that the b a l d s wer e nev er natur a l (as the cove r e s id ents
maint ained ) , and were kept c l eared by f i r e s and heavy gra z ing . Or th e
r eturn o f trees cou l d be due to a warming of the c l imat e .
So there
r emains much con f l i c t ing evi d ence ; no s in g l e theory exp la ins whether or
why the b a l d s are or were natur a l . Mary E l l en Bruhn , Vegetat iona l
Suc c e s s i on on Three Gras s y B a l d s o f the Great Smoky �1ountains (Mas t er ' s
thes i s , Univers i ty o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 96 4 ) , 4 0 - 5 1 .
40
"According to Mr . John W . O l iver , cat t l e , hors es , sheep , and hogs
were a l l gr a z ed on the gras sy ba l d s . Th e sheep , hog s , and hor s e s
usua l ly g r a z e d near the t op , and the c o w s around t h e edge s . He s a i d
that where there w e r e many sheep t h e c o w s woul d n o t gra z e .
' They d i d
not l ik e t h e s cent . ' " Gi l b er t , Vegetat ion o f t h e Gras s y B a l d s , 2 2 - 2 3 .
52
Th e s e up l ands proved t o b e such exce l l ent graz ing areas that many
farmers in the nei ghboring c ount i e s of E a s t Tennes s ee ear l y b egan to
h erd their c at t l e and bring them h er e , u sua l l y through Cad es C ov e , dur ing
the summer month s .
One such Kno x counti an , Samu e l McCammon , l eft a
d i ary o f h i s gr a z ing a c t iv i t i es b e tween 1 8 4 6 and 1 8 5 4 .
I n the m i dd l e o f
Apri l w i t h h i s h erd h e " s et o u t for t h e t o p o f t h e mounta in ; " i n Augus t
h e returned t o t h e mountains , co l l ected h i s catt l e , and h erd ed them home .
Th i s was the usual pract i c e throughout much o f the ninet eenth century :
the farmer c o u l d e i ther s e l l h i s c at t l e to a buyer a l r eady in the
mountains , or bring them back to one of the l arger mark et cent ers o f
E a s t Tennes s e e , usual l y Knoxvi l l e , and s e l l them ther e .
41
E i ther way , th e peop l e o f Cade s Cove prosp ered from the s e var i ou s
transa c t i ons .
F irs t , owners o f the mountain l and usua l l y charged s ome
r ent , however nomina l , p er h e ad o f cat t l e for th e use of the s e meadows .
S e cond , a herd er was often emp l oyed from among t h e c ov e peop l e to keep
watch over the anima l s wh i l e they grazed dur ing the s u�ner months .
And
in addi t ion to fee s spent on the catt l e , farmers from o ther areas , a s
McC ammon ind i ca t e d in h i s d iary , h ad t o p a y f o r lodg ing and feed for
41
The routine probl ems of herd ing are succinct l y out l ined in
McC ammon ' s d iary . Occasiona l l y , c at t l e wer e l o s t , desp i t e the fact that
they were carefu l l y "be l l ed " before leaving Knox C ounty . U sual ly he
dec ided on the v ar ious herders according to wh ether h e thought that
their ranges were g o od . Snow k i l l ed some o f his catt l e in Apr i l , 1 8 4 7 .
I n 1 84 8 , there was troub l e ab out a new North Caro l ina l aw , s o he t ook
h i s c at t l e up the L i t t l e Tenn e s s e e R iver . Th e mo s t fr equent prob l em was
the d i f f i cu l ty in round ing up their c at t l e in August , s inc e some o f the
herd o ft en b e c ame qui t e "wi l d " in th e mountains . D i ary o f Samue l
M cC ammon , 1 8 4 6 - 1 8 5 4 ( McC l ung C o l l ect ion , Lawson McGhee L ibrary , Knoxv i l l e ,
Tenne s s e e ) , pas s im .
53
t h e i r hors es en rou t e .
42
So t h e w i ld ern e s s prov ided t h e peop l e o f Cad es
Cove w i t h an exc e l l en t , a cc e s s ib l e r ange to gra z e their own catt l e and
a l so w i th paying cus t omers who u s ed the s e h i gh l and s to gra z e c att l e on a
c ommerc i a l b as i s .
Any enumerat ion o f the pra c t i c a l fun c t i ons o f the w i l d erne s s to the
cove peop l e wou l d b e incomp l e t e w ithout men t ioning the prot e c t ion whi ch
th e surrounding ar eas afforded dur ing the C iv i l War .
i n thi s capac i ty was s omething o f a mixed b l e s s in g .
But the wi l d erne s s
Th e surrounding
mountains gave the cove peop l e many exc e l l ent h id ing p la c e s to k e ep their
hors es and more v aluab l e farm anima l s i f they received advanced warn ing ,
and dur ing the wors t year s o f the war , the cove men thems e lves fr equ ent l y
h i d o u t in t h e mountains to avo i d impr e s sment into t he South ern armie s .
But the easy acc e s s to Cade s Cove from Ekan e t e l ee Gap and other trai l s
t o North Car o l ina made s ome surpr i s e guerri l l a warfare inev itabl e , and
o f t en s uch attack s could be l aunch ed from the surround ing mountains
wi thout any p r i o r warning .
A l s o , the very l o cat i on o f Cad e s C ove in the
heart of the Great Smoky Mountains made a i d or a s s i s tan c e from other
uni t s of th e B l ount C ounty home guard d i ff i cu l t to obt ain .
43
A l though any exhau s t iv e enumer ation o f the prac t i ca l fun c t i ons and
us e s o f the wi l dernes s surround ing the cove is impo s s ib l e , c er t ain
defin i t e theme s emerge from the b r i e f survey thus far .
I t i s evi d ent
42
r b i d . Ac e Sparks , a r e s ident o f the cove , said that his father ,
Nath , gr a z ed a s many a s 7 0 0 h ead o f cat t l e on Spence F i e ld dur ing the
1 8 9 0 ' s . G i l b er t , Veg etat ion o f the Gra s s y B a l d s , 2 2 .
43
w . H . O l iv er , S k etches , 2 1 - 23 ; Burn s , B lount C ounty , 6 4 - 6 5 .
54
that the wi l d ernes s through i t s various product s prov i d ed the cove
p e op l e w i th a s t eady supp l ement to their income in add i t i on to the
l iv e l ihood they gained from farming .
Thi s s e em in g l y inexhau s t ib l e
abundanc e cond i t ioned the inh ab i t an t s t o pat t erns of wa s t e and exc e s s ive
consumpt ion in the u s e of t h e s e w i ld ern e s s produc t s , a l though they might
b e qu i t e fruga l w i t h their cul t ivated crop s .
44
Wi thout any e ffor t a t
c o n s ervat ion , did no t t h e cove p eop l e incur the r i sk , s ooner or l at er ,
o f running out o f s ome or a l l o f the s e w i l dern e s s product s , as happened
so o ft en to s e t t l ers in o th er s e c tions after the pas s ing of the front i er
era?
The answer to thi s ques t i on of cons ervati on , and t o more bas i c
que s t ions about t h e eco l o gy o f th e l and , ar e supp l i ed b y th e g eography
o f Cades Cove .
S i tuated a s a v ir tua l i s l and o f cul t ivat ed l and in the
m i dd l e of the moun t a in s , the cove pr op er reached its peak p opu l a t ion of
6 7 1 p e op l e in 1 8 5 0 , a l ev e l wh i ch had d e c l in ed by 1 8 60 and was not
r eached again dur ing the n inet een th c entury .
45
Thus , d e s p i t e their
exc e s s ive consup t i on , the l imi ted quan t i t y of arab l e l and prevent ed the
nat ive p opul at ion from r i s ing above a fixed l ev e l .
Game r emained
abundant , b ec au s e the wi l d ernes s area surround ing the cove was large
enough to re supp l y whatever was t aken out w i t h up s e t t ing the eco l og i c a l
b a l anc e .
44
46
Doug l as , "Peop l e o f C a d e s Cove , " 8 6 - 8 9 ; W . H . O l iver Sketch e s , 1 9 - 2 0 .
45
1 8 5 0 C ensus , Popul at ion , B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 60 C ensu s , Popu l a t i on ,
B l ount County .
46
w . H . O l iver , Sketche s , 3 3 - 34 ; Ayr e s and Ashe , " South ern
App a l a ch ian F o r e s t s , " 1 7 7 .
55
In v i ew o f the many product s and b enefi t s from the w i l d ernes s , it
s eems ev iden t that their mountain env ironment mus t have det ermined , to a
great extent , the l i fe styl e o f the cov e peop l e .
A c areful c hrono l o g i c a l
examinat ion of th eir d eve l o pment , however , rev ea l s that t h i s was not
true .
The b e s t i l lu s tration o f the primacy o f externa l inf l u enc es on
their l ife s ty l e is to b e found in their arch i t ec tur e .
A l though many
c ab ins h ave b e en pres erved by the Great Smoky Mounta i n s Nat i ona l Par k ,
o th er bui l d ings more ind i c a t ive o f chrono l og i c a l deve l o pment s were
d e s troyed .
A l l frame hous es , for
i ns tanc e
wer e e l iminat ed b ecaus e the
p ark w i s hed to p r e s erv e only s truc tur e s r e f l ect ing "p ione er" s tyl e .
47
A car efu l compar i son of b o th d e s i gn and construct i on of t h e s e
extant cabins w i t h s imi lar s truc tu r e s i n o th er ar eas r ev ea l s n o d ev i at ion
from s t andard Amer i c an bui ld ing norms .
I n h i s comprehen s iv e s tudy of
S outhern Mountain cab ins , Henry G l a s s i e d e f i n e s a c ab in a s "a one room
hou s e not over one and one - ha l f s t or i e s h i gh . "
typ e s o f cab ins :
He ident i f i e s two b a s i c
the square and the rectangu l ar .
48
Both the John O l iver
cab in and the P e t er Cab l e c ab in , the two o l d e s t s tructur es in the c ov e ,
bui l t i n the 1 8 2 0 ' s , c l ear l y fa l l w i th i n G l a s s i e ' s spec ifi cati ons in
t erms of height , type of roo f , p l acement of ch imneys and door s ,
cons truc t ion , ch imneys , fen e s trat i o n , underp inning , and con s truction of
w a l l s , add i t i ons , and porches .
Oth er l at er s tructur e s , such a s the
47
A . Rando l ph Shi e l d s , "Cad e s Cove in the Great Smo ky Mountains
Nationa l Park , " Tenn e s s ee H i s t o r i c a l Quar t er l y , X X I V (Summer , 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 1 6 .
48
Henry H . G la s s i e , Southern Mountain Hous e s : A Study in American
Fo l k Cu l tur e (Mas ter ' s th es i s , S t a t e Univ ers i ty of New York at Oneonta ,
1 9 6 5 ) , 1 4 5 - 59 .
56
Cart er Shi e l d s and L eQuire cab ins , bui l t i n the 1 8 3 0 ' s and 1 84 0 ' s ,
l ikewi s e fa l l w i t h i n th e s e spec i f i c at i on s as s quare cabins .
49
(See
F i gur e s 1 - 3 . )
The point o f th i s compar i so n i s that such s t andard forms wer e
ind i cat ive o f the l ar g er Ameri can c u l tur e .
The s e pat t erns a l mo s t
approach ed s t andard i za t i on a s they moved down t h e E a s t ern s eabo ard , into
th e P i edmont , and w e stward .
N o th ing in the c ov e env ironment a l tered or
d i sconnec t ed any o f these bui l d in g pattern s :
not the w i l d erne s s , but
the broader cu l tur e from wh i ch the cove peop l e c ame , dominat ed how and
in what shap e they bui l t their home s .
G l a s s i e emphas i z es the influence
o f P enn sylvania G ermans in var ious cons truct ion t echn i que s .
50
In Cad e s
C ove , P e t er C ab l e , o f Pennsylvan i a - Dutch extract i on , w a s t h e acknowl edged
author i t y in a l l typ e s o f constru c t i on .
51
Th e on l y arch i t e ctur a l surpr i s e in Cad es Cove i s E l i j ah O l iv er ' s
c ab i n , an inter e s t ing spec imen o f the format ive dog tro t h ou s e .
Bui l t
i n 1 8 66 , i t has the prerequ i s i t e "two un i t s o f roug h l y equ a l s i z e
s eparated b y an o p en ' ha l l , ' o r ' trot , ' o r ' pa s s age , ' w i t h a c himney on
each g ab l e end . "
One d iv i s ion is h igher than the other , giv ing the
struc tur e a sp l it - l ev e l appearanc e .
Both un i t s wer e construc t ed at the
49
The LeQuire cab in is no l on g er extant , but an exc e l l ent photograph
of it i s found in Jos eph S . Ha l l , Smoky Mountain F o l k s and Their Lor e
(Ashev i l l e , N . C . , 1 9 60) , 7 1 .
50
51
. Hous es , 2 0 9 .
G l as s ·l e , Sout h ern Mountaln
J . W . O l iv er , Cades Cove , I , 2 5 .
Penn sylvan i a G ermans wer e
c ommon ly cal l ed Pennsy lvan i a Dutch , a corrup t ion of the G erman "deu t s ch , "
Henry G l as s i e , P a t t ern in the Mater i a l F o l k Cul ture of the Eas t ern Uni t ed
S t a t e s ( Ph i l ad e lph i a , 1 9 6 8 ) , 3 6 .
60
s a m e t ime , and both d iv i s i ons , or p ens , w e r e funct iona l uni t s of the
hous e .
(See F igure 4 . )
The d o g trot hous e , common in o ther s e c t i ons o f
the country , i s onl y rar e l y found in the Southern Mounta ins , accord ing
52
to G l as s 1. e .
The pre s ence o f t h i s typ e o f c ab in in Cades Cov e i s
further evidence that even the excepti on s in bui ld ing pat t erns were
d erived not from any ind ig enous inspirat ion due t o the wi l d ernes s , but
from the l ar g er cul tur e .
A l though a l l frame hou s e s were d e s tr oyed b y the National Park
S erv i c e in the l at e 1 9 3 0 ' s , there is amp l e ev idence to ind i cat e that
such cons truc t io n was common by th e 1 8 5 0 ' s .
Dan i e l D . F out e , an ear l y
owner o f Montva l e Spring s , moved to th e cove in 1 8 4 9 and bu i l t a frame
hou s e w id e ly admired for i t s fine cons truc t i on and l and s c ap ing .
53
After
the C ivi l War , many o f the cove p eop l e r eturned to the s imp l er typ e of
l o g cons truc t i on b ec au s e o f i t s cheapn e s s and u t i l ity .
By the 1 8 8 0 ' s ,
however , as s om e d egree o f pro sper i ty r e turned , frame hous e s were onc e
again evi d en t .
Bo th th e Henry Whi tehead hous e and the O l iver -Tipton
hous e , bui l t in the 1 8 8 0 ' s , furn i sh c l ear ev id enc e o f tran s i t ional
s ty l es .
(See F igur e s 5 - 6 . )
Often own er s o f sub stan t i a l l o g hou s e s
cho s e to weatherb o ard their homes in order t o modern i z e them .
54
The two
p er i o d s , or cyc l es , o f bui l d in g frame hous e s , from 1 8 4 9 to 1 8 6 0 , and
52
G l as s i e , Southern Mountain Hou s e s , 1 69 - 7 6 .
53
Manu s cr ipt ent i t l ed Robert Burchfi e ld and Tiptons R e l a t ed to
Cad es Cove b y John W. O l iv er , wri t t en in 1 94 7 . Th i s book containing 4 1
p a g e s i s in the author ' s pos s e s s i on . Hereaft er c i t ed J . W . O l iver ,
Burchf i e ld and Tipton s , w i th appro priate page numbers .
54
J . W . O l iver , C ad e s Cov e , I , 23 .
64
from the 1 8 8 0 ' s to the end of the cen tur y , aga in fur n i s h c l ear ev i denc e
that the typ e o f arch i t ec ture found in Cades Cove was a funct i on o f the
r e lat ive pro sper i t y of an agr i c u l tura l -b a s ed economy , not of the
surrounding w i l d ernes s .
Th ere ar e other indicat i on s that dur ing r e l at iv e l y pro sperous t ime s ,
the inhab i t an t s chose to buy a w i d e var i ety o f manufactur ed hous eho ld
'
and farm imp l emen t s to rep l a c e the crud er homemade t oo l s o f an ear l i e r
period .
Whi l e the typ i c a l farmer m i ght wear home spun dur ing work ing
days , mo s t o f them could a fford at l ea s t one s u i t o f s t o r e - b ought
c lo t h e s for Sunday .
S ide b y s id e w i th k i tchen u t en s i l s mad e o f wood ,
one m i ght find an o c c a s i on a l s e t o f imported Eng l ish china .
55
A l though
purch a s e s of the l a t t er s ort cou l d usua l l y be made on l y in Knoxv i l l e ,
there i s no ind i c a t ion that the cove farmers d id not share an inter e s t
in pur chas ing a w i d e vari ety of manufactured good s in common w i t h their
c ount erpar t s in the rest of the c ountry , prov ided there was ready c a sh .
I t i s intere s t in g to not e , as corroborative evi d enc e , that during t h e
wor s t p a r t o f the C iv i l War , E l i j ah O l iver mad e frequent tri p s , and
brought back many purcha s e s , from Knoxv i l l e merchant s .
56
55
Examp l e s o f such china from the n in e teenth c entury are in the
O l iver co l l ec t i o n , in the p o s s e s s i on o f Mr s . Char l e s S . Dunn , Towns end ,
Tennes s e e . The O l iver china b ears th e impr int "THOMs HUGHES & SON
ENG LAND . " B ecau s e such ch ina was no t durab l e , on ly fragment s surv i v e
i n t o the twen t i eth century , and th i s lack o f ev i d ence i s comp l i ca t ed by
the abundance of the more durab l e wooden ut ens i l s .
56
Numerous pas s e s to Knoxv i l l e and b i l l s o f s a l e from Knoxv i l l e and
Maryv i l l e merch an t s ar e in the O l iver Papers i n pos s e s s i on of Judg e
W . Wayne O l iver , Maryvi l l e , Tenn e s s ee . The s e pas ses from t h e Off i c e o f
the Prov o s t Mar s h a l G eneral o f Eas t Tennes s e e wer e i s su ed to E l i j ah
O l iver as r e c e i p t s that h e had furni sh ed proof o f loya l ty , and ran g e
from June 7 , 1 8 6 1 , to January 1 1 , 1 8 6 5 . S tor e r ec e i p t s f o r a w i d e
65
The p i c tur e that emerges from an examinat ion of the cove ' s dome s t i c
economy i s o n e o f w i d e diver s ity .
Bas ic p i oneer s k i l l s , such as spinning
f l a x for thread from wh ich homespun was woven , were in g en er a l u s e
throughout the century .
57
But t h e s e sk i l l s d i d not aut oma t i ca l ly exclude
a d e s i r e for o t h er manufactur ed produc t s .
The cove p eop l e s e emed to b e
ab l e to manage a car e fu l exp lo i tat ion of t h e surrounding wi l d ernes s , and
s t i l l k e ep abr ea s t , durin g pro s p erous t imes , of mor e fini shed produc t s
avai l ab l e in the l ar ger mark et areas such a s Knoxvi l l e .
Th i s d i c ho t omy
mak e s any rigid charac ter i z ation o f their l i fe styl e extreme ly d i ff i cu l t .
And in ana l y z in g their r e l a t i onship to the wi l d ernes s , the c on t inuou s
intercour s e w i th l ar g er r e g i ona l mar k e t s mak es the c o v e peop l e appear
r ather more than l e s s l ik e their contemporar i e s in o ther par t s of the
country .
Att itudes toward the w i l d ernes s a l so varied grea t l y from one period
to ano ther , and among di fferent group s dur ing the s ame p e r i o d o f time .
Dr . Jobe r e f l e c t ed the in i t ia l fear of the w i l d erne s s as a h i d ing p la c e
for h o s t i l e Ind i ans and wo lve s , but even thi s att itud e i s obv iou s l y
t raceab l e from ear l i er exp er i ence and a s s o c ia t i ons .
He id ent i f i ed the
v ar i ety of goods were from P . H . Cardwe l l (Dry G oo d s , Boot s , Sho e s ,
Hat s , C ap s , S t a t i onary , No t i on s , e tc . ) ; Cro oker & Bunne l l ' s Funne l
C lo th e s Washers ( a rath er frivo l ous and somewhat extravagant i t em for
the sober E l i j ah to be buying ! ) ; Tedford & Lowe , D i spens ing Drugg i s t s ,
Maryv i l l e ; and a r e c e ipt for Dr . R . V . P i erce ' s Th e Peop l e ' s C ommon S ens e
(Dr . P i er c e was one o f Dr . Gunn ' s many comp e t i t or s . )
Med i c a l Adv i s er .
57
According to J . W . O l iver (Cades Cove , I , 2 5 ) , "Each fam i l y grew
f l ax from wh i ch to make art i c l e s of c l o thing and other hous eho l d good s
such a s hand towe l s , b ed spread s , etc . The c o ar s e short part o f the
f l ax was us ed t o weav e hun t ing s h i rt s , and i f worn n ext to your body was
irri tat ing to the s k in . "
66
C h erok ee Ind i an s "who had b een such a t error to the s et t l ement in the
Watauga Val l ey , " and c l ea r l y tran sp o s e d ear 1 ier d iffi cu l t ie s w ith o th er
I nd ians in upp er E a s t Tenn e s s e e to th e new l oc a l e .
58
S ince h i s unc l e
was k i l l ed b y Chero k e e l iv in g i n the cove , Dr . Jobe ' s fears wer e not
unfounded .
But the import an t p o i n t is that t h i s who l e range o f fear and
susp i c ion , l inking the I n d i an s to the w i l d ern e s s as a s in i s t er env ironmen t ,
w a s p ar t o f t h e cu l tural a t t i tudes wh i ch h e and o ther ear l y s e t t l er s
brought w i th them .
Onc e the threat o f I n d i an s was removed , and the wo l f p opu l at i on
d imini shed , the wi l d ernes s l o s t much o f i t s menacing qua l i ty to the c ov e
i nh ab i tant s .
Mo s t were pragmat i c about any po s s i b l e danger s encount ered
whi l e i n the mountains , and from t h i s att i tude c arne a pragmat i c v i ew o f
th e w i l d erne s s i n g enera l .
I t was true that v ar i ous acc ident s , even
death , awaited the care l e s s hunt er or unwary trav e l er .
But such
occurr enc e s wer e invariab l y a t tr i buted to the indiv idual ' s own negl ect .
For ev ery danger , there was a preventat ive measur e ; i f one ' s fire went
out , o r i f one r an out o f food or supp l i e s , there were m any a l t erna t i v e
measur e s o n e could take to r epair t h e l o s s .
Becau s e the s e variou s
surv iva l t echn i qu e s were d i s cu s s ed and e laborated on at l ength b y t h e
c o v e p eop l e in t h e i r dai l y conv er s a t ions , i t w a s improbab l e t h a t anyone
c o u l d not h av e h eard , at some t ime or ano ther , the nec e s s ary d e t a i l s o f
.
1. n t h e
h ow to surv 1ve
58
59
" ld erne s s
Wl
.
59
Job e , Autob i ogr aphy , 7 .
Interv i ew w i th John W . O l iver , Ju ly 1 8 , 1 9 63 .
67
A l though women g ener a l l y w e r e not expec t ed t o go a l on e into t h e
mountains , or to po s s e s s any hunt ing s k i l l s , in various p e r i o d s o f the
cove ' s h i s tory they were often r equired by c ircumstanc e s to do so .
Th e
l or e , or body o f fo l k know l edge on how t o survive in the wi l d erne s s , was
a common topic of conv ersation at n i ght around the firep l ac e .
Cons e-
quen t l y the women wer e regu l ar ly exp o s e d to the s e d e t ai l s , and were
usua l l y not at a l o s s when r equired to confront the wi l d erne s s a l one .
Such occurren c e s were rar e , mos t h appen ing dur ing the C iv i l War , wh en a
maj ori ty o f the youn g er men were away .
The kno w l edg e o f how t o surv iv e
in the wi l dernes s and th e concurrent pr agma t i c att itudes were d eep ly
emb edded in the f o l k knowl edge o f Cades C ov e , and were not the exc l u s iv e
property o f any s 1n g 1 e sex o r a g e group .
.
60
After the i n i t ia l sett l ement peri od , the inhab i tant s d i d no t
concep tua l i z e the w i l d erne s s a s b e i n g d ang erou s ; they therefore showed
l i t t l e fear of the surrounding mountain s .
Anal y z ing their a t t itud e s i s
par t icu l ar ly d i fficu l t from m anu s cript sour c e s :
oral h i s tory prov i d e s
far mor e i n s i ght into a peop l e ' s v alues , s ince any group i s norma l ly
r e luc t an t to wr i t e down att i tudes whi ch they cons ider common know l edg e .
C orrobor a t i on o f thi s l ack o f fear o f the wi l derne s s in C ad e s Cov e i s
furn i shed by the fact that there are no t a l e s o f sup ernatur al phenomena
occurring in th e mount ains surrounding the cove .
Thi s i s not to say
that the cove fo l k l ore was not r i ch in sup ernatural s t o r ie s ; but a l l
60
I b id . ; W . H . O l iver , Sketch e s , 2 3 - 3 7 .
68
th e s e gho s t , o r "hant , " t a l e s wer e a s so c ia t ed w i th p la c e s i n the cove
proper ; none o ccurred in the s urrounding mountain s .
61
I n the mounta i n s ,
Occasiona l l y v ar ious animal s cau s ed some fear .
the s cr e am o f a p anther coul d moment ar i l y fr i gh t en anyone .
Many t a l es
r e l a t ing to panth er s , whi ch wer e feared and thought to b e aggr e s s ive b y
s ome o f t h e cove p eop l e , hav e b een h anded down .
62
G ener a l l y , howev er ,
w i l d anima l s w ere va lued for prac t i c a l r ea s ons , s i n c e hunt ing them
prov i d ed sport , food , and p erhap s fur s for s a l e .
Th e cove peop l e often
a l l owed the ir ch i ldren to mak e pet s out o f th es e wi l d an imal s .
Th e
a l mo s t nonchalan t a t t i tude toward such p e t s and their easy r e l a t i on s h i p
w i t h s u c h wi l d anim a l s i s r e f l e c t ed in t h e no s ta l g i c r eco l l ec t ion of
Dr . Job e :
We had a p e t bear for s everal years , he wa s very l arge , tame
and gent l e . He woul d get l o o s e once in a whi l e , but w e c ou l d
al ways catch h im and t i e h im again .
I remember he got l oo s e
o n e n i gh t , and came in a t a window t o wher e a younger br other
and I were s l e ep ing .
I t s cared u s bad l y , but a s s o on a s h e
dr ank a chur n - fu l l o f but t erm i l k , h e went out a t th e w indow ,
I hav e
and was roam ing around ab out the barn at day l i ght .
h eard p e op l e s ay a b ear cou l d not b e hurt by b e e s s t inging
I r ememb er one Sunday , whi l e a l l
them, but its a m i s take .
were at Church , except a few o f u s l i t t l e chi ldren , our b ees
swarmed , and s e t t l ed on the body o f the tree above where
bruin was t i ed . He k ept looking up at the b i g knot of b e e s ,
as though he wou l d l ik e to know what they wer e , so after a
whi l e h e went up the tre e , on a tour of inspec t i on . He l ooked
at th em for a wh i l e , then h e wiped them off with his n o s e ; and
the b e e s b egan to s t ing h im , and he b e gan to "ho l l er , " and rip
and tar e . H e broke h i s co l l ar at l a s t and away h e went t o the
61
Interv i ew w i th John W . O l iv er , July 1 8 , 1 9 6 3 .
d i s cu s s io n of t h e s e s tori e s .
62
S e e C hapt er V I for
F or an examp l e of the ta l l t a l es about panther s , s e e Doug l as ,
" Peop l e o f Cades Cove , " 8 2 .
69
wood s , but r eturned in a few hours . Th ey s t ung h im on h i s
b r ea s t and p aw s , but mos t ly about h i s n o s e and eye s . 6 3
S ome indiv idua l s preferred to l ive a l one in th e surround ing
moun t a i n s and to k e ep conta c t w i th the dens e l y popu la t ed cove at a
minimum .
Probab l y the ear l i e s t exampl e o f such an ind iv i dua l was James
Sp enc e , who moved from Virginia to the Whi t e Oak C ov e , imm e d i a t e l y
adj o in ing Cad e s C ov e , in th e l at e 1 8 20 ' s .
In 1 8 3 0 , h e and hi s w i fe ,
Caro l in e Law , bui l t a cabin on the top of the mountain at a p la c e wh i ch
now b ears the ir n ame :
the Spence F i e l d .
Both l o v ed the w i ld erne s s , and
moved to the Spence F i e ld ear l y each spring and s t ay ed there unt i l l a t e
in t h e fa l l .
There they h erded c a t t l e and grew such v e g e t ab l es and crop s
a s the h i gh a l t i tude woul d p ermi t .
d i ff i cu l t for Caro l ine .
Thi s typ e o f nomad i c l ife was
A few days b efor e the b irth o f their son
Robert in 1 84 0 , she w a l k ed a l o n e ten m i l e s to t h e ir home i n the Whi t e
Oak Cov e i n order t o b e n ear n e ig hbors who c o u l d a s s i s t her .
Oth er than
such emergen c i e s as ch i ldb i r th and the approach of w i nter , howev er ,
nothing cou l d induce them t o l eav e the i r mountain .
64
The Sp en c e s were w i l l ing to sp end at l ea s t part of each year in the
cov e , but Wi l son , o r W i l s Burch f i e l d was not .
Arr iving w i th h i s w i fe ,
E l i zab eth Baker , shor t l y b efore the C iv i l War , Wi l s chose to s ett l e in
what l ater b ecame known as the Ches tnut F l at s , an area at the southw e s t
e n d o f C a d e s Cov e .
63
64
"A lov er of sports and o f the w i l d s o f the for e s t s
Jobe , Auto b i o gr aphy , 1 9 .
M i s ce l l aneous Account Book No . 1 , pp . 1 2 6 - 2 7 . Thi s b ook , wh ich
contains numerous scraps o f cove h i s tory , was wr i tt en b y John W . O l iver
and i s in the author ' s po s s e s s i on .
70
and mountains , a great hun t er and front i er sman , " Wi l s " l ov ed t o g e t a s
far away from c i v i l i z a t ion a s p os s ib l e . "
H e bui l t h i s c ab in j us t und er
Gr egory ' s B a l d in the heart o f the Great Smo k i e s to e s c ap e any contact
w i th the cove p e op l e .
Hat ing and avo i d ing contact w i t h any form o f
i n s t i tu t i on a l l i fe -- church e s , s ch oo l s , e t c . --h e c l ear ed h i s l and and
grew crop s , and hun ted wi l d g ame to suppor t h i s l ar g e fam i l y in comp l e t e
i s o l at ion from t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t ic a l mainstream o f t h e c ov e proper .
65
The mo s t famou s man in the cove h i s t ory , Rus s e l l Gregor y , a l so
l ov ed the wi l d ern e s s so l i tud e .
Moving to Cades Cove from Yancey Count y ,
North C aro l ina , i n 1 8 3 5 w i th h i s w i fe , E l i zabeth H i l l , h e s e t t l ed on a
farm i n the midd l e of the cov e .
Short l y after h i s arr i v a l he entered
s ev er a l thous and acr es of mountain l and both in Tenn e s s e e and North
C aro l ina , inc l ud ing G regory ' s B a l d , whi ch d er ived i t s name from h im .
On
thi s b a l d h e bui l t a cyl i ndr i ca l ly shaped s tone hou s e w i th l arge w indows ,
or "port ho l e s , " a s h e ca l l ed them .
On moon l i t n ight s h e conceal ed
h ims e l f i n th i s s truc ture and poked h i s r i f l e , "Old Long Torn , " through
one o f the windows to shoot d e er which c arne near to l ic k s a l t .
66
65
Among h i s mo s t pr i z ed po s s e s s ions was a f l int l o c k r i f l e whi ch h e
n amed " O l d Bean" after i t s manufacturer , Baxter B ean o f t h e Bean fam i l y ,
no t ed gunsmiths i n the n inet e enth c entur y . J . W . O l iver , Cad e s C ov e ,
I I , 9-10.
66
As a rancher , Gregory came i n contact w i th a l ar g e number of
s t ockmen and b ecame w i d e l y known . He was famous fo r h i s method o f
cal l ing catt l e . U s in g a l arg e b l owing horn , h e summoned them t o the top
of Gregory ' s B a l d from mi l e s around in order to s a l t them . Th e s i gh t
and sound s o f hundre d s of cat t l e conver g ing on h im w i th t h e i r b e l l s
j ing l in g r ema ined for many years one o f the cove ' s mo s t memorab l e
sp ectac l e s .
I b id . , 1 1 - 1 2 .
71
No one l oved the wi l d ernes s mor e than Rus s e l l Gregory , or spent a s
much t ime a l one in the Great Smoky Mountains .
He even bu i l t h i s hou s e
in t h e cove facing G regory ' s Ba ld , s o that h e h ad a fu l l v i ew o f h i s
mountain dur ing t h e winter months when h e c ou ld not b e ther e .
67
Yet his
love o f the wi l derne s s d i d n o t mak e Rus s e l l hate c iv i l i zat ion , a s i t d id
Wi l s Burchfi e l d .
I n many respect s , Gregory p ersoni fied the qua l i t i es
mo s t adm ired by the c ov e p e op l e dur ing the nineteenth c entury .
He h ad a
d e ep s en s e o f re spon s ib i l i t y , not on l y to h i s immed i a t e fami l y , but to
the l ar g er communi ty and nat i on .
C omp l et e l y inv o lved in a l l a sp e c t s o f
community l ife , h e b ecame a l eader i n t h e church and a fu l l p ar t i c ipant
in the p o l i t i ca l , s o c ia l , and edu c a t i on a l l i fe of Cade s Cove .
Th i s
s en s e o f respons ib i l ity was comp l ement ed by an even t emper and c a l m
d i sp o s i t i on .
Frequ ent l y h e was c a l l ed on t o s e t t l e l o c a l d i sput e s ; h i s
d e c i s ion was s e l dom chal l enged o r que s t ioned .
68
Spenc e , Burch fi e l d , and Gregory were men o f wid e l y d i ffer ing
i n t er e s t s and a t t i tudes , but each preferr ed to sp end mo s t of h i s t ime in
the so l i tude of the mountains surroundi n g the c ov e .
Yet the v ery
c omp l e xi t y o f thes e men ' s p e r s onal i t ies makes i t d i ff i cu l t to measur e
the imp ac t o f t h e w i l d erne s s on t h e l arger number of m en and women who
cho s e to mak e Cades Cove th e ir p ermanent home dur ing the n in e t eenth
c entury .
Often former r e s i dent s in their corre spondenc e refl e c t ed
regret at l eaving the cov e ; a l mo s t a lways , however , economi c opportun i t i e s
were d e s c r ib ed a s b e ing b et t er i n their n e w homes i n t h e Wes t .
67
I b id . , 1 1 .
68
I b id .
F ragments
72
r emain wh i ch ind i c at e cove res i dent s o ften r emained there at a consc ious
financ i a l l o s s .
A l e tt er in 1 8 5 4 from I s aac Hart in Athens , Tenn es s ee ,
to h i s neph ew , Co l on e l J . W . Hampton Tipton in the c ov e , i l l us trat es
thi s s ituation :
Now i f you w i l l l eav e the Cov es you can do we l l but i f you l ay
out your money for l and in the Coves , Goodby Hamp t on . You had
b etter c ome down and l o ok here , for l and is advanc ing every
day .
We made 1 0 0 bu . o f fine wheat . We do not h av e to l abor
und er the same d i fficu l t ie s as you do . We have thr ashers here
that can thrash from 1 0 0 t o 200 bu . a day . You have to f l a i l
after t h e o l d dugout , g o t o t h e t h ic ke t , c u t a p o l e and l ay o n
a l l day . At n ight fan out 5 or 6 bu . w i t h a sheet . Then you
go 1 5 or 20 mi l es to g e t f l our f i t to eat .
I ' l l say to Catherine t o push you o ff . Here s h e need not
spin anymo re cot ton for she c an make more thread in thr ee
months rai s in g chick ens than she can spin in 12 month s .
But I dont th ink you wi l l come . Your attachment i s so
s trong for them mountains that it w i l l be h ard for you to part
w i th that grand s c enery . 6 9
Y e t bas i ca l ly the wi l dern e s s w a s important to the c o v e p eop l e
pr imar i l y for economic reasons .
The surround ing mount ains provided them
w i th b o th food and sh e lt er , w i th marketab l e produc t s , and w i th a safe
r etreat during the C iv i l War .
A l though s ome indiv idua l s preferred l iving
a l one there , the wi l derne s s d id not det ermine the pat t ern o f their
d ev e lopment or shape the life s t y l e of the maj o r i t y o f the cove p e op l e
i n any appr e c i ab l e d egr ee .
Their b as i c b e l i e f s , po l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , and
r e l i g i ou s , s t emmed from the mains t ream o f nineteenth c entury Amer i can
cu l tur e , and proved surpr i s in g l y res i l i ent to the many o b s t ac l es wh ich
l ater o ccurr ed .
69
Like a mountain stream t emporar i l y d iverted into a
Olga Jon e s Edwards and I zora Waters F r i z z e l l , Th e "Connect ion" in
Eas t Tenne s s e e (Wash ington C o l l ege , Tenn e s s e e , 1 9 69 ) , 2 3 9 .
73
qui e t i s o l ated poo l , t h i s b as ic cul tur a l o r i entat i on n ever comp l et e l y
l o s t i t s iden t i ty , and c ou l d l at er rej o in the mainstr eam w i th l it t l e
r ea l d i fficu l ty .
And l ik e their contemporar i e s i n o ther par t s o f the
Uni ted S t a t e s , the qua l i ty and s ty l e of t h e i r l iv e s were l ar g e l y
d e t ermined by t h e m arket economy .
CHAPTER I I I
THE MARKET ECONOMY
G eogr aphy was an important , but no t a d e t ermining factor , in shap ing
th e c ommuna l respon s e o f the c ov e peop l e t o their w i l d erne s s environment .
I n the d eve l opment o f a mark et economy , howev er , the effect o f phys i o g raphy on the trad e r out es o f E a s t Tennes s ee was t h e s in g l e mo s t important
fact or .
The economic l i fe o f C a d e s Cove must b e ana l y z ed w i t h in the
cont ext of l arger r e g iona l , s t at e , and nationa l market patterns .
At the
s am e t ime that the cove men were s truggl ing to g e t a pas s ab l e road
through the mountains to Knoxv i l l e , they sh ared an indirec t , but
n everth e l e s s very important s t ak e , in wh ether Knoxv i l l e achi eved s t eamboat
tran spor tat ion , or l at er , rai l r o ad s .
Without this awaren e s s of E a s t
T enn e s s ee ' s c entury- long s trugg l e , o ft en unsuc c e s s fu l , t o obtain
tran sp ortat ion faci l i t i es whi ch wou l d make her c omparab l e to and
compe t i t ive w i th o ther regions , the economic deve lopment of Cad e s Cove
makes l i t t l e s en s e .
1
1
s tan l e y J . F o l msbee , S e c t i ona l i sm and I n t erna l I mprovements in
Tenn e s s e e , 1 7 9 6 - 1 8 4 5 ( Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 9 ) , 1 - 1 9 ; Harry H . Gauding , A H i story
o f Water Tran sportat ion in E a s t Tennes s e e Prior to the Civi l War (Ma s t er ' s
thes i s , Univer s i t y of Tenn e s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 3 ) , 1 0 1 ; R i l ey 0 . B ig g s ,
Th e D ev e l opment o f Rai lro ad Transportat i on in E a s t Tennes s ee During the
R econstruc t i on P eriod (Ma s t er ' s thes is , Univer s i ty o f Tennes s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 93 4 ) , 1 1 8 - 3 7 .
I t i s B i g g s ' the s i s that E a s t Tennes s eans
u s ed their t emporary contro l of the stat e government after the C iv i l War
to o b t a i n enormous l o ans to f inance l o c a l r a i l ro ad cons truc t i on and
enj oyed privi l e g e s no t shared by o th er s ec t ions of the state . Dur ing
o ther p er i od s , however , East Tennes s ee r ec e ived l i t t l e a s s i s tance from
the s tate or nat i onal gov ernment for int erna l improvement s .
74
75
/
The h i gh crest l ine o f the Unaka Mount ains , ranging from a l t i tudes
b e tw e en 4 , 0 0 0 to 6 , 6 5 0 feet above sea l eve l , formed a great b arri er
b etween E as t Tenne s s ee and North C aro l in a .
2
I f Cades Cove had b een
l o cated on the east ern , or North Caro l in a s ide of t h e s e mount ains , her
e conom i c dev e lopment woul d h ave b een qui t e d i fferent .
W e s t ern North
C aro l in a was mountainous in t opography , and never dev e l oped trans portat i on
faci l i t i es wh i ch p ermi tted the growth of any commer c i a l cent er comparab l e
t o Knoxv i l l e i n E as t Tennes s e e .
3
The few rivers wh ich drained t h i s
moun t ain reg i on , such a s the Y adkin , C a t awa , or French Broad , w e r e "not
n av i g ab l e unt i l they l eft the s t at e . "
,/
I n as mu ch as road cons t ruct i on in
the mount ains was ext reme l y d i ffi cu l t b e fore dynami t e and b l as t ing powder
came i n t o us e , the roads in the w e s t ern port i on of the s t at e through
/
mos t o f the ninet eenth century were "on l y a s l i ght improv ement. over tho s e
o f the c o l on i a l er a . "
John P r e s t on Arthur maintained that th e s e We s t ern
North C aro l in a roads were " frequent l y t oo s t eep even for the overtaxed
oxen and hors es of that t ime . "
The North Caro l in a coas t , w i t h i t s s and
bars , frequent s t orms , and reput at ion as " th e graveyard o f the At l ant i c , "
i s o l ated the r e g i on from the s eaways of the wor l d and further ret arded
the c ommerci a l d e v e l opment of the ent ire s t ate .
2
4
Burchfi e l , The Unaka Mountains , 2 , 1 1 8 - 2 2 .
3
Lew i s Ceci 1 Gray , H i s tory o f Agricul ture in the Southern Un i t ed
S t at e s t o 1 8 6 0 ( 2 vo l s . , Washington , D . C . , 1 93 3 ) , I I , 7 5 4 , 7 7 3 , 8 1 6 ,
84 0 , 8 8 2 - 83 .
4
Hugh T . Lefl er , H i s tory o f North Caro l ina ( 2 vo l s . , New York , 1 9 5 6 ) ,
I , 3 0 3 ; Arthur , We s t e rn North C aro l ina , 2 3 0 .
76
� So desp i t e s everal I nd i an t r a i l s , such a s t h e one through Ekan e e t l ee
G ap , C ad e s Cove never dev e l oped s i gn i fi c ant c ommerc i a l t i es with North
Caro l ina , who s e c l o s e proximity wou l d under d i fferent c ircum s t an c e s have
made that s t a t e the l o g i c a l out l et for her marketab l e crops .
It i s
i n t er e s t i ng to not e i n thi s r eg ard that wh en the emi n ent Knoxv i l l e
phys i c i an and entrepreneur , Dr . J . G . M . Ram s ey , f i r s t b e c am e inter e s t ed
in a d i rect rai l road t o the At l ant i c s eaboard in the 1 8 2 0 ' s , the proj e c t ed
t e rminu s was Char l es t on or Savannah on a route wh ich wou l d comp l et e l y
5
.
b ypa s s Nort h Car o 1 1na
.
Cades Cove qui t e natur a l l y fe l l w i t h in the sphere o f the l arg e s t
c ommerc i a l c enter o f upper E a s t Tennes s e e a t Knoxv i l l e , some for t y mi l es
northwe s t .
Knoxv i l l e was s i tuated four and one - ha l f m i l es wes t o f the
j unct i on wh ere the Ho l s ton and French Broad R ivers formed the Tenne s s ee
River .
The Val l ey of East Tenn e s s e e l i es w i thin a great er trough
ext end ing s outhwes tward from New York to centr a l Al abama .
Thi s Great
V a l l ey , as the l arger trough is c a l l ed , i s bounded on the s outheas t by
the App a l ach i an Mount ains and on th e northwest by the App a l a ch i an P l at eau .
I t has a l ways s erved as an enormous intern a l h i ghway ; even l at er rai l road s
fo l l owed t h e natur a l topography and have para l l e l ed o l der rout es .
The
Tenne s s ee Val l ey , as a segment of t h i s l arger trade rout e , d e t erm ined
5
Fo lmsb e e , S e c t i onal i s m , 8 6 ; Knoxv i l l e R e g i s te r , Mar ch 1 2 , 1 8 2 8 .
Dr . Rams ey , an acute obs erver o f the economic d ev e l opment o f E a s t
Tennes s ee , ear l y recogni z ed the ar ea ' s n e e d for b et t er transport a t i on
fac i l i t i e s .
For the b e s t an alys i s of Rams ey ' s r o l e i n attemp t ing to
obtain b e t t er tran sportat ion fac i l i t i e s , s e e Dav i d Lawson Eub ank s ,
Dr . J . G . M . Ram s ey o f East Tenn e s s e e : A Car e er o f Pub l i c S erv i c e
( D o ctoral d i s s ertation , Univers i t y of Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 65) ,
94 - 1 4 1 .
77
that E as t Tenn e s s e e wou l d a lways b e "bound mor e c l o s e l y t o eas t ern
P ennsy lvania and New York or G eorg ia and A l abama than to North C aro l ina . "
I t i s much e as i er to d i s cu s s geogr aphy and natural trade routes
than t o attempt to charac t er i z e l arg er i deas and att i tudes whi ch mot ivate
an area ' s s e arch for marke t s .
Th e boo s t er s p i r i t in Knoxv i l l e , howev er ,
r ef l ec t ed s o c l e ar l y in such men as Dr . J . G . M . Ram s ey , was contagious .
D e sp i t e d i ff i cu l t odds and frequent fai lure , t h e s e men b o o s t ed their area
and almos t s eeme d at t ime s to b e l ieve t h e i r own propag anda that Knoxv i l l e
was d e s t ined to b ecome the c ommer c i a l cent er o f the Southea s t .
7
Th i s
exub er ant att itude w a s charact e r i zed b y an inext inguishab l e optimism and
by a r e s t l es s , s earching , and o ft en creat ive energy on the part o f the
men who pos s e s s ed i t .
Dr . Ramsey may not have been personal l y acquai n t ed w i th Dani e l D .
Fout e , but as entrepreneur s par exce l l ence they were c ert ain l y s p i r i tu a l
bro thers .
Foute had great dream s for the agr i cu l tural , commerci a l , and
indus t r i a l deve l opment of Cades Cove , and spent h i s energy and fortune
in a t t empt ing to real i z e t h e s e dreams .
8
H i s id eas and proj e c t s made the
6
G eorge C . Mart in , Jr . , Th e E ffect o f Phys iography on th e Trade
Rout es of East Tennes s ee (Mas t e r ' s thes i s , Un iver s i ty of Tennes s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 2 ) , 1 00 - 1 03 .
7
Eub ank s , Dr . J . G . M . Ramsey , 94 - 14 1 .
For a d i scuss i on of the
funct ion o f b o o s t ers w i t h i n the broader spectrum o f Amer i c an cultur e ,
s ee Dani e l J . Boors tin , The Americans : The Nati onal Experi ence (New
York , 1 9 6 5 ) , 2 9 6 - 97 .
8
Burns , B l ount C ounty , 4 1 , 6 5 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 5 , 1 1 9 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 , 2 1 0 , 24 2 ,
2 4 4 , 2 7 6 , 28 0 ; B l ount Deeds , 1 8 2 6 - 1 8 6 0 , pas s im ; E l v i e E a g l eton Sk ipper
and Ruth Gove , eds . , " ' Stray Thought s : ' Th e C i v i l - War D i ary o f E t h i e
M . F oute E ag l eton , " P art I , ETHS Pub l i c at i ons , No . 4 0 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 3 0 .
6
78
cove dur ing the format ive years o f i t s economi c d eve l opment v ery c lo s e l y
at tuned t o t h e c omme r c i a l aspirat i ons o f Knoxv i l l e and the l arger r e g ion .
I n t h i s s en s e , the entrep ren eura l s p i r i t account ed for sub t l e , but
nev erth e l es s extreme l y import ant d i fferen c e s b etween W e s t ern North
C aro l ina and E a s t Tenn e s s ee .
Geography a l one d id not d e t ermine the
cove ' s commer c i a l and l ater po l i t ic a l a l i gnment w i th the l at t er s ec t i on .
'- Dur ing the 1 8 2 0 ' s , the e c on om i c l i fe of Cades Cove c en t ered around
b as i c prob l ems o f c l ear ing the l and of trees and draining the ext ensive
s wamp s in the l ower end .
A l th ough patt ern s o f l and d ev e l opment in the
p i oneer s tage t ended t o b e uni fo rm throughout the l arg er reg i on , draining
the l ower end o f the cove pr es en t ed prob l ems b eyond the usua l scope of
the ear l y sett l er s .
P et er Cab l e s o lved thi s prob l em by d i r e c t in g the
construc t i on of a s er i e s of d ik e s and l og bo oms p l ac ed acr o s s Abram ' s
Creek and s ome of the sma l l er tributar i e s .
Th i s ingenious arrangement
a l l owed the fert i l e s o i l to be trapped and d i s tr ibut ed even l y on the l o w
are as .
9
Through Cab l e ' s p l an , the l ower end o f the cove was thus drained
and actua l l y rai s ed s everal feet in lower areas .
As a cons equence , the
pr ime l and in the cove , the farming area mo s t d e s ired for its fert i l it y ,
s h i ft ed from the upper , o r north e a s t part o f the cov e , wh ich was somewhat
h i l l y in p l ac e s , to the broad f l at meadows of the midd l e and l ower end .
� Th i s r ec l amat ion o ccurred in the l at e 1 8 2 0 ' s , and exp l a ins i n part why
9
J . w . O l iver , Cades Cove , I , 2 3 - 2 5 ; Marg aret E l i s ab eth Gamb l e , The
H e r i t ag e and Fo l k Mu s i c of Cades C ove , Tennes s e e (Mas t er ' s the s i s ,
Univer s i ty o f South ern Cal i forn i a , 1 9 4 7 ) , 4 3 .
79
, ear l i e r s ett l ers had chos en to l ocat e their home s t eads i n the upp er end
of the c ov e .
Usua l l y f i r s t comers s ei z ed the b e s t l and , but i n th i s
ins t anc e , the b e t t er farming areas were deve l oped after t h e i n i t i a l
/ s et t 1 ement p e r 1. o d .
10
P e t er C ab l e ' s engineer ing sk i l l s were part o f h i s w i d e - r anging
bui ld ing sk i l l s , and were cust omar i l y att ribut ed by the cove p eop l e t o
h i s P enns y lvan i a - Dutch ori gins .
Yet Cab l e l eft a mo re important l eg acy
than h i s many farm inven t i on s or bui l ding sk i l l s .
As the inc id ent c i t ed
above i l l u s t r at e s , h e was d e ep l y concerned w i th improving , extend i n g ,
and cons erv ing the arab l e cent r a l b a s in o f C ad es Cov e .
Obv ious l y there
were many farmer s throughout the century who emp l oyed the wor s t , mo s t
w a s t e fu l prac t i c e s in the ir farming .
But for the maj o r i t y of cove
farmer s , Cab l e s et the examp l e , a lmos t from the b e g i nning , o f c ar e fu l ,
con s i s t ent ly cons ervative farming methodo l ogy .
�
11
C ab l e was a l s o a i ded in h i s ph i l o s ophy o f c arefu l l and use and
conservat ion by the geograph i c a l l im i t at ions of the c ov e :
there wa s
on l y so much arab l e l and , and i f i t was not c arefu l l y us ed , some cove
r e s idents might be forced to l eav e the commun i t y .
12
S o commun ity t i e s
were inextr i c ab l y bound up i n t h e c arefu l cul t iv a t i on o f a l imited
10
11
12
I nterv iew w i th J ohn W. O l iver , Ju l y 1 9 , 1 9 63 .
J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I , 2 3 - 24 .
cab l e l iv ed unt i l 1 8 6 6 , and s everal generations o f cov e farmer s
b en e f i t ed from h i s wis dom and exper i ence . He was a l ways anx i ou s t o as s i s t
anyone i n the cove wh o needed h e l p , and thi s very approachab i l i ty meant
that h i s numerous ski l l s were w i d e l y d i s tributed in the communi ty a l ong
w i th his b a s i c att itud es t oward cons erving the l and .
Ibid .
80
amount o f l and , in s t r i k i n g contrast to t h e i r wastefu l cons ump t ion of
Th e net r es u l t o f
product s supp l i ed b y the surrounding wi l derne s s .
C ab l e ' s efforts w a s that th e r i ch s o i l o f t h e cove bas in remained
produ c t i v e at the end o f the c entury and was not dep l e t ed , as happened
in s o m any o ther areas within the l arg er r e g i o n .
13
During the format ive years o f the 1 8 2 0 ' s , a heavy d ependence on
n e ighboring Tuc k a l eechee Cove i s c l ear l y d i s c ernab l e .
Tucka l eechee Cove
was o l der and more e s t ab l i shed , hav ing b een s ett l ed in the l at e 1 7 9 0 ' s ,
and the g eographi c proximi ty o f the two cov e s formed a n atur a l bas i s for
c l o s e t ie s b etween th e two commun i t i es .
A l though many o f the ini t i a l
cove s et t l er s had come from Cart er County , the i r t i es w i th upper E a s t
Tenn e s s e e proved d i ff i c u l t to maint ain and w e r e soon d i s s o lv ed .
14
Dr . J o b e ment i oned in h i s autob i o graphy t h a t n o fru i t t r e e s had b een
p l an t ed in the cove when h i s f ami l y arrived , and for s everal year s the
cove inhab i tants h ad to get a l l their fru i t from Unc l e B i l ly Scott in
\
Tuc k a l eechee Cove .
15
Unt i l 1 8 7 3 , th e c l o s e s t store was that o f George
Sn i d er in th e adj acent cove .
Al l farm machinery or too l s , as we l l as
s eed for a var i ety of crop s , coul d b e bought at Sn i d er ' s s t or e .
13
Sni d er
Ayres and Ash e , "Southern Appa l ach ian Fore s t s , " 1 7 6 .
14
setween the pr e s ident i a l e l ec t i on s o f 1 8 3 2 and 1 84 0 , C arter County
became overwh e lming ly Whi g in oppo s i t ion to Jack son and h i s po l i c i es .
S e t t l ers who had l eft the county b efore 1 8 3 2 and sett l ed in Cad es Cove ,
such as J ohn O l iv er , were una ffec t ed by th i s " a l mo s t mas s trans format ion
o f pub l i c op i n i on , " and remained l oyal to J ackson . W . H . O l iver ,
Sketche s , 1 - 4 ; Frank Merr i t t , S e l e c t ed Aspects of Ear l y Carter County
H i s tory , 1 7 6 0 - 1 8 6 1 (Mas ter ' s thes i s , Univer s i t y of Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e ,
1 950) , 60 .
15
Job e , Autobiography , 1 8 .
81
as s i s t ed the cove peop l e i n many o th er ways .
He reduced h i s prof i t on
goods s o l d t o them b e c au s e o f the d i s t ance they trave l l ed , and ext end ed
cr ed i t on a fairl y l ib er a l b a s i s .
16
Snider ' s examp l e i s on l y one o f
many ins t ances i n wh i ch the e s tab l i shed commun ity h e lped Cades Cove in
the s t rug g l in g years o f the 1 8 2 0 ' s .
But tho s e c l o s e e c onom i c t i e s
fore shadowed a future t ime when t h e cov e ' s po l it i ca l a l l e g i ances f o l l o wed
tho s e of Tuc k a l eechee Cov e , and the ear l y econom i c connecti ons , if not
d e t ermina t ive , c er t a i n l y woul d be a s trong contr ibuting fac tor .
Th e i r ear l y eco nomic tut e lage under Tuckal e echee C ove , howev er , d i d
n o t mean that t h e peop l e o f Cad e s C o v e wou l d imi t at e th e ir n e i ghboring
communi ty in the important mat ter of l and d i s tr ibut ion .
Po s s i b l y no
other s i ng l e index c an b e c i t ed to document b a s i c econom i c changes w i th in
the cove than th e average number o f acr es p er farm throughout the c entury .
Unfortunat e l y the only agr i cu l tur a l s ch edu l e s wh i ch g iv e the s e stat i s t i c s
are i n t h e 1 8 5 0 , 1 8 60 , and 1 8 8 0 c ensus .
The s e record s , howev er ,
corre l at ed w i th deeds and w i t h the popu l a t ion schedu l es o f the s ame
c ensu s , form a c l ear p i cture of bas i c chan g e s in the p at t ern of l and
d i s tr ibut ion .
16
rnt erv i ew w i th M i s s B e rtha Dunn , a granddaught er o f Snider ,
Towns end , Tennes s ee , December 8 , 1 97 3 ; George Sn ider ' s Store Account
Book , 1 8 6 7 - 73 , in p o s s e s s ion o f the author . Snider operated the f i r s t
s tore in Tuck al eechee Cov e . Burns , "Set t l ement and Ear l y H i s tory , " 54 .
H i s account book proves that the cove peop l e were buying a w i d e variety
o f good s , i . e . , c l o th e s , sho e s , c l o th , and hat s , wh i ch were not e s s ent i a l
to their d a i l y l iv e s , s ince they pr esumab l y had the s k i l l s to make the s e
i t ems at home . Th e cont inuing pur ch as e o f none s s ent i a l i t ems i s a c l ear
ind i c a t i on that the cove peop l e rema ined o r i en t ed to the l ar g er r e g i onal
market economy , even in the d i ff i cu l t years j us t after the C iv i l War .
82
Records from the d eeds b e fore 1 8 5 0 ar e incomp l et e , but i t i s ev ident
)
from the record s wh i ch hav e s urvived that th e averag e s i z e o f the cove ' s
farms b e tween 1 8 2 0 and 1 8 5 0 usual l y ranged from 1 5 0 to 3 0 0 acres .
17
Thi s impres s ion exc l ud e s such l arg e l andho l ders as Wi l l i am Tipton
and Dan i e l D . Fout e , who w i l l be considered s epar at e l y .
P art o f the
prob l em in ana l y z in g the s i z e of a typ i c a l farm b efore the f i r s t
agr i c u l tural census in 1 8 5 0 i s t h a t d e e d s mak e no d i s tinc t i on b etween
improved and unimproved l and , that i s , between l and actua l l y b eing
cul t ivated and l and h e ld for t imb er or pas tur e .
Often entrepreneur s
such as Wi l l i am Tipton s o l d trac t s o f their l and or gav e such tracts to
their ch i ldren in a gradual d iv i s ion o f what wer e in i t i a l l y extrem e l y
l ar g e h o l d ings .
18
Other cove farmer s were add in g trac t s of l and to
their h o l d in g s during th e pro s p erous 1 84 0 ' s and 1 8 50 ' s .
Fr om the extant
r e cords of such tr an s ac t i ons , the impr e s s ion is c l ear that farms in the
cove b e fore 1 8 5 0 vari ed great l y in s i z e , and the e s t ima t e of b etween 1 5 0
and 3 0 0 acres r epresents an average rather than a mean d i s t r ibut i on .
I
It
i s a l s o c l ear that the numb er o f l and tran s a c t ions wa s much greater in
the formative year s 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 6 0 th an in the thirty- five years after the
C iv i l War .
Th e agr i cu l tural s ch edu l e o f the 1 8 5 0 censu s revea l s that over
three- fourths of the cove inhab i tant s l ived on farms of 1 00 acr e s or
l e s s of improved l and .
17
18
The acr e s of improved l and are the o n l y re l iab l e
B lount D eed s , 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 5 0 , pas s im .
B l ount Deed s , 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 3 6 , pas s im ; Burns , " S e t t l ement and Ear l y
H i s t ory , " 59 .
83
guide t o farm s i ze , s ince they represent l and und er ac tu a l cul tivati on ,
and th e unimproved l and cou l d w e l l b e for e s ted l and in the mountains
out s id e the cove p rop er .
Th e f i gures g iven b e l ow mak e no d i s t in c t i on
b e tween owners and t enant s ; l and owners h i p wi l l b e anal y z ed s eparat e l y .
E xc l ud ing the exten s iv e h o l d ings o f Dani e l D . Fout e , i n 1 8 5 0 one - th ird
�
o f the cove farmers l ived on farms o f from one to twenty- five acr e s o f
improv ed l and ; almo s t one - f i fth l ived on farms o f from twenty- s ix to
fifty acr es ; s l i gh t l y over one- four th l ived on farms o f from f ifty-one
t o one hundr ed acre s ; one - e i ghth l iv ed on farms of from one hundred to
one hundred and f ifty acres ; and one - ei ghteenth l ived on farms of from
one hundr ed f i f t y - one t o two hundr ed a cr e s .
19
� By 1 8 60 , a l m o s t one - th ird o f the cov e farmers l iv ed on farms of
from twenty - s ix to fi fty acres o f improved l and ; s l i ght l y over one-hal f
l iv ed on farms o f from f i fty- one to on e hundr ed acr es ; one - t enth l iv ed
on farms o f from one hundred f i fty- one to two hundred acr es ; and one e i gh t e enth l ived on farms o f from two hundr ed and one to three hundr ed
acres .
�
(,
20
Thi s s ub s tant i a l incr e a s e i n the s i z e o f farms dur ing the
1 8 5 0 ' s i s po s s ib l y at tr ibutab l e in part to the gr eat d e c l ine in the
t o t a l popu l at ion o f the cove from 6 7 1 in 1 8 5 0 to 2 9 6 in 1 8 6 0 caus ed by
a mas s migrat i on in the 1 8 5 0 ' s to the We s t .
21
A more probab l e exp lanation
is that the 1 8 5 0 ' s were prosperous years in terms o f market commod i t i es
19
20
21
1 8 5 0 Censu s , Agr i cu l ture , B lount C ounty .
1 8 60 Censu s , Agr icul tur e , B lo unt County .
1 8 5 0 Censu s , Popu l a t i on , B l ount County ; 1 8 60 C ensu s , Popu l a t i on ,
B l o un t County .
84
in E a s t Tenn es s ee , part i cu l ar l y for wheat , and thi s g eneral pro s p er i ty
eviden t l y a l l owed cove farmers to incre a s e th e i r ho l d ings , however
mod es t l y .
22
N o figure s are extant from the 1 8 7 0 agr i cu l tural c en su s , but b y
1 8 8 0 , i t i s ev ident that the C iv i l War had had a devas tat ing effect on
l and d i s tribu t i on in t h e cov e .
According to the agr i cu l tur a l c ensus o f
1 8 8 0 , three - f i fths o f the cove farmer s l iv ed o n farms o f from one to
twenty- f ive acre s ; s l ight l y over one-fi fth l ived on farms o f from twentys i x to fi fty acr e s ; one - s ev en th l ived on farms of from f i f t y - one t o one
hundred acres ; and 3 . 9 per c en t l iv ed on farms from one hundred one t o
two hundred acr e s .
The dram at i c r educt i on in the s i z e o f cove farms i s
attributab l e to the econom i c d evastat ion o f the r eg i on fo l lowing the
C iv i l War .
The extent of reduc t ion i s fur th e r emph as i z ed by the fact
that a lmo s t a third ( 3 2 . 9 p ercent) of the cove farms in 1 8 8 0 contained
o n l y t en acres o r l es s o f improved l and .
23
( S e e Tab l e 1 . )
From th es e figures i t i s ev i d ent that l and d i s tr ibut ion in the cove
�
was not corre l at ed to the s i z e o f the popu l a t i o n .
I n 1 8 5 0 , for ins tanc e ,
with a t o t a l popu l at ion of 6 7 1 , th e average farm was 8 3 . 98 acres .
In
1 8 8 0 , with a much sma l l er total popu l a t i on o f 4 4 9 , the av erage farm had
dropped to 3 0 . 8 4 acres .
24
So the s i z e o f the average cove farm in any
22
.
B en T . Lanham , Jr . , Typ e - 0 f - Farming
Regi. ons , and F actors
I n fluencing Typ e - O f - F arming Regions in Tenn e s s e e (Ma s ter ' s the s i s ,
Un iver s i t y o f Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 38 ) , 6 1 .
23
24
1 8 8 0 C en su s , Agri cu l tur e , B l ount County .
I b id . ; 1 8 5 0 C ensus , Agr i cu l ture , B l ount C ounty .
TABLE 1
S I Z E OF COVE FARMS PER AC RE
Numb er and P ercentage
o f F arms
1850
1 880
ACREAGE
1 5 1 - 200 201 - 300
26-50
5 1 - 1 00
19
3 3 . 9%
10
1 7 . 9%
15
2 6 . 8%
7
1 2 . 5%
3
5 . 4%
1
1 . 8%
1
1 . 8%
4
7 . 1%
8
14 . 3 %
11
1 9 . 6%
9
16 . 1%
11
1 9 . 6%
5
8 . 9%
3
5 . 4%
1
1 . 8%
I mproved Land
6
3 1 . 6%
10
5 2 . 6%
2
1 0 . 5%
1
5 . 3%
Unimprov ed Land
5
26. 3%
2
1 0 . 5%
4
21 . 1%
2
1 0 . 5%
1
5 . 3%
4
21 . 1%
1
5 . 3%
5
6 . 6%
4
5 . 3%
1
1 . 3%
I mproved Land
Un improved Land
1 86 0
1 0 1 - 1 50
1-25
I mproved Land
45
59 . 2 %
17
2 2 . 4%
11
14 . 5%
3
3 . 9%
Un improved Land
16
21 . 1%
17
22 .4%
23
3 0 . 3%
7
9 . 2%
S ource :
T enn e s s e e .
301-400
4 0 1 - 500
500+
4
7 . 1%
3
3 . 9%
Comp i l ed from Agr i cu l tural S ch edu l es , 1 8 50 , 1 8 6 0 , and 1 8 8 0 C ensus , B l ount County ,
00
(Jl
86
g i v en year was det erm ined not b y the t o t a l popu l at i o n of t h e c ov e , but
Th i s
rath er b y the general econom i c cond i t i ons of the l ar g er reg i on .
�
-../'
con c l u s i on r e i n forces the fact that th e cove economy was market - or i en t ed ;
a more s e lf- suffi c i ent communi ty wou ld no t h ave experi enced th e r ather
dras t i c a l t er at i on of int erna l l and d i s tribut i on r e s u l t in g from a
r eg i onal depr e s s ion i n farm pri ce s .
Th e pr i c e o f l and i n the cove does not furnish a c l ear i ndex t o
chan g ing econom i c cond i t i ons throughout t h e c en tury .
Dur ing the 1 8 2 0 ' s ,
l and v ar i ed in the init i a l gran t s from $ 1 . 00 to $ 5 . 8 3 p er acre .
25
Between 1 8 3 0 and 1 8 60 , unimproved mountain l and remained in the c at egory
of from $ 1 . 00 to $ 2 . 00 p er acre , but the fer t i l e l and of the c ov e b as i n
brought from $ 2 . 00 to $ 8 . 00 p e r acr e , usua l l y averag ing b etween $ 4 . 0 0
and $ 5 . 00 per acre .
26
Land p r i c e s are d i ff i c u l t to ana l y z e due to a w i d e range of
intervening var i ab l e s wh ich are i l l uminated on l y by a carefu l r ead ing of
a l l the extant d e ed s for cov e l and in the n inet eenth c entury .
Obvi ous l y
there were d i fferences in the l and i t s e l f ; some parts o f the cove wer e
more fert i l e than o thers , a s i tuat ion confirmed by l at er geo l o g i c a l
s tud i e s .
Ayres and Ashe pointed out in 1 9 0 5 that there wer e s po t s i n
t h e c o v e of " s o - c a l l ed ' d ead l and , ' where the s o i l s e ems to contain some
ing r e d i en t unfavorab l e to p l ant growth .
l ar g e , however . "
25
The cond i ti on of a par t i c u l ar farm a l so d et ermined
B l ount D e ed s , 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 3 0 , pas s im .
26
27
27
The areas o f th i s sort are not
B l ount Deed s , 1 8 3 0 - 1 8 6 0 , pas s im .
Ayr es and Ashe , "Southern Appa l ac h i an For e s t s , " 1 7 6 .
87
i t s v a l ue , as we l l a s th e number and type of " improv emen t s , " hou s e s or
b arns , on the property .
Th e on l y rea l l y v a l id gener a l i z at i on one can
mak e i s that l and i n the c enter o f the cove a lw ays brought h igher pr i c e s
than d id l and on t h e p er iphery .
Time wa s ano th er impor t ant variab l e in d e t ermining the p r i c e o f
l and .
A l though there i s r e a l l y no d i s c ernab l e increas e in l and p r i c e s
b e tw e en 1 8 3 0 and 1 8 6 0 , there i s o ft en a wide f l uc tuat i on in p r i c e s with i n
any g iven decade .
Economic depres s i ons in the l arger region obviou s l y
aff e c t e d l and p r i ce s .
p l ayed a ro l e .
Th e patt ern of immigr ation from th e cove a l so
Many cov e r e s ident s so l d out in the 1 8 4 0 ' s , to move to
new l ands being opened in the We s t , and th e p r i c e s they received from
such hur r i ed s a l es were o ft e n far b e low par .
28
Larg e entrepreneur s ,
p ar t i cu l ar l y Dan i e l D . Fout e , had enough c ap i t a l to buy farms ch eap l y
from tho s e r e s i dent s emigr ating t o the Wes t and h o l d the s e l ands unt i l
p r i c e s increas ed .
I f one examines F out e ' s numer ous transact ions car e fu l ly , howev er ,
there i s no r e a l evi d ence t o ind i cate that in the maj ority of l and s a l es
h e p a i d l e s s than the s tandard rate for l and in the three d ecades aft er
1830.
Fout e wa s inter e s t ed i n obtaining t i t l e t o large ho ldings o f
mountain l and for v arious specu l a t iv e ent erpr i s e s , but h e a l s o bought up
28
Mo s t o f the Tiptons s o ld their property i n t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s and moved
to Mi ssour i . Often they were ab l e to find someone in the cove t o act
as their agent in s e l l ing th e ir cove property , but the number o f farm s
sudden l y p laced on the market dur ing thi s period lowered the pr i c e o f
l and .
B l ount Deed s , 1 840 - 1 84 9 , pas s im ; Burns , B lount C ount y , 2 7 5 ; J . W .
O l iv er , Cad e s C ov e , I , 1 0 , 2 1 - 2 2 .
88
l ar g e ho l d ing s o f t h e fer t i l e farming bas in .
29
H i s act ive int er e s t i n
th e economic deve l o pment of Cad es Cove probab l y kept l and pri c e s up , but
the commun i ty b enefi t ed from h i s numerou s enterpr i s es , such a s b u i l d ing
r o ad s .
So th e agrar i an economy of the cove g a in ed rath er than l o s t from
Foute ' s ac t i v i t i es , a l though h i s l and s p e cu l at i on might appear to have
had a d e l eter i ous e ffect on the i n t ernal economy of the cove by driving
l and pr i c e s up .
F out e ' s specu l at ive v entures i l luminat e ano ther important var i ab l e
i n the pr i c e o f cove l and :
the shortag e o f spec i e , or cash , among the
maj or i ty of cove farmers throughout the c entury .
John O l iver s a i d i n
l at er years that the b es t farm in the cove cou l d be obt ained f o r a m i l k
cow i n the 1 8 2 0 ' s .
30
Speci e remained s carc e , however , and t h i s s c ar c i t y
k ept l and p r i c e s l ow throughout mos t of the century .
Ther e i s some
evidence that during the C iv i l War l and p r i c e s r o s e d ramat i c a l l y , but
the exp l anat ion l i es in the fact that Confed erate money was used in such
purcha s e s .
31
The real key to under s t anding the p r i c e o f l and l i es i n the l eaborat e
k inship s tructure wh ich d ev e l op ed i n the cove , and i n the growing s en s e
29
B l ount Deed s , 1 8 3 0 - 1 8 6 0 , pas s im ; Burns , "Sett l ement and Ear l y
H i s t ory , " 62 . At the t ime o f h i s death in 1 8 65 F oute s t i l l owned 2 0 , 0 00
acres in the cove .
30
31
w . H . O l i v er , Sketch e s , 1 0 .
B l ount Deeds , 1 8 6 1 - 6 5 , p as s im . An ardent Confederat e , Fou t e u s ed
Confederate money in h i s exchanges throughout the war . This i s probab l y
o n e r eason h e d i ed in poverty in 1 8 6 5 .
Burn s , B l ount County , 65 . There
is a l s o ev idence that s t a t e b onds were used earl i er in the century ,
wh i ch m ight have inf l at ed pr i c e s . One such transaction in 1 8 4 7 men t i o n ed
" $ 1 2 , 000 to b e paid in South or North Caro l in a money and in tr ad e . "
Thomas D av i s to D . D . Fout e , January 1 4 , 1 84 7 , B l ount Deed s , Book V ,
p . 1 38 .
89
o f communa l re spons i b i l i ty .
P arents frequent l y d e ed ed l and t o their
ch i ldren , as has b e en described earl ier , for a nominal fee or grat i s .
The common t erm used in such d e ed s was " for l o v e and affe c t i on , " and
t h i s phras e app ears in many tran s a c t ions throughout t h e c entury .
32
R espons i b l e indivi dual s o ft en gav e l and for t h e constru c t i o n o f a church
o r other pub l i c bui l d ings such as s choo l s .
for by co l l ec t i v e l and contr ibut i ons .
Widows were o f t en prov i d ed
33
Such t rans ac t i ons for char i t ab l e purp o s e s ar e eas i l y r ecogni zab l e
i n the l and d e ed s .
More subt l e exchan g e s invol ved l and s a l es to one ' s
kin o f varying degrees of r e l a t ednes s .
I n such transac t i ons , the p r i c e
w a s adj us t ed by t h e r e l at ionship o f t h e donor and the degree o f n e ed on
the part of the grantee .
Thi s transpo s i t i on of the k in s h i p s tructure
onto l and values , c l ear ly r e f l ected in the d e eds , may s eem sup ererog atory
i n s tr i c t econom i c t e rms , but i t r einforces the con c l u s ion t h at the cove
economy wa s inextri c ab l y b ound up in a value sys t em wh i ch d id not
p er ce iv e l and or commod i t y p r i c e s w i thin the cove in a b s o lut e or fixed
t erms .
34
\and
ownership usua l l y conferred s t atus on the individu a l
32
B l ount Deed s , 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 9 0 , pas s im . Examp l e s are Wi l l iam Tipton to
Mar tha Hart , 8 0 acr es "for l o v e and affe c t ion , " Apri l 2 , 1 8 2 5 , B l ount
D e ed s , B oo k 2 , p . 4 9 7 ; Thomas C arver Sr . to A l fred Burton Carver , s on o f
Reub en Carver , 5 2 acr es , February 6 , 1 83 6 , B l ount Deed s , Book 3 , p . 1 9 0 ;
W i l l i am Tipton t o Davi d B . Tipton , 1 4 0 acr es , May 2 5 , 1 8 37 , B l ount D eed s ,
Book M , p . 3 0 0 .
33
34
B l ount D e ed s , 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 9 0 , p as s im .
I b id .
Fou t e tr ad ed a town l o t in 1 8 3 0 for two sadd l es , wh i ch
g iv e s some i d e a of r e l a t i v e l and values and the s car c i t y o f sp ec i e .
S k ipper and G ov e , " ' S tray Thoughts , " ' Part I , 1 3 0 .
90
farmer , but i t was only one o f many fact ors wh i ch det ermined comp arat ive
s t and ing within the communi t y .
On rare occas i ons , the c ommun i ty cou l d act co l l ec t i v e l y to f i x l and
prices .
The auc t ion ing o f the exten s i v e ho l d in g s o f F ou t e after the
C iv i l War wa s one s uch occa s i on .
The communi t y appeared en mas s e at
thi s s a l e , and r e fused to bid ag ai nst one ano the r , or t o al l o w out s iders
to bid on cov e l and .
Con s equent l y the l and was s o l d for r i d i cu l ous l y
l ow p r i c e s ; 1 6 0 acr es went for $ 1 0 . 00 to Dan B . Lawson , for ins t ance ,
and the o l d Hyatt farm containing 8 0 acre s was s o ld to J . C . N . Bog l e
for $ 1 6 . 00 .
The r eal l y int ere s t ing part about t h e s e auc t i ons , however ,
i s the fact that not al l the l and went ch eap l y .
Tho s e ab l e t o pay were
ob l ig ed to make a b id mor e comp arab l e to the actual value of the l and .
35
So the commun i ty , ac t ing co l l ec ti v e l y , no t o n l y assured poorer cove
f armer s the r i ght to b id in their l and cheap l y , but actua l ly e ffec ted a
grad at ion o f l and pr i c e s to f i t the cond i t i on o f the l and and the
comparative abi l it y of the buyer to pay .
P o s twar l and p r i c e s remained depres s ed throughout the c en tury ,
r ef l ec t ing the l ar g er reg i ona l depres s i on .
At the end o f the century ,
accord ing to Ayr e s and Ashe , " the b e s t farm in the v a l l ey can be b ought
for $ 5 . 00 per acr e , " and f i ft y cent s an acr e was cons ider e d a good pr i c e
for t h e mountain l and surrounding t h e cove .
36
Even though un i t s o f l and
35
B l ount Minut e s , 1 8 66 ; B l ount County C hanc ery Court , R eport on the
Dani e l D . Fout e E st a t e Sett l ement , 1 8 66 . The Chancery Court s ett l ed the
e s tate of Fou t e a s an in s o lv ent e s t at e , s e l l in g h i s extens ive h o l d ings
in three pub l ic l and auc t i ons .
36
Ayr es and Ash e , "Southern App a l a ch ian Fores t s , " 1 7 7 .
91
s o l d a f t er the war contained fewer acr e s than d i d prewar farms , the
pr i c e p er acre was general l y much l ower .
G iv en the c omp l ex v ar i ety o f
int ervening var i ab l es , pos twar l and p r i c e s wer e n o t r e a l l y any index t o
t h e g eneral s t at e o f t h e economy , part i c u l a r l y in v i ew o f t h e increas ing
importance of the k in ship s truc ture .
I f the C iv i l War dras t i ca l l y reduced the s i z e and p r i c e o f the
average cove farm , it produc ed no such c omparab l e r educt ion in l and
owner s h ip .
Actua l l y , t enant farming was we l l estab l ished by 1 8 6 0 .
According to the c en su s o f that year , twenty heads o f hous eho l d owned
7
th e i r farms , and twenty- four heads o f h ou s eho l d were t en ant s . 3
So in
1 8 6 0 54 . 5 percent of the cove farmers we re t enant s , and only 4 5 . 5 perc ent
owned their own l and .
The C iv i l War chan g ed these f i gure s on l y s l i ght l y .
I n 1 8 7 0 , twent y- thr ee heads o f hous eho l d owned the ir own l and , and
8
t h 1. rty- two were t enant s . 3
Thus the percentage of l and owners had
dropped from 4 5 . 5 percent in 1 8 6 0 to 4 1 . 8 percent in 1 8 7 0 , and the
p ercentage of t enant s had r i s en from 54 . 5 perc ent to 58 . 2 percent .
A
drop o f 3 . 7 perc ent in l and ownership after the war i s rea l l y not
s i gn i fi cant wh en c ompared to the much mor e dras t i c r educ t i on b etween
1 8 6 0 and 1 8 8 0 in th e s i z e of the cove farm s .
I n 1 8 8 0 , w i th a s t eady incr e a s e in popu l a t ion from 2 9 6 in 1 8 6 0 t o
3 8 2 in 1 8 7 0 to 4 4 9 in 1 8 8 0 , t h e p er c entage o f l and owners had r i s en
dr amat i ca l l y .
37
38
I n that year , f ifty- thr ee hous eho ld h eads owned their
1 8 6 0 Census , Popul at ion , B l ount C ounty .
1 8 7 0 C ensus , Popu l at i on , B l ount C ounty .
92
own l and , and twenty-three r emained t enant s , an incr eas e in number o f
own er s from 4 1 . 8 p er cent in 1 8 7 0 to 69 . 7 percent i n 1 88 0 , a drama t i c
r i s e o f 2 7 . 9 p er c ent .
39
Since r e g i ona l farm pr i c e s actua l l y d e c l ined
dur ing this p er i od , an exp l an at i on o ther than the return o f g enera l
pro sp er i t y mus t b e found t o account for t h e great reduct ion i n t enant
farming b etween 1 8 7 0 and 1 8 8 0 .
Part o f the answer obv ious l y l i es in the
dr as t i c r educ t ion of the s i z e of cove farms , w i th almo s t one th ird o f
t h e s e farms numbering t en acr e s o r l e s s b y 1 8 8 0 .
40
A more comp l et e
exp l anat i on may b e found in t h e changing s o c i a l s tructur e o f t h e cove
p opu l at ion b etween 1 85 0 and 1 8 8 0 .
in a total popu l at io n of 6 7 1 .
I n 1 8 5 0 , there wer e e i ghty- s ix surnames
B y 1 88 0 , th i s numb er had dropped to forty­
five surnames for a t o t a l popu l at ion of 4 4 9 .
41
The proport ional drop in
the number o f surnames was 2 1 . 8 p er cent , and indicates that many mor e
cove fami l i e s were r e l at ed t o each o ther b y 18 8 0 .
Even thi s f i gur e i s
m i s l e ading , because through intermarriage mos t o f the cove fami l i e s were
indir e c t l y r e l ated in a k inship s tructur e of v arying degrees not ref l ec t ed
comp l et e ly in the number o f surnames a l one .
39
40
42
1 8 8 0 C en su s , Popu l a t i on , B l ount C ounty .
1 8 8 0 C ensus , Agr i cu l ture , B l ount County .
41
1 8 50 C ensus , Popu l at ion , B l ount County ; 1 8 8 0 C ensus , P opul a t i on ,
B lount County .
42
J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I I I , 2 - 1 8 . Mo s t o f the o l der cove
fami l i e s , the O l iver s , Cab l e s , Sh i e lds , Burchfi e l d s , Tipt ons , and
Gregorys , had int ermar r i ed by 1 8 8 0 . S e e a l s o Edwards and Fr i z z e l l , Th e
" Connec t ion , " 2 43 - 5 3 .
93
/
/'
� The
f a c t that by 1 88 0 m o s t c o v e fami l ie s w e r e d i r ec t ly or ind i r ec t l y
r e l ated had tremendous imp l i c a t i ons for the economic l i fe o f the cove
after the C iv i l War .
/
Thi s patt ern of the extended fam i ly reinforc ed
commun i ty t i e s and through c l o s e co operat i on and a s s i s tan c e a l l o wed the
indiv idua l nuc l ear fam i ly to survive comfo r t ab l y on a m in imum amount of
l and .
Th e dr as t i c reduct i on b etween 1 8 7 0 and 1 8 8 0 in the p roport i on o f
cove farmers who were tenants i s fur ther exp l a in e d b y t h i s expand ing
k in s h i p s tructur e .
Few fam i l i e s wou ld a l l ow their r e l a t iv e s to remain
t enants o r to b e w i thout the b a s i c neces s it i e s o f l i fe .
Becaus e o f the
h i gh fert i l ity o f the s o i l and the as s i s t an c e from their ext ended fami l y ,
few cove fami l i e s wer e unab l e t o survive the general d epr e s s ion o f
43
.
agr 1. cu 1 tura 1 p r 1. c e s on farms as sma 1 1 as t en a cr e s or 1 e s s 1n s 1. z e .
(
Obv ious l y t h i s s e l f - suffi c i ency was commun a l , not ind iv idua l , and
d i d not obv i at e the continuing neces s i ty o f finding a marke tab l e crop
aft er th e C iv i l War .
Without some cont i nuing d emand for such produ c t s
a s the weak mar k e t provided a ft er 18 7 0 , the l ar g er fami l y uni t s wou l d
have fa ced e conom i c ruin , and w i t h them t h e i r many d ependent r e l at iv e s .
� S o the sma l l farmer had an indire c t , but neverth e l es s v it a l s take in the
cont inuat ion o f the mark et economy .
44
I n s e l l ing his crops i n Knoxv i l l e ,
the sma l l farmer was a l so as sured shared transportat ion w i th some o f h i s
wea l th i er r e l at iv e s b ecau s e o f t h i s c lo s e communa l s tructur e .
43
Thu s much
1 8 8 0 Census , Agri c u l ture , B l ount Coun t y ; W . H . O l iv er , Sketches ,
79-80 .
See a l s o an art i c l e by J . W . O l iver ent i t l ed "Cades Cove" i n th e
Maryv i l l e Time s , September 1 5 , 1 9 3 2 .
4 4 J . W . O l iver , Cades C ov e , I , 1 5 - 1 8 .
94
if not m o s t of t h e i r agr i c u l tural product i on cont inued to be mark e t ed
aft er the C iv i l War ; the s tructure o f tran sport ing the good s , and the
market d emand s m i gh t h av e b e en sub s t ant i a l ly a l t ered , but the net effect
was s t i l l a v i ab l e market economy .
� Th e fac t that the e l aborate k inship s tructur e contro l l ed the economy
of Cades Cove after th e C iv i l War and d i d not a l low , as so o f t en happened
in o th e r s ec t i on s of the South , the sma l l farmer to fal l comp l et e ly into
a pattern of sub s i s tence farming , is further do cument ed b y the c lo s e
proxim i ty i n which many o f t h e s e extended fami l i e s l ived .
One no tab l e
examp l e i n the m i dd l e o f the cove was a c tua l ly named Myer s t own , b ec au s e
memb ers o f that fami l y l iv ed there s o c l o s e to one another .
45
Th i s
g eographi c conc en tr a t i on o f fam i l i es added t o the conv en i ence o f j o int
m ar k et ing ventur e s and other forms of co l l ec t iv e econom i c cooperat i on .
Adj acent r e l at i v e s i n poor c ir cums tanc es might b e a sour c e of cons tant
c omp l aint on the part of wea l th ier memb ers of a part i cu l ar fami ly , but
it wa s equa l l y true that such fami l i es were n ever a l l owed to s tarv e .
The econom i c d i s advantages o f such an e l aborate k inship s tructur e
were evi d ent i n th e dras t ic reduct i on o f new fami l ie s ent ering the c ov e
after th e C iv i l War .
46
Ther e were o ther r easons , of cour s e , for t h i s
dec l ine in imm i gration , inc luding t h e g ener a l p o s twar depres s i on of t h e
r eg ion .
But i t i s a l so ev i dent that aft er 1 8 6 5 few n ew fam i l i es ,
e s p ec i a l l y tho s e w i th no r e l at ives ther e , cho s e to come in and comp e t e
45
46
r n t erv i ew w i th John W . O l iver , Jul y 1 9 , 1 963 .
1 8 7 0 C ensus , Popu l a t ion , B l ount County ; 1 8 8 0 C ensu s , P opu l a t ion ,
B l ount C ounty .
95
w i th th e we l l - e st ab l i shed k in sh i p s truc tur e .
Thi s s i tuation i s in
marked contr a s t to the numerous imm i grant s , o ft en from fore i gn countr i e s ,
who had ent ered the cove dur ing the 1 8 4 0 ' s and 1 8 50 ' s .
47
The economi c d ec l ine after the C iv i l War d e t ermined the type a s
we l l a s t h e extent o f emi gration from the cove .
Pr ewar emi gr an t s u sua l l y
had con s iderab l y more ho l d ings than d i d tho s e l eaving after 1 8 65 .
Dur ing
the prosperous pr ewar dec ad e s emi gr an t s were in the mainstream o f the
Wes tward movement , and oft en went t o new l and s opening up in Mis sour i or
farther we s t .
I n contras t , p o s twar emigran t s usua l l y moved int o
n e i ghboring commun i t i e s s e l dom more than f i fty m i l e s away .
48
The obv ious
conc lus ion is that pos twar emi gr an t s did not have the nec es sary fund s ,
e � en when they s o l d out their h o l d ings in the cov e , to move v ery far .
}
The b as i c cerea l mark et crops rai s ed in the cove were corn , wheat ,
o at s , and rye .
Corn remained the mos t important s i ng l e crop throughout
the c entury , s ince it cou l d be u s ed for home consumpt i on , s o l d d i rect l y
i n Knoxv i l l e , o r fed to the l iv e s t o ck .
I n 1 8 5 0 , thirty- thr e e out o f
forty- four cove farmer s in t h e c ensus o f that ye ar grew c orn .
They
produc ed 2 7 , 58 0 bushe l s , or 7 8 8 bushe l s per farmer growing corn .
47
48
In
1 8 5 0 C ensu s , Popu l a t i on , B lount C ounty .
Accord ing to J . W . O l iver ' s mai l route d i r ectory in 1 9 04 , fami l i es
l e ft Cade s Cove for new homes in other p ar t s o f Tenn e s s e e , North C aro l ina ,
Georg ia , or Arkan s as . The s e forward ing addr e s s e s c l ear l y ind i c a t e that
the pat t ern o f emigrat i on was s t i l l affec t ed in the twen t i eth century by
the p ov erty of the po s twar decades . Th e dev e l opment o f an e l aborate
k in s h i p s tructur e m i ght have a l s o prevented many of the s e p eop l e from
trav e l l ing further away from the cov e , but a l l ev idenc e p o i n t s to
primar i l y economi c l im i t a t i on s . J . W . O l iver ' s Carri er ' s Rout e D ir ectory ,
1 9 04 , in pos s e s s ion of author . F or a d i s c u s s ion o f fam i l i e s who
emi gr ated farth er west dur ing the more pro sp erous years , 1 9 0 5 - 1 91 4 , s e e
Edwa rd is- and Fri z z e l l , The "Connect i on , " i - i i i .
96
1 8 6 0 , a l l twenty farmers grew c o rn , produc ing 1 7 , 7 5 0 bushe l s , o r 8 8 7 . 5
bush e l s p er farmer .
B y 1 88 0 , s ixty- five out o f s ev enty - s i x farmers were
p roduc ing 18 , 0 5 0 bushe l s , or on l y 2 7 7 . 6 9 bush e l s per farmer .
Wheat ,
o at s , and rye were grown to a l es s er extent , and the pat t ern o f
product ion fo l l owed that o f c orn .
(
4
( S e e Tab l e 2 . )
Other crop s produced in l e s s er but s t i l l marketab l e quan t i t i e s
inc luded hay , c l over s eed , and other gras s s eed , and f l ax , u s ed f o r home
consumpt ion a s we l l as s o l d .
} Var ious
gard en product s were s o l d , inc luding
peas , b eans , and I r i sh and sweet po tato es .
The cove proved to b e
: exce l l en t for t h e growth o f v ar i ous fru i t t r ee s , who s e y i e l d cou l d b e
�s o l d
a s p roduce o r d i s t i l led into various brand i es .
But t er and egg s
formed the s t ap l e product o f exchange with the l o c a l stor e , but t h e s e
i tems w e r e a l s o sh ipped to Knoxv i l l e in t h e fa l l along w i th other
produ ct s .
One fam i l y in th e 1 8 5 0 census r eported making che e s e , but th e
s k i l l n ev er became wi despread in the cove , and no other c ensus l i s t s
t h i s produc t .
Mo l a s s e s , honey , and b eeswax were produced in great
quan t i t i e s for s a l e in Knoxv i l l e .
The v a lue o f for e s t produc t s has b e en
previ ous ly d i s cu s s e d , but i t i s inter e s t ing to no t e that b y 1 8 8 0 , 1 , 4 1 1
cords o f wood were produced , with the pr i c e o f a cord averaging b etween
3 5 and 6 5 cent s .
50
/
-) Tobacco was a l so grown b y many farmers for their own u s e and for
s al e .
W . H . O l iv er reca l l e d how h i s father , E l i j ah , prepar ed hi s t ob ac c o :
49
1 8 5 0 Census , Agr i cu l tur e , B l ount County ; 1 8 60 Census , Agr i cu l tur e ,
B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 8 0 Censu s , Agr i c u l ture , B lount C ounty .
50
r b id .
97
TABLE 2
CEREAL PRODUCT ION , 1 85 0 - 1 8 8 0
1 8 50
WHEAT , bush e l s o f
P e r F armer grow ing wh e at
1 , 69 5
73 . 7
RYE , bushel s o f
P er Farmer growing rye
CORN , bush e l s of
P er Farmer grow ing corn
OATS , bushe l s of
Per Farmer grow ing o a t s
27 ' 580
788
6 , 880
2 08 . 4 8
1 860
1880
1 , 56 2
9 7 . 63
1 ' 811
54 . 88
125
4 1 . 67
47
1 1 . 75
1 7 , 750
88 7 . 5
5 ,400
300
1 8 , 05 0
2 7 7 . 69
3 , 08 0
83 . 24
Source : Comp i l ed from Agri cu ltur a l S chedu l es , 1 8 5 0 , 1 8 6 0 , and 1 8 8 0
C ensu s , B l ount Coun t y , T enn e s s ee .
98
My father was a g r eat tobacco u s er and woul d maneuver him a
good patch s o h i s tobacco woul d not fa i l . He wou l d worm and
succor i t unt i l i t woul d get r ipe . He a l ways cut and hung
h i s tobacco i n the shade t o cure , and wh en i t was we l l cur ed
he wou l d hand it o ff in bunches and pack i t down in l ar g e
gums and p ack o l d qui l t s or c lo th s around i t so i t woul d
k eep in c a s e a l l w int e r . He then l ov ed to s et up o f n ights
t i l l e ight , n i ne or t en o ' c l o c k and s t em and twi s t t obacco .
Pa had a t obacco p r i s e a ho l e cut through a tree and a
heavy l o g b e am went through i t . He wou l d f i l l up a gum w i th
twi s t s and s e t i t under h i s l o g pri s e and l e t i t down on h i s
t obacco , and then put a s l ed l o ad of rocks o n h i s beam and
l eave i t unt i l i t b e so hard wh en i t wou l d c ome out i t wou ld
never get dry and crum l e y . Thi s was the way he mad e h i s
money . H e woul d s e l l h i s tobacco mad e thi s way , a l l ov er the
county and i n N . C . He s o l d it at twent y- fi v e c ent s per
pound . He mad e so much o f i t that thr ee t w i s t s wou l d w e i gh
a pound . S l
The prewar l iv e s tock indus try in the cove was l ar ger and more
prosperous th an in surround ing E a s t Tenn e s s ee count i e s , pr imar i ly b ecau s e
o f t h e avai l ab i l i ty o f ext ended gr a z ing l and in the mounta ins .
In 1 8 6 0
t h e average number o f cat t l e p e r farm , for ins tanc e , w a s near l y four
t im e s greater i n the cove than in other part s o f the r e g i on .
T
�le
3.)
(See
The gra z ing act i v i t i e s o f mo s t o f the c ov e peop l e and the
acc e s s ib i l ity o f thi s l arg e mountain range used by farmer s throughout
the area has a l r e ady b e en d i s cus s ed .
I t should be po i n t ed out , however ,
that th i s s e c t ion o f E a s t Tenn e s s e e wa s at the cro s sroad s o f an important
catt l e dr iv e from the South and West before the war .
Accord ing to Gray ,
m any herders s t opped in th e s e fert i l e cove areas to fatten their c a t t l e
b e fore taking them o n t o market i n Knoxv i l l e .
51
w . H . O l iver , Sket ches , 3 5 - 37 .
So the cove c er t a i n l y
99
TAB LE 3
D I STR I BUT I ON O F L I VESTOCK , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 8 0
185 0
HORS ES
P e r F arm
ASSES & MULES
P er F arm
M I LK COWS
P e r F arm
WO RKING OXEN
Per F arm
1880
1 8 60
1 64
2 . 93
122
6 . 42
98
1 . 29
25
1 . 32
22
. 61
139
2 .48
145
7 . 63
152
2
34
17
47
. 29
17
. 84
. 89
. 22
OTHER CATTLE
Per Farm
407
7 . 27
373
1 9 . 63
3 29
4 . 33
SHEE P
Per Farm
495
8 . 84
339
1 7 . 84
698
9 . 18
SW INE
Per Farm
1 , 425
25 . 45
1 , 080
56 . 84
1 , 09 3
1 4 . 38
$ 1 8 , 261
$ 3 26 . 09
$ 2 1 , 44 5
$ 1 , 1 2 8 . 68
$ 1 3 , 499
$ 1 7 7 . 62
VALUE OF L I VE STOCK
P er F arm
S our ce : Comp i l ed from Agr i cu l tural S chedu l e s , 1 8 5 0 , 1 8 6 0 , and 1 8 8 0
C ensus , B l ount Coun t y , Tenn es s ee .
100
b en e f i t ed from th e influx o f herders from o ther areas o f the s t a t e and
52
1 arger r e g i. on .
Suf f i c i ent evid ence has b een o ffer ed in Tab l es 2 and 3 to reach
some br oader gener a l i z ations about the economy of the cove a s r e f l e c t ed
in the agricu l tur a l s c h edul e s o f the 1 8 5 0 , 1 8 6 0 , and 1 8 8 0 censu s .
From
a l l ind i c a t i ons , i t i s evident that a l though the cove w i tne s s ed a
d e c l ine in over a l l popu l at ion b etween 1 8 5 0 and 1 8 60 from 6 7 1 to 2 9 6
peop l e , the gener a l pro sper i ty o f t h e average cove farmer great l y
incre a s ed during the decad e .
By 1 8 8 0 , however , the economy had d e c l ined
dras t i ca l ly in every area , from l iv e s t o ck t o bas i c c er e a l crop s .
To
c i te on l y one examp l e , the numb er o f hor s e s per farm in 1 8 5 0 was 2 . 9 .
Tha t r a t i o had g one up to 6 . 1 hor s e s per farm by 1 8 6 0 , but dropped
dr as t i c a l l y to 1 . 3 hors e s in 1 8 8 0 .
A l l ava i l ab l e ev i d enc e p o ints to the
53
. d evastat ion
.
. I. 1 War .
great economic
c au s e d b y t h e c IV
Unfortunat e l y the 1 8 7 0 agr ic u l tur al s c h edu l e i s m i s s ing from the
c ensus o f that year .
Other ev idenc e , such as the d e e d s and l eg a l
tran s a c t ions dur ing t h i s p er iod , ind i cates that t h e dra s t ic d e c l ine in
th e cove ' s ec onomy d i d not sudd enl y occur after the war , but was r ather
a s t eady dec l ine b e tween the y e ar s 1 8 6 5 and 1 8 8 0 .
I f t h i s hypothe s i s i s
correc t , the cove economy woul d b e coord inat ed w i th t h e l ar g er economy
52
For comp arative data on l iv e s tock in other E a s t Tenne s s ee c ount i e s ,
s e e B l anche Henry C l ark , The Tenn e s s e e Yeoman , 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 6 0 (Nashv i l l e ,
1942) , 193 .
1 8 5 0 C en sus , Agr icu l tur e , B l ount County ; 1 8 60 C en sus ,
Agr i cu l ture , B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 8 0 Censu s , Agr icu l ture , B l ount C ounty ;
Gray , Agr i cu l tur e , I I , 8 4 0- 4 1 , 88 3 .
53
1 8 50 Census , Agr icu l tur e , B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 60 Censu s , Agr i cu l tur e ,
B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 8 0 Census , Agr i cu l ture , B l ount County .
101
of E a s t Tenne s se e , whi ch fo l l o wed a s imi l ar p a t t ern .
54
I n any event ,
the s t eady econom i c d ec l in e in the thr ee d ecades after 1 8 6 5 i s the
s i ng l e mo s t no t ab l e event in the economi c h i s t ory o f n i n e t e enth c entur y
Cad e s Cove .
Th e second impor tant general i z at i on about the cove economy i s that
in s p i t e of th i s dra s t i c pos twar d e c l i n e , it rema ined marke t - o r i en t ed .
The t o t a l number of catt l e and swine produced in 1 8 8 0 comp ar e s favorab l y
w i th the numb er b e ing produced b e fore the war .
produced l arg e l y for market .
}
Catt l e were c ertain l y
I n t h e fa l l of each year , many cove
inhab i tan t s s l aughtered b e e f and shared it with their many n e i ghbors and
r e l a t iv e s .
But at o t h er t ime s , b ecau s e o f the d i ff i cu l ty in pres erv ing
th e meat , cat t l e were no t w i d e l y u s ed as a food supp l y by the inhab i tant s
thems e lv e s .
55
There a r e numerous o ther examp l e s in t h e 1 8 8 0 c en su s t o ind ic a t e
t h a t the p o s twar economy s t i l l produced many i t ems wh i ch by t h e i r v ery
n atur e and quant i ty had to b e marke ted .
No b e t ter i l l u s tration o f t h i s
-l
s i tuat i on ex i s t s than th e r ap id incr e a s e i n the produc t ion o f sheep .
1 8 8 0 , woo l h ad b ecome an important market product from the cove .
By
In
that year , 1 , 3 2 0 pound s o f woo l w ere produc ed , av er aging 1 7 . 3 7 pounds
per farm .
I n 1 8 6 0 a t o t a l o f 3 3 9 sh eep were l i s t ed ; by 1 8 8 0 , the t o t a l
54
U . S . D epartment o f C ommer c e , Bureau o f t h e C ensus , Tw e l fth C ensus
of the Uni t ed State s , 1 9 0 0 : Agr i cu l ture , Part I , 694 - 9 5 , 7 0 3 . S e e
above , foo tnot e 7 , Chapt er I I . The agr i cu l tur a l d epr e s s ion was
Lanh an ,
a c c en tuat ed by the gr eat p o s twar d epre s s i on wh i ch be gan in 1 8 7 3 .
s im .
pas
,
0
8
8
1
0
6
8
1
,
s
eed
D
lount
B
so
l
a
e
e
S
.
0
6
,
Typ e -Of- Farming Reg i ons
55
J . W . O l iver , Cad es Cove , I , 6 .
1 02
had r i s en to 6 9 8 .
56
Thi s increas e in t h e number of s h e ep grown i s
d i re c t ly c orre l at ed t o the incr ea s e in t h e market d emand ; o bv ious l y the
cove p e op l e h ad not increas ed their own us e of e ither mut ton or woo l
dur ing the int erv a l .
That the cove economy cou l d adj us t , in the m i d s t
o f s uch a great depre s s ion , to the c hanging market d emand s , i s mut e
t e s t imony t o t h e cont inuing v iab i l i ty o f t h e mar k et economy .
�
D i s t i l l in g becam e an importan t indu s try for some of the cove p eo p l e
who l ived i n t h e out lying r e g io n s , par t i cu l ar l y i n t h e ar ea at th e
s outhw e s t end o f the cove known as Ches tnut F la t s .
B e fore the war ,
Ju l iu s Gregg own ed a l arge d i s t i l l er y , pro ce s s in g app l es and corn .
After the war , G eorg e Powe l l "operated one o f the mo st e l aborate
d i s t i l l er i e s in B l ount C ounty" h er e , maint ain ing an o rchard o f s ev er a l
hundred fru i t tr e e s and manufac tur ing f i n e brand i es .
Accord ing to the
Maryv i l l e Index , September 1 8 , 1 8 7 8 , a revenuer raid at his p l ace
d e s troyed e l even tub s o f b eer and mash , four tub s of pomac e , 130 g a l lons
o f " s in g l ing s , " five bush e l s of mea l , two bush e l s of rye , and two bushe l s
o f mal t .
Forty sho t s were exch anged in t h i s encoun t er , but the " en g ineer
o f t h e mash mi l l " es caped unharmed .
57
Powe l l ' s " app l e wago n " wa s o n e o f
t h e mo s t popu l ar at tr ac t ions wh en h e cam e t o market i n Maryv i l l e dur ing
c ourt week ; "he a l ways had choi c e quar t ers at the l iv ery s t ab l e where he
s l ept c l o s e to his wagon . "
58
56
1 8 6 0 Censu s , Agr i cul tur e , B l ount County ; 1 8 8 0 C ensu s , Agr i cu l ture ,
B l ount County .
57
58
Maryv i l l e Index , S e p t emb er 1 8 , 1 8 7 8 ; Shi e l d s , "Cad es C ov e , " 1 0 7 .
Burns , B lount C ounty , 2 4 3 , 2 7 6 .
------·
1 03
Th e humor wi th whi ch such s to r ie s o f d i s t i l l ing in the c ov e were
l at er r e l ated d i s tor t s , however , the very s e r i ou s s o c i a l , econom i c , and
moral ques t i o n s whi ch d iv i d ed the c ommuni ty over this indus try .
The
Bapt i s t church e a r l y expres s ed i t s unc omprom i s ing d i s approva l of
d i s t i l l ing and through i t s great influence succeed ed in k e eping d i st i l l er i e s out o f the cove proper .
Th i s a t t itude o f the maj or i t y o f
sub s t ant i a l farmer s forced tho s e who wi shed to make l iquor to remov e to
the out l ying ar eas wh er e the r e was a p l ent i fu l supp l y o f c o l d water for
the i r operat i o n s .
In r e ta l iation for d i s t i l l ing , the commun ity o s tr ac i z ed
the s e peop l e and a t t empted to cut them comp l et e l y off from the int en s e
communa l l ife o f t h e cov e .
�
59
Th i s s o c i a l d i v i s ion was r einforced by the t errain o f the cov e .
Market crops , such a s corn and wheat , d i d not grow we l l in the l e s s
fer t i l e subcommuni ty o f Che stnut F la t s .
A l l types of fruit tree s , on
the o ther hand , grew v ery w e l l ther e ; so there was a natur a l incen t i v e
to make whi skey .
Wi l s Burchfi e l d , who moved to the F l at s shor t l y b efore
the C iv i l War , alr eady had ant i - e s tabl i shment ideas and at t i tud es wh ich
[
comb ined w i th the nature of the s o i l and t errain to inc l ine the F la t s
p e op l e toward d i s t i l l ing .
I so l ated from the mainstream o f the cov e
commun i ty , th e s e p e op l e b e c ame out c a s t s and dev e l oped a l ifes tyl e
60
par t 1. cu 1 ar 1 y repugnant to t h e cov e maJ. O r 1. ty .
Th e s o c i a l d ichotomy of Ches tnut F la t s ind i cates again how
i nextr i c ab l y s o c i a l and c u l tural mores were bound up in the way in which
59
Gamb l e , Heritage and F o l k Mus i c , 6 7 - 6 9 ; Doug l a s , " P e op l e of Cades
C ov e , " 8 0 .
60
J . W . O l iver , Cad e s Cov e , I I , 8 - 9 .
1 04
the cove peop l e m ad e their l iv ing .
Th i s s itua t i on was further c omp l icat ed
after the C iv i l War wh en the Uni t ed States government a t t empt ed to
enfor c e its int ernal r evenue l aws , and the s tate of Tenne s s ee b egan
p a s s ing a s er i e s of r e s tr i c t iv e measur e s l eading toward prohibit ion .
61
When d i s t i l l ing b e c ame i l l eg a l in o ther part s o f the s t at e , t h e c ov e ' s
natur a l i so la t i on wou l d make i l l eg a l d i s t i l l in g a pro f i t ab l e and t emp t in g
o ccup a t i on .
Yet the uncompromi s ing po s i tion o f the p i e t i s t i c maj or ity
in the cove continued unal tered , and the force of c i v i l l aw was now
add ed to their mor a l ob j ec t i on s .
Much o f the b l oodshed wh i ch occurred
in the communi ty aft er the war r es u l t ed from t h i s b as i c d iv i si on o v er
mak ing whi skey ; the oppo s i t ion o f the cove maj ority mad e t h e trad e
d i ff i cu l t i f n o t unprofitab l e , s ince they fr equen t l y coop erat ed with the
federa l revenue o ff i c er s in d i s c l o s ing the l o cat ion o f s t i l l s .
� The da i l y
62
l ife o f the average cove farmer in the n inet eenth century
s eems from al l accounts to h av e b een one of unm i t igat ed l abor .
Th e
61
Th e b e s t ana l y s is o f prohib i t ion l eg i s l at ion in Tenn e s s e e i s
Paul E . I s aac , Prohib i t i o n and P o l i t i c s : Turbul ent Decades i n Tenne s s ee ,
1 8 8 5- 1 9 2 0 ( Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 6 5 ) .
For a d i s cu s s ion o f the great increas e in
i l l ic i t d i st i l l ing in th e mountainous ar eas o f East Tenne s s ee aft er th e
C iv i l War , s e e Grace L eab , Th e Temperance Mov ement in Tenne s s e e , 1 8 6 0 1 9 0 7 (Ma s t er ' s thes i s , Univer s i t y of Tenn es s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 8 ) , 7 - 3 0 ;
Nashv i l l e Dai l y Amer ican , F ebruary 8 , 1 8 8 0 ; Les l i e F . Rob l yer , Th e R oad
t o S t at e- Wid e Prohi b i t ion in Tennes s ee , 1 8 9 9 - 1 9 0 9 (Ma s t er ' s the s i s ,
Univer s i t y of Tenne s s ee , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 4 9 ) , 1 - 48 .
62
Doug l as , " P e op l e of Cades Cove , " 8 0 - 8 1 ; Gamb l e , Her i tage and F o l k
Mus ic , 6 9 . As I s aac points out , t h e proh ib i t ion cau s e had i t s s tr ongho l d
in E a s t Tenne s s ee , t h e sect ion of t h e s t at e mo s t not ed for i l l ic it
d i s t i l l in g .
I saac , Proh i b i t ion and Po l i t i c s , 5 5 . Th e d i v i s ion in C ad e s
Cove i s r e f l e c t ed i n B l ount County , wh ich as ear l y a s 1 8 3 7 had a month l y
maga z ine , the Temperance Banner , ed ited by Darius Hoyt and ded icated to
the proh i b i t i on c aus e . Burn s , B l ount County , 2 2 7 .
105
(
great fer t i l i t y o f the so i l was a lways a n incent ive t o r a i s e a surp lus
of crops for the mark e t .
In add i t ion , the impu l s e o f their r e l igious
b e l i ef s g ave v a l ue to hard work a s mer i to rious i n i t s e l f .
Mos t farmer s
s p en t the gr eat er p art of the d ay in such heavy t a s k s a s p lowing ,
p l an t ing , or h arv e s t ing crops , m ending fenc e s , or f e ed ing the l iv e s tock
�
Even the l a t e hour s o f the d ay were occup i ed in var i ous sma l l er t as k s ,
such a s r ep a ir ing harne s s e s o r making sho e s for the fami l y .
John W .
O l iver recal l ed the fami l y at work in the evening :
Mo ther wou l d card wo o l and spin i t into yarns and weave i t
into c l oth t o c l o the the fam i l y . The o l d er chi l dr en , bo th
I
g ir l s and boys , wer e taught to as s i s t her in th is work .
have qui l l ed the thr ead for the shutt l e many t im e s wh i l e she
wove it into c l o th . Mo ther was nev er happ i er than wh en she
was in th e l o om o r turning the sp inning wh e e l .
At the s ame t ime , father wou ld b e busy mak ing or mend ing
sho es for the fami l y . S ome o f th e chi ldren wou l d somet imes
ho l d a r i ch pine torch - l i ght to g iv e more l ight in the hous e .
The hot ro s in wou ld drop on our hand s or t o e s and how we
I f the torch
wou l d j ump ! Somet ime s we dropped the torch .
b egan to get d im we wou l d snub i t on the dog irons to r emov e
the burned coa l s , l ik e snub ing the a s h e s from a c i garet t e . 6 3
From th i s d e s c r ip t i on i t i s evident that women worked equa l l y long
hour s a s men at d i ff i cu l t t a s k s .
Usua l l y the type o f work women d i d was
confined to dome s t i c du t i e s -- c oo k ing , s ewing , and weav i n g -- in the home .
Occa s i ona l l y , however , women p er formed h eav i er t a s k s such a s p lowing ,
but t h i s behav i or was cons ider ed except i ona l and was j us t i f i ed o n l y by
the ab s enc e of an ab l e -bod i ed mal e .
(
\ U sua l l y
unab l e to share in the
mas cul ine out l et o f hun t in g and f i sh ing i n the surround ing mounta ins ,
the cov e women par t i a l l y comp en s a t ed for the ut i l i t ar i an rout ine o f
63
J . W . O l iv er , Cades Cove , I , 4 - 5 .
1
� their
1 o6
d a i ly l iv e s through the b eaut i fu l qui l t s they p i ec ed and the wo o l
cover l e t s mad e i n many co lors and d e s i gn s .
Women were a l so taught how
to u s e r i f l e s , i n c a s e of any emer g ency , and were g eneral ly fami l iar
w i th m o s t of the m en ' s chores .
64
Thus , wh i l e l abor usua l l y fo l l owed
trad i tional d iv i s i ons accordi n g to sex , it was d e emed n e c e s s ary by the
communi ty that e ach indiv idual shou l d at l ea s t be fam i l i ar with the
dut i es and t a s k s p er formed by the oppos i te s ex .
J
Chi l dren wer e an important p art of the l abor force .
Th ey were
trained at an ear l y age to perform a w i d e var i et y of j obs , so that the
fam i l y coul d work tog ether as a uni t .
fami l i es wer e l arge .
Throughout the c entury , cove
I f marri ed chi ldren d i d no t mov e away , a s was
incr e a s ing ly the c a s e after the C iv i l War , the l ar g er fam i l y formed an
extended labor poo l , to whi ch grandchi ldren were ev entua l ly added .
The
number of chi l dren per fam i ly is d i ffi cu l t to d et ermine accur at e l y from
the census r ecords a lone , s ince the infant mortal ity rate was high , and
chi ldr en marr i ed at an ear l y age and e s t ab l i shed their own homes .
64
Six
A notab l e examp l e o f a woman who performed men ' s work wa s Aunt
B ecky Cab l e , daughter of John P . Cab l e .
"Reb e c c a was a v er y s trong
woman phy s i ca l l y .
She nev er cho s e to get marr i ed , but l ived a c l ean
indu s tr ious Chr i s t i an l i fe . She l ived to be n inety - s ix years o l d . She
did more work than the av erag e man . She could hand l e stock and t oo l s ,
on the farm or in the woods . She r an h er fa ther ' s mi l l many year s
doing the work herse l f . She rode a l l over the Smoky Mountains l o o k ing
after the l iv e s tock . She was hone s t , indu s triou s , and upr i ght in a l l
her d e a l ings . She l ived a l i fe far above b o ard and wa s l o v ed and
r e spected by a l l w i th whom she c am e into contact . " J . W . O l iver , Cades
Cov e , I I , 2 - 3 . Aunt Becky ' s l i fe s t y l e was d e s cr ib ed by Vic Weal s in
th e Knoxv i l l e Journa l , Augus t 1 7 , 1 9 6 0 . She d i ed in 1 944 . Shie l d s ,
"Cades Cove , " 1 07 .
107
\L
to e ight chi ldren per fami l y was averag e ; f i ft een was c o n s i d er ed larg e ,
but n o t unusua l .
65
A l though t enant farming d e c l ined aft er the C iv i l War , some o f the
l ar g er farmers cont i nued the prac t i c e o f hiring l aborers for fixed
p er iods to work o n their farm s .
In 1 88 0 , when o n l y e ight out of s ev enty-
s ix farmers hired others to work on th eir farms , the p ay was extr em e l y
l o w , averag ing between $ 2 . 0 0 and $ 3 . 00 f o r a week ' s work .
Many cove
farmers worked s ev er a l weeks each year for th e s e l ar g er farmer s in order
to obtain extra c a sh before they so l d their own crops in Knoxv i l l e .
Not
unt i l the end of the century d i d s awrn i l l ing b ecome a w i d espread sour c e
o f add i t i onal incom e .
66
For the av erage farmer who cou l d no t afford to hire l abor dur ing
h arve s t o r an emer gency , the community r e sponded co l l ec t i v e l y .
John
McC au l l ey out l ined thi s co l l e c t i v e response a s h e rem embered i t dur ing
the l a s t decad e o f the ninet eenth century :
\
l
We l oo ked after one ano ther .
I f there was s i ckne s s in a
fam i l y and a crop needed work ing , we ' d a l l hear about i t at
church on Sunday .
65
1 8 5 0 C ensus , Popul at ion , B l ount County ; 1 8 60 C en su s , Popu l a t i on ,
B l oun t C ounty , 1 8 7 0 C ensus , P opu l at ion , B l ount County , 1 8 8 0 Census ,
Popu l a t i on , B l ount C ounty ; W . H . O l iver , Sketches , 1 8 - 2 9 .
66
1 8 8 0 C ensu s , Agr icu l ture , B l ount County ; Burns , Bl ount County ,
2 2 9 - 3 1 . Al though the Shi e l d s M i l l and the Cab l e Mi l l produced lumb er
for l o ca l us e , it was no t unt i l the L i t t l e R iver Lumb er Company w ent
into operation in 1 9 0 1 and the L i tt l e River Rai lroad bui lt ext ens ions
onto E ldorado Creek and Laure l Creek into the Cad es C ove s ec t i on that
commer c i a l sawmi l l in g began s e r i ous l y to d ep l et e fores t s around the
cove to supp l y a nat iona l marke t . See a l so Ayr e s and Ash e , "Southern
Appa l ach ian F o r e s t s , " 1 7 6 .
108
The next morning , on Monday morn ing , there ' d be as many
as 50 n e i ghb ors in that f i e l d and around that hou s e d oing
up everyth ing that h ad t o b e done .
I f somebody d i ed , everybody l eft h i s own work and turned
h i s atten t ion to the d ead p er s on ' s fami l y . Th ere wou l dn ' t
b e a sing l e p erson working in tho s e fi e l ds in the Cad es
Cove b o t t om s unt i l the funeral was ov er .
I f a w idow was l eft , she and her ch i l dren were c ared for .
Everybody s aw to it that they didn ' t want for a thing .
Th e o l der fo l k s were t ak en care o f , t o o , when they
cou ldn ' t work no mor e . Nobody went t o the poorhous e . 67
)
Many l arger proj ects we re undertaken through commun i t y e ffort .
B arns wer e rai s ed , hou s e s bui l t , and n ew f i e l d s w er e c l eared by the
c ommuni t y work ing tog ether .
Again the intesne communal l i fe of Cades
Cov e dominated the l abor market , and no indiv idual farmer ever had to
face a part i cu l ar l y l arge t a s k a l one .
I n one s ense , th i s sys tem m i ght
hav e contribu t ed to the low l ev e l o f wag e s wh ich the aver age farm
l aborer received , but in the long run it b en e f i t ed everyone , since a l l
were engaged primar i l y in farm ing .
The d iv i s ion o f l abor remained l im i t e d dur ing the f i r s t three
d ecades after 18 1 8 .
There were individu a l s in the communi t y who s e sk i l l
at s ome p ar t i cu l ar t a s k -- cab in e t - makin g , c arpentry , coffin-making , o r
·�
b l acksm i thin g -- c r eated a d emand for th e s e speci a l i z e d s erv i c e s .
I n the
maj o r i ty of c a s e s , however , th e s e men were b a s i c a l l y farmers who
pract i c ed th eir t rad e as a s id e l ine .
P e t er Cab l e ' s serv i c e s were a l ways
in d emand , for i n s t anc e , as a carpenter or too l -maker , but he kept h i s
farm a s a bas i c s ourc e of income and l i s ted hi s o ccupat ion i n the c ensus
as a farmer .
67
68
County .
68
Knoxv i l l e Journal , August 1 7 , 1 9 6 0 .
J.
W.
O l iver , Cade s Cov e , I , 2 5 - 2 6 ; 1 8 60 Census , Popu l at ion , B l ount
109
B y 1 8 5 0 , the c ensus r e c orded a var i e ty o f h i gh l y s p e c i a l i zed trades
in the cove , r e f l e c ting the growing wave of imm i grants from wide l y
d i v erg ent part s o f t h e Uni t ed S t at es and Europ e .
There were five
c arp enters from Ho l l and , thr ee mechan i c s from Eng l and , a l awyer from
P ennsy l v ani a , a phys i c i an from New York , and a boatswain from North
C ar o l ina , in add i t ion to the usual farmers , mi l l ers , and b l acksmi th s
l i s ted .
By 1 8 6 0 , mo s t of the s e peop l e were g one , but one add it iona l
o c cupat i on was l i st e d -- that of b e l l -mak e r .
69
The pre s ence in 1 8 50 of these men w i t h spec i a l i z ed s k i l l s is
s omething of a puz z l e in an e s s en t i a l l y agr ari an s o c i ety .
Th e b e s t
exp l anat ion f o r t h e i r attr act ion to t h e cov e i s to b e found in t h e
exten s i v e mining operat i ons b eing undert aken there and in the surr ound ing
moun t ains .
Lar g e l y forgotten in the twent i eth c entury , swarm s o f
pro spect ors ent ered t h e ar ea dur ing t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s , were d i s appointed i n
t h e i r s earch f o r go l d and other mineral s , and moved on to other mining
areas l eaving few r ecords of their und er t ak ing s .
One such mine was
l o ca t e d on Rich Mount ain b etween Cades Cov e and Tucka l eechee Cove in a
sma l l v a l l ey inappropriat e l y mamed E ldo rado .
L o c a l h i s to r i ans h ave
conc entrated on d e s crib ing the i ron indus try in thi s ar ea , but i t is
evident from the fo l l owing l et t er , wr i t t en in 1 8 47 by Dr . I s aac Anderson ,
founder of Maryv i l l e C o l l ege , that other minera l s were a c t iv e ly b eing
s ought :
69
1 8 5 0 C ensus , Popu la t i on , B l ount County ; 1 8 60 C ensus , Popu l a t ion ,
B l ount C ounty .
110
The d i s covery has l a t e l y been mad e , that our country i s
ful l o f c oa l , z inc , copper , t in , p erhap s much s i lv er , and
sur e l y many r i ch l ead v e ins , and probab l y much go ld . A
pretty general interest i s exc i t ed , and a g ood many shaft s
are being s unk . 7 0
J
Mi l l s were probab l y the s i ng l e mos t importan t indu s try throughout
the c en tury , because everyone needed to have grains , corn or whe at ,
ground t o make bread .
Dr . Jobe r ec a l l ed that dur ing the 1 8 2 0 ' s " i t wa s
two o r three years b e fore we had m i l l s s u i t ab l e t o make f l our ; the on l y
m i l l s we had w e r e l i t t l e ' Tub mi l l s ' to crack corn .
Father bu i l t a mi l l
s oon after we mov e d there , but i t was s e l d om one saw wheat bread on any
t ab l e there . "
In 1 8 5 0 there were r e ferences to Fout e ' s m i l l and Emert ' s
m i l l , but in 1 8 54 one wri ter comp l a ined that cove inhab it an t s s t i l l had
71
t o "go 1 5 or 2 0 mi l e s to g et f l our f i t to eat . r r
There i s fr equent men t i on o f thes e smal l tub mi l l s b efore 1 84 0 .
Rob ert Sh i e l d s moved from Georg i a t o the cove i n 1 8 3 5 and bui l t a tub
m i l l on Forge C r eek two m i l e s e a s t of Ches tnut F l at s .
Dani e l D . Foute
h ad bui l t a s imi l ar s t ructur e on h i s farm dur ing the ear l y 1 8 30 ' s .
The s e tub mi l l s were ev ident l y wide ly s c at t er ed throughout the cove
b e fore 1 84 0 , but they were too sma l l to r e c e i v e ment i on i n any of the
72
c ensus s t at 1. s t 1. c s .
70
D r . Anderson b e l i eved that miner a l wea l th from the mount a ins
cou l d b e used to support " thous ands of m i s s i onar i e s , and to e s t ab l i sh on
the coast o f Afr i ca a repub l i c of c iv i l i z ed and Chr i s t i an i z ed p eop l e o f
c o l or . " I saac Anderson t o ? , January 7 , 1 8 4 7 , quot ed i n John J .
Rob inson , Memo ir o f R ev . I s aac Anderso n , D . D . ( Knoxv i l l e , 1 8 60) , 1 5 5 .
71
Jobe , Autob i o gr aphy , 1 9 - 2 0 ; Edward s and Fr i z z e l l , The "C onnec t i on , "
2 39 .
72
J.
w.
O l iver , Cades C ov e , I I I , 1 - 2 .
1 11
During the 1 8 4 0 ' s , Freder i c k Shie l d s , son o f Robert , bui l t the
f i r s t overshot whe e l s t ructur e wh ich r ep l ac ed the smal l er turbine m i l l s .
Thi s l arge s tructure hous ed " equipment for m i l l ing and b o l t ing wh eat
f l our .
(
.
. w i th one of the l ar g e s t nat ive s tone rocks in the Smoky
Moun t ains for gr inding corn , as wel l as a s ash s aw for lumb er produc t i on . "
Th e S h i e lds M i l l g av e the communi ty a much greater sense o f s el fsuffi c i ency , s in c e i t was no l onger nec e s s ary to carry wheat to
Tuckal e e chee Cove t o be ground .
I t a l so c entra l i z ed mi l l ing , reduc ing
the number o f turb i n e mi l l s in the cov e .
Shi e ld ' s , and l at er Cab l e ' s ,
mi l l b e came a g athering p l ac e for the community .
73
d
Th e l arg e s t m i l l was bui l t by John P . C ab l e , a n ephew o f Peter , who
mov ed to Cades C ov e from Car t er C ounty in 1 8 65 at the c lo s e of the war .
He bough t l and and s et t l ed in th e lower end o f the cove n e ar the j un c t i o n
o f Forge and M i l l Creeks .
Th e rather e l aborat e nature and constru c t i on
o f the Cab l e M i l l i n 1 8 68 i s d e s cr i b ed by John W . O l iver :
Soon after h i s arr iva l h e b egan the d ev e l opment o f water power
by bui l d ing a corn and wheat mi l l and a l s o a saw m i l l .
In
order to get suff i c i ent wat er power to pul l a l l t h i s machinery
he dug a cana l t o run Forge C r e ek into Mi l l Creek j us t above
h i s m i l l . Th i s required qui t e a l o t of l abor becaus e i t al l
I t a l s o r e quired bui l ding
had to be done w i t h p i c k and shov e l .
two dams , one on Forge Creek just b e low the O l d Forge s i te to
turn th e water into the c anal and anoth er on Mi l l Creek where
th e canal emp t i ed into Mi l l Creek .
From th i s l a s t d am he
bui l t a lon g rase or f l oom to carry the water to the over sho t
So in t ime h e comp l e t ed h i s
whe e l wh i ch pul l ed the mach inery .
enterpr i s e , l ifted t h e f l oom gate , and turned o n t h e water .
The huge overshot wh e e l b e g an t o turn and h i s p lant wa s s et
73
shi e l d s , "Cad e s Cov e , " 1 08 ; J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I I , 1 - 3 .
Freder ick marr i ed Mary O l iv er , the o ld e s t daughter of John and Luc r e t i a
O l iver .
J . W . O l i ver , Cades Cove , I , 1 5 .
112
in mot i on .
For many l ong years h e did a thriving bus in e s s .
I n add it ion to t h i s h e r an h i s farm and rai s ed l iv e s t o ck . 74
The fir s t m er c an t i l e bus in e s s in the cove was s t art ed in 1 8 7 3 b y
Leason Gregg from John son County , Tennes s ee , in a room in h i s dwe l l ing
hous e .
Gregg l at e r bui lt a store on the Cab l e farm , the firs t s t ore
rJ\ bui l t in the cov e . He
\J \ dry g oods and s t ap l es ,
b ought the cove peop l e ' s produ c e and so ld them
such as sugar , co ffe e , and s a l t .
Onc e a week h e
t ook produc e to Knoxv i l l e and r eturn ed with general merchand i s e .
For
m o s t peop l e it was an advantag e to hav e the mi l l and store s o c l o s e
t o g e ther , becau s e they cou l d shop wh i l e their corn o r wheat was b e ing
75
ground .
Ear l i er , cove r e s i den t s had r e l i ed upon Geor ge Snider ' s s tore in
Tuckal e ech e e C ov e a s previous l y mentioned .
Dur ing the 1 8 4 0 ' s , Dan i e l D .
F oute at h i s h o t e l at Montva l e Springs a l so operated a mer cant i l e
bus in e s s wh i ch was patron i zed b y the cove peop l e .
The fact that a
p ermanent s tore carne a s l at e a s 1 8 7 3 ind i c at e s that the market economy
w as s l owing down during the depr e s s i on fo l l owing the war .
�
I n ear l i er
t im e s farmer s h ad mad e frequent t r ips to s e l l their goods in Maryv i l l e
and Knoxv i l l e and had bought merchandi s e ther e , ther eby making the
construc t ion of a general s t or e in the cove l ar g e l y unnec e s s ar y .
In
t h i s s ens e , Gregg ' s f i r s t s tore in 1 87 3 i s o n e ind ication o f the g enera l
r etrogr e s s ion o f the cove economy after t h e war .
74
76
J . W . O l iver , Cades C ov e , I I , 1 - 3 .
75
76
I b id . , 2 .
I b id . ; George Sni d er ' s Store Acc ount Bo ok , pas s im .
r
! ...j
l
113
The iro n indus try d ev e l oped v ery ear l y in C ad e s Cov e , and ref er enc es
to " forge trac t s " in deeds dur ing the 1 8 2 0 ' s ind i c ated that miner a l
inter e s t s had i n i t i a l l y a t tr acted the at tent ion o f s ev er a l entrepreneur s .
The fir s t forg e t o b eg in oper at i ons in B l ount County was the Cad e s Cov e
CS l o omary Forg e , bu i lt in 1 8 2 7 b y D an i e l D . Fou t e .
Ear l ier m i n ing had
b een undertak en by Wi l l iam Tipton , who s o l d the s i t e to Fout e .
The
for g e was located n ear th e point where the mi l l race now l eaves For ge
Creek , and the o r e was removed a mi l e northeas t of thi s s it e .
s igns are s t i l l v i s i b l e in the v i c in i ty .
C o a l ing
77
The Cad e s C ov e B l o omary F or g e was o n l y one o f many such for g e s
whi ch sprang u p in E a s t Tenn e s s ee and West ern North C ar o l ina dur ing t h e
1 8 2 0 ' s and 1 8 3 0 ' s .
Th e l ow grade ore and exp en s e of burning char c o a l
for t h e s e forg e s mad e th em unprof i t ab l e in t h e l ong run , and Fout e ' s
oper a t i on c l o s e d in 1 84 7 .
78
Th e Foute forge was imp ortant to the c ov e ' s
e ar l y economy for s ev er a l reason s , however .
I t offer ed emp l oyment to
many o f the cove men dur ing the years of its operat i on .
Many farmers ,
under the direc t i on o f Peter Cab l e , mad e their own too l s from the iron
produced her e .
Th e forge was an incentive t o Fout e ' s r o ad -bui lding ,
s ince h e needed r ea sonab l y ch eap transportat ion t o mak e the industry
77
B l oun t Deed s , 1 8 2 1 - 1 8 3 0 , pas s im ; Burns , B l ount C ounty , 2 7 6 .
A l though Foute ' s for g e is th e on l y one re corded in Cades Cove , cur i ous
r eferences in the deeds ind i c a t e that o th er for g e s were in operat ion
there dur ing the 1 8 3 0 ' s . One such deed ment ions repaying a l o an "at
Sh i e ld s own hous e in Cades Cov e on whi c h l and is a forge . " Robert
S h i e l d s to Hugh Bo g l e , May 2 9 , 1 8 3 4 , B l ount Deed s , Book 5 , p . 2 4 0 .
Po s s i b l y th e s e forges were much smal l er ones pr imar i ly for b l acksmi thing .
78
F or the b e s t d e s cr ipt ion o f thi s type of b l oomary forge and i t s
operat ion , s e e Arthur , We s t ern North Caro l ina , 2 7 7 - 7 9 .
114
p ro f i t ab l e .
F i n a l l y , the d i s covery o f i ron ore here conv inced other
entr epreneur s t h at more v aluab l e miner a l s might b e l o c at ed in the cove
79
.
.
or 1 t s env 1ron
s.
Tran sportat ion for the cove ' s market economy was prov i d ed by v arious
entrepreneurs for a wide vari ety o f r ea sons .
Long b efor e whi t e s e t t l e-
men t , th e area was intertwined by numerous Indian trai l s wh ich cont inued
to be u s ed by wh i t e s e t t l er s , par t icular ly the Ekane t e l ee Gap rou t e to
North C aro l ina and the o l d I nd i an Grav e G ap tra i l acro s s R i ch Mountain
to Tuck a l eechee C ov e .
Expanding these o l d er t ra i l s into road s l ar g e
enough to a l low wagons t o trav e l them w a s o ft en a gradual pro c e s s wh i ch
r equi r ed many d e c ad e s .
80
John Ol iver rememb ered that the first wagon whi c h cro s s ed the Cad e s
C o v e Mountain w a s h e l d by e ight m e n w i t h rop es on b o t h s id e s .
The o ld
L aure l C reek road , wh i ch l eft the northea s t end o f the cove and went
through S choo lhouse Gap into Dry Va l l ey , was a l s o a rout e whi c h r emained
extrem e l y d i ff i c u l t for wagon pas sage , requir ing an extra t eam of hor s e s
to pu l l any l o ad over t h e mountain .
Another route which was gr adua l l y
improved unt i l i t ach i eved the s tatus o f a road was the Rabb i t Cr eek
79
J . W. O l iver , Cades Cove , I , 25 ; Shi e ld s , "C ades Cov e , " 1 07 .
Evi dence o f s earches for o th er mineral s i s found in numer ous l ea s e s to
l and in the cove dur ing the 1 8 5 0 ' s . One examp l e states c l ear ly that
" t h e lease i s for th e purp o s e o f inves t ig a t ing for minera l s , I to hav e
one-ha l f of what ev er i s taken out . " Wi l l i am Rorex to B . 0 . Brab son and
A . M . Wal l ace , January 1 , 1 8 54 , B lount D e eds , Book X , p . 6 4 9 .
80
45 .
Myer , " Indi an Trai l s , " 7 7 2 ; Burns , " S e t t l ement and Ear l y Hi s tory , "
115
road , which l eft the extreme southwest end o f the cov e and had i t s
t erminu s i n Happy Va l l ey .
81
( S e e F i gure 8 , Append i x . )
The Rab b i t Creek road and the o l d Laur e l Creek road wer e bui l t
w i thout any a i d from t h e county , and no exact d a t e can b e g iv en t o their
construc t ion , a l though both were in u s e b efore 1 8 60 .
N e i th er wa s used
for ext ens iv e c ommer c ia l traff i c , but both prov i d ed easy acc e s s to
n e ighboring c ommun i t i e s .
At v ar ious times dur ing the c ov e ' s h i s tory
t h e s e r oads fe l l into di srepai r .
The Rab b i t Cr eek road was r ememb ered
a s the maj or exit for North Car o l ina gueri l l a s herd ing s to l en c at t l e and
hor s e s out o f th e c ov e .
82
Th e mo s t impor t ant road for c ommerce was bui l t by Dani e l D . F oute
b e tween C ades Cove and Maryv i l l e through �lontva l e Spring s .
F oute
r ec e iv ed p erm i s s ion to bui l d th i s r oad , or turnp i ke , on January 2 5 , 1 8 5 2 ,
from the Tennes s e e Genera l As s emb l y :
B e i t enac t ed by the G eneral As s emb l y o f the S tat e o f
Tenn e s s e e , Tha t D an i e l D . Foute be , and h e i s h er eby author i z ed
to open a turnp ike road from s ome conveni ent point on Six Mi l e
creek o r Crooked creek , in s ai d county , a s h e may find m o s t
practicab l e through Cade ' s C ov e , to the N o r t h Car o l ina l ine ,
at or near E . Kannett ' s gap , in the Smokey �lountain , o f the
fo l l owing d e s cript ion , to w i t : Said F ou t e may fir s t open said
road four feet wide for the trave l o f hors emen or s t o ck , and
as soon as the trav e l and business o f the road r equ ire s , or
w i l l j u s t i fy the same , he sha l l open s a id ro ad equa l to the
s e cond c l a s s road s of the county ; and s a id r oad he sha l l keep
in the sam e r epair as county road s are k ept , and be subj ect to
th e s am e pena l t i e s , ru l e s and regu l at i on s that over s eer s are
und er on l ik e county road s . 8 3
81
82
83
w . H . O l iv er , Sketches , 5 .
r ntervi ew with John W . O l iver , Augus t 7 , 1 9 6 3 .
T enne s s ee Gener a l A s s emb l y , Priv a t e Act s , 1 8 5 1 - 5 2 , Ch . CCLX I .
Hereaft er c i t ed Tenn . Act s , w i th appropr iate year and c hapter .
116
Later c a l l ed the Coop er road , thi s rou t e r emained the main commer c i a l
egr e s s to Knoxv i l l e and Maryv i l l e throughout t h e c en tury .
Foute was
inv o lved in num erous enterpr i s es in the l ar g er r eg i on , a l l of whi ch
wou l d b enefit b y the cons t ruc t i on o f thi s r o ad .
The Cades Cov e B l o omary
Forge probab l y motivated i t s construct i on in i t i a l l y , a l though t h i s
indus try h a d c l o s ed down by 1 8 4 7 .
F out e env i s ioned other mining
oper a t i on s in the cov e , howev er , wh i ch wou l d r equire cheap transp ortat ion .
Th i s road a l so conn e c t ed the r e s o r t hot e l at Montv a l e Spr ing s , whi ch
F oute operated b etween 1832 and 1 8 5 0 , to Cad es Cove .
84
Foute a l so bui l t a road in 1 8 5 2 from the cove out through Ches tnut
F l at s in the s outhw e s t end to i n t er s ec t P ar s o n ' s Turnp i k e to North
Caro l ina .
Thi s ro ad aided farmers in t ak ing c orn to Ju l iu s Gregg ' s
d i st i l l ery in Ch e s tnut F l at s , but never b ec ame a maj or commer c i a l artery
into North Caro l ina .
As men t ioned ear l i er , no market c ompar ab l e to
Knoxv i l l e ex i s t ed in W e s t ern North Caro l ina .
Mor eover , road - bu i l d ing
was extrem e l y d i fficu l t there b ecau s e o f the t errain , the r i v ers were
unnav i g ab l e , and l i t t l e c ommer c i a l d ev e lopment exi s t ed to lure cove
farmers over the h igh moun t ains .
I n contras t , th e Cooper road fol l owed
an easy grad e forty m i l e s to Knoxv i l l e , the maj or commer c ia l cent er o f
upper E a s t Tenn e s s e e throughout t h e century .
85
At t emp t s to bui ld road s acros s the Great Smoky Mountains wer e mad e
for other than commer c i a l r easons .
84
85
One such v enture was undertak en
Burns , B l oun t C ounty , 8 0 ; B l ount D e ed s , 1 84 0 - 1 8 60 , p a s s im .
Burns , B l ount C ounty , 4 1 ; Shi e l d s , "Cades Cove , " 1 07 ; Arthur ,
Wes t ern North Caro l ina , 2 3 0 .
1 17
dur ing the 1 84 0 ' s by Dr . I sa ac And er son .
Th i s route p a s s ed through
Schoo l house Gap out of Tuck a l eech e e Cove , and around Bo at Mountain .
Accord i ng t o h i s b iographer , Dr . Anderson und ertook th i s cons truc t ion
' 'w i th a v i ew to incr eas ed means of carrying forward his pro j ect o f
educat ing young m en for t h e min i s try , " s in c e th i s rou t e wou l d open up
the b a ck country to m i s s ionar i es .
Th e r o ad was a l so int end ed to a s s i s t
the Cherokee , who furni shed th e l abor for i t s construct i on .
Only the
Tennes s ee port i on was comp l e t ed , ' 'due to the energy w i th which Dr . A .
pushed forward the work . "
86
Th i s r o ad , wh ich approached the h ead o f
Cades Cov e , was bu i l t " i n the e xp ec t at i o n that a road from the mouth o f
Chamb ers creek , b e l ow Bushne l , wou ld b e bui l t over into the Ha z e l creek
s et t l ement , and thence up the F o s t er r idge and through the Haw gap to
meet i t . "
Unfortunat e l y North Caro l ina fai l ed t o do its part , and the
Ande r s on road was fina l l y abandoned .
87
W i th f i v e r o a d s out o f the cov e b y 1 8 60 , inc luding the Fout e r o ad
Knoxv i l l e and Maryv i l l e which g av e the cove peop l e easy acc e s s to
r e g i ona l mark et s for their crops and l iv e s to ck , i t is not surpr i s i n g
that t h e techno l o g i c a l dev e l o pment o f t h e cove , par t i c u l ar l y in farm
mach inery , kept pace w i th the r e s t of B l ount County .
The boom p eriod i n
ob t a i n in g modern farm equipment evident l y oc curr ed during t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s ,
a l though mo s t farmer s gr adua l l y r ecov ered in the thr ee d ecades a f t er the
86
87
Robinso n , Memo ir , 1 53 .
Arthur , Wes t ern North Caro l ina , 24 1 .
1 18
C iv i l War and by 1 89 0 wer e ab l e t o afford new equ ipment c oming on the
market .
88
A t mi d - c en tury , t h e t o t a l v alue o f farm imp l emen t s and
m ach inery was l i s t e d a s b eing $3 , 1 1 9 , or $ 5 5 . 69 worth of equipment per
farm .
By 1 86 0 , the v alue o f farm mach inery had r i s en to $ 5 , 34 5 , d e s p i t e
t h e dras t i c reduc t i on in popu l at i on , and t h e worth o f equ ipment p e r farm
averaged $ 2 6 7 . 2 5 .
Two d ec ad e s l at e r , the v a l ue of farm m ach inery h ad
dropp ed t o $ 2 , 3 0 6 , av eraging $ 3 0 . 3 4 worth of equipment per farm .
89
Yet desp i t e the drop in the v alue of farm machinery a ft er the war ,
there were a lways many farmer s who cou l d afford the new e s t equipmen t .
Again , the communa l , or co l l ec t iv e nature o f the cov e economy d e t ermined
that such equipment would b e shar e d by a wide v ar ie t y o f p oorer fr i end s
and re l at iv es .
C:
;
t-/
An exc e l l ent examp l e o f th i s sort of shar ing was the
t e l ephone s t at i on which D an Law s on con s tructed during the 1 8 9 0 ' s .
The
wea l th i e s t man in the cove at that t ime , h e organ i z ed s ev er a l of h i s
n e i ghbors t o cons truct a phone l ine acr o s s t h e mountains t o Maryv i l l e .
S ev eral homes h ad phones , and the phon e at Lawson ' s s t or e was av ai l ab l e
t o ev eryone in the cove .
Ano th er exce l l en t examp l e o f th i s co l l ect ive
ac t i v i ty was the gr ad ed road bui l t in 1 8 9 0 acr o s s R i c h Mountain by
v o lun t e er l abor from the c ov e and county fund s .
90
88
M i s c e l l aneous Notes on Cades Cov e , pp . 8 - 1 0 , wr i t t en June 1 , 1 948 ,
by John W . O l iver , in author ' s p o s s e s s ion . Her eaft er c i t ed J . W . O l iver ,
N o t e s , w i th appropri at e page numbers .
89
1 8 50 C en sus , Agr i cu l ture , B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 6 0 C ensu s , Agr i cu l ture ,
B l ount County ; 1 8 8 0 Censu s , Agr i cu l tur e , B l ount County .
90
s h i e l d s , "Cades Cov e , " 1 0 5 ; J . W . O l iver , Not e s , 1 4 - 1 5 .
1 19
'\
�h e
ro l e of th e c ov e ' s l ead ing entrepreneur , D an i e l D . F out e , has
a l re ady been out l in ed .
Fout e s erved as c l erk of the circu i t court o f
B l ount C ounty from 1 8 2 2 unt i l 1 8 3 6 , and was i n an exc e l l ent p o s i t ion t o
l earn o f any new l and be ing o ffered for s al e .
He bui l t the main r oad
from C ad e s Cove to Maryv i l l e in the 1 8 5 0 ' s , and had opened the cove ' s
f i r s t indu s try , h i s b l oomary forg e , in 1 82 7 .
Engaged in a w i d e variety
of bus in e s s ventures and specu l at i ons , many of them conne c t ed with the
c ov e , F oute was intere s t ed in the miner a l wea l th of the surround ing
mountains , and in d eve l op ing agr i c u l ture in the cov e by introducing new
fru i t trees and exper imen t a l crop s .
H i s purch a s e of l arge tracts o f
l and in the cove and surround ing mountains mad e h im a preeminent l and
91
sp ec u 1 ator b o th 1. n B 1 ount C ounty an d 1. n t h e 1 arger r e g 1. on .
After Fou t e d e cid ed to bui l d h i s home , "Par ad i s e Lo s t , " in the cove
in 1 84 9 , th i s energ e t i c and c ap ab l e man s e emed to tran s fer his main
int er e s t to the c ommunity .
The fo l l owing y ear h e s o l d h i s inter e s t s in
the r e s o rt h ot e l at Montval e Spr ings and s e emed to concentrate h i s
e ffo rts on buying u p l and i n the cove and surrounding reg ion unt i l the
C iv i l War .
A l though he r em ained a man o f comparative s ophi s t i cat ion and
wide v i s ion , Fou t e t o ok an a c t i v e int er e s t in the communi t y and was
wi l l ing t o h e l p any of the cove peop l e with a var i ety o f c i v i c probl ems .
He s e rv ed as j us t ic e o f the peace , and acted as l ega l adv i s or for the
commun i ty .
H i s adherence to the Con fed er ate cau s e during the war ran
counter to the p o l i t i cal b e l i ef s o f mo s t of the cov e inh ab i t ant s .
91
B lount Deed s , 1 8 2 6 - 1 8 60 , pas s im .
Yet
120
even the b i t t erne s s ensuing from this conf l i ct d i d not comp l e t e l y d e s troy
the respect and e s teem in whi c h h e was he ld by the c ommun i ty .
It is
important to p o i n t out that h i s death , r e su l t in g from b eing dragged b y
federal troops from h i s s i ck - b ed in the c ov e to Knoxv i l l e i n 1 8 6 5 , was
c au s ed by h i s a l i enat ion from prominent E a s t Tennes s e e Union i s t s , such
a s h i s former fr i end Parson Brown l ow , not by any hos t i l e act on the part
o f the p eop l e o f C ad e s Cov e .
92
An entrepr eneur o f l e s s importance was Dr . C a l v i n P o s t , a phys i c i an
and miner a l og i s t who c ame to the cove in 1 8 4 6 from E lmira , New York .
Dr . P o s t was crippl ed by an ac c i d ent en rout e when the s t eam b oat wh i ch
h e was abo ard exp l od ed on the Mi s s i s s ippi River , ki l l ing one o f h i s
bro thers who w a s accompanying him .
Recovering from th i s acc id ent at the
home o f Wi l l iam Thomp son in Maryv i l l e , h e marr i e d one of the d aught ers
of h i s ho s t , Marth Wal lace Thomp s on , in the autumn o f 1 84 6 .
Shor t l y
thereafter , they moved t o t h e cove , where Dr . P o s t e s t ab l i shed h i s home ,
" Laur e l Spr ings" :
I t was a k ind o f botan i c al garden ; a hort icu ltur a l E d en .
There were b eaut i fu l nat i v e trees . Ther e were wa l k s and
driveways bord ered w i th trees . Th ere wer e f lower s in bed s
br anch ing out from the hou s e . Th ere were acres i n vegetab l e
gardens and other acres in fru it tr ees . . . app l e s , p ears ,
r aspberr i e s , goos eberr i e s , b l ackb err i es . Ther e were crystal ­
c l ear bro o k s and cr eeks wh i ch added charm and Natur e ' s own
mus i c . 9 3
A l t hough h e was inter e s t ed i n a wide variety o f sc i en t i fic ph enomena
r an g ing from a s tronomy to g e o l o gy , Dr . P o s t ' s primary inter e s t in the
92
93
Burns , B l ount Coun ty , 6 5 .
From an unpub l i shed Fami ly His tory c omp i led and wr i t t en by
Dr . P o s t ' s grandd aughter , J e s s i e Eugeni a Turner , Chat t ano o ga , Tenne s s e e .
121
cove was exp l oring and exp l o i t ing i t s mineral w e a l th .
H e repr e s en t ed
New York mineral compan i e s , and h i s corre spond ence i s f i l l ed with p l ea s
to g e t c ap i t a l inve stment into the cov e .
Hi s N o t ebook for 1 8 4 9 rev ea l s
a knowl edge o f g eo logy and m iner a logy s urpri s ing for nineteenth c entury
Ameri c a ; whether he obtained h is med i c a l and s c i en t i fi c training in
Ho l l and , as h i s fami l y b e l i ev e s , h as not been v er i fied .
At any r at e ,
Dr . P o s t was cert a i n ly the f i r s t s c i en t i s t c omprehen s i v e l y to s tudy and
94
.
.
.
c h art t h e geo 1 og1c
s tructure o f t h e cov e an d 1ts
env 1ron
s.
From h i s numerou s descript i on s of hi dden v e ins in the cove ' s g e o l o g i c
s t ruc ture , i t i s apparent that P o s t b e l i ev ed that t h e area contained r i ch
depo s i t s o f g o l d and s i lver .
Ear l i er h e h ad v i s i t ed D ah l on ega , G eo r g i a ,
dur ing the g o l d rush ther e , and was fam i l i ar with t echniques for m ining
gold .
He was inter es t ed , of cour s e , in o th er m iner a l s such a s copp er
and iron , and h i s correspondence w i th h i s New York inv e s t o r s rev e a l s a
c o s t - analy s i s approach to m i n i n g in the c ov e .
He argued , for i n s t anc e ,
that ev en i f go l d or s i lver were no t found , the c o s t o f mining wou l d b e
recovered b y an abundanc e o f l e s s v aluab l e minera l s .
As a phys i c i an , he
as s er t ed that the vein wat ers from the s e m ines "wi l l in the hea l ing art
be much pri z ed when proved and rec ommended by the s c i ent i fi c profes s ion
in d i sp ep s i c a l and l iv er d i s e a s e s . "
94
"Th i s much abus ed v ein , " he
Interv ·1 ew w ·1 t h M 1. s s J onn1. e P o s t , a grea t - grandd aug ht er o f
Dr . P o s t , Apri l 9 , 1 9 7 5 . M i s s P o s t has in her home in Maryv i l le ,
Tenne s s ee , an ext ensive c o l l ec t i on of Dr . P o s t ' s corre spond enc e , r eport s ,
not ebooks , and pho tographs , wh i ch she k ind l y a l l owed me to inspec t .
Born March 2 1 , 1 8 03 , in E lmira , New York , P o s t wa s o f Dutch extrac t i on ,
the son of James and A lyea Hathorne P o s t . Dur ing the 1 8 5 0 ' s , h e acqu ir ed
s everal trac t s o f l and of 5 , 00 0 and 1 0 , 00 0 acres each in t h e mountains
surround ing the cove . B lount D e ed s , 1 8 50 - 1 8 6 0 , pas s im .
1 22
con c l ud ed , " wi l l in t ime g iv e great emp l oyment to laborers and wea l th to
the owners . "
95
Dr . Pos t never d i scover ed go l d in the cove , but h i s pre s enc e there
unt i l h i s death i n 1 8 7 3 furni shed the inhab i tant s wi th an exc e l l ent
phys i c i an .
The interr e l a t i onship b etween h i s med i c a l and g eo l o g i c
knowl edge i s i l l us trated i n the f o l lowing 1 8 5 0 exc erpt from h i s Notebook ,
wh ich a l s o inc l u d e s h i s exp l anation o f the Ba ld s :
The b a l d s are not cau s ed by the extreme e l ev ation too many
mountains in thi s Apa l ach i an cha in by an immen s e v e in o f
arsen i c a l copper or e t h e outcropp in g ind i cate i t and fac t s
prove t h e ex i s t ence the bare s treak a t dry s eason show the
ars enic and c a t t l e l i ck i t with their s a l t and are p o i s oned
and d i e from i t s effects and fami l y s hav e it with m i l k
s i ckne s s . Je s s e Birch f i e ld and fam i l y are l iv ing w i tn e s s
o f thi s fact . . . . The cau s e o f d ead l ands i n Cad e s Cove
i s a l so from the e s c ap e of ar s en i c a l v apor s from e ither
depo s i t s o f G a l ena or copper mineral i z ed by copper for any
pract i c a l miner or minera l og i s t can trace l arge v e i n s of th i s
to and beyond the al luv i al d epo s i t , drain i t and you c an
reach the s e depo s it s o f g o l d and copp er . 9 6
The only ind ividua l who approached t h e s t atus o f a n entrepren eur i n
the c o v e after the C iv i l War was D an Lawson , who marr ied the on l y d aughter
o f P e t er Cab l e , took over the Cab l e farm after the o ld er man ' s d ea th in
1 8 66 , and expanded i t into o n e of the l ar g e s t ho ldings in the cov e .
Th es e ho ldings " ext ended from mountain top to mountain top , one-ha l f
m i l e wide , acro s s the center o f the v a l l ey . "
95
A l though Lawson h ad a
Dr . Ca l v in P o s t ' s Notebo ok , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 5 1 , in pos s e s s ion o f M i s s
Jonni e P o s t , Maryv i l l e , Tenn e s s e e . Hereaft er c i t ed P o s t ' s N o t ebook .
P o s t w as a c l o s e fr i end of Dr . I sa ac Ander son , who s e on l y son marr i ed
Both men shared a broad inter e s t
Martha Thomp s on , Mrs . Pos t ' s s i s t er .
in t h e miner a l we a l th o f t h e cove and sur round ing mount ain s , and o ft en
took l ea s e s on l arge amount s o f l and ther e . B l ount Deed s , 1 8 4 9 - 1 8 6 0 ,
pas s im .
96
Post ' s No t eboo k , 1 8 5 0 .
1 23
gener al s tore and operated the p o s t offi c e for many year s , he nev er had
the wea lth , know- how , or v i s i on s i gn i f i cant ly to expand the ec onomy o f
the cove a s Foute h ad done .
97
One s cho l ar has wri t t en that the years b e fore the C iv i l War were
th e " Go l d en Ag e " o f Tennes s e e a gr i cu l ture , and that the next f i fty years
after the war were spent in trying to r ecover progr e s s whi ch h ad b een
The cove
made during the booming year s o f the 1 8 4 0 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s .
c er t a i n l y fo l l owed thi s l arger regional patt ern i n i t s econom i c growth ,
whether j udged by the numb er o f n ew s e t t l er s ent ering the area after
1 8 65 , the value of l and and farm machinery , o r the s i z e of cov e farms .
I n c omparat ive t erms , the aver age cove farmer c lo se l y fit s the d e s cription
o f B l anche Henry C l ark ' s yeoman farmer in E a s t Tenne s s ee b etween 1 8 4 0
and 1 8 6 0 .
I f cove farmers c ou l d buy such a w i d e var i ety o f goods from
George Snider ' s s tor e in Tuc k a l eechee C ov e in th e d ec ad e a f t er the war ,
howev er , they s t i l l mainta ined their s ta tu s as yeomen w i t h a t enuou s ,
y e t s t i l l very v i ab l e , r e l at i onsh ip to the re giona l marke t economy .
98
P erhap s David M . Po t t er ' s the s i s that economic abundance had a
p erva s ive influence in shap ing the Amer i c an character app l ied d i r ec t l y
t o the ninet eenth century market economy o f Cad e s Cov e .
99
Th e fer t i l i ty
o f the cove s o i l whi ch al l owed such an economy to d ev e lop t i ed the
p eop l e c lo s e ly to reg i onal marke t s , and through the s e mark et s , to the
97
sh i el d s , "Cades Cov e , " 1 0 5 ; J . W. O l iver , Cad es C ov e , I I , 2 6 .
98
Lanh an , Type-Of- Farming R eg i ons , 6 1 - 6 2 ; C lark , Tennes s ee Y eoman ,
3 4 - 1 6 1 ; Snider ' s Store Account Book , pas s im .
99
oavid M . P o t t er , P eopl e o f P l enty ( Ch i cago , 1 9 54 ) , 1 8 9 - 2 08 .
1 24
broad mainstream s o f Amer i c an p o l i t i c a l and so c i a l cul ture t hroughout
I
(
the c en tury .
Wi thout thi s prosp e r i ty , Cades Cove woul d hav e been no
d i f ferent in i t s dev e l opment from patt erns of poverty wh i ch char a c t er i z e d
o th er s ec t i ons o f Southern App a l achia .
Entrepreneur s such as Dan i e l D . Foute and Dr . C a l v in P o s t had gr eat
s chemes for the cov e ' s econom i c d ev e l opment b efore the C iv i l War , and
their expectat ions and w i de - r anging interes t s c l ear l y i den t i fied them
as a t yp e of Amer i can bus ine s sman common in a l l s ec t ions of the country
at m i d - c entury .
Even th e econom ic devas t at i on during the war and the
d epres s ion a ft erward did not al ter th e cove ' s market or i entat ion to th e
l ar g er region .
When thi s l ar g er r eg ion b egan to show s i gns o f r ecov ery
after 1 9 00 , the cove ' s economy woul d r e spond according l y .
' Cad e s Cov e remained a sma l l cog within the l arg er region ' s intr i c a t e
p a t t erns o f trade , but thi s c o g ac cur at e ly r e f l ected , dur ing any g iven
per iod , the cond i ti on of the l ar g er machinery .
How c ov e farmers imb ib ed
po l i t i c a l and s o c i a l ideas as they s o l d their produc t s in Knoxv i l l e or
Maryv i l l e w i l l be examined in l at er chapt er s .
/
/
I f l arger r e g i ons in the
country were in f l uenced in their po l it ical thi nking by condit ions in the
n at i onal market economy , however , it i s l o g i c a l to suppo s e that sma l l er
ar eas such as the cove were s im i l ar l y affect ed by current tr end s in such
r e g io n a l market p la c e s as Knoxv i l l e .
Wh en cov e farmers adj u s t ed t o the r e g i on a l d epr e s s ion aft er the
C iv i l War , they effect ed c ertain chan g e s in the interna l s o c i ety and
economy of the cove wh ich wer e ent ire l y ind i g enou s .
�
The g eograph i c
i s o l a t i on c omb ined with the r eg iona l d epr es s ion and the d ev e l op ing
125
k in s h ip s truc tu r e r e s u l ted in an inten s e communa l l i fe s t y l e wh i ch
d etermined i n t ernal econom i c d i s tr ibut ion o f goods and l ab or .
I n th i s
s en s e , t h e pos twar economy o f the cove r ef l ec t ed a b a s ic d i chotomy .
Outwar d l y
mark e t - o r i ented , int ernal ly they made ev ery effort to
d i s tr ibute a l l th e nec e s s ary component s o f l ife to n eedy fr i ends and
r e l at iv e s .
Wh ether thi s s o rt o f communa l l i fe s t y l e c ou l d hav e d ev e l oped
in a l e s s fer t i l e are a i s open to ques t i on .
But the r e su l t was s o
far -reach ing th at any examinat ion o f the cove ' s econom i c l i fe mus t b e
focus ed w ithin thi s much l ar g er , and far m o r e s i gni f i cant , s ense o f
c ommunity whi ch dominat ed a l l asp e c t s o f t h e average cove farmer ' s l ife
throughout th e n in e t e enth c entury .
CHAPTER
IV
R E L I G ION AND THE CHURCHES
The dominant ro l e of r e l i g ion in th e l i fe of the av erage c i t i z en of
Cades Cove during the ninet eenth century i s ev ident from the l arge
number of surv i v ing documen t s and record s r e l at ing to church activ i t i e s .
The s e records reveal an a c t iv e and often absorb ing inquiry throughout
the century into r e l i gious que s t ions wh i ch hav e a t i me l es s qua l i ty about
them .
I t i s as though the prob l ems , di spu t e s , d e c i s ions , and organi z a t i on
of the church were be ing conduc t ed in comp l e t e i s o l a t i on from the many
so c i a l and econom i c t r ends wh i ch ch aracter i zed any g i v en de cade .
Al though
the Ci v i l War had a dramatic impact on the economic and s o c i a l l i fe of
C ad e s Cov e , t h i s great conf l i c t had on l y a t empor ary effect on the
int ern a l l i fe of the church .
Of much great er impor tance was the debate
ov er m i s s ions dur ing the l at e 1 8 30 ' s ; the war was on l y a foo tno t e , a l b e i t
an important on e , in the t o t a l i t y o f church h i s tory .
The Bap t i s t church , i t s i d ea s and doctrin e , repre s ented a k ind of
" inv i s ib l e government" monitor ing the l ives o f the cove dwe l l ers a l mo s t
from t h e beginn in g of the commun i t y .
Yet the who l e qu e s t i on of re l i g i on
i s surrounded w i th comp l i cat ed and s e eming l y irr econci l ab l e contrad i c ­
t i ons .
D et ermin ed in pr in c i p l e to remain s epar ated and comp l et e l y
d i s t i nct from the civ i l gov ernmen t , the church neverth e l e s s be came so
inext r i c ab l y bound up in d e ciding cruc i a l qu es t ions invo l v ing the l o cal
autonomy and mora l l eader ship in the commun i t y that i t was embro i l ed in
1 26
127
what be came a po l i t i c a l d is pu t e dur ing the C iv i l War and was forced on
th at ac count to end i t s meet in g s for the durat i o n of the war .
After 1 840 , the Primi t iv e Bapt i s t church t r i e d to iso l at e it s e l f
from the corrupting inf luences o f the great changes i n r e l i gi ous doctrine
wh i ch wer e o ccurr i n g �mng Bapt i s t s in other s ect ions o f the coun try .
But the v ery act o f trying to free z e their theo l o gy , to pres erve the
pur i ty of th eir do ctrine , cau s ed them to confront other qu est ions and
debate i s su e s in a d i a l ecti c a l pr o c e s s wh i ch l ed them a lmos t aga i n s t
th e i r wi l l toward th e formu l ation o f new answer s .
Th i s overr i d in g
impu l s e t o k e e p their doctr inal puri ty l ed in turn t o an ama z ing vari ety
of sma l l er divi s ions and d i s s ens ions w i thin the church toward th e end of
the cen tury .
F i na l l y , a l though the church imposed i t s behav ioral
s t andards on mo s t o f the communi ty , on l y a sma l l part o f th e t o t a l cove
popu l at ion ev er o b t a ined membersh i p .
R e l i g ion was introduced to the cov e at an ear l y date by the f i r s t
s e t t l ers , John and Lucret i a O l iv e r .
Al though n e i th er of them had
b e l onged to a church in Car t er Coun ty , i t i s ev ident from the fo l l owing
pas sag e from the ir grandson ' s s k e t ches that both John and Lucretia were
ear l y e xpos ed to s ome form of pro s e ly t i sm :
Aft er being marr i ed s ome few years . my Grand father got under
conv ict ions fo r his s in s and fe l t that h e was not prepared
to die and go un to Judgement . So he b e c ame wond erfu l l y
a l armed , day and n i ght , h e wou ld g e t up of n i gh t s , and g o out
to pray . Granma sa id that one n i ght he was out so much that
So
she cou l d not s l eep and she thought he was going cra zy .
s h e get s up and s tarted to go around the house to l ook fo r
h im t o tel l h im what she thought o f such , and s h e said that
as she went around the hou s e , that sh e met him r e j o i cing in
God h i s Sav ior , he t o l d h er that he had found the Lord and
was happy , and th at he wan t ed her to s eek the Lo rd and be
happy too and throwed h i s arms around her . Sh e s a id that she
fe l l to the ground and i n s t ead o f t e l l ing h im what s h e thought
1 28
o f such cra zy s p e l l s , that she bec ame c r a z y hers e l f .
She
s aid that she nev er had any more r e s t unt i l l she found the
Lord hers e l f . Thus they were both h appy in the Lord . Th i s
I t was not l on g aft er they
was abou t th e year 1 8 1 9 or 2 0 .
1
came to th i s p l ac e , Cad es Cove .
In contras t to th e ind i fferen c e o f many o f the i r p ioneer
con t emporar i e s to r e l i g i on , th e ear l y e ffo r t s of the O l i v ers to obta in a
r e l i g i o u s organ i z a t i on in the cove are s urpr i s ing , e s p ec i a l l y wh en one
con s i d e r s the many obs tac l es and greater prob l em s inv o l v ed in th e i r
i n i t i a l s et t l ement .
B i shop F r an c i s Asbury had ear l i er expres s ed th e
o p in i on tha t ' ' i t i s a s hard or h arder for the peo p l e o f the Wes t to g a i n
r e l i g i on a s any o thers , " in v i ew o f th e g r e a t d i ffi cul t i e s and d i s tr a c ­
t io n s o f fron t i e r l i fe .
2
I n th i s r e g ard , t h e O l ivers ' s u c c e s s dur ing
th e ear l y 1 8 20 ' s in obtaining fo rma l r e l i g ious s erv i c e s in th e cove
p l a ced a di s t in c t i v e s tamp on the commun i ty in i t s in fancy .
R e l i g io n , as Asbury pe s s im i s t i ca l l y po i n t ed ou t , frequen t l y s e emed
th e ant i the s i s of th e usual s ty l e of fron t i er l i fe in o ther areas of the
o ld Southwe s t .
Sma l l l o g cab i n s often hous ed fami l i es o f ten or twe l v e ,
who l iv ed in a tumb l ed fi l thy a tmos pher e .
One writer argued that
1
w . H . O l iver , S k e t ches , 6 - 7 . Quo ta t i ons from manus cript s ources
cont inue to be g iv en w i t h no chang e s in th e o r i gina l s pe l l in g or
o r tho graphy . The convers i on exper i ence d e s c r ibed here had l ong b e en
a n e c e s s ary r equi rement for church memb er s h i p in pr act i ca l l y a l l
Pro t e s tant d enom inat i ons . The theo l o g i c a l as s umptions und er l y i n g th i s
exp e r i en c e are nowhere more l u c i d l y ana l yzed than i n P erry �1i l l er ,
The New Eng l and Mind : Th e S event eenth C entury (New York , 1 9 39 ) , 365 - 9 7 .
S e e a l so Al an S impso n , Pur i tanism i n O l d and New Eng l and (Ch i c ago , 1 9 5 5 ) ,
2 - 6 , 2 4 - 2 5 , 35 - 36 , and Darr e t t B . Rutman , Amer i can Puri t an i s m : F a i th
and P r ac t i c e ( Phi l ad e l ph i a , 1 9 70 ) , 1 5 - 1 6 , 2 0 , 2 6 - 2 7 , 9 9 - 1 0 6 .
2
E l me r T . C l ark , ed . , The Journa l and Letters of Franc i s Asbury
( 3 vo l s . , London , 1 9 5 8 ) , I I , 1 2 5 .
1 29
" s c en e s o f b l oodshed and par t i s an animo s i ty" were common oc currence s .
Al though B i s hop Asbury saw thes e prob l ems a l mo s t ent i r e l y from h i s own
s ectarian frame of reference , he was no t b l ind to the prac t i cal effe c t s
o f re l i g ion i n prevent ing s o c i a l d i sorder .
V i o l ence o r b l oodshed w ere
an t i - s oc i a l acts commi tt ed not on l y ag ainst God , he con c l uded , but to
the detr imen t o f the ent i r e communi ty .
3
I n th i s s ens e , the earl y devel opment o f rel i g i o u s i ns t i tu t i on s i n
th e cov e may hav e prevented a period o f an ti - so c i a l individual i sm wh i ch
charac teri z ed the cont emporary fro n t i e r deve l opment o f other commun i t i es
in the l arger r e g i on .
Wr i t ers o ther than Asbury had l ong ob s erved a
d i rect conne c t i o n b e tween the l aw l es sn e s s o f fron t i er l i fe and the
d i s t ance o f t h e s e i s o l ated commun i t i e s from more s e t t l ed reg ions of the
coun try .
Judged by the s e s t andards al one , th e cove b e cau s e o f i t s
r e l a t i v e i s o l at i on mi ght wel l hav e produced fron t i ersmen such a s tho s e
As bury s o v i v i d l y described a s poor creatur es "but one remove from
savag es thems e l v e s . "
4
D e s p i t e the pra c t i c a l ben e f i t s of r e l i g i on to the i r commun i ty , the
Ol ivers ev i d en t l y l abored in v a in to obtain a chur ch 1n the cove during
3
I b i d . , I , 7 09 , I I , 28 7 ; Wa l t er B . Pos ey , �lethodi sm j n the O l d
Southw� (Tus c a l oo s a , 1 9 3 3) , 1 2 - 1 5 . S e e a l s o Al l en .J ames Ledford ,
Method i sm i n T enne s s ee , 1 78 3- 1 8 6 6 (Mas ter ' s thes i s , Univer s i ty o f
Tenne s s ee , Kno xv i l l e , 1 94 1 ) , 34 - 3 6 . The b e s t cont emporary d e s cr i p t i o n
o f th e d runkenn e s s , v i c e , gamb l ing , brutal f i gh t s , and antagon i sm t o
i t in erant pr each ers i s found in W . P . Stri c k l and , cd . , Autob i o grap hy o f
P e t er C ar twr i gh t , The Backwoods Preacher (New York , 1 8 5 6 ) , 4 5 - 8 3 .
4
Wi l l i am Warren Sweet , The R i s e o f Me th o d i s m in th e Wes t (New York ,
1 9 2 0 ) , 5 8 - 70 ; C l ark , Asbury ' s Journal , I , 6 3 2 . S imi l ar areas o f North
Caro l j na suffered a d e c l ine in organ i zed re l i g ion from the c l o s e o f the
Revo l u t i on un ti l after 1 8 1 0 .
Lefl er , Hi s to ry of Nor th Caro l i na , I , 4 3 1 .
1 30
the ear l y 1 8 2 0 ' s .
By the m i d d l e o f the decade , howev er , they had
succ e eded in g e t ting enough memb ers to warrant ho l di n g s e rv i c e s und er
the aus p i ces of the M i l l er ' s Cove Bap t i s t church in a nei ghb or ing
commun i t y .
The f i r s t re ference to th e cove in th e M i l l er ' s Cove church
r e c o rds o c curred on March 5 , 1 8 2 5 :
Brother Dav i s r eque s t the Church to V I S i t i n Church order in
Cad e s Cove to r e c e i v e memb er s and the Chur ch agree to go and
s et to w a i t on and appo int the Fourth Sat erday of th i s
I n s t ant and appo int Brethern August een Bower s , J ames Tay l o r ,
Wm . B l a i r , James Wi l l i ams , R i ch ard Wi l l i ams , George Snid er ,
\Vm . Mc Key , I s aac Rus s e l l and two o f them to s i t e on a Church
w i th memb ers thats is there and so D i sm i s t to F i r s t Sat erday
in Apr i l e at Meet ing Hous e . 5
" I n chur ch order" meant th at the presbyt ery from M i l l er ' s Cov e was
auth o r i z e d to c onduct church b u s i n e s s in the cove .
Numerous r e ferenc es
in the fo l l owing month s ind i c ated the Cad e s Cov e memb ers want ed to
expand the i r memb ership .
"Re c e i v ed a l etter from Cades Cove for us to
appo int a Church meet ing among them in order to re c e iv e memb e r s " i s a
r eference on May 6 , 1 8 2 5 , w h i ch apt l y charac t er i zes thi s exchange o f
correspondenc e .
On June 1 1 , 1 8 2 5 , Lucre t i a O l i v er j o ined th e church ,
wh ich now cal l ed i ts e l f th e "Church o f Chr i s t o f Mi l l er ' s Cov e in Cades
Cove . "
6
Th e co l oni z i ng pro ce s s o f the Mi l l er ' s Cove Bap t i s t church revea l ed
a numb er o f i n t e r e s t ing features about the b as i c organ i z at i on o f th e s e
chur ch es and th e i r r e l a t i onsh ip t o one ano t h e r .
5
N o s ing l e p r i nc i p l e
M inutes o f the Mi l l er ' s Cove Bap t i s t Church , Book I I , Mar ch 5 ,
1 8 2 5 . A type s c r i p t copy o f the s e r ecords , wh i ch d a t e from 1 8 1 2 , i s
i n the McC l ung Co l l ec t i on , Lawson McGhee L i brary , Knoxvi l l e , Tenn e s s ee .
6
.
Ib I" d . , pa �s_ tm .
___
:
__
1 31
chara c t er i z ed them more accurat e l y than the i de a o f l oc a l autonomy .
Each Bapt i s t chur ch ins i s ted on comp l e t e i ndependence and freedom o f
ac t i on , and no cha l l enge c au s ed greater anger and theo l o g i ca l denun c i a t i o n
among them than the s l i gh t e s t que s t i on i ng o f the i r independ ence .
Yet
th ey moved w i th great d e l ib erat i on toward author i z ing any o f their
m emb ers to e s tab l i sh a s eparat e church w i th the s ame freedoms , al though
the d i s tance and geograph i c i s o l at ion o f the Cad e s Cov e group obv i ous l y
j us t i f i ed s uch a move .
F ina l l y s at i s fi ed w i th the o rthodoxy o f the Cad e s Cove group , or
p erhaps mere l y weary of the i r i mpor tunings , the Mi l l er ' s Cove church
r ecorded on Novemb e r 3 , 1 8 2 6 , th at " the memb ers b e l ong i ng to th i s chur ch
who l iv e in Cad es Cove have pe t i ti oned for l e t ters of d i sm i s s i on and i t
i s granted . "
Al though th ey remained on good terms w i th the M i l l er ' s
Cov e chur ch , the Cades Cove group ob ta ined th e i r l e tt ers o f d i s m i s s ion
in order to e s t ab l i sh thems e l v e s as a branch o f the Wear ' s Cov e Bapt i s t
church .
No exp l anation i s o f fered for the change , but i n prac t i c e th e
Wear ' s Cove church proved to b e mo re l en i ent in autho r i z ing s t eps toward
comp l ete independ en ce .
7
Th e group th at cons t i tuted th e forma l es tab l i shment o f the "Cad e s
Cove Arm o f t h e Wear ' s Cove Church" on June 1 6 , 1 8 2 7 , w a s smal l i n
number .
Ten peop l e , i nc l ud ing R i chard Dav i s , the pas tor , and h i s bro th er
Wi l l iam , th e c l erk , were the char t er memb ers .
I n addi t i on to John and
Lucr e t i a O l i v er , the o ther memb ers were James O l iver (a bro th er ] , Jame s
Johnson and h i s w i fe Emi l y , Chr i s topher Winter s , Edward Jame s , and
7
I b id . , November 3 , 1 8 2 6 ; W . H . O l iv er , Ske tches , 7 .
1 32
John Lacy .
John O l i ver pur chased the church book for $ 1 . 5 0 , and the
f i rs t meet ing on June 16 , 1 8 2 7 , was du l y r ecorded .
8
Comp l et e indep end enc e came on June 1 9 , 1 8 2 9 , when the ' 'Arm o f the
Wear ' s Cove Church in Cad es Cove" final l y be came a s eparate ent i t y , the
Cades Cove Bapt i s t church .
A presbytery ' ' c a l l ed for c ame forward for
th e purpose o f cons t i tut ing a church in Cades Cov e , v i z . , Bro ther Thomas
H i l l and Bro th e r Augus tine Bowers , and after the nec e s s ary examination
they on the 2 0 t h ins tance pronounced them a Church . ' '
Th e pre sbyt ery
from the Wear ' s Cove church ev i d en t l y fe l t i t was n e c e s s ary to sub j ect
th e Cades Cove memb ers to th e mos t ri gorous examina t i on b e fore they
f i na l l y conceded the i r orthodoxy .
9
Al though sma l l in membersh i p throughout the century , th i s o ld e s t
es tab l i sh ed church i n Cades Cove continued t o dominate t h e s o c i a l and
cu l tural mores o f the communi ty and , i n a v ery real s ens e , to det ermi n e
the fabr i c o f th e d ev e l op ing commun i ty .
O t h e r churche s w i l l b e d i s cus s ed
l a ter , but the internal l i fe o f th e Bap t i s t church i s i l l uminating fo r
many reas ons .
Th e impor tant ba t t l es were al l theo l o g i c a l d i s put es , w i th
the pos s i bl e e x c ep t i on o f the debate over th e C iv i l War .
A careful
examinat i on o f th e s e theo l o g i c al di sputes , howev e r , wi l l an swer bas i c
ques t i ons ab out t h e sourc e o f t h e i r r e l i g i ous s o c ia l i z a t i on , t o what
8
cades Cove Bap t i s t Church Boo k , 1 8 2 7 - 1 90 5 , i n po s s e s s ion of Ray
Tay l o r , Maryvi l l e , Tenne s s ee . Th e church changed i t s name to Primi t i v e
Bapt i s t in 1 84 1 . Hereafter c i t ed Primi t i v e Bap t i s t Minut e s .
9
r b i d . , Jun e 1 9 , 1 8 29 .
1 33
ext ent i t was o n l y i s o l ated l o c a l i s m , or whe ther i t refl e c t ed regional
and nat ional pat terns .
10
Th e Cad e s Cove church in 1 8 2 9 was s t i l l v ery much in th e mains tream
o f Bap t i s t theo l o g y 1n Tenn e s s e e and th e l arger region .
E s s enti a l l y
C a l v ini s t i c , they s hared w i th o th e r Bap t i s t s an abhorence of infant
b ap t i s m , and an ins i s t ence on comp l e t e s eparation of church and s tat e .
Th e bas i c tenets o f the ir theo l og y had l ong b e en estab l i shed ; they
wou l d have fe l t comp l e te l y at home w i th th e London Confe s s i on of F a i th
o f 1 644 or i ts Ame r i can r e s t a t ement in 1 74 2 as the Ph i l a d e l ph i a
Confe s s ion of F a i t h wh ich affirme d the Bapt i s t s ' b e l i e f i n the doctrine
of par t i c u l ar e l e c t i on and the b ap t i sm by immer s i on of b e l i evers on ly .
11
To recap i t u l a t e in minute detai l the doctrines or theo l o gy o f the
Cad e s Cove church wou l d be repet i t ious , s i nce th e s e b e l i e fs have b e en
carefu l l y enumer ated b y o th er s cho l ars .
12
Th ere are certain bas i c id eas ,
however , wh ich e ar l y shaped the dev e l opment o f the cove church and l ater
d e t ermined its respons e to new movemen ts w i thin the chur ch .
10
Th es e i deas
rbi d . , pas s im ; W . H . O l iver , Sketch es , 7 - 8 , 5 2 - 1 4 4 .
1 1 w . H . Ol i ve r , Sketches , 7 - 8 , 6 0 - 6 1 , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 ; Lawrenc e E dwards ,
H i s tory o f the Bapti s t s o f Tenne s s ee w i th Part i c u l ar Atten t i on to the
Primi t i ve Bap t i s t s of Eas t Tenn e s s e e (Mas ter ' s th es i s , Univers i ty o f
Tenne s s e e , Kno xvi l l e , 1 9 4 1 ) , 4 . S e e a l so J . B . Moody , Th e D i s t i nguish ing
Do ctrine s of Bapt i s ts (Nashv i l l e , 1 9 0 1 ) , 8 5 - 1 4 0 .
.
E.as t 1 enne s s e e 1. s Ed war d s ,
Th e b e s t ana 1 y s 1 s o f- B ap t 1 s ts 1n
Prim i t i ve Bap ti s ts , 1 5 - 1 06 , whi ch make s the mo s t comp l e t e u s e of unpub ­
l i shed ch urch and as s o c ia t ion minut es , o ften over looked b y other s cho l ars .
Other s t andard monographs inc l ude B . F . Ri l ey , Bap t i s t s o f th e South i n
S t a t es Eas t o f the Mis s i s s ippi ( Ph i l ade l ph i a , 1 8 9 1:\ ) ; S . W. Tindel l , Th e
Bapti s t s of Tenne s s e e ( 2 vo l s . , Kingspor t , Tenne s s ee , 1 9 30 ) ; Wa l t er
Brown low P o s e y , Re l i g ious S t r i fe on th e South ern Fron t i er ( Baton Rouge ,
1 96 5 ) , and 0 . W . Tay l o r , E a r l y Tenne s s e e Bapti s t s , 1 76 8 - 1 8 3 2 (Nashvi l l e ,
1957) .
12
.
.
.
--­
1 34
w ere s u c c inc t l y out l i n ed by W . H . O l iver , pas tor of the church from 1 8 8 2
unt i l h i s d e a th i n 1 9 4 0 :
I t i s w e l l known that Primi t iv e Bap t i s t b e l i eve the doc t r ine
o f Church s uc c e s s ion th a t the church f i rs t organi zed by Chr i s t
has exi s t e d i n a l l ages o f t h e wor l d to th e pr e s en t , and we
c l aim to b e i n that succe s s ion , th e o l d e s t Bap t i s t chur ch in
Ameri ca was p l an t e d b y Dr . John C l ark b e fore Roger Wi l l i ams
was bap t i z ed . . . . Th e new t e s tament contains al l that
entered into the fai th and prac t i c e of the apo s t e l i c churche s .
I t i s the o n l y r eve a l e d record o f Ch ri s t i an truth .
It
covers al l they had . The chur ch o f t h e f i r s t c en tury forms
the s tandard and examp l e for the church of a l l fu ture ages .
We Bap t i s t c l aim that from the t ime o f i t s organi z at i on on
ear t h , i t h as s tood d i s t in c t and v i s ib l e unt i l l th e p r e s ent
t ime . . . . We b e l i eve that J e s us Chr i s t h ims e l f i ns t i tu t ed
th e Church , that i t was p e r fe c t at the s t art , sui tab ly adop t e d
in i ts organ i z a t i on to every age o f the wor l d , to every
l o cal i ty of earth , to ev ery s tate and cond i t ion of the wo r l d ,
to every s tat e and cond i t ion o f manki nd , w i thout any chan g e s
o r a l t erat ions t o su i t e the t imes , cus toms , s i tuat i on s , o r
l o c a l i t i e s . Th e o l d church o f God has never t o l erated any
innovations o f men . l 3
From thi s quo t at io n i t i s ev i dent th at th e s e Bap t i s t s b e l i eved
the i r d o c trines repre s ented a r ev e a l e d truth wh i ch was f i xed for al l
t ime .
Such an a t t i tude l og i ca l l y mad e th e church cons erva t i v e , b ec aus e
any l ater innov a t i on would in th i s frame o f r eference b e contrary to
the i r b as i c d o c tr i ne o f revea l ed truth .
Yet i t was to b e admi t t ed that
men 1n t h e i r fal l i b l e s ta t e m i gh t o ccas i o na l l y m i s t ak e or m i s int erpre t
the tru th .
In s uch c ir cums tanc es , the on l y re l i ab l e gu ide was th e Bib l e , the
revea l ed word of God , and for th i s reas on , they ins i s t ed on l i teral l y
fo l l ow ing th e s c r i p tures and ord ering th e i r church po l i cy a s c l o s e l y as
pos s ib l e to s cr i p tura l i nj unc t ions .
13
w.
II.
The phras e , " thus s a i th th e Lord"
Ol i v er , Sketche s , 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 .
' J
I
1 35
was a powerful expr e s s i on amon g them , and they were prone to t ry
everyth ing b y the s cr iptures .
I t l o g i ca l l y fo l l owed that any i ns t i tut i on
or pra c t i c e whi ch was no t spec i f i ca l l y ment i oned i n the s c r i ptures was
an erroneous , t empo ra l improvi s at ion o f man .
Such i nnovat i on s they were
bou nd by the nature o f th e i r theo l o gy to denounce under the common
opprobri um o f " i ns t i tut i ons o f th e day . "
14
Maintaining the i r doc t r inal pur i t y accord i ng to the s c r ipture s was
too great a t a s k fo r any one i nd iv id ua l .
In the Cades Cove church , the
fun c t i o na l uni t organ i zed for th i s purp o s e con s i s ted o f a l l th e chur ch
memb e rs who obta ined thei r s tand ing through the l ong and di fficu l t
pro c e s s o f the convers ion exper i enc e .
Bap t i s t church e s are o ften t ermed
d emocra t i c , but that concept has onl y l imi t ed app l i cat ion to the re a l
mech an i sm o f contro l , wh i ch was the group .
Opera t i ng w i th i n a cons ensus
mechan i sm , each new i dea pre s en t ed to the church had to be approved by
the ma j or i t y of the church members , that s ma l l number w h i ch cons t i tuted
'
.
15
.
t h e v 1 s 1" b l e s a 1 n t s .
I t i s probab l y wi thin th i s church cons ensus that the s en s e o f
commun i ty for t h e l arger area o f Cades Cove dev e l o p e d .
The maj or i ty o f
church members h a d ab s o l ut e contro l over al l func t i ons o f t h e church ;
the i r pa s to r maintained h i s po s i t ion not by appe a l s to new i deas or
d o c t r i ne s , but b y s e eming to confirm the o l d t ruths o f what they a l ready
14
15
Ibid . , 8 .
Ib i d . , 1 1 - 1 7 . Ev i dence o f th i s cons ensus mechan i sm o c curs
r ep e a t e d l y throughout th e century ; every d e c i s ion was v o t e d on by the
congrega t i on , wh i ch re served the r i ght to rev e r s e i t s former dec i s i ons
a t any t ime . Primi t i v e Bap t i s t Minutes , pas s i m .
1 36
b e l i eved .
Th e Cades Cove church was charac t er i s t i c o f other Bap t i s t
churches o f th e i r generati on , i nasmuch as th ey had a v ery acute
knowl edge , ·
o f Bap ti s t h i s tory and an awarenes s o f their own ro l e in i t s unfo ld ing
proc e s s .
Th i s awarenes s exp l a ins in part the i r int ens e s en s e of
accountab i l i ty , and their ins i s t ence that extraordinary caut ion be taken
in pre s erv i ng the church book , th e i r wri t ten reco rd of the church ' s
. ns .
eart h l y tran s a c t lo
16
Th e l o cal gro up knew , for ins tance , that much i f not mo s t o f th e i r
former troub l e s and p ers ecutions s t emmed from e ffor t s o n t h e part o f
out s i d e ecc l es i a s t i c a l or c i v i l authori t i e s to dominate o r d e s troy their
l o cal autonomy .
Even in the new wor l d , Bapt i s t s had und ergone b i tt er
per s ecutions , parti cu l arly from the e s t ab l i s hed Ang l i can Church in
V ir g i n i a b efore the Revo l ut i on .
Th i s con s c iousn e s s o f pas t pers ecutions
added a touch o f paranoi a to th e church group in Cad e s Cov e wh ich l as t e d
throughout th e centur y .
I t made them more d e termined than ever t o avo i d
any ves t i ge o f e c c l e s i as t i cal form o r h i erarch a l
s t ructure wh i ch
threaten ed to wres t l e contro l o f their church from the l ocal
.
congre gat lon
.
17
Under these ci rcums tance s , the ro l e o f their pa s t or qui t e natural l y
w a s s ev ere l y l im i t ed and ci rcums cr ibed .
After th e Revo lut ionary War ,
the fear dev e l op ed in V i r g inia and other Southern s t a tes that an
e duc a t ed mini s try wou l d be conducive to bu i l d ing up a s trong and
aggre s s i v e e c c l e s i as t i cal h i erarchy .
16
17
' ' When once our min i s try b ecome s
w . H . Ol i ver , Sketches , 7 - 8 ; Primi t i v e Bap t i s t Minutes , pas s im .
Ibid .
1 37
educ a t ed , " Vir g i n i a Bap ti s t s argued , "we wi l l b ecome an e c c l e s i as t i c i sm
l ik e our per s e cutors , and l o s e the s imp l i c i t y vouchs afed to the chur ches
of Je s us Chr i s t . "
No l es s er a personage than P atrick Henry had argued
agai n s t any h i erarchy or d e l e ga t i on of powers wh i ch woul d remove contro l
from the l o c a l church .
" Down w i th anything , " Henry argued and Bap t i s t s
ev erywhere agreed , ' 'wh i ch wou l d t end t o make us 1 ike our pers e cutors . "
18
According to t h i s l ine o f thought , pa id or s a l a r i ed preachers w ere
an anath ema to the ear l y Bapt i s t s , becaus e a s a l ary repr e s en t e d bo th a
t endency toward an ec c l es i a s t i c a l s truc ture contrary to the ear l y chur ch
I
pra c t i c e s and an unhea l thy independence on the p art o f the pas tor . '
The i r preach ers were "ra i s ed up" from among the congregat ion .
A p erson
thus compel l ed to preach was a l l owed to exer c i s e h i s "gi ft s " ; if the
ent ir e congrega t ion approved the s e " g i fts , " he was then subj ected to a
ri g i d examina t i on by a presbytery o f other mini s t ers wh i ch l ed u l timat e l y
t o or d l. n a t l. on .
19
Ordi nat ion in i t s e l f was no guarant e e that a preacher wou ld cont inue
i n this ro l e inde fin i t e l y .
I f he veered from the path o f orthodo xy , or
s eemed weak and ineffe ctua l as a preacher , the congreg at i on cou ld vote
18
J . H . Grime , H i s to ry o f M i dd l e Tenne s s ee Bap t i s ts (Nashv i l l e ,
1 90 2 ) , 5 4 8 . H enry ' s e fforts to promo t e to l erat i on for the pers ecuted
Bap t i s t s are s uc c inc t l y out l ined in Robert Douthat Mea de , P atri ck l�enry :
See a l so Wi l l i am
Patriot i n the !'-lak ing (Ph i l ad e l ph ia , 1 9 5 7 ) , 24 5 - 6 2 .
Wer t !Ienry , Patrick Henry , L i fe , Corres ponden c e and Sp eeches (3 vo l s . ,
New York , 1 8 9 1 ) , I , 1 1 7 - 1 9 , I I , 2 0 2 - 5 .
ror a rev i s i o n i s t inter pretat i on
of H enry ' s changing ro l e in V i rg i n i a ' s s trugg l e for re l i g i o us to l erat i on ,
s e e R i chard R . Beeman , Patrick llenry : A B i ography (New York , 1 9 7 4 ) , 9 5 ,
l l l - 20 .
19
w . H . O l i ver , Sketch es , 7 2 - 7 5 ; Primi tive Bap t i s t Minutes , pas s im ;
Edwards , Prim it ive Bap t i s ts , 8 .
1 38
t o d eny the r i gh t to cont inue exerc i s ing h i s " g i ft " i n the p u l p i t .
The
e s s en t i a l point throughout the en tire pro c e s s wh ereby an i nd i v i du a l
b e came minis ter i s t h a t at n o p o i n t did h i s s tatus e s cap e ab s o l u t e
contro l b y t h e congregat ion .
H i s continuance d epended on a cons ens us o f
approv al b y the maj or i ty ; i f t h i s approv a l ended , or was compromi s ed ,
h is u s e fu l ne s s among them w a s at a n end .
20
Al though a mini s t er was no t paid a regul ar s a l ary , church members
fe l t cons t rained from t ime to t ime to cont r i b u t e var ious ar t i c l es to h i s
s uppor t .
But none o f th e mini s t ers in the Cades Cove church throu ghou t
the century w ere ab l e t o manage w i thout an o u t s ide o ccupat i on .
regard , the l i fe o f the mini s t e r w a s par t i c u l ar l y di ffi cu l t .
In th i s
I n add i t i o n
t o h is r e gul ar church dut i e s , wh i ch w e r e n e v e r few or easy , he was
obl iged to work during the w eek .
H i s b ehav ior an d performan c e were under
the cons tant cri t i c al s c r u t i ny of h i s ent ire congre gat i on wh i ch p l aced
l i t t l e v a l ue on i nd iv i dua l privacy .
One o f the cove mini s t ers , Wi l l i am
Bri c k ey , s uccinc t l y s t at ed the prob l em 1 n the 1 89 4 a s s o c i a t i o n minutes :
Wh at sha l l th e mini s t er d o ? I f h e d o e s n o t s upport h i s
fami l y t h e church does n o t want to hear h i m preach , i f he
ne g l e c t the chur ches they w i l l s u ffer for the preach ing o f
the wo rd , i f h e ne gl e c t h i s fami ly they w i l l su ffer for a
t empo ra l s upport , s o th e mini s ter finds h ims e l f b e tween two
s corching fires .
' Wo e i s unto me i f I preach no t the go spel ! '
' Wo e i s unto me i f I prov i d e no t for my own fami ly ! ' Wha t
sha l l th e minis ters do ? Wha t sha l l th e churches d o ? L e t the
m i n i s ters do and preach as the Lord has comman ded th em ; and
l e t th e ch urches s uppo r t th em as the Lord has ordained th ey
shou l d . Then , no doub t , the Lord w i l l b l e s s both mini s t ers
20
Prim i t ive Bapt is t Minutes , pas s i m ; Edwards , Primit ive Bap t i s t s , 8 .
1 39
and church es i n the fai th fu l d i s charge o f thei r dut i e s
toward each o th er . 2 1
Given th e d i ffi cu l ty o f the i r pos i t i on , i t i s surpri s ing that the
t enure of th e Cades Cove Bapt i s t church ' s m i n i s t ers l as t ed as l ong as i t
d id .
R i chard Dav i s , cho s en a s the fi rs t pas tor for the church a t i t s
i n i t i a l meet ing o n June 1 6 , 1 8 2 7 , had been a very act ive preacher i n the
Wear ' s Cove , Tucka l e echee Cove , and Mi l l er ' s Cove Bapt i s t churches from
th e f i r s t decade of the n i net eenth century .
He and h i s brother Wi l l i am ,
who s erved a s c l erk , removed to Wa l ker Coun t y , Georg i a , i n 1 8 39 i n the
g enera l m i g ra t i on to the new l y opened l and s of th e Ch erokee Nat ion .
22
Other min i s ters i n the Tenne s s e e As s o c i a t ion as s i s ted the Cad e s
Cove church i n i ts e ar l y years but were never a ctua l l y p a s t ors ther e .
Th e s ig n i fi canc e of the i r names l i es in the fa ct that not one of the s e
e l even m en l e ft th e o l der church when t h e break among Bap t i s t s over
m i s s i ons occurre d in 1 8 3 8 .
The Cad e s Cove church was thus i nfl uence d i n
i ts forma t i v e years by the mo s t orthodox c l ergymen in the o l d Tenne s s e e
As s o c i a t ion , and t h i s in fl uence wou ld determine to a l ar g e e xtent the
cons erva t i ve cour s e o f the ch urch throughout the centur y .
23
21
M i nutes o f the N inety - Th i rd Annivers ary o f the Tenn es s ee
As s o c i at io n o f Pr imi tive Bap t i s t ( 1 89 4 ) , 9 . Hereafter c i t ed P r i m i t i v e
Bap t i s t As s oc i at ion Minutes w i th approp ri ate year .
22
P r i m i t i v e Bap t i s t M i nut es , 1 8 2 7 - 1 8 3 2 , p as s i m ; Burns , " S e t t l ement
and E a r l y H i s tory , " 6 0 .
23
Th es e m i n i s t ers were Thomas H i 1 1 , R i chard Wood , G eorge Sni der ,
Dukes K imbrough , James Tay l or , Wi l l iam B i l lue , Jos eph Lambert , Noah
!laggard , B i l ly Ho l l away , Augus t i ne Bowers , and E l i j ah Roger s . Primi t iv e
Bapt i s t M i nut e s , 1 8 2 7 - 1 8 3 5 , pas s im ; Burns , B l ount County , 1 1 8 - 2 4 .
Brief
b i o grap h i e s o f th e s e mini s ters i s given i n �1i l 1 er ' s Cove P r i m i t i v e
Bapt i s t Church :
Commi ttee ' s Report o n Ori g i n and H i s tory , wri tten
November 1 8 , 1 9 5 1 , by John W . O l iver , John Og l e , and Hoyl e Tay l or . A
1 40
After an i n t er i m dur i n g w h i ch v i s i t i ng preachers o ff i c i a t ed , Johnson
Adams b e c ame pas to r i n 1 8 3 3 , cont inuing i n th i s cap a c i ty unt i l he was
r emoved from o f fi c e Augu s t 1 6 , 1 84 5 , for j oi ning the M i s s i onary Bapt i s t
church .
Rumb l ings agai n s t Adams app eared a s early a s Oc tober 2 1 ,
t$��] '
wh en he was a c c us ed o f ' 'dev i a t i n g from the draft o f do c t r i n e h e us ed to
preach . ' '
Th e fo l l owing day , Adams t emporari l y a s s uaged cr i t i c i sm by
s ubm i t t ing a 1 1 summary o f the princ i p l e s of d o c t r ine1 1 1vh i c h he adhered
to in h i s preach in g .
Fur ther dev i at ions , however , l ed to his fin al
d i smi s s a l , a s t ep wh i ch the church appeared r e luc tant l y and painfu l l y
for c ed to take .
24
Var ious memb er s o f the chur ch acted a s mod erator , o r pas tor , from
1 8 4 5 unt i l the C iv i l War , i nc l uding John Chamb ers and John O l iver , b o th
o f whom were deacon s .
Ace D e l o sur and Humphrey Moun t from S t o ck Creek
P r i m i t ive Bapt i s t chur ch were the modera tors mos t frequen t l y cal l e d
dur ing this per iod .
Abs a l om Abb o t t was ordained min i s t e r May 1 7 , 1 85 6 .
After the war , Jackson B . J . Brickey was cho s en pas tor o f the church on
Oc tober 2 8 , 1 8 7 1 , and con t i nued i n thi s capa c i t y throughout the r emainder
o f the c entury .
Remembered by the chur ch as the mo s t ab l e min i s t e r o f
t h e n i n e t eenth cen tury , he proved to b e an exce l l en t d ebator when
d e fend i n g h i s denomina t i on ' s be l i efs a ga i n s t the doctri nes o f o ther
copy i s in the author ' s po s s es s i on and i s hereafter c i ted Report on
Mi l l er ' s Cove Pr imi t i ve Bap t i s t Church .
24
Primi t i ve Bap t i s t Minutes , 1 8 3 3 - 1 845 , p as s im .
141
chur che s .
W . H . O l iver was ordained m i n i s ter on Aug u s t 2 7 , 1 88 2 , and
s erved in t h i s c apa c i t y unt i l h i s death in 1 94 0 .
25
Th e s i z e o f O l iv er ' s presbytery- s i x men - underl ined t h e grmv ing
trend i n the years a fter 1 8 70 toward a co l l ec t ive mini s t ery , a l though
t h i s prac t i c e i s nowh ere e xp l i c i t l y s ta t ed .
Ordained m i n i s t ers had
a lways b een exchang ed b y churches w i t h i n the a s s o c i a t i o n , and aft er 1 8 8 0 ,
th e Cades Cov e ch ur ch had many preachers who o f f i c i a t e d e i th e r a t the
home chur ch or e l s ewh ere .
E l ders Wi l l i am and J a ckson B . J . Brickey ,
Wi l l i am H . O l iver , W . A . Gregory , John and J ame s Abb o t t , G i l es P . Dunn ,
John H . Bri ck e y , and G . P . Adams s erv ed the Tennes s e e As s o c i a t ion o f
Pr i m i t i v e Bap t i s t dur ing th e l a s t two d e c ad e s o f the c en tury .
26
l>lany ch urch memb ers asp ired to pre ach but w ere unac ceptab l e to th e
congreg a t io n .
The o l d church book con t a i n s n umerous examp l es o f men who
wer e " l iber a t ed to e x erci s e thei r g i ft s in pub l i c , " but who fa i l ed
even tua l l y t o b e o rdained .
Occas iona l l y the church l i m i t e d the area o f
t h i s type o f prac t i ce preaching to e i ther t h e home church or a few
n e i ghbo r ing churches .
At any ra t e , the c ongregat ion kept c l os e con tro l
over i t s mi n i s t ers in each s ta g e of their d eve l opment .
Th e trend toward
a c o l l ec t ive m i n i s try at the end of the century was perhaps ano ther
uno ffi c ia l meas ure to a s s ure orthodoxy, s ince the r i v a l ry wh i ch ensued
25
0 l ivcr ' s pr esbytery inc l ud ed Jacks on B . J . Bri ckey , Wi l l i am
Bri ckey , Gi l es Dunn , Levi Adams , Ab s a l om A . Abb o t t and Dav id McDani e l .
Primit ive Bapt i s t Minutes , 1 84 5 - 1 8 8 2 , p a s s i m ; W . H . Ol iver , S k e t ches ,
73- 75 .
26
rrimi t iv e Bap t i s t Minut e s , 1 8 8 0 - 1 900 , pas s im ; Burn s , B l ount
County , 1 2 3 .
142
among the m i n i s ters gave the congrega t i o n even greater pow e r over the
s e l ec t i on and cont i nuan c e of the i r pas tor .
Even t h e s e preachers were
o n l y a s mal l percen t ag e of the t o t a l numb er of men who aspired to th e
.
27
.
m 1. n 1 s try b u t w ere never approve d b y t h e congregat ion
.
P ower was g i v en
grudgi n g l y , and a m i ni s t er , even a ft e r ach i eving h i s pos i ti o n as on e o f
the cho s en few , c o u l d at any p o i n t be remove d from the p u lp i t .
Al though the pas tor nomina l l y h e l d the mo s t importan t pos i t i o n 1 n
t h e church organ i z a t i on , in real i t y the ro l e o f the chur ch c l erk was far
more s ig n i f i c an t .
Th e c l erk was e l ec t ed t o h i s pos i t ion , as was th e
pas t or , by the en t i r e congrega t i o n , b ut us ua l l y he l d h i s pos i t io n for
much l on ger per i o d s o f t i me .
The c l erk was entrus t e d w i th a l l th e church
corresponden c e -- l e t t ers o f d i s mi s s i on , reque s t s for pas tora l a s s i s tanc e ,
and communi c a t i o n s regarding as s o c i at ion mee t i ng s .
Al though o s tens ib l y
ac t ing on ly t o carry out t h e w i sh e s o f t h e congregat ion , mos t cl erk s i n
t h e Cades Cove church managed to p l ac e t h e s t amp (however uncon s c ious l y )
o f t h e i r own p ersona l i ti e s and v i ewpo i n t s o n th i s correspondence .
28
By far h i s mos t impor tant func t ion was keeping the church book
current .
27
28
t very month a bus i ne s s mee t ing was conduc ted in wh i ch the
Prim i t iv e Bap t i s t Minut es , pas s im .
rbid . Mi s c e l laneous ch urch l e t t ers dat ing from 1 8 34 throughout
th e c en tury in author ' s pos s e s s i on . Many Cades Cov e church l e t t ers are
found i n th e manus c r i p t co l l ec t i on s o f o ther area church e s . An e xc e l l en t
examp l e i s a l e t t er found among the S t o ck Creek Bap t i s t church re cords
wh i ch reads as fo l l ows :
"We the Prim i t ive Bap t i s t church o f Chri s t in
C ad e s Cove now in s es s ion s en d e th gree t ing to her b e l oved s i s t er S t o ck
Creek Church our S i s t er in the Lord we w i s h you to s end u s our b e l oved
Bro th er Ace De l osur to take the pas toral care of our church done in
Church Conference the third S a t urday of Oc tober 1 8 54 P e t er Cab l e C l erk . ' '
Copy in author ' s po s s e s s io n .
143
p a s t o r s erved a s moder ator and the cl erk recorded a l l offi c i a l bus ine s s
i n th i s book-- new memb ers , exc l us ions , and o c c a s i on a l l y a r e s t a t emen t o f
th e church d o c t r i n e o r art i c l e s o f faith .
was a t tach ed to th i s record .
E xt raordinary s i gn i fi cance
O n l y the mo s t orthodox and fa i thful member
cou l d be entru s ted w i th s uch a r espons i b i l i ty .
29
Th ere i s a r emarkab l e s en s e o f h i s t o r i c i ty i n t h e P rimi t ive Bap t i s t
church book wh i ch makes i t the s in g l e mo s t important contemporar y
manus c r ipt s ourc e f o r t h e n in e t e enth c ent ur y .
Th e var ious c l erks s eemed
wel l aware of the i r r e l ative pos i t ion in the cours e of Bapt i s t h i s to ry ,
and the church book r e f l e c t s th i s i nt ens e s ens e o f acc oun t ab i l i t y .
Great pains were taken careful l y to exp l ai n and j us t i fy every a c t i on of
th e church .
I n any d i sp u t e w i th i n the church , b o th s i des immedi a t e l y
.
.
s o ug I1t po s s e s s 1on o f t h 1. s record , s 1nce 1. t a 1 one gave l eg 1. t 1macy
.
.
30
Al though they wou l d h ave rej e c t e d the theo l o g i c a l i mp l i ca t i ons invo l v e d
in a n y compar i s on , the church book i n re a l i t y func t i oned a s t h e i r ark
o f the covenant .
Th ere were o n l y three r e gul ar ly appo inted c l erks during the
n i n e t een th centur y .
Wi l l i am Davi s , brother o f R i chard , s erv ed as the
firs t c l erk from the organi zat i on o f the church in 1 8 2 7 unt i l he remov ed
to Wa l ker Coun t y , Georg i a , in 1 8 3 9 .
Dur ing the next four years , various
members a c t ed as c l erk pro t empore .
On S ept ember 1 5 , 1 8 3 8 , P e t er Cab l e
was app o i n t ed cl erk and s erv ed unt i l h i s death o n January 2 7 , 1 8 66 .
29p
30
. .
.
.
.
r 1m1 t 1 ve B apt 1 s t P' 1 lnutes , p ass 1 m .
I b id .
.
144
E l i j ah O l i v e r , son o f John and Lucre ti a , was appo i n t e d c l erk o n
Augu s t 1 9 , 1 86 7 , and s erv ed f o r th i r t y - s ev en years unt i l h i s death on
F ebruary 2 2 , 1 9 0 s .
r�
\j
31
Mee t ing o n l y once a month , usua l l y o n the fourth S a t urday and
fo l l owing Sunday , the congregat i o n c o l l e c t i v e l y a s s umed re ipons ibi l i ty
fo r church d i s c ip l i n e .
The c aus es o f e xpu l s ion from the church a re
numerous and r e fl e c t the h eavy emphas i s p l aced on p i e t i s t i c l iv i ng .
Memb ers mi gh t be exc luded for nonat tendance a t the r e gul ar mont h l y
m e e t i n g s , fo r j o i n i n g another d enominat ion , or for fai l ing to obs erv e
some form o f th e church rul es o r d ecorum .
The chur ch book was a lways
e xp l i c i t ab out the e xcommun i ca n t ' s part i cu l ar fa i l ur e .
E l i z abe th
S l augh t er was charged w i th adul t ery and e xc l uded on Ap ri l 1 9 , 1 8 34 ;
But l er T i p t o n was e xc l uded on March 2 1 , 1 8 84 , fo r "bet t i ng and shoo t i ng" ;
Rach e l McCaul ey was e xc l ude d th e s ame day for fa i lure to b e b ap t i s e d .
32
Th e s e e x c l us i on s , and many o thers t o o numerous to c i te , rev e a l a
careful s c ru t iny k ept on the commun i ty by the ent i re congre ga t i on .
In
th e Bap t i s t church every member a s s umed t h e s e dut i e s and d i d not r e l y o n
church offic i a l s to keep an eye on the f l o ck , a s d i d the Me thod i s t s .
How ever , there were certain proce dura l guaran t e e s aga i n s t b e i n g fa l s el y
accused .
Any memb er o f the church might b r i n g a part i cu l a r charge aga in s t
ano ther member , o r charges might be introduced aga i n s t a member who s e
o f fe n s e was expo sed th rough "pub l i c cl amo r . • •
31
32
33
I b id .
I b id .
lbid .
33
145
1
Th e chur ch then , accordi n g to s cr i p tural i n j un c t i on s , voted t o s end
an e l d er or de acon to con fro n t th e offend i n g member and reque s t h im to
answer the charges before th e en t i re congre gat i o n .
The a c cus ed cou l d
e i ther deny the charges (wh i ch was rare l y succ e s s fu l ) , o r acknow l edg e
h i s fau l t and as k th e church ' s forgiven e s s .
Wh i l e t h e congregation
i nvar i ab l y vo ted to exc l ude anyone who i gnored such n o t i fi cat ion , they
were al ways i ndu l gen t in for g i v i n g a repen t ant s inner who th us "made h i s
acknowl ed gmen t s . "
Th e mo s t common veni a l s in was dr inki ng ; the Bap t i s t
rema in ed s trong l y opposed t o a l coho l i c cons ump t i on throughout the
cen tury .
34
Th e t o t a l numb er o f a c t i v e memb ers was never l arge i n the Primi t iv e
Bapt i s t ch urch , a l though membership great l y i ncreas ed in propor t i on to
th e total popu l a t i on after the C i v i l War and was al ways far great er than
that of any o th er denominat i on in the cove .
j rn
1 8 8 1 , for ins tance , there
were f i fty- two members out o f a t o t a l popu l at ion of 449 .
Tab l e 4 . )
34
35
(See
Th e s e membersh ip f i gure s are mean i n g l e s s , however , s in c e they
r b id .
"Ther e ar e gro s s crimes which a s in g l e memb er commi t s
v i o l a t i n g cr imes
swear i n g ,
pub l i c drunkn e s s , s t ea l in g , robb i n g , murde r , and such l i k e , th i s i s n o t
i nd iv i dua l v io l a t i on , a s t h e o ther , but th i s out l aw , open tran s gres s i on
aff e c t s the who l e cau s e of Chr i s t and Ch r i s t ian i ty . Th i s c a l l s for
immed i a t e ac t i on of th e church . Th e v i o l ator i s to b e no t i fi ed t o come
b e fore the who l e body and pub l i c l y make confe s s i on of h i s or h er fau l ts ,
and i n th i s way to tak e o f f the d i s grace he or sh e has brough t on the
caus e o f the wh o l e chur ch and i f h e refused to do th i s the church is to
exc l ude h im or h er from the i r fe l l owship to sav e the b ody . Amputat ion
i s n e c e s s ary . Wh ereupon if he repen ts and con fes s e s his s i n s , and
acknow l edges tha t th e church done r i ght , he may be r e c e i v ed back i n t o
fe l l owship aga i n . " W . H . O l iver , Sk etche s , 1 4 5 - 4 6 .
a ga i n s t t h e wh o l e chur ch , s u c h as out l aw
35
,
rrim i t ive Bapt i s t As s o c i at ion Minutes ( 1 88 1 ) , 1 ; B l ount County
Census , Popul a t i o n , 1 8 80 .
1 46
TABLE 4
MEMBER SH I P I N THE CAD E S COVE PR I M I T IVE BAPT I ST
CHURCH , 1 8 70 - 1 9 00
Y ea r
N wnb er o f tvlemb ers
1 879
so
1 88 1
52
1 8 84
1 00
1 8 90
91
1 892
82
1 89 3
83
1 894
92
1 89 5
85
1 89 6
82
1 89 8
94
1 899
94
1 900
105
Sour c e :
Comp i l ed from Th e T ennes s e e As s o c i ation o f Primi t iv e
Bap t i s t Minut e s , 1 8 7 9 - 1 90 0 .
147
g iv e n o real i n d i cat ion o f e i th e r the ac tua l s i z e o f church a t t endance
or the i n f l uenc e o f the chur ch throughout the commun i ty , and i t is w i th i n
the con t ext of th i s l arger cons ensus mechani sm th at th e r eal s i gn i f i canc e
and power of th e P r im i t ive Bap t i s t s mus t be under s t o o d .
I
1
Th i s l arger me chani sm o f the church ' s i n f l uenc e w i th i n the communi ty
i s extremel y comp l e x and d i ffi cu l t to ana l y z e b e caus e o f the many
apparen t contrad i c ti o n s .
Al though di ffi c u l t to obtain , church memb e rs h i p
was open to anyone , and th e congregat i o n remained i n t en t i onal l y c l as s l es s ; po l i t i c al pow e r o r wea l th cou ld n o t g a i n any i n f l uen ce over the
b as j ca l l y pro l e tar i an group .
No memb er o f the entrepreneural c l a s s ,
D an i e l D . Fout e or Dr . Calv i n P o s t , ever j o i ned t h e Bap t i s t s ; they
As has been previous l y d i s cu s s ed , the
rema i n e d uni fo rmly P re sbyter i an .
s tructur e and th eo l ogy of the Bap t i s ts kept th e power of any indi v i dua l ,
even the pa s tor , in c l o s e check .
36
T h e c h urch n ev e r th e l e s s sought through mora l persuas i o n to control
the mo res and a t t i tudes o f the commun i ty .
Th e l arger commu n i ty acqu i es ced
In thi s con tro l be caus e it c ame es sent i al l y f rom a broadl y - b a s ed group
con s en s us w i t h in th e church , and was not d ic t at ed by one i n d i v i dual , or
ev en by the Bap t i s t s ec t ar i an theo l o gy , but rather by the a t t i tud e s and
b ehav i or of the e n t i r e congrega t i on .
I t i s a we l l - known fac t that a
sma l l , h i g h l y mo t ivat ed and o rgan i z ed group c an e ffe c t i v e l y contro l a
36
.
"
p r i m i t i. v e B ap t 1 s t <'' 1 l" ntit e s , pass 1 m ; ,S k· 1ppcr
an d ,r,ave ,
.
.
Though ts , " ' Part I , 1 29 - 3 1 .
.
, , , Ci
-. t ray
148
l arger , d i s organ i z ed group .
37
As s uch , the Bap t i s t s had the added
advant a g e o f appea l ing to re l i g io us v a l ues and asso ci a t i on s a l ready h e l d
by the l arger commun i t y , r e gard l es s o f wh e th e r they were memb ers o f th e
church or even a t t end ed .
c./
38
Th e n e t r e s u l t o f th e church s truc t ur e was that the P r imi t i v e
Bap ti s t s he l d far mo re power over the commun i t y than e i th er the C i v i l
author i t i es , po l i t i c a l par t ie s , o r prominent entrepreneurs s uch as
Dan i e l D . Fout e .
N o t that the church ever s o ugh t such po l i t i ca l power ;
c omp l e t e s epar a t i o n o f chur ch and s t ate was one o f the o l des t Bap t i s t
tenet s .
But the po t en t i a l power rema ined great throughout the cen t ury ,
and d e c i s i o n s ab ou t wh ether to u s e th i s power were made in a lmo s t
comp l e t e independence from any e x t raneous in ter ference .
Th i s po t en t i a l
po l i t i c a l powe r and indepen dence o f ac t i on w i th i n the church are two key
37
James Ma cGrego r Burns and J ack Wa l t er P e l tason , Gov ernment b y the
P e op l e : Th e Dynam i c s of Ame ri can N a t i o na l , S t a t e , and Loc a l Gov ernmen t
(F i fth ed . , Eng l ewood C l i ffs , N . J . , 1 9 64 ) , 29 1 . A l though i t i s n o t
w i th in the s cope o f th i s s t udy to ana l y z e var i o us c o v e organi z a t i o ns
w i th in the s t r i c t confines o f group dynam i c s , the con t inuing res earch on
the fun c t ion of groups w i th i n th e i r l arger po l i t i ca l and s o c i a l context
o ffer s e xc e l l en t opportun i t i es for compa r i s on . See par t i cu l ar l y D a rwin
Cartw r i g h t and Alvin Zand er , eds . , Group Dynami cs : Resear ch and Th eory
(S e c o nd ed . , Evans t o n , I l l . , 1 9 6 0 ) , 1 65 - 3 1 9 , 4 8 7 - 6 2 4 .
38
P erry Mi l l er maint a i ns t h a t in the e i ght een th c en t ury , the bas i c
frame o f reference o f Pro t es t an t theo l ogy was shar ed in varyi n g d egrees
by a l l Amer i can s , r egard l es s o f geograph i ca l d i s per s i o n o r s ec t a r i an
Perry Mi l l er , "F rom the Covenant t o th e Reviva l , " in James W .
prefer en c e .
Smi th and A . Le l and jami s o n , eds . , R e l i g i o n i n Ameri can L i fe : The
Shap ing of Ame r i c a n R e l i gi o n ( 4 vo l s . , P r i n c e t on , 1 9 6 1 ) , I , 32 2 - 5 0 .
Wh ether thi s genera l i z a t i o n ho l ds for n ew fro n t i e r areas in th e
n i n e t e e nth c en t ury i s ques t ionab l e , but the compact nature o f soc i e ty i n
Cad es Cove mad e i t h igh l y improbab l e that mo s t o f the res i dents had not
b een e xp o s ed to s ome form of evang e l i z ing at one t i me o r another . J . W .
O l iver , Cades Cov e , I , 1 0 - 1 3 .
l
1 49
factors in unders tand ing how the communi t y reac t e d to v arious cr i s e s
s uch as the C iv i l War .
39
1 ) Th e Bap t i s t s c ons tru c t ed a meet ing hou s e in 1 8 3 2 wh i ch was bui l t o f
v
l o g s and "was v ery crude in cons truc t i o n . "
Up unt i l that t ime , they had
me t in the s ch o o l hous e o r in pr ivate homes , o cc a s i o na l l y h o l d ing
s erv i c es at n i gh t .
I n 1 8 36 one o f the cove ' s early entrepreneurs ,
Wi l l i am Tipton , d eeded to "John O l iver and P e t er Cab l e a g en t s for th e
Bap t i s t Church" a trac t o f l an d inc luding " a h a l f acre o f l and the p l ac e
whe re t h e Bap t i s t meet ing hou s e now s tands " f o r 1 ' the us e of pub l i ck
worship forever . "
Th e Prim i t ive Bapt i s t chur ch con s t ru c t e d a more
modern bu i l d ing on t h i s s i t e in 1 8 8 7 to rep l ace the o l der l og s truc t ure .
40
Th e great Bap t i s t d iv i s i on known as the An t i -mi s s ion Sp l i t oc curred
in Eas t Tennes s ee b e tween the years 1 8 2 5 and 1 84 5 , reach ing a c l imax in
1 8 3 7 - 1 8 38 .
Th e b i t t erne s s w i th which the i s s ue was deb a t e d i s c l ear l y
refl e c t ed i n the " tongue- l ash ing ev id enc es o f wh i te - h o t fe e l ing" i n th e
1 8 3 0 - 1 84 0 i s s u e s o f the Ba p t i s t , a chur ch peri od i c a l pub l i s hed in
N ashvi l l e .
Lawrence Edwards c i t e s three bas i c r easons why s ome Bapt i s ts
r e a c t ed s o v i gorous l y agai n s t organ i zed mi s s ionary a c t iv i ty by the
ch urch :
t h e uneducat ed con d i t ion o f th e mas s es o f B a pt i s t s , th e empha s i s
39
An exc e l l ent examp l e o f their contro l over t h e l arger commun i t y
i s the continuing pre s s ure by th e Prim i t ives to end d i s t i l l i n g and s a l e s
o f wh i s k e y ; they s u c c e eded in k eeping d i s t i l l er i e s out o f the cov e proper
throu ghout the century . Yet di s t i l l i ng con t inued t o b e a h i gh l y
P r i m i t iv e
pro f i t ab l e o c cupat ion , part i cu l ar l y after t h e C iv i l War .
Bap t is t Minu t e s , pas s im; Gamb l e , Heri tage and Fo l k Mus i c , 6 7 - 6 8 ; Burns ,
Bl ount Count y , 2 4 3 .
40
wi l l iam Tipton to John O l iver and P e t e r Cab l e , O c to b er 1 8 36 ,
B l o unt Deeds , Book M , p . 1 78 ; J . W . Ol i v e r , N o t es , 7 .
150
p l a ced upon the hype r - Ca l v i n i s t i c v i ew o f the s c r ipture s b y an i l l i t era t e
m i n i s t ry , and t h e " ac t iv i ty o f a v ery s tr an g e and power ful p e r s o na l i ty ,
D an i e l Parker . "
41
The Cades Cove church i s a n e xc e l l en t w eathervane for ana l y z i n g the
d i s pu t e at the l o ca l l ev e l and t es t ing Edwards ' hypothes e s , b e c aus e the
i s sue t h ere was b i t t er l y d eb a t e d and l ed to an angry s p l i t or div i s ion
amon g th e congr egat i on .
JOn S e p t emb er
1 5 , 1 8 3 8 , the chur ch book r ecords
a grow i ng deb a t e among memb ers over m i s s i o n s , the Bapt i s t chur ch
c o nv en t i o n , Sunday s choo l s , and t emperance s o c i et i e s , a l l o f wh i ch w e r e
denounc ed b y the cons erv a t iv e memb ers as b e i n g " i ns t i t u t i on s o f the day"
42
.
w 1. t h o u t s cr ip tura l aut h or1. z a t 1. on .
M1 en the di s put e appeared to b e cont i n u i n g unab a t e d , the ( then
s t i l l und iv ided) Tennes s ee As s o c i a t ion o f Uni t ed Bapt i s t s en t a comm i t t e e
to i nv e s t i g a t e th e Cades Cove church .
Th i s comm i t t e e fi l ed t h e fo l l ow i n g
report on May 1 1 , 1 8 39 :
Thus me t the fo l l m,· i ng b r e th e rn , to -w i t : E l i j ah Rogers ,
Samu e l ? , Andrew Kana tcher , E l i Robe rt s , and Wm . B i l l ue , five
members o f the commi t t ee appo inted by th e As s o c i a t i o n t o
e xami ne i nto th e cau s e o f t h e d iv i s ion in t h e church in Cade ' s
Cove , a n d w e find tha t th e ch urch i s d i v id ed· o n the s ub j e c t
o f M i s s i o n s - a par t o f th e church h av ing made j o i n i n g o r
fe l l ows h i p i n g tho s e that h a v e j oi ned a n y o f the b en evo l en t
i ns t i tu t i o n s o f the day , a t e s t o f fe l l ow sh i p - and the above
n amed comm i t tee , a f t e r us i n g a l l the arguments we were m a s t e r
o f to s how t h e brcthern t h a t such a cour s e w a s uns c r i p t ural ,
c o n t r ary to the adv i c e o f the As s o c i a t i o n , and commo n us ages
o f the Bap t i s t church - that it was taking away the pr ivi l e ge s
o f the i r breth e rn unj us t l y- b u t they app e ared unw i l l ing to
take any adv i ce ; t h er e for e , we b e l i eve the th i rt e en members ,
41
42
E'd war d s
.
. c B ap t 1 s t s , 5 b - 7 0 .
, P r 1. m 1. t 1v
.
P r i m i t ive Bap t i s t M i nutes , Sept ember 1 5 , 1 8 38 .
151
and tho s e o f the o ther party that w ere w i l l ing to grant
l ib erty of consci ence , and not to l ord i t ov er the ir
brethern by mak i n g any new tes t of fe l l owsh ip , to be the
Bap t i s t Church i n Cade ' s Cove upon con s t i tu t io n a l princ ip l es ,
and adv i s e th e church to a c t fri en d l y t owards the oppo s ing
part y and a s s oo n as th ey s ee th e i r error t o r e c e i v e t h em
i n to fe l l owsh i p , and t r e a t them w i th bro th e r l y k in dn e s s . 43
N e i ghbor ing churches were drawn into the vortex , a s the fo l l ow i ng
extrac t from th e E l l ej oy Bap t i s t chur ch r ecord s i n August o f 1 8 39 show s :
John Thoma s h av in g wri t t en a fa l s e report o f the pro c ee d ings
of the commi t t ee s en t to Cad e s Cove by the As s o c i a t i on to th e
edi tor of the Primi t iv e Bap t i s t - th i s church says h e has done
th em in j us t i c e & appo int Wm . Johnson Jr . & James D av i s to go
to Cade s Cove to obt a i n the record re l at i v e to the exc l us ion
o f the m emb ers who the comm i t t ee reco gni z e d as the chur ch &
p e t i t io n Johns o n Adams & Dav i d Cunningham to a t tend a t our
next me e t ing i n October t o g i v e t e s t imony i n the abov e c a s e .
Oc tob er 4 , 1 8 39 Exc l uded John Thomas for fa l s e l y a ccus i n g the
comm i t t e e tha t was s en t to Cades Cove to s e t t l e a
d i fficul ty . 4 4
Wh en th e dus t final l y s e t t l ed o n the con trovers y , th i r t e en memb ers ,
inc l ud i ng the p as to r , Johnson Adams , had b een exc l uded .
prompt l y formed the tvli s s ionary Bapt i s t church .
The s e t h i r te en
The o l d er church a s s umed
th e n ame " P r imi t iv e Bapt i s t church" on May 1 5 , 1 8 4 1 , and r e s umed th e i r
chur ch bus i ne s s a s us ua l .
I t i s i n t er e s t i n g to not e in t h i s regard that
in B l o un t County o n l y Tuc k a l ee ch e e and Cades Cov e had s t rong enough
43
Minutes of the Tennes s e e As s o c i a t io n of Unit ed Bapt i s t s , Repor t
on Cad e s Cov e Bapt i s t Church , May 1 1 , 1 8 39 , i n th e Bap t i s t Arch iv e s ,
N ashv i l l e , Tenn es s ee . Th i s report was made b e fore t h e Cad es Cov e ch ur ch
forma l l y s epara t e d from t h e o l d Tenne s s e e As s o c i at i on i n 1 84 1 and
as s ume d th e name "Primi t ive . " Lat er both groups con t ended that they
were the l e g i t i m a t e h e i rs o f the o lder as s o c i at i on . S e e Edwards ,
P r i mi t ive Bap t i s t s , 7 2 - 7 3 ; R eport o n Mi l l er ' s Cove Primi t iv e Bap t i s t
Church , 4 .
44
Minut e s o f th e E l l e j oy Bap t i s t Church , Augus t to October 4 , 1 8 39 ,
pho to s t a t ic copy i n the McC l ung Co l l ec t ion , Laws on Mc Gh e e L ibrary ,
Knoxv i l l e , Tenn e s s e e .
152
groups o f the O l d Schoo l fac t i o n to remain a c t ive w i thout fa l t ering
a ft er th e 1 8 3 8 d i v i s i o n .
45
l n the Cades Cove spl i t , Edw ard s ' exp l an a t i on about an i l l i t er a t e
mini s t ry and l ai ty ' s caus i n g t h e d i vi s i o n b e g s the ques t ion , s ince there
was r e l a t i v e l y no d i fference b e tw e en the l i t eracy r a t e of e i ther fac t ion ,
or a ny r e a l i nd i c a t i on that o n e s i de was more progre s s ive than the
o ther .
Many min i s t ers and c l erks of the o l der church had s erved a s
s choo l t eachers i n the cove ; they ob j ec t e d to any ec c l es i a s t i c a l
tra i n i n g or re l i g i ous ins tru c t i on i n the s choo l s , b u t w e r e in n o way
opposed to s e c u l ar educ a t i on .
v i ew o f the s cr ip tures .
Both s ides mai n t a ined a hyper- C a l v i n i s t ic
Th e Primi t i ves s aw the \vho l e que s t i on o f
m i s s io ns as a n unwarranted innov a t ion , and t h e ent ire s t ruc ture of th e i r
theo l o gy , a s previ ous l y d i s cus s ed , mi l i ta t ed a g a ins t any devi at ion from
46
.
s cr 1ptura
1 I. nJ. unc t i. o ns .
Th e rea l key to unders t anding th e div i s io n , however , i s not
theo l og i c a l , but orga n i za t i o n a l .
,) Th e
maj or i mp e tus of the church h ad
a lway s b e en t o keep ab s o l u t e power over the ir own a ffairs w i th i n the
con gregat ion .
Th e ent i r e panop l y of new organ i z at iona l s t ruc tures , such
as a m i s s i on board , or th e Bap t i s t church conv ent ion , they i n t erpreted
as a mov eme n t away from l oc a l aut onomy toward a c en t ra l i z ed e c c l e s i as t i c a l
s t ru c t ure s im i l ar to th eir p ers ecu tors . \
45
46
I n th i s in terpr e t a t io n , the
Pr imi t i ve Bap t i s t Minut e s , May 1 5 , 1 84 1 ; Burns , B l oun t County , 1 2 3 .
Edwards , Primi t ive Bap t i s t s , 56- 7 0 ; Primi t ive Bapt i s t Minut e s ,
pas s im; W. fl . O l iver , S k e t ches , 8 7 - 9 4 . Dr . Jobe re c a l l e d g o ing to
s chool during the 1 8 2 0 ' s to W i l l i am Davi s , firs t c l erk o f the church .
Job e , Autob io graphy , 1 5 - 1 6 .
153
impo r t an t point i s tha t they fe l t their power t o con t ro l t h e i r own
a ffai rs b e ing thre a t ened by out s i d e for c e s wh i ch from th e i r t h eo l og i c a l
and h i s t or i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s eemed c ount er- r evo l u t ionary .
The i r opponen t s ,
.
. es . 4 7
not t h e P r 1. m 1. t 1. v e s , were t h e r e ac t 1onar1
Th e u l t im a t e t e s t o f t h e i r d et erminat i on to ma i n t a i n con t r o l over
the i r own congr e g a t i o n came wi th the C iv i l War .
I n s cr i b e d o n the chur ch
book i s the i r forma l exp la na t ion , or apo l o gy , for not ho l ding chur ch
s e rv i c e s b e tween 1 86 2 and 1 8 6 5 :
�
We the P r i m i t ive Bapt i s t Church in B l oun t County , Cades
Cove , do show to the pub l i ck th e reason why we have n o t kept
up our church mee t ing .
I t was on a c co un t of the r eb e l i on and
w e was un i o n peop l e and th e Reb e l s was t o o s trong here i n
C a d e s Cove . Our preach er was ab l i ged to l e ave s om e t i me s but
thank God we once more c an mee t tho i t was from Aug u s t 1 86 2
un t i l J un e 1 86 5 that w e d i d no t m e e t but when we met the
Chur ch was in p ea c e . 4 8
Th e reasons why the P r imi t ive Bap t i s t church remai ned d e fi an t l y
U n io n i n th e i r po l i t i ca l a l l eg iance are comp l ex .
Th e i mpor tant po i nt
h er e i s that the congregat ion a g a i n as s er t ed the i r independen c e , and
d e t e rmined on a cou r s e o b l iv ious to th e s t rong out s i d e pre s s ures to
y i e l d to the Southern ideo l o gy (as o ther Southern church e s d i d ) , or at
l eas t to rema i n neutra l .
Once the con s en s us was reached among the
congregat ion , however , the ideas invo l v e d were too w i d e l y d i s pers ed
th roughout the fab r i c of th e en t i r e commun i ty to be d e s troyed by c l o s ing
47
P r im i t ive Bap t i s t Minut e s , p as s im ; W . H . O l iv e r , Ske t che s , 8 - 9 .
A po l em i c w id e l y c i r cu l a t e � in th e cove a f t e r 1 9 1 0 wh i ch expr e s s e d the
th e o l o g i c a l ob j ec t ions o f th e P r i m i t ive Bapt i s t s to m i s s ions was
Thoma s E . Wa t s on , F o r e i gn �li s s ions Expo sed (At l an ta , 1 9 1 0 ) . Wa t s on
argued th a t m i s s ionar i es were "agents of Ameri can comme rc i a l i sm , 1 1 and
repres ent ed " c u l tura l imp er i a l i sm . "
48
P r im i t iv e Bap t i s t Minutes , June , 1 8 6 5 .
1 54
the church , murdering i t s l eaders ( s uch a s Rus se l l Gregory ) , or for c i n g
them t o h ide ou t i n the surround ing moun t ai n s .
49
The ques t i on of s l av ery preven t ed s ome churches i n th e border
s ta te s from j o in i n g the Confedera cy , but there i s no men t i o n in the
I
1
Cades Cove church book of s l av e s or s l avery a t any p o i n t during the
cen tury .r- There were no s l av e s i n the cov e , a l though some o f the l arger
entrepreneurs , s uch as Dan i e l D . F o u t e , owned s l av e s at o ther l oc a t i ons
i n B l ount County .
Th e commun i ty was compo s e d o f many men , s uch a s Rob ert
Burch fi e l d (who inc iden ta l l y b e l on ged to the M i s s ionary Bapt i s t church ) ,
who h ad owned s l av e s a t t h e i r former res idences i n North Caro l ina .
There
is no c l ear answer , however , to th e que s t io n of the Prim i t ive Bapt i s t s '
ro l e a s the dominant church i n k e ep ing s l av ery out o f the cov e .
Ne i gh -
bo r i n g communi t i es i n B l oun t Coun t y , par t i cu l ar l y Tuck a l e ech ee Cov e , had
numero us s l av e - own ers .
50
49
r b id . ; IV . H . O l iver , S k e t ch e s , 2 1 - 3 8 . The i nf l uence o f the
American sec t a r i an church wi thin the commun ity is an a l y z ed by S i dney
Mead a s the pr i nc ip l e o f 1 1vo l un t aryism , " wh ich means " that a powerful
s e l ec t i ve factor i s at work in the cho i ce of d enomi n a t i on a l l eaders ,
s i nce s uch l e ad ers fina l l y g a i n and ho l d s upport and power in the group
through persuas i o n and popu l ar app e a l to the cons t i tuen cy . . . each
group has a k ind o f mas s iv e and s t ubborn s tabi l i ty , inerti a , and momentum
of i ts own , deep l y root ed and broad l y b a s ed i n the v o l un tary cons ent and
commi tmen t of the indiv i dua l s comp o s i n g i t . llere i s the r ea l b a s i s for
th e treme ndous v i t a l i ty o f th es e d enomin a t i ons . Th i s i s l i k e l y to b ecome
ev i d en t in p er i o d s o f intern a l s t res s or of thre at to the e x i s ten c e of
" Sidney E . Mea d , " Denomin a t i ona l i sm :
the group from the outs i d e . .
The Shape o f Pro t e s tant i sm in Amer i c a , " Chur ch H i s t o r y , X X I I I (December ,
1 9 5 4 ) , 300 .
50
Pr imi t ive Bap t i s t Minutes , pas s im ; B l oun t Deeds , 1 8 30 - 1 8 60 ,
p as s im ; Burns , Bl ount County , 5 8 - 59 .
155
A more probab l e exp l an a t i on for th e church ' s s trong pro - Un i on
po s i ti on l i e s in th e bas i c i d eo l o gy surrounding their conc ept of the
church ' s ro l e in s o c i e ty .
As has been previous l y d i s cu s s e d , the
Pri m i t iv e Bap t i s ts conce ived of the church and i t s doctrines as b e ing
ful l y enumerat ed in the s cr iptures .
Any innov at ion ,
or ''ins t itu t i on of
the day , " they regarded w i t h great suspi c i on and hos t i l i ty .
Th i s s ame
entrenched con s erv a t i sm carri ed over i n t o t h e i r po l i t i ca l a t t i tudes .
The South , from th e i r po int o f v i ew , was a t t empt ing to impos e rad i c a l ly
new in t erpr e t a t i o n s on th e c i v i l order , the old Un i t ed S t a t e s , wh i ch
t h ey had long regarded as i deo l o g i c al l y fixed o r comp l et e .
51
John O l iver , a founding m emb er of the church and one o f i ts mo s t
i n f l uen t i a l deacon s , c l e a r l y repre s en t e d th is l i ne o f thought .
1b e
go l den a g e o f J ac k s on i an e ga l i tari an i sm was fixed in h i s mind as th e
opt imum pol i t i ca l s e t t l emen t by h i s part i c ipat ion in the War o f 1 8 1 2 a t
Hors eshoe Bend , a n d h e coul d o n l y regard t h e Confed era t e c aus e wi th
abhorence a f t er the l ong d e c ad e s of h i s i s o l a t ion 1 n the cove from o ther
Sou thern po l i t i c a l mainstreams .
Other members o f the congre g a t i o n su ch
as P e t e r Cab l e agre ed th a t s e c e s s ion was a dangerous and unj us t i fi ed
52
1. nnova t 1. on 1. n t h e p o 1 1. t 1. c a 1 s t atus quo .
Wh at ever t h e i r reasons for a s s umin g a pro -Union po s i t io n , th e
congr e g a t ion was g a lvani z ed into und ergound po l i t i c a l act iv i ty by the
thre a t o f out s id e for c e when North Caro l in a guerri l l as c l o s ed the church .
Th a t ac t i on ended a l l the ir doub t s .
51
52
Church members mi gh t h a ve b e en
P r imi t i v c Bapt i s t Minutes , p as s im ; W .
w . H . Ol iver , Sketch es , 2 1 - 38 .
tl .
O l i v er , S k e t ches , 2 1 - 38 .
1 56
w i l l in g to a s sume a nona c t i v e s t an c e i n the confl ic t , des p i t e th e i r
p r o - Un i o n s ymp a th i es , bu t d i r e c t a c tion s e t o f f a n i deo l o g i c a l chai n
r e a c t ion b a s e d o n the i r e ar l i e r po l i t i c a l a n d theo l o g i ca l s o c i a l i z a t ion .
Long acut e l y aware o f the i r numerous pers ecu t i ons a s a denom i n a t i on
i n th e pas t , some o f the con g r e ga t i on had g rown weary dur ing the
r e l a t i v e ly pro s p e ro us and free years o f the 1 84 0 ' s and 1 8 50 ' s of b e in g
c o n s t an t l y warned by j eremiads o f former p e r s e cu t i ons in V i r g i n i a and o f
t h e d i s t i n c t pos s ib i l i ty , accord ing to th e s cr ip tures , of God ' s chos en
a g a i n b e i ng s ubj e c t ed to pers ecutions bec ause of the i r faith .
And now ,
i n 1 86 2 , m i r ab l e d i c tu , that v ery s et o f c i rcums t ances s eemed to h ave
o c c urred , j ar r i ng them out of their comp l acency j us t as they had s o
o ft en b e en forewarned !
54
1h i s apparent con firmat ion of wha t they had
l ong b e l i eved gave th em a mor a l unan im i t y t o re s i s t the invaders .
Th e congre g a t i o n of the P r i m i t ive Bapt i s t church thus fo rmed i t s
core o f res i s t ance to reb e l guerr i l l a s .
To the i r p o l i t i c a l d i fferences
was now added the conv i c t ion that th e i r theo l ogy was under at tack .
In
th i s s en s e , the North Caro l inians made n o greater m i s t ake than t o for c e
t h e cove church es to c l o s e .
I n s o doing , they t r i g gered an i deo l og i c a l
response wh ich s e t s t rong mo t i va t i on a l forces l o o s e i n t h e ent i re
communi ty .
53
54
Th e wh i r lwind they reaped in t e rms of organ i z ed r e s i s tance
I b id . ; J . IV . O l ive r , Cades Cove , I I , 1 3 - 1 5 .
Pr imi t i ve Bap t i s t Minut e s , pas s im ; W . I I . O l iver , S k e t c h e s , 2 1 - 38 .
53
157
from th i s w e l l s pring of paran o i a was out o f a l l proport i on to Cad es
Cove ' s us e fu l n e s s to t h e Southern caus e .
55
Y e t th e war had o n l y a t emporary e ffe c t o n the i nt ernal l i fe of
the church ; no maj o r doctrinal que s t i on s divi ded members over th i s
co nfl i c t .
Th ey s tr o n g l y res i s t e d a t t empt s by o u t s i d e for c e s to d i s rup t
th e i r church m e e t i ng s , but w i th i n the church a l l rema in ed quie t .
Th i s
anoma l y o f o ut er s tres s and i nner ca lm was no t o b s erved by t h e maj or i ty
of th e congregat ion ; doctrinal ques t ions had al ways he l d the fir s t rank
1n th e i r pri or i t i e s .
An outward respons e , even armed res i s tance t o
North Caro l i na guerri l l as , repres en t ed on l y a l o gi c a l reaction wh ich
th eir t h eo l o g i ca l s o c i a l i za t i o n had for decad e s cond i t ioned th em to
make .
I n t h i s s ens e the C i v i l War repre s e n t ed a moral unan imity toward
their persec utors and an inner s u sp ens ion of doctrinal d 1 s put es wh i ch
w a s s e l d om enj oyed i n times of peace .
56
·rh e wors t theo l o g i c a l cr i s is i n the n i n e t eenth cent ury chur ch
o c c urre d dur ing the 1 8 70 ' s ov er the Two - Seed doctri n e .
Th i s doctrine 1 n
s imp l e s t terms was an ab s o l ut e o r extreme form o f predes t in a t i o n .
Al l
peop l e \vere p reorda ined accord ing to wh ether they were o f good or bad
s eed to s al v a t ion o r damna t i o rC:�rh e C a d e s Cove Prim i t i ve Bap t i s t s had
al ways been Ca l v in i s t i c ; i f on l y the e l e c t could be s ave d , t h ey had
ear l i er arg ue d , why s end mi s s i on ar i es to po int out the need for s a l v a t i o n ?
55
w . H . O l iver , Sketch e s , 2 1 - 3 8 ; J . W . Ol iver , C a d e s Cov e , I I , 1 315.
I n e z Burns d i s cu s s es the react ion of the peopl e in the coves of
B l ount County to the threat o f a fo rmal invas i on . Burns , B l ount Coun t y ,
60 .
56
1 8 70 .
·
Th 1s
· per ·1 od o f comparat 1ve ca 1 m w1 t h ·1 n t h e c h urc h exten d e d to
Primi t i v e Bap t i s t Mi nutes , 1 8 60 - 1 8 7 0 , pas s im .
·
1 58
Y e t i n actu a l prac t i ce they had never b e e n wi l l i ng to con cede the
l o g i c a l e nd or extreme l imi t s o f prede s t in a t i on ; th ere was a lways a
f l i c ker o f free - w i l l i n their s e rmons ( th o ugh they formal l y denoun c ed
A rm1. n 1. an 1. sm ) .
57
Advo ca t e s of the Two - Se e d d o c tr in e thus con fro n t e d th e Cades Cov e
church w i th a n ew i n t e rpre t a t i on of th e ir theo l ogy b a s e d o n t en e t s l on g
he l d b y the con g re g a t i on .
Confus i on re i gned for s evera l years ; no one
app eared ab l e e f fe c ti v e l y to comb a t th i s l at e s t i nnova t ion , which s eemed
s uch a l og i c a l exp l i ca tion of t h e i r o l d b e l i e fs .
r e a c t ed
Th e maj or i ty fina l l y
how ever , and exp e l l e d a l l proponents o f Two - S eed i s m .
I n so
do ing , they h a d t aken a n important theo l o g i c a l s t ep toward Armi n i an i s m ,
o r fr e e - w i l l , qui t e i nvolun t a r i l y ; a t t empt in g to prev e n t chan g e i n the i r
theo l o g y , t h e y wer e , i n fac t , comp e l l ed to make a s ubt l e but v ery
s i gni fi cant a l t erat i on in s t epping b ack from th e extreme end o f
Cal v i n i s t ic prede s t inat i on .
Th e controv ersy f l ared up int ermi t t en t l y
through the r e s t o f the century , but the congrega t i on rema i n ed adamant l y
oppo s e d to Two - S ee d 1. s m .
58
57
l b id . , 1 8 7 0 - 1 8 8 0 , pas s 1 m . For a d i scus s io n o f th e Two - Seed
do c t r i n e among Primi t ive Bap t i s t s i n the l arger area of Eas t Tenn e s s e e ,
s e e Edwards , Primi t ive Bap t i s t s , 8 1 - 89 .
58
E xpul s i ons for adh e r i ng t o the Two - S eed do c t r i n e are numero us
I n rej ect ing
a f t e r 1 8 7 5 . Primi t ive Bap t i s t Minutes , 1 8 7 5 - 1 9 00 , pas s i m .
this d o c trine , the Cades Cove church appears to hav e been an excep t i on
to r e g i o n a l P r i mi t ive Bap t i s t s , who i n creas i ng l y accepted th e ab s o l ut e
pre d e s t i nar ian po s i t i on . 0 . K . Arms trong and Marj or i e M . Arms trong , Th e
Indomi t ab l e Bap t i s t s : A Narrat i v e o f Th e i r Ro l e in Shap i n g Amer i c an
H i s tory (New Y ork , 1 9 6 7 ) , 1 5 7 - 5 9 .
I n 1 9 1 4 , W . H . O l iv e r o f the Cade s
Cove ch urch l ed a w i thdrawa l from the o l d Tenne s s ee As s o c i a t i o n o f
P r imi t iv e Bapt i s t over the que s t i on o f Two - S e e d i s m , t aking s even church e s
w i th h im 1vh ich s e t u p a r i v a l a s s o c i at i on . Why t h e C ad es Cov e church
took such a s tro ng po s i t i on in contra s t to o ther area churches i s
-­
1 59
A controv ersy o f l e s s impor t ance erup t e d i n the 1 8 8 0 ' s and 1 89 0 ' s
over memb ersh i p i n s ecret o rders o r s o c i e t i e s .
The Cades Cov e church
d ebated th e que s t ion o f wh e th e r or not members o f s uch s ec r e t s o c i e t i e s
ought t o be exc l uded from church memb er s hi p , and reached a con s ensus
agai ns t them in con form i ty w i th mo s t o t h e r P r i mi t ive Bap t i s t s in the
l arger r e g io n .
Accord ing l y , on Apr i l 2 6 , 1 89 0 , James Brown and Monroe
Lequi re were exc l ude d for j o in ing the Farmer s ' Al l i ance .
No one e l s e
was exc l uded a ft er 1 8 90 , howev er , and the controversy s o o n s ub s ided .
59
Th e Cad e s C o v e church w a s t h e s econd l arges t in t h e Tenne s s e e
As s o c i a t io n o f P r i m i t ive Bap t i s t , wh i ch dated i ts organi z a t i o n from
1 80 2 , but actua l l y h ad formed a s ep arate a s s o c i a t i o n in 1 84 1 a f t e r the
break over m i s s i on s .
As s oc i a t i o n mee t i ngs i nvo lved t a l l yi n g memb ersh ip
l i s t s from i nd i v i dua l church es , numerous s e rmons , and a ff i rm in g the
art i c l e s o f fa i th endo rsed by the group .
Quer i es on a w i de vari e ty o f
th eo l o g i c a l ques t i on s were rec e ived and an swered , and an occas iona l
c ircu l ar l e t t er was pass e d around wh i ch e xp l a ined or c l ar i fi ed s ome
po i n t in doc trine .
minut e s .
Al l th e s e i tems were printed in th e annua l as s o c i a t i on
Th e a s s o c i at i on was s tr i c t ly congregat ional in organ i z at i on ;
puz z l i n g , s in c e T\v o - Seed i sm appe ar e d s t ronger among the more i s o l at ed
chur ch e s in th e South as a gener a l ru l e . Edward s , P r i mi t i v e Bapt i s ts ,
9 8 - 9 9 ; Pr imi t i ve Bap t i s t As s o c i a t i o n Minutes ( 1 9 1 4 ) .
59
Pr imi t ive Bap t i s t Minutes , Apr i l 2 6 , 1 890 . Th ere w er e not enough
s ecret orders i n the cove to occas i on the react ion of Primi t i ve Bapt i s t s
i n more popul ous areas . For a di scu s s i on o f the s e cret order con troversy ,
s e c Edwards , P r i mi t ive Bap t i s t s , 9 0 - 99 . 1he th i rteenth art i c l e of fa i th
o f t he Tenne s s e e As s o c i a t i on o f Primi t ive Bapt i s t s t a t ed expl i c i t l y that
"we b e l i eve the Church of Jesus Ch r i s t shou l d have no organ i c connect ion
w i th any soc i e ty or i ns t i tut i on of man not author i zed in Go d ' s Word . "
P r i mi t ive Bap t i s t A s s o c ia t i on M inutes ( 1 88 9 ) , 4 .
1 60
a memb er church cou ld w i thdraw at any t ime , s ince dec i s i ons by the
maj or i t y were i n no way b ind i n g on the i n d i v i dual chur ch .
The r i gh t was
res e rved by t h e as s oc ia t i on , however , to e xc lude any church wh i ch
dev i a t e d from d o c t r in a l norms .
60
Uni on me e t in g s were h e l d once a year , usua l ly i n the s ummer , when
(9
o ther as s o c i at io n churches were i nv i t ed to Cade s Cov e to share commun i o n
and th e footwash i ng s e rvi ces .
Th e s e mee t ings w ere conduc ted in s t r i c t
aus t er i ty ; n o vani t i e s i n c l o th i ng or i n church furn i s h in g s , wh i ch m i gh t
i n d i c a t e the pr ide and s i n fu l ne s s o f mankind , w ere perm i t t ed .
Th e
s er v i ce s were l ong ; men and women were s eparated and s at on hard b enches
b e fore a p l a i n wooden pu l p i t and a crude tab l e w i th a bucket o f dr ink ing
water and a d i pp er .
Un l ike some o ther fundament a l i s t s e c t s , the cove
church frowned on any exc e s s i ve emo t ional d i sp l ay dur ing the s ermon .
In
fa c t , a s t r i c t l i s t o f ru l es o f de corum was drawn up t o d i c t a t e the
l imi t s of acceptab l e behav i o r .
I
)
�...-
I n add i t i on t o th e i r uni o n and as s o c i a t i o n mee t in g s , the Pr i m i t ives
were on fri endl y t e rms w i th t h e Method i s ts i n the cov e , and frequent l y
shared reviva l s w i th them .
Th ey never r econc i l ed thems e lv e s to the
M i s s i onar i e s , h ow ev er , and b i t t e r l y opp o s ed any formal con t a c t or
60
E i gh t ch urch es w i th a t o t a l memb er s h i p o f 3 1 3 b e l onged in 1 8 7 9 ; by
1 9 00 , th i r t e en church es w i th 7 8 7 members had j o i n ed . P r i mi t ive Bap t i s t
As s o c i a t ion Minut e s , 1 8 7 9 - 1 9 0 0 , pas s im . Art i c l e I I o f the a s s o c i at i on
cons t i t ut ion s ta t e s that the a s s o c i a t ion c anno t " infri nge on any o f the
i nt erna l r i gh t s of any church in the Union . " Typ e s c r i p t copy o f th e
cons t i tu t i on in author ' s po ss e s s i on .
61
Pr imi t i ve Bap t i s t Minutes , p as s im . Un i on me et i ngs wer e r e c iproca l ;
each church a t t ended the mee t in g s o f a l l the o the rs . Dat e s o f th e s e
un i o n mee t i ngs at var ious churche s were p r i n t e d i n the as s o c i at ion
minutes . Primi t iv e Bap t i s t As s o c i a t i on M i nutes , 1 8 7 9 - 1 90 0 , pas s im .
161
commun i cat i o n w i th th e i r former b re th ern .
v
W i t h i n t h e l arger communi ty
o f Cad es Cove they were a c t iv e i n i nnumerab l e char i tab l e enterpri s e s ;
i f any church memb e r repor t ed an ins tance o f need in the cove , the
congre ga t i on responde d qui c k l y and gen erous l y .
They d i d s o prima r i l y
on an i nd i v idua l bas i s , h owever ; l ike o ther Bapt i s t s , t h ey b e l ieved that
so c i a l concerns and w e l fare s hou l d be the bus i n e s s of the i nd i v i du a l
cons c i en c e , no t o f th e co l l e c t iv e organ i z at ion o f th e chur ch .
62
I n con tras t t o the Pr imi t i ve Bapt i s ts , the M i s s i onary Bapt i s t church
r ema i ned very sma l l and in ac t iv e th rough mo s t o f the century .
Th e band
o f t h i rteen wh i ch broke away from the o l d er church in �lay of 1 8 39 was
recog n i z ed by the Tennes s e e As s o c i at ion o f Bap t i s ts as the l eg i t i mate
church , b ut they did not g a i n wide spread support w i t h i n th e commun i ty .
63
T h e numb er o f memb ers rema ined fewer than twenty unt i l t h e C iv i l War .
Th ere were l o ng p e r i od s in wh i ch no regular s ervi ces were h e l d dur i n g
v
t h e two decad e s b e fore th e c o n f l i c t .
Th e church c l o s e d from October ,
1 86 2 , unt i l 1 86 5 " on ac count o f the awfu l horror o f war , " but th ere i s
n o ind i ca t ion that i t s members were a c t i v e in t h e confl i c t .
From 1 88 0
62
w . H . Ol i v e r , Sketch e s , 9 7 - 1 0 8 . As one s cho l ar s ta t e s , " s o c i a l
i s s ues over wh i ch Bap t i s t s were mos t concerned were th o s e wh i ch h a d s ome
mor a l or re l i gi ous imp l i ca t i on for the indi v i du a l or some s i gn i f i c ance
for th e denomina t i on . Bap t i s ts con t i nued to be ori ent ed toward th e
ind i v i dua l and h i s spi r itual needs . " Rufus B . Spa i n , At Eas t i n Z ion :
S o c i a l H i s t ory o f th e Sou th ern Bapt i s t s , 1 865 - 1 90 0 (Nashv i l l e , 1 96 1 ) , 2 1 3 .
63
Johnson Adams s erv ed a s pas tor o f t h e group an d Green H i l l was
chos en c l erk . Robert Burch fi e l d was c l erk from 1 84 6 to 1 8 5 8 ; J . Y .
Burch f i e l d s erved from 1 8 5 Y unt i l 1 86 2 ; Nathan Burch fie ld from 1 8 6 7 to
1 8 7 0 ; John P . Cab l e from 1 8 7 1 unt i l 1 89 0 , and Homer Lemon ' s t erm
e x t ended through 1 90 0 . H i s t o ry of the Mi s s i onary Bapt i s t Chur ch in
Cad e s Cove , wri t t en in 1 9 2 0 by J . W . H . Mye r s . Copy in autho r ' s p o s s e s ­
s ion . Th i s bri e f s k e t ch o f t h e Mi s s i onary Bap t i s ts i n t h e cove i s the
on l y extant record o f the ir ac t i v i t i e s duri n g the n i n e t eenth c entury .
162
unt i l 1 88 9 n o s er v i c e s were h e l d .
64
However , 1 89 3 s eems to h ave b e en a
turn ing po i n t ; the church i n t h a t year he l d a succe s s fu l revival l ed
by Thomas S e x t o n , and gained twenty new memb ers , ra i s in g the t o t a l
memb er sh i p t o for ty- two .
v
I n 1 89 4 , they w e re f i nal l y ab l e t o con s t ruct
the i r own meet in g house on Hya t t h i l l ; up unt i l thi s t i me , they had us e d
th e Me thodi s t o r P r i m i t i v e Bap t i s t church .
65
Any sor t o f ana l ys i s o f th e Mi ss ionar i e s i s impo s s ib l e b e caus e o f
the pauc i ty o f t h e i r re cords .
Th ey con t i nue d to b e h os t i l e to the
dominan t P r i m i t ive Bap t i s t s , but n ever had th e s i z e throughout mo s t of
th e century to make any s i gn i f i c ant impact w i th i n th e l arger commun i ty .
Some of the i r memb ers , such a s But l er Tipton , had been e xc l ud e d from the
Pr im i t iv e Bap t i s t church for var i ous o f fens e s ; wh ether th e s e d i s s i d en t s
further a l tered e i ther t h e theo l o gy or p i e t i s t i c s tandard s o f th e o l der
church i s not known .
I n g eneral , the i r church deco rum and prac t i c e s
s eem to h av e 1. m 1. t a t e d t h o s e o f t h e
.
p r1m1. t 1ves
.
.
66
J Method i s t s were a c t i ve i n the cove a t a very e a r l y da t e .
Dr . Jobe
s a i d th at he could "d i s t inc t l y r emember h ear i ng Rev . George Eakin
pre ach i n g i n Cades Cove" wh en he was on l y s i x or s even years o l d , wh i ch
wou l d p l ace the d a t e between 1 8 2 3 and 1 8 2 4 .
64
Eak i n was one o f th e mo s t
Prom i nen t pre ach ers inc luded John Wa l l ace , James Rus s e l l , Wi l l i am
Adams and Andy Greer dur i n g the 1 85 0 ' s .
Between 1 8 74 and 1 8 7 9 , J . M .
Saul t s , Wi l l i am Lowe and Wi l l i am Boring o ff i c i ated a s pas tors .
In 1 890 ,
T . J . Cal dhoun was c a l l e d as pas t o r , and s erved w i t h W . T . Campbe l l ,
G . B . R i c e , W . H . Hodg e s , and But l er l ipton i n to th e twen t i eth cen tury .
Ibid .
65
66
Ibid .
I'b l" d .
1 63
prominent Me thodi s t c i rcuit r iders in Eas t Tenne s s e e ; a n I r i shman , h e
was d e s cr ibed b y D r . Jobe a s " e c c entri c , " b u t " a good man . "
The
Method i s t s y s t em o f c ir cu i t riders and c amp meet ings , made famous by
B i s hop As bury , was probab l y more respons i b l e for b r i n g i n g r e l i gi on to
67
.
f ron t 1. e r areas , sue h as t h e cov e , t h an any o t h er 1. ns t 1 tu t 1. on .
I n s p i t e o f th e i r i n i t i a l enthus i as m at such me e t ing s , howev e r , the
Methodi s ts were s l ower than the Bapt i s ts in organ i z i ng churche s .
i.... /
In
Cades Cove , the church d i d not bui l d a meeting hous e un t i l 1 84 0 , wh en a
deed was gi ven by Jame s F . Deaver to Henry Seebow , R i chard Kirby ,
Char l e s McG l o th l in , and Franc i s Ki rby , trus t e e s for the Metho d i s t
E p i s copa l i an church i n th e cov e .
68
John W . O l iver g i v e s the fo l l owing
d e s cr ip t i on o f th i s Me thod i s t meet ing hou s e :
Th e hous e was o f a very crude nature bu i l t of l o gs n o t ched
down at th e corners covered with hand- made sh i ng l es and
w e i ghted down w i th e i ght po l es . Th e s e a t s were made o f s p l i t
puncheons and s e t o n round wooden l egs w i thout back r e s t s ,
and were u s ed for s choo l and church . A furnace o f s tone
and earth wa s bu i l t up in th e cent er to bui l d a fire and the
smoke went up th rou gh the roo f . As there were no s awm i l l s in
those ear l y p ioneer days the bui l d ings were at fir s t w i thout
f l oo rs .
Later punch eon f l oors were put in . Puncheons were
sp l i t and hewed s l abs . 6 9
67
J oh e , Au tobiography , 8 ; Po s ey , t-letho d i s m in t h e O l d Southwes t ,
·
1 1 - 1 5 . Eak i n was s en t to th e Ho l s ton C ir cu i t in 1 8 1 1 . "One o f th e mo s t
rema rkab l e man i n h i s time , " h e "penetra t e d t h e h i l l s and h o l l ows .
b yway s a nd h e d g e s even into th e Smoky and Chi lhowee moun t a i n s . " Burns ,
B l ount County , 1 1 1 .
68
James F . Deaver t o Henry S eebow and o t h ers , S e p t emb er 7 , 1 8 4 0 ,
B l ount Deeds , Book U , p . 9 8 .
69
S k etches o f the �le thod i s t Church o f C a d es Cove . wri t t en in 1 96 2
b y John W . O l i ver .
I n the author ' s po s s es s i on , th i s s k etch i s the on l y
extant re cord o f th e Method i s t s i n the cove .
164
F rom 1 84 0 unt i l 1 8 7 8 , there are virtua l l y no records o f the
Method i s t Ep isc op a l ch urch in the cove , a l though s erv i c e s cont inued to
v' b e h e l d there regul ar l y .
Dur i n g these years , the Metho d i s t s were on
friend l y terms w i th the Primi t i v e Bapt i s ts , frequent l y sharing th e i r
mee t i n g hous e and par t i c i p at ing i n j oi n t rev i va l s .
Names o f ear l y
nine teenth century minis ters have b e en l o s t ; t h e Meth o d i s t s never kept
careful records of the i r trans ac t i ons as did the Bap t i s t s .
I n th e
1 89 0 ' s , prominent c ircuit m i n i s t ers were I . P . Mart i n , C . A . Murphey ,
N . P . Swai n , J . C . Bays , Bob S nyd er , A . M . Hoy l e , and C . T . Dav i s .
70
Among the mo s t d evout and notab l e memb ers o f the church at the end o f
the century w a s Wi l l i am "Unc l e B i l l i e" F e e z e l l , who w e l comed ev ery
71
.
. t preach er lnto
recal 1 s .
M et h o d ls
h i s h orne , as l s aac p . Mar t ln
0
.
Mar t i n d e s c r ib ed th e C ad e s Cove Metho d i s t church as an " o ld p in e - p o l e
house , " s uch a s "Asbury and Mc Kendree found a l l over Tenne s s e e and
Kentuc ky during the first quarter of the n i n e t e enth century . "
The
v
Metho d i s ts cons truc ted a new frame hou s e i n 1 9 0 2 whi ch i s s t i l l s t andin g .
Never th e l e s s , memb ership remained smal l throughout the century .
Mar t i n
s a i d t h a t in 1 89 1 the " Me thodi s ts o f Cade ' s C o v e were b u t a handful . "
/
'fh e d iv is io n or s ch i s m o f 1 844 w i th i n the Meth o d i s t church was
re f l e c t ed in Cades Cove by th e c ons truc t ion in 1 88 0 o f a Northern
Method i s t church on the s o uth s id e o f the cove near the c en t er .
Th i s
church was donat e d b y Dan Lawson , one o f the we a l th i e s t men i n the
70
71
I bi d . , 4 .
Mart i n , Min i s ter in the Tenne s s e e Val l ey , 66 .
72
165
c ommuni ty after the C ivi l War , but a ccording to one s cho l ar , it "never
d eve l op ed beyond a fam i l y affair . "
73
There is no rea l ind i c a t i on ,
more ov er , that duri ng th e C iv i l War Cad e s Cove memb ers o f the Method i s t
Epi s copal Church , South , were more o r l es s pro - Southern than the w i der
c ommun i ty ; the i r church remained c l os ed , as d i d the o thers , for the
dura t ion o f the war .
74
A l though the Method i s t s and Mis s i onary Bapt i s ts wou l d enj oy
treme ndous growth in s i z e and infl uenc e in th e twent i eth c entury , the
n i n e teenth b e l onged to th e Primi t i ve Bapt i s t s .
Leadership w i thin the
commun i ty carne from the Pri m i t i v e s during ev ery maj or c r i s i s , inc l uding
th e C ivi l War ; the i r power res t ed on a vo l untary cons ens us of opinion in
Cades Cove more po tent than any governmen t -- county , s t a t e , or nat i o na l .
I f the community acqui es ced in the s oc i a l and b ehav i o ra l s t andards
impo sed by th e i r denominat ion , the Prim i t iv e s in turn made re l i g i on and
church membership access ib l e to everyone ; by the v ery nature o f the group
mech an i s m th rough wh i ch the church operat ed , there were no e l i t es or
individua l s w i th e xc e s s ive p ower .
More than any other group , th e
Prim it ives fi er c e l y de fend ed the princip l e o f l o cal autonomy , of the
r ight to make d e c i s i ons affecting their l iv e s w i thout out s i d e pres sure
73
74
s h i e l d s , "Cades C ove , " 1 0 8 .
There i s no evi dence o f the b i t t er conf l i ct b etween the Methodi s t
E p i s copal Church , Sout h , and t h e Northern Metho d i s t E p i s copa l church
ana l y z ed in Wi l l i am W . Sweet , The Methodi s t E p i s copal Chur ch and the
See a l s o L edford , Methodi sm in
C iv i l War (C inc innat i , 1 9 1 2 ) , 9 6 - 1 1 0 .
Tennes s e e , 1 03- 1 1 8 ; Horace Eugene Orr , The Tenne s s ee Churches and
S l av ery (Ma s t er ' s thes i s , Univers i t y of Tenn e s s e e , Knoxvi l l e , 1 9 2 4 ) ,
1 24 - 5 2 .
166
or i n f luence .
They a l so formed , in their broader concern for the
we l fare o f the ent ire cove , the l ar g e s t s i ng l e thread in the a l l ­
importan t fab r i c o f commun i t y .
CHAPTER V
THE C IV I L WAR
The C iv i l War was a maj or wat ershed in the cov e ' s h i s tory , i f j udged
so l e l y from the eno rmous economi c devas tat i on apparen t in the pos twar
agr i cu l tur a l census return s .
Such s tat i s t i ca l compar i s on s o f the cove
before and after the conf l i ct , however , rev e a l a s tat i c and very
in comp l et e p i cture of the four y ears wh i ch sharp l y chan g ed the ch aracter
of the cove peop l e and their commun i t y .
The s e chang es can b e fu l l y
compreh end ed on l y by examin ing the dai l y l i fe o f the averag e cov e
r e s i den t dur ing the war .
For him , loyal ty to the Union mean t years o f
excruc i at ing hard ships : d ev as t a t i o n of h i s l and and propert y , frequen t
s t arv at ion , and cons tant fear that h e or h i s fam i ly m i ght b e murdered by
reb e l guerr i l l as .
Th i s chapt er focu s e s on the tr i a l s o f the ind iv i du a l
cov e farmer ; for h im th e w a r exp er i ence was a n in t en s e l y personal ordea l .
Anoth er important theme i s the t e s t i n g o f the fabr i c o f commun i ty .
Becau s e o f the d i v i s ive n ature o f the po l i t i ca l confl ict , a l l formal
i n s t itut ions were s ever e l y s train ed during the war .
I n the final
ana l ys i s , an o l d er s en s e of community reas s ert ed i t s e l f , and the cove
peop l e ac t ed co l l e ct iv e l y to d efend th ems e lv e s from the ons l au ght of
guerr i l l a raids as they had ear l i er he l ped one an other c l e ar the
w i l d ern es s .
Becau s e the n ew c on s en s u s wh i ch emerged from wart ime
experien ces ref l e c ted at t i tudes and v a l ues q u i t e d i f ferent from tho s e o f
t h e pre - 1 860 commun i t y , t h e tran s fer o f respons ib i l i t i e s from trad i t ion a l
1 67
1 68
l eaders l ike Dan i e l D . Foute t o new l e ad er s such as Rus s e l l G r e gory
as sumed spe c i a l s i gn i f i c an c e .
C ad e s Cove ' s dec i s ion t o remain l oy a l to the Un i on c an on l y b e
compr ehend ed w i thin t h e broader cont ext o f confl i c t in g reg ion a l p a t t erns .
G eo gr aphy a l one does not exp l a in the commun i ty ' s U n i on i s m , a l though i t
i s t ru e that the moun t a inous environs o f the cove were n o t s u i t ed to the
growth o f co t ton or any o ther s t ap l e crop a s s o c i at ed with the s l ave
e conomy of the l ower Sou th .
Yet o ther mount a inous areas in the South
not bound to th e cot t on c u l ture suppo r t ed the Confederacy .
Wes t ern
N o rth C aro l in a , an area con t i guous to Cades Cov e and s imi l ar in t err ain ,
v igorou s l y suppor t ed the r eb e l cau s e w i th contr ibut ions o f bo th men and
m a t e ri a l .
" In the greater port i on o f that s e c t i on o f the s t a t e ext ending
from t h e e a s t ern foo t - h i l l s o f the B l ue R i d g e to the w e s t er n bound ar i es
o f C l ay and Cheroke e , " John P re st o n Arthur m a i n t a ins , " th e s l av e - owners
in 1 86 1 were s o rare that the ins t i tut i on o f s l av ery may b e s aid ,
prac t i ca l l y , to have no exi s t enc e ; and y e t th a t r e g i on s en t more t h an
fi ft een thous and f i gh t ing men -vo l un t eer s - i n t o the f i e l d . "
l
P o l i t ic a l l y and ideo l o g i c a l l y , however , th ere were qui t e d i f feren t
cro s s current s in E a s t Tenn e s s e e , p ar t i c u l a r l y in Bl oun t Coun t y .
Th ere
cove farme r s h ad been cons t an t l y exp o s ed to the exhor t a t i on s of numerous
abo l i t i on i s t s , who in the d e c ad e s before 1 8 60 had mad e Maryv i l l e , count y
s eat of B l oun t , " a ver i t ab l e for tre s s i n t h e crus ade agains t s l av ery . "
A l o c a l branch o f the Manum i s s ion Soc i e t y o f Tenn e s s e e was a c t ive in
1
Ar thur , Wes t ern North C aro l in a , 6 3 6 .
1 69
B l ount County as ear l y as 1 8 1 5 .
2
Before 1 8 2 0 , New Prov i d ence Chur ch in
Maryvi l l e had freed , educated , and ordained to the m in i s try two b l acks ,
one o f whom , th e Reverend G eorge M . E r s k in e , was l at e r s en t as a
Presbyter ian mi s s i onary t o Liber i a .
The l arge Quaker e l ement in the
coun t y a l so ferven t l y oppos ed s l av ery , and desp i t e th e i r con s c i en t i ous
oppos i t ion to war , many B l ount F r i ends l at e r demons trated th e i r deep
conv i c t ions again s t the ins t it u t ion by f i ght ing w i th the Union army .
Th e
Quak ers were very a ct i v e in promo t ing abo l i t i oni s t l i t erature throughout
the are a and in s end ing frequent ant i s l av ery memor i a l s to the s t at e
l eg i s l ature .
Dur ing the 1 8 30 ' s , Eas t T enne s s ee abo l i t i on i s t s open l y ag i t a t ed t o
e s t ab l i sh a s eparat e s tate o u t o f t h e i r s e c t ion i n order to abo l i sh
s l av ery ther e .
One s uch not ed abo l i t ion i s t , E ze k i e l B i rd s eye , repor ted
v i s i t ing in 1 84 1 in Maryv i l l e w i t h fel l o w abo l i t i on i s ts Rob e r t Bag l e and
"Rev . Mr . Cra i g , a profes s o r in the Maryv i l l e C o l l eg e . "
They informed
B i r d s eye th at " a m e e t in g appo in t ed at one o f the church es to d i s c u s s the
s ub j e c t of abo l i t ion" was "we l l a t t ended , " and th at no "d i so rd er or
d is turbance took p l ac e . "
He found s t rong suppor t among o ther B l o unt
2
As a Ear l Mar t i n , "Th e An t i - S l avery Soc i e t i e s o f Tenne s s ee , "
T enne s s ee H i s tor i c a l Maga zine , I ( D e c emb er , 1 9 1 5 ) , 2 6 4 .
3
Hamer , Tenne s s e e , I , 4 69 ; Burns , B l ount County , 39 , 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 6 1 .
Jam es .Jones , a B l ount Quaker , was pre s i dent of the Manum i s s i on Soc i e ty
o f T enne s s ee fo r many year s and expre s s ed h i s v i ews fre quent l y in
Benj am i n Lundy ' s Genius o f Univer s a l Emanc ipat ion . Mar t i n , "Ant i - S l avery
So c i e t i e s , " 2 7 1 - 7 3 .
1 70
c ount i a n s for future meetings and c o n c l uded that pro s p e c t s there for th e
abo l i t i on i s t caus e " are very encourag ing . "
4
Maryvi l l e Co l l eg e , founded i n 1 8 1 9 as th e South ern and We s tern
Theo l o g i ca l Seminary by the Reverend I s aac Ander son , had l on g been a
s t rongho l d o f abo l i t i on ism .
Ander s o n nouri shed among h i s s tudent s the
i d e a l s of freedom , equ a l i t y , and educat i on for b o th b l a ck s and I n d i ans .
One s cho l ar ther e wro t e in 1 8 38 that 1 1w e take the l ib erty to upho l d and
d e fend our s en t imen t s , wh e ther i t is agre ab l e or n o t to the s l av eh o l der . "
He a l s o men t ion ed " fri ends in th e country around , among whom w e have the
privi l e g e of d i s tribut ing w i thout fear a con s i d erab l e numb er o f
pamph l et s . n
Of t h e t h i r t y s tuden t s in the s eminary prepar ing for t h e
m i n i s try , he con c l uded , twe l v e w e r e abo l i t i on i s t s .
5
Through h i s s t udents at Maryvi l l e Co l l ege , Dr . And erson made a
gre at ideo l og i c a l impac t o n o th er areas o f Eas t Tenn e s s e e .
Some wri t ers
cred i t th e s ec t i on ' s d e c i s i on to remain i n the Union to his t each i n g ;;
and mor a l l eadersh ip .
6
At any rat e , h e pre ached the abo l i t i o n i s t doctr ine
4
w . F reeman G a l p i n , ed . , " L e t t ers of an E as t Tenn e s s e e Abo l i t i o n i s t , "
ETHS P ub l i ca t i on s , No . 3 ( 1 9 31 ) , 1 4 6 .
5
Emancipator , March 1 6 , 1 8 38 , p . 1 78 . Ano ther �1aryvi l l e
abo l i t i on i s t , R . G . Wi l l i ams , s ta t e d in a l e t t er to the Emanc ipator ,
February 2 4 , 1 8 3 8 , th at ' ; no tw i th s tanding the s t r i c t l aws o f T enne s s ee , we
meet through the coun try and d i s cu s s th e mer i t s of abo l i t i on and c o l on i ­
z a t ion ; the fo rmer i s ab l y defended by Rev . T . S . Kend a l l , pas tor o f the
S e c eder Ch urch in t h i s coun ty , and s evera l o thers . " I n 1 8 3 3 , Wi l l iam
Good e l l b egan to pub l i sh in New York the Emanc ipato r , wh i ch t h e fo l l ow i n g
y e ar b e c ame th e Amer i c an An t i - S l avery S o c i ety ' s o f fi c i a l pub l i c a t i o n .
G er a l d Sor i n , Th e New York Abo l i t i on i s t s : A C a s e S t udy o f P o l i t i c a l
Rad i c a l i sm (Wes tpor t , Conne c t i cut , 1 9 7 1 ) , 5 9 .
6
"or . I s aac Anderson had mo re to do w i t h f i xing the s tand taken than
had any o ther p erson . He was t e aching the young men who wen t out in to
the coun try a s l eaders , and through h i s t e ach ing s , the do c tr i n e s of
171
a t camp meetings throughout th e regi on , inc l uding numer o u s s ermons in
C ades Cove , wh ere h e had min ing and miner a l interes t s .
H e was a l s o a
c l o s e fri end o f Dr . C a l vin Po s t , th e N ew York phy s i c i an who had moved to
the Cove in 1 84 6 .
Both men shared a commi tment t o abo l i t i on i sm and were
ind i re c t l y r e l at ed , s ince Ander s on ' s on l y son h ad marri ed the s i s t e r of
D r . P OS t I S
W l• f e
.
7
I f th e cove peop l e were n o t ful ly expo s e d t o abo l i t ion propaganda
in Maryvi l l e , where t h ey a t t ended cour t , paid their taxe s , and so l d
t h e i r crops , th ey certain l y w ere fami l i ar w i th D r . P o s t ' s conv i c t i ons .
S erv ing as th e cov e ' s on l y phys i c i an , th i s ou t s poken man found th e time
t o wr i te numerous ant i s l avery tracts to government offi c i a l s and to many
Nor t hern newspaper s .
Al though no documentary pr oof exi s t s to s ub s tant i at e
t h e c l a i m , t radi t i on h o l d s that Dr . P o s t made Cades Cove a s tat ion o f
t h e " und erground rai l road" aidi ng runaway s l aves e s c ap ing t o t h e North .
8
l oya l ty to t h e Union and the o l d fl ag , and oppo s 1 t 1on to s l avery w ere
ab s o rbed into th e i r natures , and , th rough the i r infl uenc e , were r eprodu c ed
in o thers unt i l they permeat ed al l th e c i ti zensh i p of Eas t Tenne s s ee . "
Wi l l A . �lcTeer , H i s t_?ry of New Provi dence Pres byterian Church , �1aryv� l l e ,
Tennes s e e , 1 7 86 - 1 9 2 1 (Maryv i l l e , 1 9 2 1 ) , 4 3 - 4 4 .
7
Rob ins o n , Memo i r , 1 24 , 1 74 - 75 ; unpub l i sh ed Fami l y H i s t ory comp i l ed
and wri t t en by J e s s ie Eugen i a Turner , a grandd augh ter of Dr . P o s t ,
C h a t t anooga , Tennes s e e .
8
Dr . P o s t ' s many rep or t s , c orrespondenc e , and n o t ebooks in p o s s e s s i on
o f �!i s s Jonnie Po s t , Maryvi l l e , Tennes s e e , hereafter c i t ed Po s t Papers .
Among h i s correspond ence are s ev e r a l abo l i t ioni s t trac t s wh i ch were
a l l eged l y s ent to the New York Even ing Po s t . E xamin a t i on of t h e Evenin g
Po s t b e tween 1 8 5 0 and 1 8 6 0 was inconc l u s ive , s i nce the au thorsh i p o f s u ch
con tr ib u t ions i s frequen t l y not g iv en . Under t h e ed i tors h i p of Wi 1 1 i am
Cul l en Bryant and Wi l l iam Legg e t t , the Po s t took an uncompromis ing s t and
again s t s l avery and o ffered a sympathet i c for um to abo l i t ion i s t wr i t ers
throughou t t h i s per iod . A l l an Nev ins , The Evening Pos t : A C entu ry of
Jou rnal i s m (New Yor k , 1 9 2 2 ) , 1 4 5 - 4 8 .
172
The cove ' s geograph i c pos i t ion and the fac t that an underground rai l ro ad
l ater operated in the community during the C iv i l War to a i d Union
s o l d iers es caping S o u th ern pri s on camps l ends l o g i c , i f not corroborat ion ,
t o the s e as s ert i ons .
From th e tone o f h i s correspondence , moreover , i t
s eems un l ik e l y that Dr . P o s t wou l d have s hrunk from the tas k , or that he
wou l d h ave h e s i t at ed to en l i s t h i s nei ghbors ' aid in h e l p ing fug i t i v e
s l ave s .
Some ind i ca t i on of th e effe c t o f t h i s abo l i t i on i s t a c t ivi ty on
Cad e s Cove l i es in the fact that there is no record of any s l aves ever
l iv i ng in th e commun i ty .
Men l ik e Robert Burch fi e l d who mov ed to the
cov e from o th er areas of the South s o l d th e i r s l aves b e fore arriva l .
D an i e l
U.
F o u t e owned numerous s l aves in o th e r p ar t s of the county , but
never brough t any to "Parad i s e Los t , " h i s home in the cov e .
9
The
ab s en c e of s l av e s from the cove was in mark ed contra s t to s urrounding
are as , such as Tucka l e echee Cov e , wh ich conta ined numerous s l aveowners .
Other ind i c at i o n s of the communi ty ' s at t i tude toward s l avery i s found in
th e 1 8 5 0 census , wh i ch l i s t s a fam i l y of fr ee b l ac k s l i ving there :
and E l l en C l ark , and their four ch i ldren .
9
Cooper
No fam i l y cou l d hav e survived
B l ount D e eds , 1 8 30 - 1 8 6 0 , pas s im , show frequent traf f i c i n the
s l ave trade b y F ou t e , none of whi ch o c c urred in Cades Cove . Rob ert
Burch f i e l d s o l d his s l aves wh en h e l e ft Yan c e y County , North Caro l ina ,
to move to th e cove in 1 8 34 . J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I I , 4 - 6 , c i t ing
Burchfi e l d 1 s b i l l o f s a l e fo r h i s hous eh o l d effec t s . Th ere i s no re cord
of s l aves in the cove in th e 1 8 30 to 1 86 0 census . F inal l y , an ext ens ive
examinat ion of th e cove deeds and l and tran s a c t i ons b e twe en 1 8 20 to
1 860 gives no ev iden ce of s l aves ' b e ing b o ugh t or s o l d , in con tras t to
B l oun t
frequen t men t ion o f such traff i c i n o ther areas of B l ount Coun ty .
D e ed s , 1 8 2 0 - 1 8 60 , pas s im .
173
in such a c l o s e - kn i t , homogenous s o c i ety w i thout the t ac i t con s en t o f
.
10
t h e ent 1 r e commun 1. t y .
W i th in the context o f d ecades o f ab o l i t i oni s t agi t a t i on , i t i s not
surpri s in g th at cove res idents j o ined for c e s w i th o thers in the county
who fer v en t l y oppo s e d s ec e s s i on on th e eve of th e Civ i l War .
Out o f
B l ount County ' s t o t a l popu l at i on o f 1 3 , 2 7 0 1 n 1 86 0 , on l y 1 , 363 were
s l aves , wh i l e 1 9 6 w ere free Negro e s .
11
C l ear l y , n e i t h er the e conomy nor
th e s o c i a l s t ru c ture of th e county was c l o s e l y bound to th e co t ton
cu l t ure ; 1n that y ear , Bl ount produced o n l y five b a l e s o f c o t ton in
contras t to 1 06 , 34 1 bushe l s of wheat .
12
Accordin g l y , i n the pres iden t i a l
e l e ct ion o f 1 860 , t:he county d emons t ra ted i t s s ympathy for t h e Uni on b y
c as t ing a par t i cu l a r l y heavy vo t e for J ohn B e l l , the c andi date o f the
Con s t i tut ion a l Union Party .
I n Maryvi l l e , Be l l ' s campai gn pro ces s ion ,
s ome two m i l es in l ength and "headed by a wagon b earing a l ar g e b e l l , "
was m e t wi th " s uch r inging and shout i ng" as "had no t b een heard s ince
1 84 0 . "
13
By an overwh e lm ing vo t e o f 1 , 5 5 2 to 4 5 0 , B l oun t County vo ted agains t
w i thdraw a l from th e Un ion in Tennes s ee ' s s e c e s s i on- conven t ion referendum
10
Cooper , 5 0 years o l d , l i s t ed North Caro l i na a s h i s p l ac e o f b ir th ;
h i s wife , E l l en ( 2 5 ) , l i s t ed T ennes s ee . Th e ch i l dren , E l i zab e th ( 8 } ,
Do rchus ( 6 ) , Mar tha ( 2 ) , and Danu e l ( 8 month s } , w ere al l born in
Tenne s s ee .
1 85 0 Census , Popu l a t i o n , B l ount County .
11
12
13
1 8 60 Census , Popu l at i on , 4 59 - 61 .
1 8 60 Census , Agr i c u l tur e , 1 3 3 .
Marguer i t e Bar t l e t t Hamer , "The Pres ident i a l Campaign o f 1 86 0 in
Tennes s e e , " ETHS Pub l i c a t i ons , No . 3 ( 1 9 3 1 } , 2 0 - 2 1 ; Nashv i l l e Repub l i c an
Banne r , Augu s t 1 8 , 1 86U .
1 74
of Fe bruary 9 , 1 8 6 1 .
At t h i s t ime , th e maj or i ty of Tenn e s s e e ans r ej e c t ed
s ec e s s i on 69 , 6 7 5 t o 5 7 , 79 8 .
By s ummer , however , the t i de had turn e d i n
favor o f s ec e s s i on i n Middl e and Wes t Tennes s e e .
Y e t on J un e 8 , B lo un t
coun t i an s ag ain r e j e c ted s e c e s s i on b y a n even g r e a t e r marg i n of 1 , 766 to
414 .
14
When Eas t Tenne s s e e coun t i e s as s emb l e d on June 1 7 i n Gr eenv i l l e ,
B l ount County s en t such o ut s poken Union i s t s as John F . Hen ry and the
Reverend W . T . Dowe l l to denoun ce the recent r e fer endum as "uncons t i tut io n a l and i l l e ga l , and therefo r e no t b i nd i ng up o n us as l oya l c i ti z ens . "
As B l o un t de l e g at e s j o ined o th e r d i s s ident eas t er n coun t i es i n pet i t ioning
th e General As s emb l y for perm i s s i o n to " form and e r e c t a s epar a t e s ta t e , "
a home guard was o r gani z ed and m e e t ings were he l d throughout the county
.
.
t o d emons trat e t h e tremend ous popu 1 a r oppo s 1 t 1 on t o
d.
.
1 s un 1 o n .
15
Awar e o f the area ' s s t ra t e g i c and econo m i c impor tan ce , the
Confed erate auth o r i t i es d e n i e d Eas t Tennes s e e ' s r i gh t to s e cede from the
rest o f the s t at e , and qui ck l y moved in forces of from f i ve to t en
thous and so l d i e r s to keep the s ec t ion under contr o l .
Unpers uaded by a
14
J ames W . F e r t ig , Th e S e c es s ion and Reconstruc t i on o f Tenn e s s e e
( Ch i c ago , 1 8 9 8 ) , 20 ; J . S . Hur l burt , H i s t ory of t h e Reb e l l i on i n Brad l ey
County , Eas t Tennes s ee ( I nd ianapo l i s , 1 86 6 ) , 3 3 ; Memph i s Da i l y Appe a l ,
J une 2 0 , 1 86 1 ; Burns , B l ount County , 59 ; O l iver P . Temp l e , Eas t Tennes s e e
and t h e Civi l War ( C i n c i nna t i , 1 8 9 9 ) , 1 99 . For the b e s t ana lys i s of the
s ec t iona l divis ion over s ec e s s ion , s ee Mary Emi l y Rob e r t son , The A t t i t ude
o f Tenn es seeans Toward the Un ion , 1 9 4 7 - 1 8 6 1 ( N mv York , 1 9 6 1 ) , 1 1 - 6 3 .
15
James W . Patton , Uni on i s m and Reco n s t ruc t i o n in Tenne s s e e , 1 8 6 0 1 8 69 ( Chape l H i l l , 1 9 34 ) , 1 1 ; S t an l ey F . Hor n , ed . , Tennes s e e ' s War ,
Both S e c e s s io n i s t s and Union i s t s
1 86 1 - 1 86 5 (Nashv i l l e , 1 9 65 ) , 1 8 .
conduc t ed v i gorous ral l i es i n B l ount Coun t y ; Horace Maynar d spo k e for
two and a hal f hours at E l l ej oy in May , 1 8 6 1 , to a crowd of s i x or s even
Burns , B l ount County , S 9 . ' ;The right s p i r i t prevai l e d there , 1 1
hundred .
repo r t e d the Kno xvi l l e Wh ig , May 2 5 , 1 8 6 1 , " and cur s e s l o ud and b i t t er
were heaped upon th e uncons t i tutional and corrupt a c t s o f the
l e g i s l ature . " Temp l e , Eas t Tennes s e e , 1 8 6 , 1 9 1 .
175
mas s ive rebel propaganda campa i gn wh i ch fo l l ow ed , Uni on i s t s adopt ed a
pro gram of ob s t ru c t ing the Confed erate war e f fo r t and appea l ed d i re c t l y
to Pres ident L inco l n fo r mi l i t ary a i d .
" E a s t Tenne s s e e was now ab l a ze
w i th e xc i tement on ac coun t o f the upr i s ing and open rebe l l ion of the
Union m en , " who , according to one contemporary o b s erver , nwere fl ying to
arms in s quads of from fi fty to f i v e hundred . "
16
I nfur i ated b y an
abort i ve effort to burn key b r i dg e s in th e r e g i on , Confederates fina l l y
dropped thei r conc i l i atory appro ach and i ns t i tuted a s er i e s o f harsh
repres s ive measures to contro l th e l o c a l popu l at i on and to preven t
l o ya l i s t s from es cap ing to j o in the Uni on army .
17
Despi te Pres ident Linco ln ' s person a l sympathy for the r e gion , not
unt i l S ep temb e r , 1 86 3 , when Genera l Ambro s e E . Burns i de o c cup i ed
Knoxvi l l e , were federa l for c es again in contro l o f Eas t Tenne s s e e .
In
t h e meant ime , b o t h s ides u s e d t h e mountainous reg ion for b i t t e r guerr i l l a
warfar e ; "as a g eneral th ing , " comp l ained Confederate Secretary o f War
Judah P . Benj amin in 1 8 6 1 , " thes e bands of t r a i tors wou l d d i sband and
fl ee to the mountains on th e approach of an armed fo rce of Confederates ,
16
Burns , B l ount County , 5 9 - 60 ; Temp l e , Eas t Tenne s s e e , 3 8 8 - 4 1 1 ;
B ea t r i c e L . Garre t t , Confede rat e Gov ernment and the Un i on i s t s of Eas t
Tenn e s s e e (Mas t er ' s th es i s , Univers i ty o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxvi l l e , 1 9 3 2 ) ,
5 2 - 6 4 ; Horn , T ennes s e e ' s War , 3 3 . Thomas A . R . N e l so n , a prominen t
Union speak e r , was me t in " s t rong l y Un ion i s t B l o unt County" two mi l e s
ou t o f �laryv i l l e "by an e s c o r t o f p erhaps three hundred hors emen . "
Th omas B . Al exand e r , Thomas A . R . N e l son of cas t Tennes s ee (Nash vi l l e ,
1 9 56 ) , 78 .
17
F r ank P . Smi th , Mi l i t ary H i s tory of Eas t Tennes s e e , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 65
(Mas t er ' s th e s i s , Univers i ty o f T ennes s ee , Kno xv i l l e , 1 9 3 6 ) , 8 - 4 1 ;
Garr e t t , Confeder a t e Government , 34 - 8 1 .
1 76
there fo r e i t was a d i f f i cu l t mat t er to do anyth ing \v i th them . "
18
La ter ,
r eb e l guerr i l l a s u s ed the se s ame mountain s t rongho l ds to a t tack federal
forces .
Even wh en Sherman came as far as Maryv i l l e to re l i eve Burns i d e
on D e c ember 4 ,
1 8 6 3 , t h e surrounding areas s uch as C a d e s C o v e were s t i l l
d isputed ground .
Thus , regard l e s s o f whi ch s i de was i n contro l , the
pro tr a c t e d guer ri l l a w ar fare con t i nued unabated throughout the war ,
bringing havoc and d e s o l a t i on to the c i v i l i an popu l at ion in th i s b l o o dy
no man ' s l and .
19
Confederate author i t i es j us t i fied the atro c i t i es un l e ashed on the
c ivi l i an popu l a t i o n o f E as t Tenne s s e e "on the ground that thes e Union
peop l e were trai tors , and con tended that the sufferings wh i ch they were
infl i c t ing upon them were not crue l t i es , b ut r i gh t eous and we l l des erved
puni s hments fo r thei r crimes as t or i es , t ra i t or s , and r eb e l s agains t
th e i r own lmv fu l government . "
F o l l ow i ng th i s reasonin g , the r eb e l s ,
a c c o r d i ng to one con t empo rary obs erv e r , argued that
Union c i t i z ens had fo rfe i t ed a l l c l ai m to th e i r homes , that
th e i r pos s es s ions were no l onger th e ir s , and there fore , that
Confede r a t e s were j us t i fi ed in robb ing Un ion fami l i es ,
p l under ing the ir fa rms , hun t i ng th em through t h e country l i k e
so many w i l d b e a s t s , a nd shoot ing them upon t h e run l i ke so
many robbers and out l aws . 2 0
18
J es s e Bur t , "Eas t Tenne s s e e , L inco l n , and Sh erman , " ETHS
P ub l i ca t i ons , No . 34 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 3 - 2 5 ; Haro l d S . F i nk , "The Eas t Tenne s s e e
C a mpa i gn and the Bat t l e o f Kno xvi l l e in 1 86 3 , " ETHS Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 29
( 1 9 5 7 ) , 7 9 - l l 7 ; James B . Campb e l l , " Eas t Tenne s s e e Uuring th e F ed e r a l
Occup a t i on , 1 8 6 3- 1 8 65 , " ETHS Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 1 9 ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 64 - 8 0 ; Horn ,
Tennes s ee ' s War , 34 .
19
Burns , B l ount County , 6 2 ; Thomas W . Hum e s , Th e Loya l Moun t ai neers
of Tennes s ee ( Kno xv i l l e , 1 8 8 8 ) , 1 38 - 249 .
20
Hur lbur t , Re b e l l io n i n Brad l ey County , 2 9 .
177
Al though Cade s Cove s uffered more devas t a t i on from s uch guerr i l l a
warfare than any o th er s e c t i on o f B l ount Coun ty , the maj or i ty of i t s
c i ti z e n s remai ne d l oy a l t o th e U n i o n throughout the war .
21
Abo l i t i oni s m ,
geo graphy , and re g i on a l po l i t i ca l pat t erns o f fer some e xp l anat i o n o f
the commun i t y ' s l oyal i sm .
The cons ervat iv e theo l ogy o f the Prim i t i ve
Bap t i s t Church , wh i ch oppo s ed chang e s i n the r e l i g io us s t atus quo ,
trans ferred i n t o a t t i tudes o f hos t i l i t y toward any i nnovat i on i n the
e x i s t i n g po l i t i ca l order .
John O l i v er , the fir s t permanent wh i te
s e t t l er , had fough t under J ac k s on at Hors esho e B end , and n o t h i n g had
o ccurred in the succeeding years to d i m h i s memory o f Jack s o n i an
e ga l i t ar i an i s m o r to l es s en h i s comm i tme n t to the o l d Repub l i c .
As a
respec t ed patri arch by 1 8 6 0 , h e was not unh e e d e d by the commun i t y i n h i s
. n to d 1' s un 1. on . 2 2
ou t s po ke n oppos 1. t 1o
Y e t some o f th e younger men i n th e cove cho s e to j o i n the reb e l s .
I n th e maj or i t y o f th e s e d e fe c t i o n s , r e l at i ves l iving i n North Caro l in a
o r o ther par t s o f the South prob ab l y p l ayed a maj o r ro l e .
Both the
Ol i vers and Gregorys , for i n s tanc e , had numerous re l at i v e s l iv i ng i n
Yanc e y Count y , North Caro l i na , wh om th e younger cove men frequent ly
v i s i te d .
Such r e l a t i v e s i n o ther parts o f the South s taunch ly s uppor t ed
s ec e s s i on an d the Southern caus e , but d i d not b re ak o ff correspondence
21
22
Burns , B l ount Coun ty, 6 5 .
see Chapter IV for an ana l ys i s o f the over l app i n g o f re l i g io us
a nd po l i t i ca l a t t i t ud e s dur i n g th e C iv i l War . O l i ver had a l so b en e fi t e d
materi al l y from h i s s ervi ce i n t h e War o f 1 8 1 2 ; he r e c e i v e d 8 0 a c r e s o f
bounty l and o n Warran t No . 31 5 7 7 , March 1 0 , 1 8 5 1 , and a n addi t i onal 8 0
acres o n Warrant No . 4 6 35 2 , Decemb er 5 , 1 85 7 . Photo s t a t i c cop i e s o f
the s e grants from the Gen eral Land Offi c e , Depar tment o f the I nt er i or ,
i n author ' s po s s es s i on .
1 78
w ith the cov e l o ya l is t s .
An exce l l ent examp l e o f th i s cont inui ty o f
fami ly t i e s dur i ng t h e war i s found in an e xtant l e t t er from Mary B i r d ,
C a t o o s a C o unty , Geo rg i a , to h e r cous in J ak e i n the cov e .
After mak ing
i nqu1ry abo ut al l their pro - Union k i n there , s h e conc l uded that " th e
Yank ee s may outnumb e r u s and they may k i l l a l l o u r s o l di er s bu t never
w i l l g e t th e South ern s tates . "
23
Obv i o us l y some o f thi s e xub eran t r eb e l
sp i r i t i nfec t ed v i s i t i ng re l a t ives from t h e cove , and part i a l l y exp l a ins
why a minori ty o f the younger men from Union fami l i es j o i ned the
Confederates .
Th e f i rs t b l ow t o th e communi ty o c curred ear l y in the war , when
many of the younger men l e ft to vo l unteer in the Union army .
Bro thers
tended to j o in t o gether , and l oya l t i es fo l l owed fam i l y p a t t erns of
a l l eg i ance as a g eneral ru l e .
Th ere were agon i z ing except i ons ; s ome
s on s of s taunch l y Union fami l i es , s uch as Char l es Gregory and Wi l l i am
O l i ver , j o ined the Confederate army .
Th e two s quires , Dan i e l D . Foute
and Curran Lemon s , were Con fe derate s ympath i z ers , and both th e i r s ons ,
Bos e F o ut e and Lee Lemons , j o i ned the So uthern army .
Wi th the excep t i on
of Dr . P o s t , men s uch as the s q u i res who had comparat ive weal th and some
e xposur e to the out s i d e wor l d b e came Confeder a t e s ; the mas s o f cove
farme rs o f the mid d l e or yeoman c l as s remained l oyal to the Union .
Th e
O l iver r e co rds l i s t twenty - one Un i on s o l d i ers from the co ve , and twe lve
23
Mary B i rd , Catoos a County , Geor gi a , to J acob Bi rd , Cades Cove ,
August 2 3 , 1 86 3 , in autho r ' s po s s e s s i on . The r e l a t i onsh i p o f th e
Tenne s s e e and Geo r g i a Birds i s g 1 ven i n E dwards and F ri z z e l l , Th e
"Conne c t j on , " 1 4 2- 4 8 .
1 79
j o i n ed t h e Confede ra t e s .
24
Th e maj or i ty o f cove men , however , w er e
unab l e t o j o in Union forces and e i ther h id o u t i n the mounta ins o r j o ined
t o g e th e r in smal l b ands to f i gh t the r eb e l s .
At any rat e , by 1 8 6 2 th e
commtm i ty was dep l e ted of m o s t o f i t s ab l e - b o d i ed men .
The a b s ence o f th e s e men caus ed the co l l ap s e of t h e mi l i t i a- the
t rad i t ional de fen s e force on wh i ch cove peop l e h ad r e l i e d for pro te c t ion
s inc e the ear l i e s t days of s e t t l emen t .
Organ i z a t ion o f t h e county into
mi l i t i a compani es fo r the purp o s e o f taxa t i on , e l e c t i ons , and l ocal
d e fen s e pred at ed th e e s t ab l i shment of c i v i l d i s t r i c t s in 1 8 36 .
Every
ab l e - bod i ed man b e tween th e ages o f 21 and 5 0 b e l onged to the mi l i t i a ,
wh ich
a s ear l y as the 1 8 2 0 ' s
south s i de of th e cove .
was mee t ing for mus t er and dri l l on the
Las t u s e d to round up t h e rema i n in g Cherok e e s
i n 1 8 3 7 - 1 8 38 , t h e m i l i t ia mus t er h a d evo lved into a s em i - h o l iday i n the
cov e by 1 860 , w i th various shoo t i ng matches and o t h e r con t es t s .
25
But
i t rema ined the o n l y real form of co l l e c t ive de fens e for the commun i ty
aga i n s t outs ide a t t ack .
Th at d e fe n s e had evaporat ed during the f i r s t
y e ar o f the war , prec i s e l y at t h e t ime i t was mo s t n e ed e d .
24
Of th e twen t y- one Union vo l unt eers , f i v e s i c k en ed and d i ed in
th e army ; on e , George W. Shi e l ds , was wound ed by a cannon ba l l . Th e
tw e l v e Confedera t e vo l unt eers s urv ived t h e confl i c t a l though one o f
them , Theadore P earson , was k i l l ed by ambush after the c l os e o f t h e war .
J . W . O l i v er , Cad e s Cov e , I I , 2 6- 2 7 . Th e c l as s di v i s i on i n the cove
fo l l ows c l os e l y p a t t e rns o f a l l e g i anc e in th e larger area of Eas t
Tennes s e e , wher e Confedera t e s were usua l l y " o f t h e weal thy and ari :: t o ­
cra t i c c l as s es l i ving i n o r near t h e towns , " lvh i l e th e Union i s t s "came
from the yeomanry of the rura l and moun ta inous r e g i ons . " Campb el l ,
" Ea s t Tenne s s e e , " 65 .
25
Burns , B l ount County , 3 3 ; J . W. Ol i v e r , Cades Cov e , I I , 2 8 . A
typ i c a l noti ce , dated Ju ly 20 , 1 8 4 1 , d i r e c t ed Maj or J . C . �furphy to
p ro ce ed to open and h o l d an e l e ct ion at th e usual mus t er grounds in
Cades Cove for the p u rpo s e o f e l e ct ing one cap t ain , one firs t l i eut enant ,
180
Local j us t i ce was admi n i s t e red b y two s q u i res a f t e r 1 8 36 wh en Cades
Cove b ecame the s i xt eenth c iv i l d i s tr i c t of B l o unt County .
Mo s t d i spu t es
i nvo lv ing quarr e l s , property d i vi s i o n , p e t t y v i o l at ions and fines were
handl ed w i th i n the communi ty by their j us t i ces of the p e ac e ; on l y rar e l y
w a s i t nec e s s ary to take a mor e s er ious o ffens e to t h e c i rc u i t cour t in
Maryv i l l e .
The s e l ocal mag i s t r a t e s were a l mo s t a l ways men o f s ome
edu c a t i on and weal th , who s e unques t i oned i n t e gr i ty l ended gravi ty to
the i r j ud gment s .
The pers onal r e s p e c t and e s t eem i n wh i ch they were
h e l d by the co ve p eo p l e formed a s ecure cons ens u s , o r framewo rk , of l aw
and o rd e r w i th i n th e communi t y .
Th i s s ens e o f s e cur i ty was sha t t er ed i n
1 86 1 , h owever , when Dan i e l D . F o u t e and Curran Lemons , b o th o f whom had
s erv ed co ntinuous l y as j us t i ce s s ince the 1 84 0 ' s , gav e th e i r a l l eg i ance
t o the Confeder acy .
26
That th e i r mag i s t r a t e s wou l d j o in the Reb e l s and a c t i ve l y as s i s t
enemy guerr i l l as raid ing th e cov e horr i fied the ma j o r i ty o f the res i d ent s
who rem a i ned Union i s t s .
I t a l s o meant that for a l l prac t i c a l purpo s e s ,
th e i r trad i t ional fo rm o f l o cal j us t i ce had co l l aps ed , becaus e they
iden t i f i e d th e l aw wi th the p er s onal i n t egri ty of th e i r s qu i r e s , and
dur i ng the ear ly years of the war no new o ff i ci a l s cou ld b e e l ected .
Nor was any redre s s pos s ib l e from the county court at �1aryvi l l e , where ,
ev en a f t e r Con federate oc cupat ion ended , Reb e l forces cont i nued t h e i r
and one en s i gn for above company a t t endant b y me . "
author ' s pos s e s s ion .
26
65 .
J.
W.
Or i g i na l do cument in
Ol i ver , Cades Cove , I I , 32 ; Burns , B l ount County , 4 1 - 4 2 ,
181
raids a s l at e a s the w inter o f 1 86 3 - 64 .
27
The o l d j us t i c e o f the peace
docke t s rev e a l graph i c evi den c e of th i s s us pens ion o f l oc a l j us t i c e in
Cad es Cove .
Cur ran Lemons made h i s l a s t entry on May 1 5 , 1 86 1 ; Foute ' s
l as t en t ry in h i s docket was on F ebruary 7 , 1 86 2 .
Not unt i l 1 865 w e re
entr i es resumed by new l y e l e c t e d j us t ic e s Dan i e l B . Laws on and Na than H .
Sparks , both o f whom were s trong Union is t s b ut far l es s l i terate than
the i r predece s s or s .
28
F o u t e was a l so s e rving th e communi t y as p o s tmas t er in 1 86 1 .
Cades
Cove had been e s t ab l ished as a U . S . po s t office as ear l y as J une 2 8 ,
1 8 3 3 , and extant l e t t ers o f the cove peop l e t es t i fy t o the i mportan c e
and frequence of the i r correspondence w i th fr i ends a n d r e l atives i n
o ther s e c t ions o f t h e country .
Th e \var d i s t urb ed rout ine ma i l s ervi ce ,
and F o u t e ' s Reb e l a l l eg i ance d i s couraged a t t emp t s to s end l e t t ers through
normal channe l s , s i nce inte r c ep te d corresp ondence mi ght fur n i s h i n forma .
t 1on
t o Con f e d e rate auth o r 1. t 1. es .
29
In an area o f comparat ive i s o l a t ion ,
d i scont i nuance of p o s t a l s ervi ces incre as ed the cov e p eop l e ' s s en s e of
27
J . W. O l iver , Cades Cov e , I I , 32 ; Burns , B lo unt Count y , 62 .
28
No o ther cont emporary manus c r i p t s g ive such a s en s e of hi atus , o r
po l i ti ca l d i s rupt i o n caus ed b y th e comp l e t e break down o f c iv i l order i n
th e cove a s the s e j us t ice o f t h e p eace docket s . Foute ' s d o c k e t d a t e s
from 1 8 5 6 to 1 9 2 2 ; Lemo n s ' d o c k e t dates from 1 8 5 1 to 1 9 2 9 . Many of the
ear l i er pages i n both do c k e t s have unfortunat e l y b e en t orn out .
Both
doc k e t s in author ' s poss ess i on .
29
Abso l om C . Renfro w a s t h e f i r s t p o s tmas t e r , s erving unt i l 1 8 36 ,
when he was rep l aced by Dan i e l H . Emmet . F o u t e s erved from 1 8 4 3 unt i l
the c l o s e o f the C i v i l War , not from 1 8 3 7 unt i l 1 84 7 as i s erroneous l y
s tat ed i n Skipp er and Gov e , " ' S t ray Though t s , " ' Part I , 1 3 1 . Al l en M .
Ros s , D i r ector , I ndus tri a l Records D ivi s i on , Na t i ona l Arch ives , t o
John W . O l iver , J u l y 1 4 , 1 9 4 8 ; J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I I , 2 9 .
182
a l i enation and e s trangement from the outs i d e wor l d , e sp e c i a l l y s in c e
n ews pap ers w e r e d i ff i cu l t to obt a i n i n the w a r years .
Dr . Cal v i n P o s t , the o n l y o ther prewar l eader , acted as the o ffi c i a l
corres pondent in the cove for federa l for ce s , cert i fy ing t h e loya l ty o f
var i ous i nd iv idua l s to Union autho r i t i e s and wri t ing pas s e s f o r l o ya l i st s
g o i n g through t h e federal l ines to Knoxvi l l e .
Be caus e o f h i s outspoken
l oy a l ty to the Uni on an d h i s prewar abo l i t i on i s t campai gning , however ,
h e was a part i cu l ar target o f the North Caro l ina guerr i l l as .
Ear l y in
the war thes e rai ders p l ac e d a pr i ce on h i s head , dead or a l iv e , and
fo rced h im to go i n to h id i ng in the moun t a ins .
Not unt i l 1 865 was he
30
.
.
ab l e ag ain
to a s sume an act ive
ro 1 e I n th e commun i ty .
.
.
As a phys i c i an
and s c i en t i s t , moreover , Dr . P o s t was unprepared to prov i d e th e needed
mi l i tary l eader s h ip i n formin g a l o cal d e fen s e prgan i zat i on .
I n the spring o f 1 86 2 , Confed erate au thor i t i e s " f i r s t a t t empt ed to
d i s arm the peop l e , " accor d ing to a contemporary Bl ount Coun t i an , " and
for th i s purpo s e s en t troops through the country , tak i n g up the hunt i n g
r i fl es wherever they could b e found . "
31
Such r i f l e s had l on g b een a
hous eh o l d nec e s s i ty t o cov e fami l i es , part i cu l ar l y when guerr i l l a r a i d s
dep l et e d oth er food s upp l i es a n d for ced them t o s ub s i s t o n game .
North
Car o l ina offi c ia l s at temp t e d to enfo rce th e Confederate cons c r i pt laws
in th e s ame year , fo r c i n g th e few rema i n ing men in the cov e to go into
30
31
p ost p apers , p ass i. m .
W i l l A . McTeer , "Among Loyal Mount aineers , " in M i s c e l l aneous
P amph l e ts on the C i v i l War , 1 , an undated vo l ume i n Spe c i a l Co l l ec t i ons ,
Univers i ty o f Tennes s ee L i b rary , Kno xv i l l e . A prominent B l ount County
l awy er, local h i s t or i a n , j ud g e , and s t a t e l eg i s l ator , Maj o r McTe er
s erved in the Union army .
Burns , B l o unt County , 2 1 3 .
183
An e l ab o ra t e s ch eme t o cons t ru c t a mi l i t ary road from Sev i er
h i d ing .
County , Tennes s e e , t o J ac k son County , North Caro l in a , w i th fo rced Union
l abor al s o fa i l ed b ecaus e the men in Cades Cove and s ur round ing areas
had s uc c e s s fu l l y evaded th e i r pers ecuto rs by h i ding o ut in the
32
.
mount ains
.
Th e great es t threat to th e cove came i n 1 86 3 when North Caro l ina
guerr i l l a s b e gan sys t emat i c at tacks aga i ns t the c ommun i ty .
Th e s e "bush -
whackers , " as they were common l y c a l l ed , were o f t en out l aws who us ed
the Confederate cau s e to j us t i fy the ir atroc i t i es aga ins t the c i vi l i an
popu l at i o n i n the cov e .
"Th ey w o u l d make r a i d s into Tenne s s ee for the
purpo se o f robb i n g the peop l e o f the i r hors e s ,
cat t l e , and good s , "
r ep o r t ed one cont emporary observer , "and wou ld never fai l to murder a l l
the Uni on men they coul d f i nd , and appropr i at e th e i r p r op erty to t h e i r
own u s e . "
33
O n s everal o c cas i on s Governor Zebu l on B . Vance denounced
the e xc e s s ive bruta l i ty o f the s e r a i ds from Nor th Caro l ina , but the
guerr i l l as were beyond the con t ro l o f Confederat e author i t i e s in the
rugged w i lderne s s of the Great Smoky Moun ta i n s .
Fami l iar from prewar
comme rce w i th both the terrain o f th e cove and the l i fes ty l e o f i t s
peop l e , the s e r aider s s truck w i thout warni n g from th e cover o f surrounding
34
moun t ai. ns .
32
Ar thur , Wes t ern North Caro l i na , 6 0 9 .
33
oan i e l E l l i s , Thr i l l i ng Adven tures o f Dan i e l E l l i s (New York ,
1867) , 40 7 .
34
Arthur , We s tern North Caro l i na , 6 00 - 60 4 ; Burn s , B l ount Coun t y , 65 .
1 84
Too d i s t ant from Maryv i l l e to r e c e i v e any a s s i s tance from o ther
U n i o n i s t s , Cades Cove by 1 8 6 3 re e l ed from a s uc ce s s i o n of thes e
devas t a t ing guerr i l l a a ttacks .
Murd e r b e came commonp l ac e .
I n the prewar
commun i ty , i nd i v i d ua l murde rs were remembered and r e count ed in great
d e t a i l , s uch as the murder of Mar t i n W i s eman by John Thurman in the
ear l y 1 8 30 ' s over an argument abo u t an e l e c t i on , or the ac c i denta l
sho o t ing of Tom F ra z i er by Wi l l i am Davi s , wh o m i s took h im for a deer .
Now , no one c o u l d keep count o f the cov e men who were amb ushed by the
bushwhack ers , o r who s imp l y did not return from the mount ains .
35
Th e
vaguene s s of many s uch rumors was corroborated b y the numerous examp l e s
o f s udden death s , ambush e s , and traps wh i ch the cove p eop l e had w i tnes s ed
thems e l v e s .
A pervas ive s en s e o f h e l p l e s s n e s s o n l y increas ed the t error
and para l ys i s w i th i n the cov e .
Typ i c a l o f the hards h i ps endured by the average c i t i z ens dur ing
t h i s p eriod are th e exper i en c es of E l i j ah O l i ver ' s fami l y .
Ear l y in the
war , E l i j ah had mov ed his w i fe and four sma l l ch i l dren up on the R i ch
Mount a i n to e s cape guerr i l l a at tacks .
No p l ac e was immune , however , as
E l i j ah ' s son , Wi l l i am Howe l l , l at er r e c a l l ed i n a poi gnant d e s cr i p t ion
o f h i s fam i l y ' s ordea l :
My fath e r d i d no t en l i s t in the C i v i l War . li e wou l d l ay out
and work in the f i e l ds of a day to mak e b read for h i s w i fe
and ch i l dren . He wa s a Union man i n p r i nc i p l e . .
Somet imes he woul d have to go down i n the s ett l ement and get
a yoke o f cat t l e to haul feed and fi rewood th i s was in t ime
o f war . On one o c cas i on he went out a f t e r the cat t l e and the
r eb e l s caugh t h im and kept h im two weeks . Th i s was one of
35
.
J . W . O l i v er , Cades Cov e , I , 2 5 - 2 6 ; I I , 2 7 .
185
t h e harde s t tr i a l s my mother ever vJent t hrough . They s h o t
But a fter th i s he
h im in t h e h a n d befo re he s u r rendered .
got away from them i n the n i gh t and f i na l l y got b ack home .
I can r ememb er the shou t s of my mother the n i gh t h e come in .
On another t ime we were gri nding o ur cane on a wooden
cane mi l l and b o i l ing the j ui ce in ke t t l e s in a furnac e .
In
t h i s way t h e p e op l e wou l d make th e i r mo l a s s e s wh en a l l o f a
s uden two armed rebel s c ame up , they s t ri p e d the hor s e and
t o o k h i m o f f w i th them , l eav i n g our cane p a t ch s t anding , and
us near l ey on s tarvat i on . We never got the hors e b ack . Wh en
we s e en them comeing , my fa ther ran o f f and h i d th ink i n g they
wou ld t a ke h i m , but when they s ta r t ed w i th the hor s e and
s carce l y go t out of s i gh t my fa ther came out and made for h i s
gun . Ny mo ther cau gh t around h im t e l l ing h im i t wou l d never
d o , that th e who l e army m i gh t come and k i l l us a l l , and s o
s h e co n s t r a i ne d h im t o l e t th em go , s ay i n g i t would be b e t t e r
to l o s e t h e h or s e , than i t wou l d b e to l o s e some or a l l o f
o u r l i ves .
At ano ther t ime we l os t every b i t e o f b acon that we h a d ,
and i t w a r t imes and none to s e l l , mak e i ng i t awful h ard on
the fami l y o f l i t t l e ch i l dr en . Al though I was s ma l l on l y
fr om f i v e t o e i gh t years o ld , I can rememb er hearing th e
cannons roar and when we would hear o f the reb e l s come ing we
wou l d carry o u t the b e d i n g and Pa ' s gun and h ide them in
I can remember
h o l l ow l o g s unt i l they wou l d p a s s and be gon e .
Na put i ng the bes t c l o th e s on us tha t we had she s a id that
th ey wo u l d no t s tr i p them o ff of us t o take them . 36
Food was the gre ates t prob lem .
Not s ince the w i n t er o f t h e i r i n i t i a l
s e t t l emen t i n 1 8 1 8 - 1 8 1 9 , wh en the Che ro kees kep t John and Lucre t i a a l i v e
w i th dr ied pump k in , h a d th e O l i v e r fami ly been th reat ened w i th such
famine .
Guns were contraband , l i ab l e to b e s e i z e d by the Reb e l s on any
o c c a s i o n , and ammuni t i on was in short supp ly throughout th e war .
E l i j ah
made frequent t r i p s to Knoxv i l l e to purcha s e med i c ine for h i s fami l y , as
numerous extant pas s e s and l o ya l ty oaths i n d i c a t e .
He had l i t t l e cash ,
however , s ince few marke t ab l e crops cou l d b e gro wn up on the R i ch
Moun t a i n , and th e p ro duce from s uch s ub s is t ence farming as he was ab l e
36
.
Quota t 1. on s f rom manus c r 1. p t s cont 1. nue to b c g1ven
w l. t h ou t c h ange
in th e o r i g i n a l spe l l ing o r o r thography .
W. H . O l iver , S k e t ch e s , 2 1 - 2 5 .
1 86
to do was a l mo s t a l ways s to l en by the Rebe l s .
S imp l e t raps were used
by the fam i l y t o s nare sma l l anima l s s uch as squirre l s and rabb it s , but
fre quen t l y the guerr i l l as s to l e s uch meager p or t i ons from th e i r t ab l e
b e fo re they cou l d eat .
Th i s cons tant s te a l i ng and r a i di n g mad e i t
a lmo s t impo s s ib l e t o ac cumu l a t e more than a few days ' food s upp l y , s o
t h e y sub s i s t ed d a i l y o n a h and - to -mouth bas i s , threatened con s t an t l y
37
.
W l. t h s t arvat 1on
.
1hrough ou t E a s t Tenne s s e e , the s i tuat i on was s imi l a r .
Traver s ed by
b o th armies wh i ch l ived main l y o f f the countrys i d e , the region was
s t ripped o f food by guerr i l l a out l aws and r e t r eat ing R eb e l s o l di ers after
Burns i d e ' s occup at ion o f Kno xv i l l e i n the fal l o f 1 86 3 .
Th e Pennsy l vani a
Re l i e f Re port , comment ing on the worsening cond i t ion o f th e peop l e in t h e
w inter o f 1 8 6 3 - 1 86 4 , no ted t h a t e ven t h e t h r i fty Quak er s et t l ement 1 n
B l ount Count y , former l y o n e o f t h e mos t pro sperous commun i t i es 1 n E a s t
Tenn es s ee , now was forced t o app l y to t h e army for quart e rmaster
r at i ons .
38
Brown l ow ' s Kno xv i l l e Wh i g and R eb e l Vent i l at o r repo r t e d in
March that Un i on p e op l e l iving outs i de the fede r a l l ines were de l i b erat e l y
p l undered of everyth i ng they had ; even such i t ems as b l ank e t s and shoes
were forc i b l y s tr i pped from th e i r owners .
Al though the Eas t Tennes s e e
Rel i e f As soc i a t i on was s ucce s s ful i n ob t a i n i n g food and c l o th ing from
the fede r a l governmen t and N o r th e rn ph i l anthrop i c organ i zat i o n s , s uch
37
l b i d . , 3 4 - 35 . E l i j ah O l i ver ' s C iv i l War p as s e s and l oya l t y oaths
1 n po s s e s s ion o f J udge W . W . O l i v e r , Maryv i l l e , Tenn e s s e e .
38
campb e l l , " Eas t Tenn es s ee , " 7 0 ; Report to the Con t r ibutors to th e
Pennsy l v an ia Re l i e f As soc i at i o n for Eas t Tennes s ee by a Commi s s ion S ent
by th e E xecut ive Comm i t tee to V i s i t that Reg i on and Forward Supp l i e s t o
t h e Loya l and Suffe r i ng I nhab i t an t s (Ph i l ad e l p h i a , 1 86 4 ) , 1 8 .
187
as s i s tanc e c ame too l a te ma t e ri a l l y to a i d remo t e areas s uch a s Cades
Cove
3 9 ( s ee App endi x , F i gure 9 ) .
I n the spr i ng o f 1 8 64 , the few rema i n i n g o l d men i n the cove
or gani zed to res i s t con t i nu i n g guerr i l l a rai d s .
I n s o d o in g , th ey rev ived
an o l d er s en s e of communi ty among the cove peop l e wh i ch enab l e d them to
act co l l e c t i v e l y to defend thems e lv e s .
are apparent .
Three r eas ons fo r t h i s revi v a l
F i rs t , th e sheer desperation o f t h e i r s i tuat ion conv i nced
many r e s i d en t s th at s ome dec i s iv e a c t i on , r egard l e s s of the r i sks
i nvo lv e d , was n e c e s s ary if any o f them hoped to s urv i v e the war .
Bur n -
s i de ' s l ong awa i ted o ccupat i on o f Knoxv i l l e h a d not b rought any r e l i e f
from guerr i l l a r a i ds .
The r emain i n g women and ch i l dren could not con t i nue
i ndefi n i t e l y l iv i n g at S tich a s ub s i s tence l eve l , par t i cu l ar l y s i nce the
approach of w inter mad e game s carce and hun t in g mor e d i f fi c u l t .
Any
ac t i v i ty to acquire or s to r e food i n the day t ime was obs erved by th e
ra i ders , who p romp t l y s t o l e every ac cumu l at i on o f supp l i es , inc l ud i n g
Al though they were aware o f frequent
l ives tock and dome s t i c anima l s .
murd ers and o t h e r acts o f r e t ribut i o n , mo s t of the cove p eop l e were now
w i l l i ng to under t a k e s ome form of act ive r es i s t ance as the on l y pos s ib l e
.
al t e rnative
t o s 1 o w s t arva t i. on .
40
S e cond , the guerr i l l as mad e a c r i t i c a l m i s take in a t t a c k i ng the
Pr imi t iv e Bapt i s t Church , for c i n g it to c l o s e and the m i n i s t er to f l ee
for h i s l i fe .
Always fa ta l i s t i c in th e i r out l ook , the congregat ion
39
Brown l ow ' s Kno xvi l l e Wh i g and Reb e l Vent i l ator , March 5 , 1 8 64 ;
Humes , Loya l Moun t a i neers , 3 1 6 - 33 .
40
J.
W.
O l i ve r , Cades Cove , I I , 1 5 .
188
cou l d accept pers ona l d epr ivat i on and indivi dua l s u ffering w i th
bewi l de r ed r e s i gnat ion .
But an attack agains t the church represented a
far more ominous th reat .
Condi t i on ed by decades o f warn i ngs aga ins t
e ffort s to pers e cute th e i r s ec t and d e s t roy the church , t h ey now s e emed
to be w i tnes s i ng the ful fi l lment o f a l l the o l der j eremiads .
Th i s
app aren t a s s au l t o n th e ir re l i g i o n r e l eas ed a tremendous psycho l o g i c a l
react ion again s t t h e i r per s e cutors .
Moreover , t o a peop l e s t e eped in
b i b l i c a l images and s tereo typ e s , no gro up s e emed mo re th e i nc arna t i on of
ev i l th an th es e North Caro l ina guerr i l l as .
Con s e quen t l y , it i s not
s urpr i s i n g that l eadersh i p o f the home guard c ame l arge l y from memb er s
o f the Primi t i ve Bap t i s t Church s u ch as Rus s e l l Gregory and P e t er Cab l e .
Th i rd , r e s i s tance came a s a r e s ul t o f the outs tanding l eader s h i p
and organ i zat i ona l ab i l ity o f Rus s e l l Gregory .
Trad i t i ona l l eaders ,
such as the i r squires Foute and Lemons , w ere Confederat e s ; D r . P o s t was
i n hidin g , and John O l iver , o l d and weakened from l ong i l l n es s , had d ied
o n F eb ruary 1 5 , 1 86 3 .
Wid e l y known and r e s p e c t ed b efor e the war a s a
rancher and h erdsman , Rus s e l l had a lways pr eferred to l i ve a l one in the
w i l derness for mo s t o f the year in h is s to n e hous e on Gre gory ' s B a l d .
An o l d man whe n the war broke out , h e was s taunch l y l oya l to th e Union
but too feeb l e to enl i s t .
Emb i t tered b y h i s s on Charl e s ' s defection to
42
t h e R e b e 1 s , h e vowe d to t ak e no part 1. n th e con fl 1" c t .
4lp
.
r 1 m 1. t1ve
B apt 1. s t '�1 l. nut e s , J une , 1 8 6 5 . T111e s trong 1 y pro - Un 1. on
pos i t i o n of the P r i m i t ive Bap t i s t Church i s ana l y z ed in Chap ter IV .
42
.
J . W . Ol i ver , Cade s Cov e , I I , 1 4- 1 5 .
41
189
Th e desper a t i on of th e communi ty i n t h e w in t e r o f 1 8 6 3 - 1 864 fina l l y
ch ange d Russ e l l ' s mind .
Long desp i s ed by t h e North Caro l ina raiders
" fo r h i s bo l d out s po k en d e f i ance o f the i r das t ard l y and cowar d l y r a i ds
on the a lmo s t defen s e l e s s o l d men , women , and ch i l dren of the cov e , " and
weakened from i l l ne s s and ma l nutr i t i on , "h i s o l d f i gh t ing s p i r i t was yet
s trong . "
Not s at i s fi e d on l y to organ i ze and dri l l the o l d men in a home
guard, Rus s e l l a l s o d eve l op ed an e a r l y warning s y s t em us i n g a l l the
women and ch i l dr en i n th e cove to k e ep watch at the North C ar o l ina pas s es
used b y the guerr i l l as and r e l ay the a l arm throughout the cov e .
Mora l e
improved drama t i ca l l y , s ince everyone now had a u s efu l t a s k i n con t r ibu­
t ing to the i r common d efens e , i n s tead of wa i t in g h e l p l e s s l y fo r the next
a t t ac k .
43
U t i l i z i ng th i s war n i n g sys t em , Gregory rece ived word in the spr ing
o f 1 86 4 that the rai ders were on th e i r way , fo l l ow i n g th e i r usua l patt ern
of en ter ing the cove s udden l y from the upper or north eas t end .
Summon i ng
h i s aged ne i ghbor s i n a car efu l ly p l anned s t ra t e gy , G r e gory l ed th e s e
o l d men o f th e home guard in cut t ing trees acro s s t h e road at t h e l ow e r
o r s ou thwe s t e n d o f th e cove near the forks o f Forge and Abram ' s creek s .
Here they concea l ed thems e l v e s b eh i nd the i r b l ockade and wai t ed for the
r a i der s , who wou l d h ave to use this wi de r route to herd the i r bounty o f
s to l en c at t l e and hor s es back t o Nor th Caro l j na .
44
At th i s po int , one of tho s e incidents o ccurred wh i ch i l l us trate the
persona l angu i sh caus ed by fami l y d i vi s i ons over the war .
43
44
Ibid . , 1 5 .
I b id .
Un known to h is
190
fath e r , Char l e s Gregory was among t h e r aide r s entering the cove .
Hal f a
m i l e b efore they re ached the b l o ckade , Cha r l e s was s topp ed by h i s s i s t e r ,
who i nqui red after s ome of the fam i l y s t i l l l iv ing in Nor th Caro l ina .
Impa t i en t to j o i n h i s comrades , Cha r l e s was purpo s e l y de t a i n e d by h i s
s i s t er who h e l d o n t o h i s hors e ' s re ins and con t inue d t o mak e sma l l t al k .
\fu i l e thus enga ged , O l d Long Torn , Rus s e l l ' s famous r i f l e , fired , op en ing
th e bat t l e at th e b l o ckade .
"Th e re goes O l d Long Torn , " Char l es exc l aime d
as h e spurred h i s h o r s e to b reak away , " and my o l d Daddy i s a t th e
b r e e ch . "
45
The bat t l e o n l y l as t ed a few m i nut e s ; no one was k i l l ed , but two o f
t h e Reb e l s , Jack G r ant and DeWi t t Gho rm l ey , the i r l e ader , were wounded .
Char l e s met h i s comrad es i n has ty re treat ; they re turned to North
Caro l i na by ano t h er route , l eav ing a l l th e i r b o o t y and s to l en l ives tock
b e h in d .
Th i s v i c tory gave th e communi ty an enormous ps ycho l o g i c a l boo s t ;
th e inv i n c ib l e raiders had been rou t ed by a sma l l band o f o l d men , and
forced i n to an i gnomin ious r e t r e at .
exp r e s s e d in a l en g thy bal l ad
The popu l ar exh i l arat ion was
ce l ebrating th e b l ockade v i c t ory compo s e d
b y two s is ters , f\lor i ah and Mint i e Anthony , who l ived o n l y a s h or t d i s tance
from th e scene o f the s k i rmi sh .
" I ' d rather be a Uni on man , and carry a
Union gun , " th e fir s t s tanza b e g an , " than be a Ghorml ey man , and s t ea l
a cow and run ! "
45
46
46
I b id . , 1 5 - 1 6 .
I b id . , 1 8 . Cap t a i n Ghorm l ey ' s r a i d ers were act iv e in s ev e r a l
o th er co ves , par t i cu l ar l y in Tuck a l eechee Cov e , wh ere h i s h o r s e was sho t
from und e r h im by a member o f the fift eenth d i s t r i c t horne g uard , Green
Dunn , the author ' s g r ea t - grand fath e r .
Burns , B l ount County , 65 .
191
Th e b l o c k ade b a t t l e thus marked a turning po int i n the cov e ' s
s trug g l e to surv ive , s inc e the guerri l l a bushwhack ers were for ced as a
cons equence o f the new l y organi z e d home guard to abandon the i r devas tating
day l i ght attack s , a l though th ey cont inued to s tr i ke sporadi c a l ly at
n igh t .
Corre c t l y b l amin g Grego ry for the commun i ty ' s succes s fu l r e s i s -
tance , some o f the s ame b and r eturned und er cover of darknes s two w e e k s
a f t e r th e batt l e , forced th e i r way i n t o h i s home , and murdered Rus s e l l
as h e ros e from h i s b e d .
H i s martyrdom o n l y increased the commun i t y ' s
outrage and wi l l to res i s t , however , and Rus s e l l Gre gory ' s reputat ion
grew to l egendary proporti ons among the cove peop l e after h i s death .
47
Cades Cove was a l s o a s t at i on terminus i n the "underground rai l ro ad "
wh ich a i d e d Un i on s o l d i ers e s c ap in g Southern pri son c amps to reach the
federa l l ines in Knoxvi l l e .
Th i s underground rai l road was pos s ib l y the
g r e ates t contr ibut ion o f East Tenn e s s e e Union i s t s to th e war effort -Confed erate troops were t i ed up i n attempt ing t o p r event e s c apes , Union
s o l d i ers wer e res tored to their un i t s , and much mi l i tary in format ion on
enemy tro op l o ca t i on s and o ther important data were p a s s e d a l on g to
feder a l author i t i e s by th e par t i c i pants and th e i r guides .
48
One s uch
pr i s on er , Char l es G . Davi s , a young l i eut enant in the F i r s t Massachus etts
47
Th e d e t a i l s o f Rus s e l l ' s death were given to J . W. O l iver by Noah
Burch f i e l d , a grand s o n , wh o was fi ft een years o l d a t th e t ime and as s i s t e d
i n preparing the body for buri a l . J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I I , 1 6 .
48
w . B . Hes s e l ti ne , "The Underground Rai l ro ad From Confederate
P r i s ons to Eas t Tennes se e , " ETHS Pub l i ca t ions , No . 2 ( 1 9 30 ) , 5 5 - 5 9 ;
Paul A . Wh e la n , Unconvent ion a l \varfare in E as t Tennes s e e , 1 86 1 - 1 8 6 5
(Mas t e r ' s th es i s , Un ivers i ty o f Tennes s e e , Knoxvi l l e , 1 96 3 ) , 1 1 4 - 5 1 ;
Arno l d R i t t , Th e E s cape o f F e d e r a l Pri s oners Through Eas t Tennes s ee , 1 8 6 1 1 86 5 (Mas ter ' s thes i s , Univer s i ty o f Tennes s e e , Kno xvi l l e , 1 9 65 ) , 1 7 - 5 4 .
192
Cava l ry , es cap e d from the i nfamous Camp Sorghum a t Co l umb i a , South
Caro l in a , on November 4 , 1 8 64 , and mak i n g h i s way through the Smok i es ,
reached Kno xv i l l e on Decemb er 5 , 1 8 64 , w i th the as s i s t ance o f the peop l e
o f Cad e s Cove .
I n an exc erp t from h i s d i ary he l e ft a v i v i d d e s c ri ptfon
o f the communi ty a t war :
D e c emb er 2nd :
We aro s e about daybreak and again s tarted on
our trip . We had some hard c l imb in g for an hour or s o , but
t h e d e s c ent s oon commen ced and con t inued unt i l we reached
Cades Cove . We entered th e Cove about 3 p . m . and very
unexpe c t ed l y caus ed qui t e an a l arm . A g i r l was on duty as a
She gave the a l arm w i th a horn . When s h e b l ew the
s en t in e l .
In an ins t an t i t was
horn we were l oo k in g down the Cove .
a l ive . Th e men were driving their c at t l e b efor e th em , and
every man had a gun over h i s shou l d er . We a s k e d th e g i r l to
po int out the home o f Mr . Rowan ( aft er te l l ing her who w e
were ) , assuring h er tha t we wer e fri ends . W e marched i n and
went to Mrs . Rowan ' s home . She was very much fr i gh t ened when
she saw us , but we soon s at i s fi ed h e r that we were fri ends .
She info rmed us that they were l ook i ng for the Reb e l s every
moment . Rath er p l eas ant news for us . We h ad not more than
got s ea t ed when a woman came running up the ro ad to Mrs . R . ,
and i n fo rmed her th at the Rebs were comi ng . We j umped up
ready to run , but we s oon found out that the woman had t aken
us for the Rebe l s , and tha t i t was a fa l s e a l arm . Mrs . Rowan
s a i d she cou l d no t keep a l l o f us , so five o f us s tarted over
to the home of Mr . Spark s to whom she d i r e c t ed us . We s o o n
found o u t t h a t our entrance had a l armed a l l o f the i nhab i tants
of the Cove . Th e men l eft the fi e l ds and fled to the moun­
t a i ns .
I t s o o n b ecame known who we were . They commen ced to
co l l e c t around us . We were r e s t i n g very comfortab ly at
1'-lr . Sp ark ' s t e l l ing our s tory when a hors eman c ame r i d i ng up
from the l ower end of the Cove and s a i d " th e Re b e l s are coming
s ure , " tha t one of the c i t i z ens had s e en them . /\ 1 1 was confu ­
s ion for some moments . Th e men p i cked up t h e i r guns and we
our b l ank e t s and s tar ted for the mountains . We reached a safe
p l ace . After wai ting for an hour , we found out that it was
ano ther fa l s e a l arm .
The report had gone down one s i de o f th e
cove and up the o ther . We a l l r e turned to Mr . Sp ark ' s house
and a te a hearty s upper . We found a l l good Union men here .
Th ey al l hav e to s l eep in the b ushes every n i ght , and hav e for
th e pas t two years . Th ey l ive in c o n t i nued terror of being
193
k i l l ed .
r e s t . 49
At dark we went to th e bushes for our n i gh t ' s
Lt . Dav is was grateful that "wh i l e o n the es cape from pr i son l i fe ,
s i ck , t i red , and foo t sore , " h e h ad ac c i den t a l l y fa l l en " i n t o th e hands
of the l o ya l , l ib e r ty- l o v i n g men and women" of Cades Cov e .
They n o t
o n l y fed and c l othed h im, b ut " s ent o n e o f the i r number to p i l o t me
through to Knoxvi l l e . ' '
l n th at c i ty , he reported th at Union author i t i e s ,
conv i n c ed o f the commun i ty ' s abs o l ut e l oya l ty , were s ending ammun i t i on
back w i th h i s guides " for the c i t i zens o f Cad e s Cove . "
Dav i s a l so
re l ated an an ecdo te about the g i r l s en t i ne l in the cove wh i ch o ffers
some i n s i ght into the bi tt erne s s and grim d e f i ance fo ur years of guerr i l l a
warfare had engendered in the cove peop l e :
Th e gir l was th e s en t i n e l that guarded th e entrance to th e
Cov e , and at th e s i gnal from h er , wh i ch was o f approaching
d anger , th e men , wh o were t i l l ing th e s o i l , drove their catt l e
t o p l aces o f s afety , and t h en put th ems e l ves in read ines s t o
d e fend the i r dear ones and th e i r homes from th e Guerri l l as
and Bus hwa ckers , who had i nvaded the i r l i t t l e s e t t l ement many
I rememb er asking th e g i r l on guard
t i mes dur i n g the War .
wh at she wou l d do if a s tranger s h o u l d demand the h o rn of her
b e fo re she cou l d have us ed i t , and h e r r ep l y was rath er a
surp ri s e to me as I had a l ways had a great respect fo r women ,
but had met on l y the k i nd that us ed s oft words , tho s e who had
not been on the "bat t l e l ine , " so to s p e ak , tho s e who h ad
l iv e d i n p l e as ant homes and s urround ings . Her r ep l y was that
s h e s h ou l d te l l him to go to "He l l ! " And from my know l edge of
her as a s en t i n e l on duty , I am very sure that she wou l d hav e
done s o . S O
49
Excerpt from typed manus cript o f Maj or Cha r l es G . Dav i s , copy i n
Speci a l Co l l e c t i ons , Uni v ers i ty o f Tennes s e e Lib rary , Knoxvi l l e . T h e
o r i g i na l i s th e property o f h i s grandson , Mr . E l iot Dav i s , Gr and Mar ai s ,
Minne s o t a . For a d i s cus s i on o f var ious routes out o f th e p r i s on camp s
at Co l umb ia , Sou th Caro l i na , s ee Wh e l an , Unconven t j ona l Warfare , 1 24 - 4 0 ,
and W . H . Sh e l t on , "A Hard Road to Trave l Out o f D i xi e , " Centur y , XV I I I
(Oc tob er , 1 8 YO ) , 9 3 1 - 4 9 .
50
Ibid .
1 94
As the t i de o f , war turned i n favor o f the Un i on i s t s duri n g the l as t
y ear o f the confl i c t , the fortun es o f t h e Confederat e l eaders in the
cove n e c e s s ari l y dec l ined .
No man was more hated , or v i s ib l e for h i s
l oyal ty to the South than Dan i e l D . F out e , wh o i roni ca l l y had done more
th an any other i n d i v i dua l b e fore 1 8 6 0 to improv e th e econom i c l i fe o f
the communi ty , bui l d ing roads , operating a b l oomery fo rg e , and s erv ing
as l egal adv i sor and mag i s t ra t e for t h e cove p eop l e .
Y e t h e had
und eniab l y g i v en a l l po s s ib l e as s i s tance to the Reb e l guerr i l l as , s pying
on the communi ty and report in g th e i r a c t ivi t i es and wh ereabouts to the
Confederates .
His daugh t er , E t h i e M . Foute Eag l e ton , men t ioned in h er
d i ary that Foute hous ed numerous Confeder a t e s o l d i ers at " P ara d i s e Los t "
throug hout the war years .
51
Trapp ed i n a mora l d i l emma , Foute , bas i ca l l y a de cent man , found i t
i ncreas ing l y d i ffi cu l t t o r e conc i l e h i s Confed erate a l l eg i ance wi th th e
atro c i t i es comm i t ted by North Caro l ina guerri l l as in the cov e .
On on e
o ccas i on , he personal l y i n t erven e d to prevent the k i dnapp i ng o f a cov e
youth , Noah Bur ch fi e ld , and fo rcing h im i n t o Confedera t e s ervi ce .
Later
h i s t or i ans erroneous l y have a s s e r t ed that "duri n g the s t re s s ing t i mes of
th e C iv i l War" F out e "bought farm a ft e r farm unt i l at one t ime he owned
mo s t o f Cades Cove . n
52
Mo s t of the 2 0 , 0 0 0 acres he owned at the t ime of h i s
death in 1 8 65 had b een bought a t fair pr i ces from c ove r e s i d en t s mov i n g
51
E th i e trave l l ed back and forth t o C a d e s Cove t hroughout t h e war .
Her s o n , E x i l e , \�as b orn th ere at " Parad i s e L o s t " on Apri l 2 2 , 1 8 6 3 .
S k i pper and Gove , ' " S tray Th ough t s , " ' Part I I , 1 1 8 .
52
J . W . O l iver , Cades Cove , I I , 8 - 9 ; Gamb l e , H e r i t a g e and F o l k
Mus i c , 4 9 .
195
I n fac t , many o f th e s e deeds
to th e We s t in the 1 84 0 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s .
s p eci fi cal ly mention an exchan g e o f wagons and gearage for the mov e
Wes t .
53
Foute ' s d augh t er o ffers n o e xp l anation o f why her fath er remained
i n the cove and r e fus ed to s eek s afety in th e l ow er South .
H i s fri end ,
S t er l ing Lan i er , who had a s s umed management o f Montva l e Spr ings in 1 8 5 7
and purch a s ed th e res ort wi th h i s brother i n 1 8 60 , anti c i pated th e end
of Co nfederate government in the s tate w i th the s urrender o f F ort
Done l son in F ebruary , 1 8 6 2 , and wi s e ly moved h i s fami l y back to Al abama
b e fore Burns i de ' s s e i g e o f Knoxv i l l e .
54
Fout e re fused t o fo l l ow s ui t , a l thou gh i t i s c l ear from h i s
daugh ter ' s d i ary th at the ent ir e fami l y were we l l aware o f the sorry
t a l e of v engeance - h arras sment , l ibe l , f l o g g ing , robb ery , and even
murder-wh ich awa i t ed South ern sympath i z e r s in East Tenne s s e e after
Burns i de ' s o c cupat i on of Knoxvi l l e and the po l i t i c a l asc ens i on of the
v i nd ic t iv e Parson Brown low , who b ecame governor in 1 86 5 .
55
G rant ed the
oppor tun i ty fo r e s cape and th e certain know l edge of retribu t i on , i t i s
53
B l o unt Deeds , 1 84 0 - 1 860 , pas s im ; Agr e ement between Reub en Ti pton
and Uan i e l D . Fout e , September 1 7 , 1 84 1 , and Agreement betw e en Jacob
Tipson and Dan i e l D . Fout e , S ep temb er 5 , 1 8 4 5 , men t i on i n g an exchan ge o f
l and for wagons , g e arage , and hors es , i n au thor ' s po s s e s s ion .
54
Sk ipp er and Gove , " ' S t ray Though ts , " ' Part I I , 1 1 6 - 28 ; Wr i ght ,
"Montva l e Springs , " 6 1 .
55
r n Augus t , 1 8 64 , Eth i e Eag l e ton ' s husband , Georg e , a Presby terian
min i s t e r , was l ured from h i s h ome and brutal l y beaten . Sk ipper an d Gove ,
' " S tray Though ts , " ' Part I I , 1 1 9 . B row n l ow denou nced Eth i e as a " s h e ­
d ev i l , the \v i fe o f a r e b e l preacher , " who "h ad come in advance o f h i m
to s py o u t t h e land . " Brown l ow ' s Knoxvi l l e Wh i g and Reb e l Vent i l ato r ,
March 1 5 , 1 8 6 5 .
196
d i ff i cu l t t o s urm i s e why F ou t e remained i n Cades Cove , i f not bec aus e
o f a d e ep pers onal a t t achment to h i s home there .
At the c l o s e of the
war , h e was dragg e d unceremoni o us l y from h i s s i ck - b e d in the cove by
fede ra l troop s , who hau l e d h i m to Knoxv i 1 1 e and threw h im in j ai 1 .
He
d i ed short l y there after , paro l e d bu t s t i l l under guard , at the Knoxv i l l e
home o f ano th er daughter , Mrs . Hami l ton .
Shor t l y a fter
56
peace was dec l ared i n 1 865 , E l i j ah O l iver mov ed h i s
fam i l y from the Rich �1ount a in back i nto th e cov e .
Ami d t h e enormous
devas t a t i on c au s ed by four years o f pro tracted guerr i l l a war fare , he
found a communi ty wh i ch had undergone p ro found changes .
o f the outs tanding l eaders o f an ear l i e r generat i on :
Gone were mos t
Dan i e l D . Foute ,
John O l iver , and Rus s e l l Gregory were dead by 1 865 ; P e t e r Cab l e d i ed i n
1 86 6 , and Dr . P o s t l ived on l y e i gh t years after the c l o s e o f t h e war .
Th e new g enerat i on who had come o f age dur i n g th e war y ears were far l e s s
l i terat e ; deprived o f th e t ime and means o f gain ing an e ducat i on , mo s t
o f th e younger l eaders s uch a s the new l y e l ected squires , Dan i e l Laws on
and Nathan Sparks , were p rov i nc i a l and i ntrospe c t i v e to a degree wh i ch
wou l d have s urpri s ed th e i r pred e c e s s ors .
57
The av erage peop l e had a l so changed dr ama t i ca l l y dur i n g the war .
Guerri l l a warfare engendered b i tt erne s s and hatreds wh i ch l as t ed for
many years .
Many Con federates l e ft th e cove b ecaus e o f th i s ho s t i l i ty ,
56
Eth i e "h eard that everyth ing Pa had
Burns , B l ount County , 65 .
was taken from h im , poor o l d man to be deprived of th e comforts o f l i fe
" Sk ipper and Gove , ' " S t ray Though ts , " ' Part I I ,
in h i s o l d age .
123.
57
w . H . O l i ver , Sketches , 1 6 - 35 ; J .
W.
O l iv er , Cades Cov e , I I , 30 - 3 2 .
197
among them th e F ou t e , Bradford , Lemons , Cobb , Campb e l l , and P earc e
fami l i es .
Gradua l l y the community r e s umed i t s prewar commerce w ith
Kno xv i l l e , b ut inward l y i ts s o c iety b ecame increas ing l y c lo sed .
58
In
con trast to th e i n f l ux o f numerous immi grants from many p arts o f the
Uni t ed St ates and fore i gn countr i es during the 1 840 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s , few
new fami l i es entered the cove after 1 865 .
Th e k inship s tructure
e xpanded to inc l ude prac t i ca l l y every person in the community .
I n 1 850 ,
there were ei gh ty- s i x s urnames in a popul at ion o f 6 7 1 ; by 1 8 8 0 , on l y
forty - five s urnames w ere l i st e d i n a t o t a l popu l at ion o f 4 49 .
59
Into l -
erance o f any innovat ion o r change , susp i c i on and fear o f s tranger s ,
and exces s iv e r e l i ance on the extend ed fami l y - b ehav i o r a l patt erns
nece s s ary for s urvi v a l dur ing the war - now proved d i ff i cu l t or impos s ib l e
t o d i s card .
Th e C iv i l War was thus c l ear l y a watershed for b o th th e interna l
s o c i e ty o f the cove and for the communi ty ' s d e c l ining pos i t i on after
1 8 65 in re l at i o n to the res t o f the s t a t e and nation .
Dani e l D . Foute ' s
great dreams fo r the cove ' s economi c dev e lopment in the decades b efore
1 8 6 0 w er e comp l e t e l y des troyed by the war ' s ho l o c aus t ; no new entrepreneur
o f comparab l e ab i l i ty or v i s ion wou l d rep l ac e h im .
But the community ,
however a l tered , ha d s urvive d ; the t ies wh i ch bound the cove peop l e to
one an other were s t ronger th an ever .
I n the c l o s e - knit , intro spective
58
Burns , B l ount County , 2 7 6 . For th e po s twar e ffe cts o f guerr i l l a
warfare , s ee Wh e l an , Unconven t i on a l Warfare , 1 4 8 - 4 9 .
59
1 8 50 C ens us , Popu l at i on , B l o unt County ; 1 8 8 0 Census , Popu l at i on ,
B l o unt County .
198
and retrospe c t i v e s o c i e ty wh i ch now fac e d the p ro trac t ed economi c
d epres s io n o f the l arger re g i on in the decades a fter 1 86 5 were r i ch
i n gredi ents for an authent i c fo l k c u l t ure .
I n that emer g i n g cul ture ,
the war exper i ence s furni shed a mo d e l fo l k hero ; l i nk i ng th e comb ined
v a l ues o f l ove of th e i r mounta i n w i l dernes s w i th uns e l fish s ervi c e to
th e community was th e memory o f Rus s e l l Gregory .
CHAPTER V I
THE F O L K CULTURE
B rooding over the mo ra l and phys i c a l deva s t at i on res u l t in g from the
C iv i l War , fe arful and s us p i c i o u s of s t rangers , and engul fed in a
pro t racted re g i on a l depre s s i on afte r 1 8 65 , the peop l e o f C ad e s Cove
b e c ame increas i n g l y intro s p e c tive and retro spect ive during the
Re cons t ruction Era .
w o r l d geo graph i ca l ly .
They had a l w ays b een i s o l at e d from the out s ide
In the prosperous 1 840 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s , howev er ,
nume rous immi gran t s from various p arts o f the nat i on and w o r l d had
as sured the communi ty of frequent exp o s ure to new i deas and att i tude s .
After 1 865 , the cove was no l onger part o f th e Westward Movement ; few
new fami l i es entered the c ommun i t y , and the remaining fami l i es were
re l ated by b l o o d and un i t e d i n common v a l ues and att i tudes through the i r
sh ared w artime experi ence s .
I f the war s erved as a crucib l e wh i ch b urned out o f the communi ty
d iver s i t y and innova t i on , i t a l s o l e ft a vacuum in the l ives o f peop l e
who , de s p i te th e i r geo graph i c i s o l at i on , had always re l i ed h e avi ly on
comme rce and news from the mark e t cent ers o f E a s t Tenne s s ee .
Gradua l l y ,
th e mark e t e conomy re cover e d , and cove farmers re s umed the fami l i ar
pattern o f s e l l in g their crops in Knoxv i l l e and Maryvi l l e and purchas ing
vario us mercan t i l e goods there .
I n the wake o f the t errib l e destruct ion
from the war , howeve r , there was l it t l e regional uni ty , p o l i t i c al ly ,
s o c i a l l y , or e conomi c a l l y ; after the central goal of w inn ing the war h ad
b e en accomp l i sh e d , mos t o f the rura l commun i t i e s o f East Tennes see b e c ame
199
200
i s o l at e d uni ts t emporari l y a l i enated b y poverty and b i t t e rne s s from the
1
.
1 arger reg1on
.
A l though a cove farmer m i ght cont inue t o b ring h i s crops
to Knoxvi l l e , h e no l onger fe l t any c l o s en e s s o r sense of community
t oward those out s i d e the cove proper .
Th e vacuum caus e d by t h i s a l i enation
and the s e temporary d i v i s i ons w i th in the l arger re g i on w as fi l l ed by
s t ren gthen ing ties amon g thems e l ve s , thereb y intens i fy ing an a l re ady
s t ron g sense o f community w i th in the cove .
I n t h i s at mosph ere , an indigen ous fo l k cu l ture deve l oped wh i ch
compensated the cove peop l e in part for the i r e c onomi c l o s s e s and great l y
enri ch ed the qua l i ty o f the i r r e l at i onships w i th one anoth e r .
Cul tura l
h i s to r i ans , fo l k l or i s t s , and anthrop o l o g i s t s have l ong d i sput e d the exact
n ature and de fini t i on of " fo l k" cul tures .
2
Fo r the purp o s e of t h i s
chap t e r , fo l k cu l ture i s de fined s imp l y a s t h e to tal i ty o f shared
experience , know l edge , and myth o l o gy whi ch the cove peop l e commun i cated
o r a l l y among thems e l ves .
The t o t a l i ty o f th i s fo l k cul ture fun ct i oned
a l mo s t as a fore i gn l an guage , inasmuch as it gave to the cove c i t i zen
both a frame o f re ference fo r int erpreting new events and a code o f
ane cdotes b y w h i ch various a t t i tudes o r emo t ions cou l d b e imme d i at e l y
1
Fo l msb ee and others , Tenne s s e e , I I , 9 7 - 1 4 9 . Parson B rown l ow ' s
Rad i c a l Repub l i can reg ime exacerb ated exi s t ing po l i t i c a l d i fferen ces and
ret arded the s tate ' s pos twar e conomi c recovery . Thomas B . A l exander ,
Po l i t i ca l Re con s t ruct ion in Tenne s s e e (Nashv i l l e , 1 9 5 0 ) , 69 - 2 4 5 ; Fert i g ,
S e ces s i on and Recon s t ruct i on , 6 1 - 1 0 8 ; Verton M . Queene r , "A Decade o f
E a s t Tenn e s s e e Repub l i c an i s m , 1 86 7 - 1 87 6 , " ETI-IS Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 1 4
( 19 4 2 ) ' 59 - 8 5 .
2
According t o one sch o l ar , " the pre sent re l ationship b etween
fo l k l ore and an thropo l o gy coul d a l mo s t be d e fi ne d as one o f mutua l
contempt . " Norb ert F . R i ed l , " Fo l k l ore and the S tudy o f Mat eri a l A sp e c t s
of F o l k Cul ture , " Journal o f Ameri c an F o l k l o re , LXX I X ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 5 5 7 - 6 3 .
201
i dent i fi e d to o ther memb ers o f the group .
An import ant coro l l ary t o
th i s fo l k cul ture i s the means b y wh ich i t w a s expre s s ed (region a l d i a l ec t
and i t s devi at i on from s t andard Eng l i sh ) .
3
Th i s interpre t a t i on o f fo l k cul t ure i s formu l ated on l y to exp l ain
and ana l y z e th e deve l opment of oral trad i t i on s w i th in the cove and the i r
fun c t ional v a l ue in the dai l y r e l ations h i p s o f the cove peop l e w i t h one
an oth e r .
No s erious s t udy of fo l k cul ture c an avo i d , however , the
warnings of Rich ard M . Dorson , who argues that the s tudy o f fo l k l ore has
b e en " fa l s i fi e d , abus e d and e xp l o i t e d , and the pub l i c de l uded w i th P au l
Bunyan nons ens e and c l aptrap co l l ect ions " by mon e y -wri t e rs who "h ave
succes s fu l l y pedd l e d synth e t i c h ero-books and s accharine fo l k t a l e s as
the s t o r i e s o f the p e o p l e . "
4
Th e geo graph i c i s o l a t i on o f the cove , for examp l e , i s one e l ement
in the deve l opment o f the i r fo l k cul ture wh i ch mus t b e e xamined w i th
maxi mum cri t i c al s k ept i c i s m .
Th e divers i ty and numb er o f immi gran t s
moving into Cades Cove b e fo re 1 8 6 0 o ffers patent evi dence that the
communi ty was at one po int ne i th e r inacces s ib l e nor an undes irab l e p l ace
3
Th i s defin i t i on fo l l ows the l ines o f Ame r i c an anthropo l o g i s t s "who
have ins i s ted on treat ing cul ture as a who l e or in i t s ent i rety . " German
an thropo l o g i s t s , convers e ly , de fine fo l k cul ture "as b e ing the uncon s c ious,
unre fl e ct ive , t rad i t i on a l part of cul ture , d i s t inct from the t o t a l i t y o f
man ' s l e arned b ehavi o r . " I b i d . , 5 5 8 - 59 . S e e a l s o Rob ert Redfi e l d , "Th e
F o l k S o c i e ty , " Ameri can Journal o f S o c i o l o gy , L I I ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 2 9 3 - 308 , and
Ri chard M . Dorson , " Current Fo l k l ore Theories , " Current Anthropo l o gy , I V
(1963) ' 9 3 - 1 1 2 .
4
oorson ' s cri t i c i sms o f various approaches to fo l k cul ture app l y
part i cu l ar l y we l l t o e arl y wri t e rs such a s Rob ert Linds ay Mason and Horace
Kephart who vi s i te d Cades Cove and attemp t e d to an a l y z e the peop l e and
mount ain cul ture there . Dors on , Ame rican F o l k l ore , 8 , 1 5 - 4 8 .
202
.
to 1 1ve
.
5
The c e s s a t i on o f n ew immi gran t s a ft er the war , and the
expul s i on of pro - Confederate fami l i es did l e ad to incre as ing s o c i a l
i s o l a t i on and confo rmity .
B u t thi s i s o l at ion w a s a lw ays re l at ive .
The
cove peop l e con t i nued to s e l l th e i r crops in Knoxvi l l e , r e c e i ve v i s i tors
from other s ec t i ons of the country , and remain i n formed of maj o r s t ate ,
nat i ona l , and internat ional events through an o ccas i on a l newspaper .
In
turning its co l l e c t ive atten t i on inward , the commun i ty d i d not comp l e t e l y
cut i ts e l f o ff from the out s i de wor l d , a l though i t i s a common fal l acy o f
l ocal h is to r i ans to envis i on s uch geo graphi c and s o c i a l i s o l at i on i n
ab s o l ut e , e i th e r - o r t erms .
Thus the cove peop l e coul d deve l op the i r own
b ody of shared trad i t ions and exp e r i ences whi l e at the s ame t i me they
remained cogn i z ant o f changes and b road t rends in th e l arger Ameri can
cul ture .
6
Ano ther fa l l ac i ous as s umpt i on about the o r i g in o f the fo l k cul t ure
in the cove was the n at iona l ori gins o f the inhab i t ant s , and by i n ference ,
the transmi s s i on o f certain coro l l ary nati onal traits o r ch aracteri s t i cs .
As l at e as the 1 9 2 0 ' s , commen tators on l i fe in the cove s aw d e s cendents
o f "pure" An g l o - S axon b lood there who maintained anc i ent Eng l i sh s p e e ch
patt erns and cus toms , s peak ing the l anguage l i t t l e a l t e red s ince Que en
E l i z ab eth re i gne d .
Other wri ters con fiden t l y a s s erted that in the se
5
1 8 4 0 Census , Popu l at i on , B l ount County ; 1850 Cens us , Popu l at ion ,
B l oun t County .
For an ana l ys i s o f the o r i gins o f immi gran t s to the cove
b e fore 1 860 s e e Chapter I I I .
6
J . W . O l i v e r , C ades Cove , I , S - 7 . For evidence that cove farmers
cont inued to market their crops in the l arger commerc i a l centers of E a s t
Tenn es s e e a f t e r the C ivi l War , s e e Chapter I I I .
203
remo t e coves o f Southern App a l ach i a , "b l o o d t e l l s , " and t h e s turdy S c o t ch I r i sh d e s cendan t s maintained an independence o f s p i r i t and s turdine s s o f
mind and character whi ch made them the envy o f the ir decadent re l at ives
in other parts of an increas ing l y indus t r i a l and urb an Ame r i ca .
7
Such con c l us ions ab out the cul tura l h omo gene i ty o f the cove
inhab it an t s resul t i n g from common n at ional o r i g i ns reveal more ab out the
pre concept ions and erroneous as s umpt ions of the s e writers than ab out the
ac tua l fo l k cul ture of the cove .
Men l ik e Rob ert L inds ay Mason and
S amue l Tynda l e W i l s on found what they were l ooking for in the cove
through the pro c e s s of s e l e c t ive percep t i on , a proce s s cul tur a l
an thropo l o g i s t s n o w e xp l ain as t h e caus e for such gro s s mis repre s entat i on
o f Ame r i c an Indian cus toms by early c o l on i a l ob s ervers , who al tern at e l y
p e rceived the i r r e d b reth ren as the l o s t tribes o f I s rae l o r t h e ch i l dren
o f S at an .
W i l s on v i ewed the mountaineers b oth as a panacea for the i l l s
o f indus trial Ame r i ca and as an ant ido t e to the influx o f "un - Ameri c an"
8
fo re 1. gners .
7
A c l as s i c enumerat i on o f early s tereotypes re gard ing Southern
Appal ach i a was w r i t t en by a former pres ident o f Maryv i l l e Co l l e ge , S amue l
Tynda l e W i l s on , Th e Southern Moun t aineers (New Y o rk , 1 9 1 4 ) , 1 1 - 7 8 . Other
wri ters who v i s i t e d C ades Cove an d perpe tuated e xi s t ing s t e reotypes of
the mount ain peop l e and th e i r cul ture are Mason , Lure o f the Great Smo k i e s ,
2 2 - 209 ; Horace Keph art , Our Southern H i gh l anders (New Y o rk , 1 9 2 2 ) , 2 8 6 - 4 5 2 ;
J ohn C . Campb e l l , Th e South ern H i gh l ander and !l i s Home l and (New York ,
1 9 2 1 ) , 7 2 - 1 5 1 ; and L aura Thornb orough , The Great Smoky Mountains (New
York , 1 9 3 7J , 8 - 1 8 .
8
Mas on , Lure o f the Great Smok i e s , 5 7 - 6 1 . W i l s on b e l i eved that
the s e " mountaineers of the near future w i l l h e l p the nat i on win many
b a t t l e s for temperance and other s o c i a l re forms . " "Take courage , " h e
e xhorted h i s we ary readers , " you who i n many s t at e s are fi ght ing your
apparent l y death - s t rugg l e b at t l es agains t an organi z ed and w e a l thy
2 04
Actua l l y , non-En g l ish imm i g rant s w ere numerous in the cove .
Ge rman
n ames w ere frequent ; Myers , Headri ck , Cab l e , Rowan , Herren , and Shul er
are examp l e s .
Cab l e , a corrupt ion o f the o r i g in a l K ob e l , i s i l l us trative
of the frequent Ang l i c i z a t i on of German names whi ch o ften ob s cures the i r
o r i g in .
The Myers es , one o f the cove ' s l arges t extended f ami l i es , s t i l l
p re s e rve the German B ib le o f t h e i r progeni t o rs as pro o f o f the i r o r i g i n .
Fami l i e s o f French extract i on were a l s o common , b earing s uch names as
Lequire , Fout e , F e are l , F e e z e l l , Boring , N i cho l , Pastuer , Lemon , Laurens ,
S e ay , Emmert , and Freshour .
Th ree fami l i es o f Dut ch ori g in were l i s ted
in the 1 8 5 0 census ; s ome o f t h e i r ch i l dren marr i e d into cove fami l i es and
l o s t th e i r di s t in c t i v e s urname s ( La fab ra , Sucan , Faurfort ) , but pos s ib ly
not the i r cul tural t radi t i ons from Ho l l and .
9
An intere s t in g anecdo te from the ninet eenth century reve a l s the cove
peop l e ' s own awaren e s s of the divers e nat i ona l o r i g i n s of new s ett l ers .
B e fo re the C ivi l War , a s t ranger s e t t l e d there and t augh t s choo l .
S evera l
years after h i s arriva l , ano th e r s tranger v i s i t e d h i m , and they convers ed
s a l oon - p ower uph e l d by depraved Ameri cans and by many as yet
I f you w i l l b ut
un - Ame r i can i z ed though nat ura l i zed for e i gn immigrant s !
l i s t en , you may h e ar the ' tramp , tramp , tramp , the b oys are march in g ' o f
Ameri cans from the free hi l l s , coming t o sh are w i th you the con t e s t and
to j o in w i th you in the v i ctory that awai t s our common caus e . Be as sured
that the s e s t a lwart recru i t s from ' th e l and of the mountain and the g l en '
w i l l s t ay in the fi ght to the finish . " W i l s on , Southern Moun t a ineers , 1 9 0 .
9
Th ese names are taken from the 1 8 3 0 , 1 84 0 , and 1 8 5 0 c ensus ,
Popu l a t i on , B l ount County , but th e French and Ge rman origins o f mo s t o f
these fami l i es h a s b e en e s t ab l i s h e d b y genea l o g i s t s . S e e Edwards and
F r i z z e l l , Th e "Connect i on , " 1 - 3 , for a d i s cus s ion o f the Myers and
Headrick fami l i es . Ac tua l ly , th e cen s us records show many names wh i ch
appear to b e non - Engl i s h , i . e . , Mano l , Nugon , N o s s un , Nupe l l , Swany ,
Cut tan , Sh l e s s e l l , Deasmon , and Rus t i l , a l l from the 1 8 5 0 Cens us ,
Popul a t i o n , B l ount County .
205
in an unknown tongue which even the German C ab l e s could n o t under s tand .
Some o f the nat iv e s specu l ated that the ir s trange s choo l t e acher was one
o f Napo l eon ' s d e feat ed genera l s l iv i n g i n exi l e among them !
10
Th e mo s t cur so ry look at the early c ensus r e turns a l so indica t e s a
w i d e d i v er s it y i n the geograph i c o r i g i n s o f the cove peop l e from other
p ar t s of Amer i c a .
S ince John O l i ver , the f i r s t perman ent whi t e s et t l er ,
arr ived a s l a t e a s 1 8 1 8 , mo s t o f the ear l y fam i l i e s had b een in the
Uni t ed States for at l eas t a g enerati on b efore that dat e .
The d emograph i c
p i ctur e up unt i l 1 8 6 0 r evea l s cons tant flux , wav e s o f c ov e peop l e mov ing
further west a s new imm i gr ant s from wide l y d iver s e p l ac e s ent ered the
cov e .
Unt i l 1 8 6 0 , i t wou l d b e impo s s ib l e to i d ent i fy any d i s t inctive
featur e or indig enous p at t ern of cove cu l tur e , s i nce m o s t o f the
popu l at ion had moved there as adu l t s from o ther s ec t i on s of the Uni t ed
States .
11
Th i s l ack o f cu l tura l con s ensu s , however , d o e s not prec lude
i d ent i fy ing v ar i ous ingred i ent s , such as the c arp entry and eng ineer ing
s k i l l s ear l i er not ed in P et er Cab l e , who was o f Pennsy lvan i a Dutch
extrac t i on .
In i ts bro ad e s t defini t i o n , the fo l k cul ture emerged i n the cove
a f t er 1 8 6 5 due t o wart ime exp e r i enc e s , the expanding kinship s tructur e ,
economi c d i ff i cu l t i e s whi ch drew fam i l ie s tog ether , and a s en s e o f
a l i enation from the surrounding r eg i on .
Th i s cul tur e was not d efined
10
J ames B . Wrigh t , Great Smoky Mountains Nat iona l Park ( Knoxv i l l e ,
1938) , 57 .
11
1 8 3 0 C ensus , P opu l a t ion , B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 4 0 C ensu s , Popu l ation ,
B l ount C ounty ; 1 8 50 C ensus , Popu l at i on , B lount C ounty ; 1 8 6 0 C ensu s ,
Popu l at ion , B loun t C ounty .
206
by i t s compon en t p art s , but rather by t h e c o l l e c t iv e u s e o f the s e
ingred i ent s , p a s t and pr es ent , by t h e communi ty .
Comp l e x as such a
fun c t i on a l defin i t i on s eems , i t r e f l ects the b a s i c fact that the cove
cul ture was n ev er s t at i c , o ften creat ive , and cou l d al ways use or
incorpor ate out s i de experi ence as we l l as trad i t i onal knowl edg e pas s ed
down from father to son .
To d efine i t s p er imeter s , for examp l e , an
auth ent i c Eng l i s h b a l l ad ( and there were many o f thes e ) , m ight be
shar ed by the c ommuni ty at the s ame t ime a popu l a r s ong imported from
Knoxv i l l e c i rcul ated through the cove , or a group m i gh t comp o s e a
b a l l ad to commemorate s ome notab l e event whi ch had on l y r ec ent l y
o ccurred .
What the trad i t ional b a l l ad and the popu l ar s ong shared i n
t h i s cu l ture , obv i ou s l y , was n o t their r espec t iv e o r i g ins , but the ir
co l l ec t i v e use by th e commun i t y , the v a lue as s igned to the song wh ich
everyone in the cov e r ec ogni z ed and shared .
12
Th e fo lk cu l ture in t h i s s en s e was o n l y a s ys tem o f shar ed value s ,
exper ienc e s , and myth s o f v ar ious or i g in s , but each one o f the s e ora l
expre s s ions had a spe c i fi c , we l l - d e f ined common meaning t o ev ery memb er
o f the commun i t y .
12
Every p a s t a t t empt to ana l y z e or d i s s ec t the fo l k
r n t ervi ew w ith John W . O l iv er , Nov ember 4 , 1 9 6 3 . Other than
intervi ew s w i th s ev e r a l e ld er l y cov e res i dent s , my pr imary source for
the fo l l owing d e s c r ipt i on o f the cov e ' s fo l k cu l ture s tems from my own
par t i c ipation , i f somewh at removed , in that cu l ture as a d e s c endant of
the O l iver f ami l y . Margar e t Mead has correc t l y e s t ab l i shed d irect
p ar t i cipat ion in a cul ture as the only v i ab l e method o f ana l y z ing i t s
c omponent part s , a l though s h e usua l l y cho s e a primi t ive c u l tur e in some
o ther par t of the wor l d . �1argar e t Mead , Com ing of Age in Samoa (New
York , 1 9 2 8 ) , 7 ; Mead , From the South Seas (New York , 1 9 3 9 ) , i x-xxx i .
S e e al so A l an Dunde s , ed . , The Study o f F o l k lore (En g l ewo o d C l iffs ,
N . J . , 1 9 65) , 2 1 9 - 33 8 ; Kenneth S . G o lds t e in , A Guide for F i e l d Workers
in F o l k l ore ( London , 1 9 64) , 1 3 - 1 7 1 .
207
m ind o f t h e cove h as fai l ed , b ec au s e no s ch o l ar h as ever p er c e ived the
import ance o f s ee i n g in i t s t o t a l i ty their shared know l edge w ithin the
cont ext of such an intens ive communal l i fe s t y l e .
B i t s and p ie c e s wer e
mean in g l e s s out s i d e t h e context o f t h e who l e , s o a w i d e variety o f
charact eri za t i ons o f l ife in t h e cove were mad e by v ar ious wr i t er s
ob l iv ious to t h e inher ent incomp l et ene s s and internal contrad i ct i ons o f
the i r observations o r conc l u s ions .
Even the natives wer e n o t d i r ec t l y
consc ious o f t h e e l ab orat e format o f t h e i r fo l k cu l ture ; they took
the s e things for granted , under s to od them from early ch i ldhood a l mo s t
intu i t ive l y , and cou l d not exp l i c i t l y i dent i fy o r d e s c r ib e what they
imp l i c i t l y knew and b e l i ev ed , and cons i d er ed common know l edg e .
Thus the
p ar t s were o ften d e s cr ibed adequa t e l y by out s i d e ob s erver s , but by t h e ir
v ery fragmenta t i on such d es c r i p tions rend ered any emp i r i c a l anal y s i s
13
.
l 1" d .
1nva
As the eas ie s t introduc t i on into the fo l k mind o f n i n e t e en th c entury
Cades Cove , it is prob ab l y m o s t obv ious to b eg in w i th the phys i ca l
g e o gr aphy o f the cove and surr ounding mount a in s .
D en s e l y inhab i t ed by
c omparative s t andard s , the cove proper contained no s t r e am l e t s , no
meadow s , f i e ld s , ro cky ridge s , or trees too sma l l no t t o b e named .
Wri t e r s interv i ewing r e s i dent s o f the cove who had l ived there dur ing
the l a s t century n e g l ected to ana l y z e th i s b a s i c , obv ious phenomenon o f
a n � l ab o r at e l y d e t a i l ed f o l k geography .
13
Cove nat iv e s c ou l d immedi a t e l y
r b id . ; Keph ar t , Our Southern High l ander s , 2 38 - 3 0 7 ; C ampbe l l ,
S outhernlHlgh l ander , 1 2 3 - 5 1 .
208
i dent i fy spe c i fi c g e ographi c l oc at i ons , b ec au s e ev eryone knew even th e
m o s t minute spo t s by name and r eputation .
The s e t iny l o c a l e s o r
l andmarks were anthropomorph i c , too , i n the s e n s e that the human h i s tory
surround ing them was c ar e fu l ly p r e served and enumer a t ed from t ime t o
t im e .
C o rrob orat iv e ev iden c e o f t h i s phenomenon occurs i n the d eeds ,
which o f t en ment ion sma l l and ins i gn i fi cant mark ing p o i n t s by name ; the
imp l ic i t a s sumpt i on on the p art o f the mag i s tr a t e s who drew up such d e e d s
w a s t h a t each i dent i fying l andmark wou l d b e s o we l l known by a l l th e
cove r e s idents t h at such i d en t i f ic at ion c ou l d s t and up in court .
14
Much more sub s t an t iv e , the crux o n wh ich the ent ire fo l k cul ture
r es t ed , was the int imate know l edge of one ano ther wh i ch the communi ty
sh ared .
I t b e g an w i th gene a l o g i c a l dat a :
a l l the known r e l a t ive s ,
l iv in g and d ead , parent s , grandparent s , aunt s , unc l es , cou s in s , etc . ,
o f any s i ng l e r e s ident was c ommon know l edg e , frequen t l y r e c i t ed , t o al l
memb er s o f the commun i t y .
I n such a c l o s e-knit s o c i ety , s ec r e t s
concern ing one ' s p ersonal l i fe or fami l y w e r e prac t i ca l ly impo s s ib l e to
k e ep , and an a t t emp t to c onc e a l any maj or event was interpr e t ed in the
worst po s s ib l e l ight a s b o th an obv ious ind i c at i on of gu i l t and an
a ffront t o and r e j ec t ion o f the ent ire communi t y .
I n d iv idua l s m i ght
forg ive one another such omi s s i ons r ead i l y enough in Chri s t i an char i ty ,
but the co l l ec t iv e fo l k mind s e l dom forg av e or forgot .
15
Th e net r e s u l t o f thi s cons tant scrut iny o f every ind ividua l i n the
communi t y was that in an a lmo s t comput er - l ik e fash io n , every var i e t y and
14
15
I b id . ; B l ount D eed s , 1 8 3 0 - 1 88 0 , pas s im .
I n t erv iew w i th John W . O l iv er , Septemb er 5 , 1 9 6 3 .
209
i n s tance of human b eh av ior or m i s b eh av i o r w a s r ecord ed and r ememb ered .
Cove ch i l dren ear l y l earned , for instan c e , o f Unc l e Jack Ant hony ' s
pro fane reac t ion on b e ing s truck by l igh tn ing whi l e r i d ing hi s pr i z e
mul e , even though the indi v i dua l i n que s t ion m i ght h av e b e en d ead for
t h i rt y years , or h i s fami l y m i ght h av e d epar t ed the c ov e s evera l d ecad e s
e ar l i er .
The important point here i s that the s e char a c t er i z at i on s and
anecd o t e s on every ind ividu a l who l iv ed in the cove for the p a s t fi fty
year s were ab s o l ut e l y stagg er ing in both the i r number and d e ta i l .
It is
l ik ew i s e d i f f i cu l t t o compreh end the fact that each r at i on a l memb er o f
th e fo l k cu l ture was r equ ir e d t o r ecogni z e ins tant l y the anecdot e , i t s
16
.
ac t or an d cont ext , and t h e mora 1 o r v a1 u e r e f erence surroun d 1ng
1. t .
Thi s knowl edge s erved many func ti ons .
A who l e r ang e o f c omp l ex
emo t ions cou l d b e iden t i fi ed r ead i ly by refer ence to an i n c i dent in
s omeone ' s p a s t persona l h i s tory ; in thi s s ens e , the s e anec d o t e s o r
char a c t er i zat ions funct ioned a s a c ode or s ec ond l anguag e , o f t en
inpenetrab l e or incompr ehens ib l e to an out s i d er .
Thi s s econd l an guag e ,
far more than any suppo sed d ia l ec t , made adj us tment d if f i cu l t for tho s e
r e s i d ent s mov ing out s id e the cove , because i n s o do ing they l o s t not
on l y the int ens e s en s e o f b e l onging and b e i ng cared for b y the ent ire
commun i ty , but a l so thi s l ar ger fo l k know l ed g e o f each o ther wh i ch no
one out s ide the cov e coul d fathom ; it was a lmo s t as though one of their
s en s e s had b een r emoved to l eave such an env ironment .
Thi s frame o f
refer ence was t ime l e s s in it s app l i c a t ion , b e c au s e the v a l u e a s s i gned t o
16
Ib id .
210
each inc ident had to remain unchanged to funct ion as an i dent i fying
fact or .
Th e p er s p ec t i v e whi ch th i s code gav e to th e av er age cove
r e s ident was p art i c u l ar ly r e a s sur ing in th e turbu l ent year s after 1 8 6 5 ,
b inding togeth er as i t d i d the pas t , pre s ent , and d ev e l op in g futur e in a
commo n , univer sa l l y under s tood fram e o f r eferen c e .
17
The fo l k know l ed g e a l s o served a d i d a c t i c purpo s e in s o c ia l i z ing
their chi ldr en , inasmuch a s d ev i ant beh av ior c ou l d be s t i gm at i z ed by
r eference to one of the fo l k charact ers whi ch was far mor e s t inging than
cus t omary upbraidings .
Thi s funct ion extended to adu l t s al s o , s ince no
one w i l l in g l y incurred the r i sk of r i d i cu l e by od ious compar i sons to
the s e type s , or chan c ed the even greater l iabi l i ty of ac t ing in such an
egregious fas h i on that they thems e lv e s b ecame typed and immo r ta l i z ed in
the fo l k memory a s an opprob ious examp l e to futur e generati ons .
Al l
typ e s o f var i ant b ehavi or wer e reproduced in the s e anecd o t e s , an unusual
way of w a l k ing , p lowin g , etc . , m ight a ttrac t the a t t ent ion of the fo l k
m ind a s we l l a s unusua l exp er i enc e s .
I nc luded i n su ch charact er i z at ions
we re v ar i ant pronunc iat ions o r unu sua l comb inat i ons o f word s , a factor
whi ch often m i s l ed tho se fo l k l or i s t s c o l l ec t ing examp l e s o f d ia l ec t ,
s ince they s e l dom rea l i z e d the mimicking capac i ty o f the fo l k or the
17
I b id . Th e b inding fo rce of the ir common cul tur e and sense of
commun i ty often made r emov a l from the cove d i ffi cu l t for pos twar
res i dent s , al though ear ly wr i t ers fai l ed comp l et e l y to c ompr ehend t h i s
s i tuation . Wi l son , for examp l e , l i s t s inert i a , attachment to th e
mount a in s , l ov e o f independence , l ack o f amb i t ion , n o s ta l g ia , t imid ity ,
poverty , and l ack o f prec edent a s the b a s i c r ea sons that Southern
mountaineers r e fused to emi gr at e from the ir homes . Wi l son , Southern
Mountaineers , 6 2 - 63 .
211
enormous numb er and v ar i e t y o f such d e l iberate mi spronunc i at i on s that
were r eproduced a s p art o f t h e common s to r e o f fo l k know l ed g e .
18
V i ew ing the fo l k cu l ture i n the conte xt o f the t o t a l cove soc i e t y ,
•
i t i s a l so important t o point out that there were d e f i n i t e d iv i s ions
w i th in th at s o c i ety wh i ch might appr ec i ab l y a l t er or c o l o r o ne ' s
p erc ept ion o f the commun i ty ' s shar ed know l ed g e .
Th e maj or i ty o f cove
f armer s l iv i n g i n the fert i l e b a s i n shared a c on s ensus o f common i d ea s
and v a l ue s .
The s ma l l er s ubgroup l iv ing i n Ches tnut F l ats , howev er ,
comp l et e l y rej e c t ed the maj ority ' s c ondemnation o f their in sobr i ety ,
s exua l prom i s cu i ty , d i sr egard o f the work eth i c , and ab s t en t i o n from
memb er s h ip in any o f the church e s .
Thi s sub cu l ture i n Che s tnut F l a t s
thus d ev e l oped i t s own sys tem o f fo lk cu l ture b a s i ca l ly ant a gon i s t i c t o
the cove maj ori t y , a l though there were common e l ement s shared by b oth
c u l tur e s wh ich c ou l d not be i gnored .
S ince each group d e fined the other
in such hos t i l e , nega t ive t erms , it is on l y l o g i c a l that their resp ect ive
int erpretation o f common e l ements in the c ov e cu l tur e wou l d d i ffer .
Yet
comment ator s on l i fe in the cove were r ar e l y cogni z ant o f th i s very
bas i c d i s t in c t ion in cove soc i ety , and frequ ent l y charac t er i z ed the
maj o r i t y by informat ion g iven by a memb er of the minor i ty group .
19
18
For a p l ethora o f exc e l l ent examp l e s and i l lustrat ions o f their
use in spe c i f i c context s , s e e J o s eph S . Ha l l , Sayings from O l d Smoky
(Ashev i l l e , N . C . , 1 9 7 2 ) , 1 - 1 4 9 .
19
r b id . Wi l son d id per c eive d i fferences among the mountain p eop l e ,
a l though he made three c la s s i fi c at ions ba s ed on the s e d ifferences wh i ch
w er e comp l ete l y erron eous . Wi l son , Southern Mountaineer s , 1 9 - 2 5 . Ma son
made the m i s take of repr e s enting men whom the c ommun i ty cons idered
n o t or ious out l aws a s "typ i c a l mountaineer s . " Ma s on , Lur e of the Great
Smok i e s , 1 0 6 - 2 6 1 . Unfortunate l y many o f the s t er eotypes and mi sconcep­
t io n s o f wr i ters such as Mason and Horace Kephar t h av e b een uncr i t i ca l ly
212
I t woul d a l s o b e l o g i c a l t o assume a d ef in i t e corre l a t i on b etween
the d e c l ine in l it er a cy and the d ev e lopment of a fo l k cul ture aft er 1 86 5 .
Dr . Jobe in 1 84 9 r e ca l l ed a t t ending a s choo l ' � f the m o s t p r im i t iv e
ord er" i n 1 8 2 5 in t h e c ov e , but conc luded th at "the k ind o f i n s truc t i on
g iv en to u s then was b e t t er adapted to the want s of the peop l e than the
curr i c u l um o f s tud ie s g ener a l l y t aught now in the h i gher schoo l s . "
20
The emph a s i s o n d i s c i p l ine and t h e d ev e l opment o f b a s i c s k i l l s wh ich h e
des cr ibed i n t h e 1 8 20 ' s s eems to have prev ai l ed throughout t h e centur y .
B e fore 1 8 3 6 , "art i c l e" schoo l s w e r e common i n the cov e ; a s choo lmas t er
took sub s cript i on s , or "art i c l es o f agr eement , " from the p e op l e to teach
s choo l in the commun i t y .
Th e s e s e s s i on s u sua l ly l a s t ed two month s , and
the t e acher "had to have prac t i ca l l y no qual i fi cations except that he
cou ld wr i t e a good hand and knew the o ld b lue b ac k sp e l l er and the N ew
Tes tamen t . "
Wh en the cov e b ecame th e s i xt e enth c iv i l d i s tr i ct in 1 8 3 6 ,
each d i s t r i c t e l e c t ed thr e e d i r ec to r s who h ired a t eacher .
The s choo l -
master thus c ho s en was required t o p a s s an exam ination once a year
admin i s tered by th e county sup er intend ent , so the s t andard s for
p erp etuated by modern authors such as M i chae l Frome , Strangers in H i gh
P la c e s (New York , 1 9 66) , 5 7 - 69 , 1 4 5 - 60 .
20
Dr . Jobe b eg an wr i ti n g h i s autob i o g r aphy in 1 8 4 9 , and the s e
s ta t emen t s ar e i n the ear l y p art . "Th e d i s c ip l ine in the pr imi t ive
s cho o l s in my op inion was f irmer , but more c ommo n s en s e and r ea sonab l e ,
th an we f ind in mod ern schoo l s . At the ' o l d f i e l d s c hoo l s ' a s they wer e
I t was study from
c a l l e d , w e had no r e c e s s , as i t i s now ca l l ed .
morn ing t i l l noon , th en an hour for p l ay t ime , and s tudy from one oc l oc k
t i l l turning o u t t ime . And t e achers r ec e iv ed l e s s than h a l f t h e tui t io n
n o w p a i d . . . . Under But l er Tipton , Wi l l i am Dav i s , Ar indat i s Mar t in
and o th er s , who taught in Cades Cove and Tuc ke l eache C ov e , the student s
advanced rap i d l y . My memory was good , and I mad e fine progr e s s at t h e s e
s choo l s . " Jobe , Autob i ography , 1 5 - 1 6 .
213
s e l e c t ing teachers were broadened and b a s i c o r m i n im a l qua l i f i c at i on s
were r e quired .
The s e fr ee or c ommon schoo l s usua l ly operated onl y a few
months out of the year , and d id not offer ins truct i o n b eyond the f i fth
grad e .
21
In the p er iod after the C iv i l War , there i s amp l e ev idence
that these fre e s choo l s cont inued to operat e , howev er .
One ext ant
author i zation by the Cades Cov e s ch o o l d ir ectors in 1 8 74 ment i ons paying
J . C . Sprink l e f i ft y do l l ar s for t eaching the fr e e s choo l No . 2 , whi ch
ind i c a t e s at l ea s t two s choo l s were in operat i on at that t ime .
22
So the l i t er acy r at e , o r qua l i t y o f the aver ag e c i t i z en ' s ab i l i ty
t o read a ft er 1 86 5 i s d i ff i cu l t t o measur e , part i c u l ar l y a s a funct i on
o f the fo l k cu l tur e .
From the records o f the Primit ive Bap t i s t Chur c h ,
the handwr it ing and orthography s eems t o d ec l in e not i ce ab l y after the
C iv i l War .
Census s t at is t i c s in 1 8 7 0 indicate a h igh p er c entage o f
s cho o l - ag e chi l dren h ad attended s choo l w i th in the ye ar , y e t the s e s ame
s t at i s t i cs ind i c at e that 36 p ercent o f the adu l t popu l at i on coul d not
r e ad , and 58 perc en t w ere not ab l e to wr i t e in that year .
23
I t s eems
21
Gamb l e , Her i t ag e and F o l k Mus i c , 54 - 5 5 . F ive memb er s l i sted a s
s cho o l d irectors f o r t h e s i xt eenth c iv i l d i s t r i ct of B l ount Coun t y in
1 8 69 wer e John O l iver , W i l l Lawson , Cal v in P o s t , A. B . Bur chf i e l d , and
Burns , B l ount County , 1 7 3 , 3 2 0 .
J . B . Gregory .
22
N . H . Spar k s and Wi l l i am A . Fee z e l , Scho o l Director s , 1 6th C iv i l
D i str i c t , B l oun t Coun ty , Tenne s s e e , to E l i j ah O l iver , C l er k and Tr easur er ,
January 1 6 , 1 8 7 4 . Or i gina l in po s s es s i on o f Judge W . W . O l iver , Maryv i l l e ,
Tenne s s e e .
23
I n 1 8 7 0 , 1 0 1 c h i ldren
Pr imi t iv e Bap t i s t Minut e s , 1 8 3 0- 1 8 8 0 , p as s im .
b etween the ages o f s i x and s ixteen had attended schoo l w i th in the year ;
2 1 ch i l dren in t h i s age group h ad not . Out o f 1 3 8 adu l t s , twent y - one
year s old o r o ld e r , 5 0 indi cated they cou l d not read , and 80 that they
cou l d not wr i t e .
1 8 7 0 Census , Popu l at i on , B l ount County .
214
probab l e t o conc l ud e that t h e p o stwar d e c l ine i n the cove l it eracy rat e
c o i nc id ed wi th the d ev e l opment o f t h e i r fo l k cu l ture , a l t hough t h i s
g ener a l i z a t i on must b e qua l i f i ed b y p o i n t ing o u t that rough l y h a l f the
adul t popu l at i on in 1 8 7 0 were l i t er at e , i f the c ensu s f i gur es are not
c omp l e t e ly inaccu rate .
Th i s l i ter at e h al f , moreover , wa s r e a s onab l y w e l l
informed about s t at e and nat i on a l event s , and s t i l l r et ained the inten s iv e ,
d e ta i l ed knowl edge of the cove ' s internal affairs requ ired by the fo l k
cu l tur e .
24
An important fun c t i on o f t h i s fo l k cu l t ur e was ent er t ainment i n the
form o f innumerab l e f o l k n arrat ive s , t a l l t a l es , M archen , j ok e s , prov erbs ,
puz z l e s , and s ayings ( i d i oms ) .
Examp l e s o f each o f t h e s e g ener i c typ e s
cou l d b e c i t ed t o conform to t h e p at t erns o f Vo l kskunde in t h e trad i t iona l
Europ ean c la s s i f i c a t i on .
Three b a s i c t yp e s o f fo lk n arra t i v e s reoccur
w i t h s u ff i c i ent fre quency and c o n s i s tency i n the cove f o l k cu l tur e to
j us t i fy c l o s e examina t i on :
t a l l t a l e s (o ften invo lv ing the ab s urd , as
in the German M a rchen) , gho s t s t o ri e s , and narrat ives of war exper iences .
Po s s ib ly a s a resu l t o f the ir wi ldern e s s env ironment , mo s t o f the
t a l l t a l e s from the n ineteenth cen tury f o l k cu l tur e of C ad e s Cove conc ern
extr aord inary f e at s inv ol v ing w i l d anima l s .
The s e t a l es rang e from the
ab sur d , M archen- type s tories primar i ly d e s i gned to entertain chi l dr en to
24
25
J . W. Ol iver , Cades Cov e , I , 7 - 8 ; W. H . O l iver , Sket ches , 2 7 - 5 2 .
rnterv i ew with J . W . O l iver , October 1 3 , 1 9 6 3 . The s e various fo l k
narrat ives were rep eat ed t o the aut hor innumerab l e t imes i n h i s own
chi ldhood by e ld er ly former res idents of the cove ; the fact that they
were part of a shared cul tur e make s sp ec i fi c c i t at i ons d i ffi cu l t , s ince
every memb er o f the commun i ty was fami l iar with them , and the same s tory
was o ften h eard from d i fferent s o ur c es .
25
215
more i nvo lved n arrat ives whi ch appro ach some d egree o f cred ibi l ity among
the adul t popu l a t i on .
An examp l e o f the former type i s the phantom cat ,
who , cha s ing a man to h i s po rch , remarked , " s ome foo tr ac e we h ad . "
Wh ereup on the exhaus ted man rai s ed up and rep l ied , " No t l ik e the one we ' re
go ing to have , " and s tarted runn ing aga in .
26
A popu lar t a l e in the n i n e t e enth c entury invo lved a common Europ ean
mot i f o f a woman a l one in the mount ains e s c ap ing a p ack of wo lves .
In
the cov e v ers i on , the o ld woman was return ing home wi th meat for h e r
chi l dren after as s i s t ing a n e i ghbor in k i l l in g hog s .
As t h e wo lves near ed ,
s h e dropped p i e c e s o f the meat t o d i s tra c t them , final ly arr iv ing s afe l y
home j us t as th e l as t s crap o f m e a t w a s gone .
The animal mos t fr equen t l y
invo l ved i n the s e t a l l t a l e s , however , was the p anther , whom the cov e
p e o p l e feared and b e l i eved capab l e o f at tack ing peop l e .
Such an exper i en c e
was r e l a t ed to Jus t i c e Doug l as i n 1 9 6 2 about Tom Spark s , who c la imed t o
h av e b een attacked wh i l e herd in g sheep o n Gregory ' s Ba l d , and to hav e
d r iv e n o f f w i th a pocke t kni fe the p anther w h i c h h a d j umped o n h i s b ac k .
27
Spark s ' s t a l e i s rem i n i s c en t o f mo s t of the t al l t a l es invo l ving hunt ing
and p anthers dur ing the nineteenth cen tur y .
Ta l l t a l e s d i f fered from o ther typ e s o f narratives ina smuch as they
u sual l y d i d not invo lve the sup ernatur a l ( except in M ar chen- type s tor i e s
p r imar i l y int end ed for ch i ldren) , and approached some degree of cred ib i l i t�
The mo s t notab l e such ta l l t a l e was re l ated to Me l l inger Henry , a
26
The phantom cate was a fav o r i t e mot i f and reo c cur s in count l es s
Ibid .
v ar i a t i ons in such t al l t a l e s pr imar i l y int ended for ch i ldr en .
27
I b i d . ; Doug l as , " Peop l e o f Cade s Cove , " 9 0 .
216
fo l k l or i st exp l or ing the cove area i n the 1 9 2 0 ' s , and d e s c r i b ed how
Ha t t i e Carre l l Herron Mye rs was c arri ed off by an eag l e as a sma l l ch i l d .
Hat t i e was p l aying in h er b a ck yard on Abram ' s Creek wh i l e her mother
d id the fami l y wash ing .
Sudden l y the e ag l e swooped down , fas t ened i t s
t a l on s in th e l i t t l e g ir l ' s c l o th in g and s tarted to f l y o f f .
Th e mother
s creamed so l ou d l y , according to the s t or y , that the eag l e became
fr ightened and dropped the chi l d un inj ured into s ome nearby bushe s .
28
Gho s t s to r i es were extreme l y popu l ar in the fo l k c u l tur e , as the
number and vari ety of such extan t sup ernatura l t a l e s from the nineteenth
century t e s t i fy .
More than t a l l t a l e s , however , the s e gho s t s t or i e s
occas i onal ly h ad a sp e c i f i c funct i on o r d i da c t i c purpo s e in the c u l ture :
commemorating a notab l e c i t i z en o r event in the pas t , o r mar k ing c ar e fu l l y
o n the co l l e c t i v e fo l k mind some p ar t i cu l ar crime o r inj u s t i ce was
frequen t l y accomp l i shed by means of such s tor i e s .
For examp l e , a cove
farmer returning horne into x i c at ed l at e one n ight in the 1 8 7 0 ' s wa s angered
by the c r i e s o f h i s newborn infan t , and d emand ed that h i s w i f e qui e t the
Occup ied w i th s ome o ther t a s k , she was momentari l y unab l e t o comp l y ,
baby .
whereupon the fathe r s e i z ed the in fant i n a gr eat rag e and cru shed h is
skul l .
In the are a around the house where t h i s infant i c ide o ccurred , the
cove p eop l e c l a imed to b e ab l e to hear a gho s t l y baby wai l ing and crying
for many decad es a ft erward .
Th i s sup ernatural ph enomenon r e f l ect ed the
c ommun i ty ' s s e n s e of horror and outrag e at the event , and kep t the d e ta i l s
28
Me l l ing er E . Henry , F o l k - Songs from the Southern H i g h lands (New
York , 1 9 3 8 ) , 1 8 .
217
o f t h e murder b e fore the fo l k mind a s an examp l e and warn ing , even though
the gui l ty farmer s oon moved out of the cove .
29
Ta l e s of war exp er i ences were a l s o popu l ar and s erved to idea l i z e
and commemorat e the nat ion ' s wars , par t i cu l ar l y the Revo l u t i onary War ,
in the folk mind .
Lt . Davi s , e s caping through the cove from a Southern
pr i son camp dur ing the C iv i l War , remarked with ama z ement how the o ld t imer s in n e i ghboring Tuc k a l eechee Cove entertained h im wi th R evo lut i onary
.
.
Wa r s to r 1es
30
John O l iver had a p l ethora o f t a l e s which he r e l at ed about
G ener a l Jackson and h i s exper i ences at Hor s esho e B end i n the War of 1 8 1 2 .
How d e t erminat ive t h e s e s tori e s wer e in mo l d i n g the c o n s ensus in the cove
against s ec e s s ion i n 1 8 6 1 is impo s s ib l e accur at e l y to d e t ermine , but i t
i s undoubted l y true that such war ta l es , t o l d r epeated l y through t h e ye ars ,
s erved to tr ans form the ear l y nat iona l war s into unriva l ed s t andard s o f
accomp l i shment and patr iot i sm i n the fo l k m i nd .
O l iver recoun t ed how the
Chero k e e chi e f , Junu l u s ka , swam und er wat er to cut l o o s e enemy cano e s at
Horse sho e Bend , an a c t i on he con s id ered paramount to t h e ir u l t imat e
v i ctory .
Another repres entative t a l e , as r e c a l l ed by h i s grand son ,
W i l l i am Howe l l , conc erned O l iver ' s exper i en c es i n th i s war a s s oc i at ed
w i th p icket duty in the mi d s t of h o s t i l e Ind i ans :
He s a i d that one of tho s e w i ld Ind i an s had k i l l ed a w i l d hog
and sk inned it and wr apped h im s e l f up in th e skin of that wi l d
h o g s o comp l et e l y that h i s h ands and feet was no t ea s e l y d e t e c t ed
and under that skin he had a d agger and tomahawk . He wou l d
cr aw l a l on g unt i l l h e wou l d g et c l o s e enough to t h e man a t the
29
30
Interv i ew w i th J . W . O l iver , October 1 3 , 1 96 3 .
D av i s Manuscr ipt , Decemb er 3 , 1 8 64 .
218
po s t , then h e wou l d throw o f f the skin and bur s t upon the
s en t ine l w i thout any a l arm , h e then k i l l ed the man and c arried
h im o ff some d i s tance and conceal ed h im in the l eave s , he then
covered h ims e l f again in h i s h og sk i n and fi xed for ano ther
man . Th i s he done unt i l l he had k i l l ed thr e e brav e men , and
no trace o f them cou l d be found . Thi s so ama z ed the c ompany
that the fourth man who s e turn it wa s to t ak e the p o s t tremb l ed
from head to foo t . The c aptain then s t ated that h e wou l d h av e
n o man a g a in s t h i s wi l l . A man immed i a t e l y s t epped from the
rank s , and d e s ired to t ak e the po s t , t e l l ing the cap t a i n that
i f a cr ow chatt ered or a l eaf fe l l that he wou ld he ar h i s
mus k e t t . M y Gran father s a id they a l l shook hands w i th h im and
went away to t h e i r duty . He s aid that it had not b e en v ery
l ong unt i l l they heard h i s gun fir e , they a l l went to see what
he was do ing , upon arr ival they s aw the man com e in g dragg ing
the Ind i an by the hair of h i s h ead . The man s a i d h e had not
b een verry l ong at h i s post t i l l he s e en this wi l d hog a s it
s e emed to be prow l ing a l ong hunt ing for nut s , but kept his eye
upon it un t i l l h e thought he s aw h im g iv e an unusual spring ,
upon wh i ch he no l onger he s i tated , t o ok h i s aim , d i s charg ed
h i s p ie c e , and immed i at e ly the an imal was stret ched out b e fore
h im with the groan of a human . Th i s unfo l d ed the mys t ery o f
what h ad happened t o the o ther thre e men that were l o s t . 3 1
B earing i n mind the fac t that the ent ert ainment func t ion was o n l y
o n e part o f t h e tot a l i t y of t h e cove fo l k c u l ture , i t i s unfo rtunate
th at f o l k l or i s t s in the twent i eth century bad l y d i s torted thi s tot a l i ty
by s e l e c t ing o n l y certain par t s o f i t to c o l l ec t and anal y z e .
No group
was more gu i l ty of th i s sort of s e l ec t ive percep t i on than ba l l ad
co l l ec t o rs .
Granted that b al l ad s were thems e lves intr ins i ca l ly inter e s t ing ,
and that from a l l account s Cades Cove was an unequa l ed res ervoir o f many
v ar i e t i e s of b a l l ad s in the Southern Appal achian mountains , co l l ectors
neverth e l e s s ignored the h i s tor i c a l con t e xt o f the s e b a l l ad s and made no
real effort to ana l y z e the ir funct i on w i t h i n the cove fo l k cu ltur e .
R i chard Dorson h as p o inted out the fal l acy of such r e s earchers who s e
31
w . H . O l iver , Sketches , 1 - 3 .
219
co l l ect i ons " inc l ude t e chn i c a l l y exc e l l ent work s " but "remain on the
l ev e l of text - hunt ing . "
I n s t ead of comp aring var i at i on s with the
European Ur- typ e , Dorson argues , such ba l l ad s shou l d be eva luat ed w i thin
the context o f normative Amer i c an experi en c e s such as the Wes twar d
32
I
.
M ov ement , r e g 1. ona 1 1' sm , an d t h e nat 1on
s wars .
I n the summer o f 1 9 2 8 , M e l l inger E . Henry d i s covered i n C ad es Cove
p e op l e who " s t i l l t a l k t o s om e extent the l anguage of Shak e speare ' s t ime
and s ing the s on g s and b a l l ad s of that period . "
I so l at e d by the i r
mount ain env ir onment , t h e s e peop l e o f "Ang l o - S axon s t o c k " c l ing " even
yet to the mann ers and cu s t oms o f the 1 8th century . "
In a s er i es of
art i c l es in the N ew Jersey Journ a l o f Educat i on and in two pub l i shed
c o l l ect i ons , Henry document ed a v a s t array o f trad i t i on a l Eng l i sh and
S cott i s h b a l l ad s from Cad e s Cove , i nc l u ding such rar e s ongs as " L i t t l e
Mus grave and Lady Barnard , " " L amk in , " "Johnny S co t , " "Sir Hugh , o r the
Jew ' s Daughter , " " Lady I s ab e l and the E l f Kni ght , " "Ear l Br and , " "Young
B e i c h an , " " Lord Thomas and F a i r Annet , " "James Harr i s , " " B onny Barbara
A l l an , " and "The f\!aid Freed from the G a l l ow s . "
32
33
33
Dorson , Ame r i c an F o l k l o r e , 1 7 - 7 7 .
Henry ' s art ic l es and head - notes to ba l l ad s are found i n the
fo l l ow i n g i s su e s of the New Jer s ey Journa l of Educat ion : F ebruary , 1 9 2 6 ,
p . 5 ; March , 1 9 2 6 , p . 6 ; Sep t emb er , 1 9 2 6 , p . 2 0 ; February , 1 9 2 7 , p . 7 ;
June , 1 9 2 7 , p . 9 ; December , 1 9 2 7 , p . 1 1 ; f\larch , 1 9 2 8 , p . 1 3 ; F ebruary ,
1 9 2 9 , p . 1 0 ; March , 1 9 2 9 , p . 1 2 ; Apr i l , 1 9 2 9 , p . 1 0 ; May , 1 9 2 9 , p . 9 ;
S eptemb er , 1 9 2 9 , p . 9 ; Nov emb e r - Decemb er , 1 9 2 9 , p . 1 0 ; January , 1 9 3 0 ,
p . 1 0 ; March , 1 9 3 0 , p . 8 ; October , 1 9 3 0 , p . 4 ; Novemb e r - D e c emb er , 1 9 3 0 ,
p . 6 ; January- F ebruary , 1 9 3 1 , p . 1 5 . Henry , Fo l ksongs from the Southern
H i gh l and s , 1 - 4 4 9 ; Me l l ing er E . Henry , Son g s Sung in the Southern
App a l ach i ans ( London , 1 93 4 ) , 1 - 2 5 3 .
220
H enry doub t l es s ly performed a n inva luab l e s e rv i c e in id en t i fying
and p r e s erv ing th e s e trad i t i onal b a l l ad s , but h e ignored the l arger f o l k
cu l ture wh ich tran sm i t ted them and con centrated o n co l l ect i n g on ly those
songs w i t h reco gn i z ab l e Eng l i s h ant eceden t s .
C o gn i z ant o f the fact that
ba l l ad -mak ing was a continuing proces s , he neverthe l es s i gnored ba l l ad s
from t h e l a t er n i n e t e enth century wh i ch r e f l e c t ed such s ignal exper i en c e s
a s t h e C iv i l War .
Al though mos t o f the b a l l ad s c ame from C a d e s Cov e , h e
r andomly lumped them t oge ther with tho s e from o ther par t s o f t h e
c u l tura l l y h e t er o g eneous Southern Appal achi ans .
I f H enry was ob l iv i ou s
t o the patent d i s t inct i ons b etween the c ov e communi t y and t h e l arger
region , he was s imi larly b l ind to v ari ations amon g ind i v i dual info rmant s
who supp l ied the b a l l ad s .
Th e Harmon fam i l y , h i s ch i e f s ourc e , had
moved to Cade s Cove in the twen t i e th c entur y , for ins t ance , and were n o t
neces sari l y repres entative o f the o l der fo l k cu lture .
34
H enry ' s s cho l ar ly myopia was par t i a l ly corr ec t ed by Margaret
E l i sabeth Gamb l e in her 1 9 4 7 Southern C al i forni a the s i s ent i t l ed "The
Heri t ag e and Fo l k Mus i c of C ad e s Cove , Tennes s ee . "
P erceiv ing the v i t a l
r e l a t ionship b etween t h e commun i ty and o r a l expres s i ons o f t h e fo l k
cu l tur e , s h e m a d e a sustained e ffort t o ana l y z e t h e s o c i a l cont ext o f
t h e seventy- s ix b a l lads s h e co l l ec t ed from former cove res idents .
D e s cended from a former r e s ident , she h ad an immed iate entree few o ther
s cho l ar s had prev i ous l y enj oyed .
Yet Gamb l e never qui t e und erstood what
she h ad found , po s s ib l y due to the fact t h at the commun ity h ad alr eady
34
H enry , F o l k s on g s from the Southern H i gh l and s , 1 9 - 2 1 .
221
b een d i sper s ed by 1 9 4 7 , and s h e was unab l e t o gr asp the t o t a l i t y o f the
fo l k cu l ture through the eye s o f indivi dua l and e l der l y i nformants .
35
Gamb l e d i s covered that t h e l arg e s t group o f song s , more numerous
than even the trad i t i onal b a l l ad s , were h ymn s o f the var i ety known as
" o l d harp s ong s . "
Harp s ing ing was introduc ed to the cove aft er the
C iv i l War by various s i nging mas t er s who were p ai d by the commun ity to
conduct a scho o l in wh i ch inter e s t ed peop l e cou ld l earn the no t es and
method o l ogy of harp s inging .
Thi s type o f s inging , wide spread throughout
the area , was e s p e c i a l l y popul ar in Cades Cove b ecau s e i t h ad the
approval of the dominant chur ches , part i cu l ar l y the Prim i t ive Bapt i s t .
The maj or i ty o f the cove c ommuni t y s tron g l y d i s approved o f the mo re
s a l a c ious songs sung by th e s ub community in Che s tnut F l at s , and
s t i gmat i z ed t h e s e a s " j i g s " o r "c arniva l songs . "
36
Remnant s o f the o ld er fo l k cu l ture were d i s covered a c c iden t a l l y by
G amb l e in 1 9 4 6 when she attended one of the s e harp s inging s .
To her
ama z ement , former cove inh ab i tants c a l l ed the s ongs by numb er , never by
37
n am e ; " they knew the boo k s o we l l t h at t h e p a g e s were ev en memor1. z e d . "
Th e fo l k cul ture was determined not by i t s ingred i en t s , as former l y
s t at e d , b u t by the c o l l ec t iv e use and kno w l edge of whatever informat i on
w as d eemed n e c e s s ary or des i r ab l e .
I n thi s i n s t anc e , harp s ing ing was
not ind i g enous to the cove , since i t had b een imported after 1865 and
was c ommon ly pr a c t i c ed in the l arg er r e g ion .
35
36
37
Yet the fo l k cul tur e
G amb l e , Her i tage and F o l k Mus i c , 1 - 2 0 7 .
I b id . , 63 , 68 , 1 0 9 - 1 5 ; J . W . O l iver , C ades Cove , I , 1 7 .
Gamb l e , Her i t ag e and F o l k !vlu s i c , 1 1 2 .
222
embr aced the s e hymn a l s , as s i gn i n g a value and i d ent i ty to each song so
th at one had on l y to c a l l the number to i dent i fy it to the ent ire group .
Th i s mechan i sm o f a s s i gning c ommon v alue or i dent i ty to a w i d e range o f
phenomena funct i oned r egard l e s s o f whether t h e ingre d i en t w a s o ld or n ew ,
and meant that the fo l k mind was b o th f l exib l e and expanding in
inco rporating o th er concep t s .
New ideas could a l so come from l it erary
sourc e s , s i n c e the mas tery of h arp s inging requi red the part i c ipant to
b o th r ead and l e arn the no t e s .
38
An extrem e l y important aspect of the f o l k cu l tur e was the d i a l ect ,
or v ar iant form o f spoken Eng l i s h used by the cove inhab i t an t s during
the n inet eenth c entur y .
E ar l y wr i ters b e l i eved that E l i z ab ethan Eng l i s h ,
or at l eas t surv iv a l forms common in the eight eenth c entury , were s t i l l
used b y cove inhab i tant s we l l into the twen t i eth century .
Other wr i t ers
such as Mary No a i l l e s Mur free and Horace Kephar t , portrayed Southern
Appa lachian d i a l ec t in such a d i s torted and gro t e s que fashion that they
comp l e t e l y m i s int erpr eted reg i onal speech patt erns .
Keph ar t , ac cording
t o one c r i t i c , " s eem s to hav e b een impr e s s e d p ar t i cu l ar l y b y what wou l d
l ook l ike good d i a l ec t o n paper , and h i s no t es and pub l i shed wr i t in g s
s c arc e l y d o j us t i c e to t h e spe ech wh ich h e seeks t o repr e s ent . "
39
Even
when Jus t i c e Wi l l i am 0 . Doug l a s , an untrained phone t i c i an , at t empt ed to
d e s cr i b e or thograph i c a l l y the spe ech of Cades Cove inhab i t ant s in a 1 9 6 2
Nat ional Geogr aphi c art i c l e , the resu l t "wa s a k ind o f m im i cked d i a l ec t
38
39
I b id . , 5 8 .
J o s eph S . Ha l l , The Phonet i c s o f Great Smoky Mountain Spe ech (New
York , 1 9 4 2 ) , 4 . S e e a l s o Kephar t , Our Southern High l anders , 3 5 0 - 9 8 .
223
o f the var i et y u s e d in c om i c s trips such as ' Snuffy Smi th ' o r ' L ' i l
Abner . ' ' '
40
The fir s t s cho l ar ly ana lys i s o f t h e r e g i onal Eng l i sh o f Cades Cove
came in 1 9 4 2 with the pub l i c at ion o f Jos eph S . Ha l l ' s The Phon e t i c s of
Great Smoky Mountain Speech .
S ince ear l i er art i c l es by s cho l ar s
inter e s t ed in S outh ern mountain d i a l ect , such as Jo s i ah C ombs and
Char l e s C arpent er , had been primar i ly conc erned w i t h l exi cogr aphy , Ha l l
undertook to record and analy z e phono log i c al l y repr e s ent at i v e s amp l es
o f the sp eech patt erns of a l l the p e op l e in Tenn e s s e e and North Caro l ina
who were d i s l o c at e d by the e s t ab l i shment of the Great Smoky Mountains
Nat l. o n a l Park .
41
·
·
·
·
·
S ev ere 1 y cr l t l C l Z lng popu 1 ar wr1 t ers 1 1· k e K eph art w h o
h ad bad l y d i s tor t ed reg i ona l mountain speech , he i n i t i a l l y found few
v e s t i g e s of ear l ie r s t a g e s in the growth of the Eng l i sh l anguage , wh i ch
t h e s e wri ters h ad s o frequent l y charac t er i z ed as "Ang l o - Saxon , "
" Chauceri an , " o r "E l i z ab e than . "
He con c l ud ed that Smoky Moun t ain speech
s howed "no sharp c l eav age from the speech of mo s t of Amer i c a , " a l though
there were " c l o s e a ffinit i e s w i t h the s p e e ch o f the r e s t o f the S outh . "
40
42
�1 . J ean Jones , The R e g i onal Eng l i sh o f the Former I nhab it an t s of
Cades Cove in the Great Smoky Moun t ains (Doc t ora l d i s s er t at i on , Un iver s i ty
o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 7 3 ) , 3 3 .
41
Ha l l , Phonet i c s , 1 ; Jo s i ah Comb s , "Th e Language of the Southern
H i gh l ander , " PMLA , XLV I ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 1 30 2 - 2 2 ; Char l e s Carpent er , "Vari a t i on s
i n th e Southern Mountain D i a l ec t , " Amer i c an Speech , V I I I ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 2 2 - 2 5 ;
G ordon Wood , Vocabu l ary Chang e : A Study of Var i a t ion in R eg ional Word s
i n E i ght o f th e S outh ern S t at e s ( Carbond al e , 1 97 1 ) .
42
Ha l l , Phone t i c s , 4 .
2 24
I n a more r e c en t s tudy , Ha l l attempted to ana l y z e the fo l k cu l ture
o f the cove peop l e through their u s e of proverb i a l s ayings and common
expr e s s ion s :
Carefu l examinat ion of the s e s ayings w i l l e t ch s c enes and
awaken ech o e s o f the p a s t l i fe in th e Great Smok i e s . The s e
s cenes and echoes revea l fo l k s ki l l s and t h e s trong t i e s
between t h e peop l e and the ir farms and farm anima l s . Ther e
ar e a l so s trong l ingu i s t i c t i e s to l i fe in the f i e l d s and
fore s t s , and in the rugged mountain s ; there are , too quaint
a l lus ions to the hard work of farming , the hearty sport of
b earhun t ing , the work o f women at their t as k s "nev er done , "
as the proverb goe s . There ar e mood s o f wearine s s , sadne s s ,
j oy , and p l easur e , and humorous outburs t s o f w i l d exub erance .
There ar e ech o e s o f front ier brags and t al l t a l k . Ther e are
o c c a s ional r e s t r ained h i n t s of s i n and sex . There ar e
referen c e s t o worn - out so i l , to the l u s h , j ung l e- l ik e growth
of p l an t s and tr e e s , and to changes of weather . There are
frank or rus t i c and somet imes witty charact eri za t i on s o f
peop l e , e s p ec i a l l y a s to their odd i t i e s . There are r eferenc e s
to the v io l ence of moods and emo t i ons that angered men are
c apab l e o f fe e l ing . 4 3
H i s mod i f i ed conc lus i on that many o f the s e sayings " g o back at
l e a s t to ear l y Eng l i sh" was c orroborated by M. Jean Jones in a 1 9 7 3
d i s s ertat ion a t t h e Univers i t y o f Tennes s e e .
Working under the d i r e c t ion
of Haro ld Orton , one of Brit ain ' s mo s t d i s t ingui shed d i a l ec t o l og i s t s ,
she app l i ed advanc ed methodo l o g i c a l t echniques for phono l o gi c a l r e s earch
to the speech patterns of five e l d er l y former inhab i t an t s of Cad e s C ov e
who had r emained c omparat ive l y i s o l ated s ince r emova l from their homes
during the late 1 9 3 0 ' s .
She conc l ud ed that the cove peop l e spoke a
homogenous d ia l ec t charac t e r i z ed by a fairl y p er s i s t en t pattern o f vowe l
f l uc tuat i on .
More s ignifican t l y , she o ffer ed conv inc ing phono l o g i cal
evi d ence that the cove speech patt erns w ere fur ther character i z ed by
43
Ha l l , Saying s , 1 .
225
forms o f grammar and vo cabu l ary common i n ear l i er Eng l i sh , but l on g
d i sc arded i n modern u sage .
44
The d ivers i ty and v i t a l ity o f t h e n i net eenth century fo l k cul ture
of Cades Cov e ar e evi dent in the surv iving l anguage and anecdo t e s o f
former inhab i tant s -- l anguage e l s ewhere outmoded , but ful l o f ear l ier
p i c tur es o f fo l k imagery .
" I f there i s any one thing whi c h i l lu s trat es
s imp l y and w e l l a peop l e ' s char acter or group p er s onal i ty , " Ha l l
r ight fu l l y con c l uded , " i t i s the l anguage they us e . "
45
Thus surv i v in g
l anguage and sp eech pat terns r e f l e c t t h e common b onds o f the c ove peop l e
un i t ed b y the e xcruc i a t ing ord e a l o f the C iv i l War and l at e r economic
depre s s io n .
Th e fo l k cul tur e i n t h i s sense was a cont inuing s o l ace ;
through " favor i t e phras es d e s cr ib ing such c ommon things a s l and , peop l e ,
t im e and weather ; o at h s and pro fan i t y ; humorous remarks ; and apho r i sms , "
they r eaffirmed their sen s e o f communi ty and fa i th i n the e s s ent i a l
human i ty o f one another .
44
45
46
Jones , Reg 1ona 1 Eng 1 1" s h , 1. 1 1 - 1v .
.
.
.
.
Ha l l , Smoky Mountain Fo lks , 54 .
I b id .
46
CHAPTER V I I
CON C LU S I ON
Cad es Cove during the ninet eenth century paradoxi ca l l y r ef l e c t ed
b o t h enormous change a s a repr e s entative weathervane o f po l it i c a l and
economi c curr ent s w it h in the l arger region , and pers i s t ent cu l tural
continu i ty as the communi ty turned increas ing l y inward t o cope w i th
t h e s e changes .
Had they l iv e d unt i l 1 9 00 , John and Luc r e t i a O l iv er , the
f i r s t permanent whi t e set t l er s , wou l d h av e h ad l it t l e d if f i cu l ty in
und ers t anding the commun i ty ' s l at er frame of mind , nor wou l d they hav e
b e en much surpr i s ed b y th e farming t echni que s , t h e u s e o f the l and and
anima l s , whi ch s eemed s c ar c e l y a l t ered at the turn o f the c entury from
t h e i r e ar l y year s .
Y e t both the O l iv ers h ad w i tne s s ed s i gn i fi cant econom i c chan g e s
b e tween 1 8 1 8 and 1 8 6 5 which p l ac e t h e apparent s imi l ar ity o f t h e cove ' s
d e v e lopment at the b eg inn ing and end o f the c entury in prop er h i s t o r i cal
persp e c t ive .
Dur ing the booming years of the 1 8 4 0 ' s and 1 8 5 0 ' s , new
immigran t s h ad f lo oded int o the c ov e , bring ing b o th innovat ive ideas and
a d i v er s i ty o f cu l tural trad i t i ons .
At t h i s po int , the c ov e was in the
m ainstream of the Wes tward Movement , s erv ing as a recept a c l e not on ly
for w e s t ering Ame r i c an s but a l so fo r new immigrants from s ev eral fore i gn
c ount r i e s and , in turn , s end ing many of her own fam i l ie s further We s t .
I n the two d e c ad e s b efore the C iv i l War , there was a l s o a creat ive
energy and opt imi sm wh i ch unders cored the c ov e ' s rap i d econom i c growth .
Entr epreneurs such as D an i e l D . Foute and Dr . Calv in P o s t nurtur ed
226
227
e l ab o rate s cheme s to d eve l op the cove ' s p o t ent ia l .
I f Dr . P o s t ' s
l et t e r s in the 1 8 5 0 ' s to h i s N ew York min ing company b o s s e s -- inv e igh ing
again s t them b ec au s e they (prudent l y ) d i d not inv e s t l ar g e sums of money
in h i s proj e c t ed g o l d and s i l v er mine s -- s eem s l i gh t l y r i d i cu l ou s now , h e
neverth e l es s s erved t h e communi t y ab l y w i th innovative sugge s t i ons o n
a l l asp e c t s o f hor t i c u l tur e and an imal hu sbandr y , as we l l as wi th m ed i c a l
adv i c e and w i t h h i s exten s i v e know l edge of mining techno l ogy .
Likewi s e ,
a l though Fou t e fai l ed more o ft en than not in h i s many e c onomic v entures ,
such as the C ad e s Cove B loomary Forg e , in the pro c e s s he cons tru c t ed
exc e l l en t roads out of the cove t o regiona l markets whi c h a l l owed the
deve l opment o f a market economy .
Thi s market economy in turn re f l ected chan g e s in the l arg er reg ion ,
as the prices for produce a l t erna t e l y ro s e and f e l l .
L ike o ther
Tenn e s s e ans in the pro sperous decades b e for e the war , cove c i t i z en s
enj oyed the " g o l den age" o f Tenn e s s e e agricu l ture .
After t h e war , they
were impover i sh ed for decad e s as the marke t economy remained d epr e s s ed
and on l y s l ow l y regained momentum .
By the 1 8 9 0 ' s , howe ver , the mar ket
was s tead i ly improv ing , and the c ommuni t y cou l d ant i c ipate yet another
chang e -- th i s t ime prop i t i ou s -- a s they faced the burg eoning e conomi c boom
in agricul tural p r i c e s dur ing the fir s t decad e o f the twent i e t h c entury .
Throughout the n in e t eenth , howev er , d e s p i t e c on s i s t ent l y exc e l l en t
h arv e s t s from t h e fer t i l e s o i l , the c o v e e conomy depended on the
f lu ctuat i ons in the l arger r e g i on a l mark e t .
In t h i s s ens e , economic
change was the s i ng l e most important var i ab l e in the c ommun i ty ' s
devel opment .
228
Ano ther v ar i ab l e whi ch brought w i d espread p o l i t ic a l , soc ia l , and
e conom i c upheav a l was the C iv i l War .
I n their po l i t i c a l p h i l os ophy m o s t
of the c o v e peop l e had rema ined unchanged ; t yp i c a l l y , John O l iver
remained s teadfa s t in h i s al l eg i ance to Andrew Jackson , und er whom he
had fought at Hors e s ho e B end in t h e War of 1 8 1 2 , whi l e his native C art er
C ounty had in the interim b ecome a Whi g s t rongho l d anathemat i z ing O ld
H i c kory .
L i k e O l iver , the communi t y remained l oyal t o t h e i r o l der c iv i l
government , and wi shed to b e l e ft a l one w i th the i r trad i t ional pat t erns
o f l o ya l ty .
Yet t h i s v ery d e s ire not t o change brought the mo s t tragi c
and d evas t at ing c hang e i n their l iv e s as hos t i l e North C aro l ina guerr i l l as
s y s t emat i c a l l y raided the commun i t y , murd ering l oya l is t s and through
t h e i r p i l l aging , b ringing s tarv a t i on to the ent i re c i v i l i an popu l a t i on .
F ina l l y dr iven by d e sperat i on , the commun i ty under the l ead er ship of
Rus s e l l Gregory organi z ed into a parami l itary camp t o c omb at the s e
guerr i l l a raid s .
N e i ther Gregory ' s succ e s s fu l d efen s e o f the cove nor
h i s sub s equent murder by the r ebe l s , however , preven t ed a r adi c al change
in the commun i ty ' s charact er or compo s i t ion dur ing the cour s e o f the
conf l i c t .
F i gh t ing to pr ev ent chang e , they had n everth e l e s s undergon e dra s t i c
a l t er a t i ons by 1 8 65 .
The enorm i t y o f their wart ime suffer ings and
s acr i f i c e s m ad e the remain ing cove dwe l l er s b i t t er l y hos t i l e toward
p r o - C on feder at e fam i l i es l ong aft er the war .
Moreover , increas ing l y
into l erant and susp i c ious o f s tr angers , the inhab i tan t s wer e ever more
prone to rej e c t d iv er s ity or innov at ion , s ince trus t i ng anyone not part
o f t h e ir group in the cour s e of the confl i c t had often brought sud d en
229
t error and death .
These b ehav ioral pat t erns n ec e s s ary for surv iva l
dur ing the war c ar r i ed ov er into peacet ime , and b y 1 8 65 , t h e communi ty-­
s o c i a l l y retrospe c t ive and economi cal l y r etrogr e s s ive due to a reg i on a l
depre s s ion -- b ec ame even more radi c a l l y d i fferent from the open , energ et i c ,
and forward - l ook ing s o c i ety o f the pro sperous 1 8 4 0 ' s and 1 8 50 ' s .
Th ere were a l s o enduring con t inu i t i e s in the cov e ' s dev e l opment .
The wi l d ernes s envi ronment o f the surround ing Great Smoky Mountains
rema ined c on s t ant throughout the c entury , and did not y i e l d to adj acent
farms o r new s e t t l emen t s a s o c curred in o ther s ec t ions of the country .
Whatever use th e cove p eop l e mad e o f t h i s w i l dern e s s --whether i t
furn i sh ed foo d , wood , o r m er e l y r ecreat i on -- i t r emained an ev er-pr e s ent
factor in their l iv e s , and o ffered t empor ary asylum t o any m ember who
t ired o f the int ens e c ommun a l l i fe in the cove proper .
W i th the
excep t i on of the C iv i l War period , when the mount ains hid reb e l guer r i l l as
and afforded them the advantage o f surpr i s e attack , most o f the inhab i t an t s
app ear t o have regarded the i r surrounding w i l d e rn es s as a b enign , i f n o t
b enevo l ent , fac tor in the ir l iv e s .
Re l ig ion o f fered the cove peop l e a d ifferent type of cont inu i t y .
Th e dominant P r im i t iv e Bap t i s t church found s ecur ity and s o l ac e in
attempt ing to maintain the ir fai th unchanged and ina l t erab l e in the face
of cont inu ing s e cu l ar innovat i on .
I n a t t empt ing t o remain the s ame ,
howev er , the chur ch was o ft en forced to change , i f for no other purpo s e
than t o d enounce revi s i oni s t s , such a s the M i s s ionary B apt i s t s ; t o d eny
orthodoxy to any o ther c omp et ing group inev itab l y meant forming a n ew
cr i t i que , or interpre tation , o f a part i cu l ar theo l o g i c a l d i sput e .
The s e
230
theo l o g i c a l d eb a t e s consumed t h e p a s s ions and ener gy of many o f t h e c ov e
inhab i t ant s throughout the century , howev er , and wer e s et apart from
the more mundane fru s t r at i on s or prob l ems o f any g iv en decad e .
I n that
s ens e , the debate h ad a time l e s s , constan t qua l i t y about i t ; during the
war, for ins t an c e , the chur ch was quiet w i thin , in contr a s t t o i t s
s tormy d ebat es dur ing the p o l i t i ca l l y peac efu l 1 8 3 0 ' s .
The hos t i l i t y of the Prim i t iv e Bap t i s t church t o the Confeder a t e
c au s e i l l ustrat e s a n important ideo l o g i c a l thread i n d et ermining h o w and
why the commun i t y changed .
Oppo s ing their n e i ghbor ing areas , p ar t i cu l ar l y
We s t ern North C ar o l ina , s e emed to numb ers o f S outherners an incon s i s t ent
break w i th their pas t .
Yet to the cove B apt i s t s , the o l o g i ca l innovat i on
had l ong been anathemat i z ed a s the great e s t d anger to their spiritual
w e l fare .
Was not an a l terat i on in the o l d American po l it i cal s truc tur e
something very c l o se to the type o f theo l o g i ca l innov at i on so inv e ighed
aga i n s t by a generat ion of J eremiah s ?
The p oint i s that in their own
frame of re ferenc e , they were b eing comp l et e l y consi s t ent in oppo s in g
the innovat ion i n the po l i t i c a l ord er whi ch the Confederacy repr e s ent ed .
An attack aga i n s t their church by the North Caro l ina guerr i l l as fina l l y
confirmed their wors t fears and provided the s trong e s t p o s s ib l e
mo t iv at i on for an ener g e t i c d e fe n s e o f what had now b ecome fus ed :
t h e ir
re l ig i on , property , and p ersonal independence .
I f they end ed up fight ing o ld enem i e s in n ew d i s gu i s e s dur ing the
war , the cove p eop l e cou l d dr aw on ano ther enduring s our ce o f s trength
and cont inuity-- the ir s en s e o f c ommun ity .
A l ways i s o l ated g e o graph i c a l l y ,
they had b e en dr awn together during the 1 8 2 0 ' s t o confront the w i l dern e s s
231
and f i ght th e Indians .
During the C iv i l War , c l o s e communa l cooperat i on
was again nec e s sary for surv i v a l , and the econom i c d epr e s s i on i n the
decades a fter 1 8 6 5 cont inued to mak e carefu l coop era t i on and communa l
respon s ib i l ity important ingred i en t s i n the i r d a i ly l iv e s .
Str engthening
the p o s twar s en s e of communi ty was the growing numb er of extended
fam i l ie s remain ing in the cov e ; by 1 88 0 , prac t i ca l ly everyone was
d i r e c t l y or indi r e c t l y r e l a t ed to one another .
Out of the p o s twar commun i t y emer g ed a d i s t inct ive fo l k c u l tur e ,
which i n many re s p e c t s wa s no more than a c o l l ec t ive cons c i ou s n e s s
wh ere in p eop l e , their l iv e s and anecdo t e s about them , as we l l a s the
phys i c a l geography o f the c ov e , i t s trad i t i on s and fo l k lore , were
a s s i gned a spe c i fi c v a lue or meaning wh i ch every m emb er ins t an t l y
recogn i z e d and appre c i ated .
Thi s co l l ec t iv e con s c i ou s n e s s was both a
s o l a c e fo r their p as t l o s s e s and a guide t o futur e a c t i on s ; i t imp o s ed
c l ear gu idel ines or l im it s , on the individual ' s b ehav i or , but in turn
o ffered the a l m o s t t o t a l s en s e of shared s ecur i ty in any future
under taking .
I n l i ght o f t h i s s tudy , the peop l e of Cades Cov e app ear far more
c omp l ex in t h e ir h i s t o r i c a l d ev e l opment than the s t andard s t ereotype s of
the Southern mountaineer in f i c t ion or popu l ar l it eratur e wou l d ind i c at e .
They were n e i ther the superhuman , romant i c i z ed figur e s o f Mary Noa i l l e s
Mur fr e e , nor t he wr e tched c r e atur es l iv ing i n d eprav i ty and d egrad a t i o n
a s p i ctur ed by the " Mounta in Muckrak er s . "
Rather , t h e y were i n the
final ana l ys i s r epres entat ive of the broad mainstream o f ninet eenth
c entury Amer i can cul ture and s o c i ety from whence they c ame :
ord inary ,
232
d e c en t c i t i z en s who o ft en r eacted co l l e c t iv e ly -- and w i t h in t h e ir
l imitat ions , courage ou s l y and respon s ib ly -- to the enormous e c onomic
f l uc tu a t ion , s o c i a l change , and po l i ti c a l d i s ruption surround ing their
l iv e s throughout the n inet eenth c entury .
B I BL IOGRAPHY
B I BL I OGRAPHY
A.
1.
P R I MARY SOURCES
Manuscript C o l l ec t ions
Dav i s , Char l es G . , Army L i fe and Pri son E xper i ences o f Maj or Char l es G .
D av i s . Unpub l i shed t yped manu s cr ip t , no date , in the p o s s e s s ion o f
h i s grandson , E l io t Davi s , Gr and Mara i s , Minn e so t a . X erox copy a l s o
i n Spec i a l C o l l ec t ions , Un iv er s i ty o f Tenn e s s e e L ib r ary , Knoxv i l l e .
Job e , Abraham , Autob i ography o r Memo ir s . Unpub l i shed manu s cr ipt , wri t t en
b e tw een 1 8 4 9 and 1 9 0 5 , in the pos s e s s io n o f Mrs . Har l o w ( S oph i e
Hunt er) D ixon , Durham , N . C . Typed copy a l so i n t h e Tenn e s s e e S t a t e
Library , Nashvi l l e .
McCammon , S amu e l , D i ary . Unpub l is h ed manus c r ip t , wri tten b etween 1 8 4 6
and 1 85 4 , McC lung Co l l ec t ion , Law s on McGhee Librar y , Knoxv i l l e .
O l iver F ami l y C o l l ec t ion .
Po s t Fam i ly P ap ers .
Tenn e s s e e .
I n author ' s po s s e s s ion .
I n po s s e s s i on o f Mi s s Jonn i e Po s t , Maryv i l l e ,
S n i d er Fami l y Co l l e c t i on .
Tennes s e e .
I n po s se s s i on o f Mi s s Bertha Dunn , Towns end ,
Turner , Je s s i e Eugen i a , Fam i l y Hi s tory . Unpub l i shed manu s cr ipt in the
p o s s e s s ion o f J es s i e Eugeni a Turner , Chattanoog a , Tenn e s s ee .
2.
Manus cr ipt Documents
B lount C ount y Chancery Court Record s .
Maryv i l l e , Tenn e s s ee .
B lount County C our t Minut es .
T enn es s ee .
B lount C ount y D eed Books .
B l ount County C ourthous e ,
B lount C ounty Courthou se , Maryv i l l e ,
B l ount County Courthous e , Maryv i l l e , Tenn e s s e e .
B l ount C ounty Entry Taker ' s B o ok .
Tenne s s e e .
B l ount C ounty Mar r i ag e Record s .
Tenn e s s ee .
B l ount C ount y C ourthou s e , Maryv i l l e ,
B lount C ounty C ourthous e , Maryvi l l e ,
234
235
B lount C ounty W i l l s and Inv ento r i e s .
Maryv i l l e , Tenne s se e .
B lount County C ourthous e ,
Cades Cov e Bapt i s t Church Book , 1 8 2 7 - 1 90 5 .
Taylor , Maryv i l l e , Tennes s e e .
Cart er C ounty Court M inut es .
Tennes�ee .
Carter County D e ed Books .
Tenn e s s e e .
I n the p o s s e s s i on o f Ray
C ar t er County C ourthou s e , E l i z ab ethton ,
C ar t er C ounty Courthouse , E l i zab ethton ,
Cart er County Marri ag e Records .
Tennes see .
Carter County C ourthous e , E l i z ab ethton ,
Cart er C ounty W i l l s and Invento r i e s .
E l i z ab ethton , Tennes s e e .
Minu t e s o f the E l l ej oy Bap t i s t Church .
McGh e e L ibr ary , Knoxvi l l e .
C ar t er C ounty C ourthous e ,
McC lung C o l l ec t i on , Lawson
Minutes o f the M i l l er ' s Cove Bapt i s t Chur ch , 1 8 1 2 - 1 9 0 0 . Typescript c opy
in the McC lung C o l l ec t i on , Lawson McGhee L ibrary , Knoxv i l l e .
North Car o l ina Gran t s to Land in Tennes s ee .
Nashvi l l e .
Reg i s ter o f E a s t Tenne s se e .
Tenn e s s e e S t a t e Arch iv es ,
Tenn e s s ee S t a t e Arc h iv e s , Nashv i l l e .
U . S . Bur eau o f the C ensus , F i fth C ensus o f the Uni t ed S t a t e s ( 1 8 3 0 ) ,
Popu l at i on , B lount County , Tenne s s e e .
, S i xth C en sus o f the Uni t ed State s ( 1 8 4 0 ) , Popu l at ion , B l ount
County , Tennes s e e .
----�--
, Seventh C ensus o f the Un i t ed S t a t es ( 1 8 5 0 ) , Agr i cu l tur e ,
B lount C ounty , Tennes see .
----�--
, Seventh C en sus o f the Uni t ed S t a t e s ( 1 8 50 ) , Popu l a t i on , B l ount
Coun t y , Tenn e s s e e .
----�--
, E i ghth C ensus o f the Un i t ed S t at e s ( 1 8 6 0 ) , Agr i c u l ture , B loun t
C ounty , Tenn e s s e e .
----=---
, E i ghth C ensus o f the Uni t ed S t a t e s ( 1 8 6 0 ) , Popu l at i on , B l ount
County , Tenn e s s e e .
------
, Ninth C en su s o f the Uni t ed S t a t e s ( 1 8 7 0 ) , Popu l at ion , B l ount
C oun t y , Tennes s ee .
------
236
' Tenth C en s u s of the U n i t e d S t a t e s ( 1 8 8 0 ) , Agr i cu l tur e , B l ount
----�-Coun t y , Tenn e s s e e .
, Tenth C en su s o f the Uni t ed S t a t e s ( 1 8 8 0 ) , P opu l a t i o n , B lount
C ounty , Tenne s s e e .
----�--
3.
Print ed D o cumen t s
Act s o f the S t a t e of Tenne s s ee , 1 8 5 1 - 1 8 5 2 .
Nashv i l l e , 1 8 5 2 .
Minut e s o f the Tenn e s s e e A s s o c i at i on of Primi t iv e Bapt i s t , 1 8 7 9 - 1 9 0 0 .
Cop i e s in author ' s po s s es s ion .
Bap t i s t
Minutes o f the Tenne s s e e A s s o c i at ion of Un i t ed Bapt i s t s .
Ar chives , Nashv i l l e .
P e t i t i ons .
Tenn e s s e e State Arch ives , Nashvi l l e .
U . S . Bur eau o f the Censu s , S ev enth Cen sus o f the Uni ted S t a t e s :
Washington , 1 8 5 3 .
------
1860 .
, E ighth C en sus o f the Uni t ed S t at e s :
Wash ington , 1 8 6 4 .
N inth C ensus o f the Uni t ed S t a t e s :
187 0 .
Washington , 1 8 7 2 .
Tenth C en su s of the Uni t ed S t a t e s :
1880 .
Washington , 1 88 3 .
E l eventh Census o f the Uni t ed States :
, Twe l fth C en sus o f the Uni t ed States :
--�1�9�0�2 .
4.
1 8 50 .
1890 .
1900 .
Was hington , 1 8 9 5 .
Washington , 1 9 0 1 -
N ewspaper s
Brown low ' s Knoxv i l l e Wh ig and R eb e l Vent i l ator , 1 8 64 - 1 8 65 .
Emanc ipator , 1 8 3 8 .
Kno xv i l l e Journa l , 1 9 6 0 .
Knoxv i l l e Reg i s t er , 1 8 2 8 - 1 84 9 .
Kno xv i l l e Wh ig , 1 8 50 - 1 8 6 1 .
Maryvi l l e - A l c o a D a i l y Times , 1 9 3 2 , 1 9 7 4 .
Maryv i l l e I nd e x , 1 8 7 8 .
237
Memp h i s D ai ly Appea l , 1 8 6 1 .
New York Evening P o s t , 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 6 0 .
5.
Mi s ce l l an eous
P er s o n a l Interv i ew s :
B ertha Dunn , Town s end , Tenn e s s e e .
John W . O l iv e r , Towns end , Tenn e s s e e .
Others of th e Cove C ommuni ty who pr eferred to be anonymou s .
B.
1.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Books
Abr aham s , Roger D . , and George Fo s s , Ang l o -Ameri c an F o l k s ong Sty l e .
Eng l ewood C l i ffs , N . J . , 1 968 .
A l exander , Thomas B . , Po l it ic a l R econs truc t i on in Tenne s s e e .
1950 .
------
, Thomas A . R . N e l son of E a s t Tennes s e e .
Nashv i l l e ,
Na shv i l l e , 1 9 56 .
A l l en , P en e l o p e Johnson , trans . , Tenne s s ee So l d i ers in the War o f 1 8 1 2 :
Reg iment s o f Co l . A l l corn and Co l . A l l i son . Cha t t anoog a , 1 94 7 .
Amer i c an Stat e Papers , Mi l it ary Affa irs .
7 vol s .
Washi ng ton , 1 8 3 2 - 1 8 6 1 .
Arensberg , C onrad M . , and S o l on T . K imba l l , C u l tur e and C ommun ity .
York , 1 9 6 5 .
N ew
Arms trong , 0 . K . , and �1arj or i e M . Arms trong , The Indom i t ab l e Bapt i s t s :
A N arrative o f The i r Ro l e in Shaping Amer i can H i s tory . New York ,
1967 .
Arthur , John Pre s t o n , We s t ern Nor th Caro l ina :
B eeman , R i chard R . , Patr i ck Henry :
A His tory .
A B io gr aphy .
B i l l ington , Ray A l l en , Fr ederick Jackson Turner :
Teacher . N ew York , 1 97 3 .
B o or s t in , Dan i e l J . , The American s :
1965 .
Ral eigh , 1 9 1 4 .
New York , 1 974 .
H i s t o r i an , Scho l ar ,
The N at i on a l Exper i enc e .
Bowman , E l i zab eth S . , Land o f H i gh Hor i z ons .
N ew York ,
K ingspor t , Tenn e s s e e , 1 9 3 8 .
238
Burn s , I n e z E . , H i s tory o f B l ount County , Tenn e s s ee , From War Trai l to
Land ing S t r ip , 1 7 9 5 - 1 9 5 5 . Na s hv i l l e , 1 9 5 7 .
Burns , James Ma cGregor , and Jack Walter P e l tason , Government by the
P eop l e : The Dynam i c s o f Ame r i c an Nat i ona l , S t at e , and Loc al
Government . F i fth ed . Eng l ewood C l i ffs , N . J . , 1 964 .
Ca l l ah an , North , Smoky Mountain Country .
New York , 1 9 5 2 .
Campb e l l , John C . , The Southern H igh l and er and H i s Hom e l and .
192 1 .
Cartwr ight , Darwin , and A l v i n Zander , ed s . , Group Dynamic s :
and Theory . S ec ond ed . Evanston , I l l . , 1 9 6 0 .
C l ark , B l anche Henry , The Tenne s s ee Yeoman , 1 84 0 - 1 8 6 0 .
N ew York ,
Research
Nashv i l l e , 1 94 2 .
C l ark , E lmer T . , ed . , The Journal and L e t t e r s o f Franc i s Asbur y .
London , 1 9 58 .
3 vo l s .
Crane , Verner W . , Th e S outhern Front i er , 1 67 0 - 1 7 3 2 .
Ann Arbor , 1 9 2 9 .
D o l an , J . R .
N ew York , 1 964 .
The Yankee P edd l er s o f Ear ly Amer ic a .
D or s on , Richard M . , Ame ri c an F o l k l ore and the Hi s tor i an .
------
, F o l k l ore :
S e l ec t ed E s says .
Chi cago , 1 97 1 .
B l oomington , 1 9 7 2 .
Driver , Car l S . , John Sev i er , P ioneer o f the O l d Southwe s t .
1 93 2 .
Dund e s , A l an , ed . , The Study o f F o l k l ore .
Chap e l Hi l l ,
Eng l ewood C l i ffs , N . J . , 1 9 6 5 .
Eaton , A l l en H . , Hand i cr aft s o f the Southern High l and s .
E l l i s , D an i e l , Thr i l l ing Adventur e s of Dan i el E l l i s .
New York , 1 9 3 7 .
N ew York , 1 8 6 7 .
F ert i g , James W . , The S e c e s s i on and Reconstruc t ion o f Tenne s s e e .
1898 .
Chi cago ,
F olmsbee , Stan l ey J . , Robert E . Cor l ew , and Enoch L . M i t c h e l l , H i s t ory
o f Tenne s s e e .
2 vol s . New York , 1 9 6 0 .
F o l m sb e e , Stan l ey J . , Sec t i ona l i sm and I n t erna l I mprovemen t s in Tenn e s s ee ,
1796- 184 5 .
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 9 .
Frome , Mi chae l , Strangers i n H i gh P l aces .
New York , 1 96 6 .
Fuch s , V i ctor R . , The Economi c s o f th e Fur Industry .
New Yor k , 1 9 57 .
239
Garre t t , Wi l l i am R . , and A l b ert V . Goodpasture , H i s t ory o f Tennes s e e .
Nashv i l l e , 1 9 0 3 .
G l a s s i e , Henry , Pattern in the Mat erial F o l k Cu l ture of the E a s t ern
Uni t ed State s . Ph i lade l ph i a , 1 9 68 .
Go l d s t e in , Kenneth S . , A Gui d e for F i e l d Workers i n F o l k l or e .
1 9 64 .
London ,
Goul d , Mary Ear l e , Ear l y Ame r i c an Wooden Ware and Other Kitchen Utens i l s .
Rut l and , Vermont , 1 96 2 .
Gray , L ew i s C e c i l , H i story o f Agr i cu l tur e in the Southern Uni t ed S t a t e s
2 vo l s . Washington , D . C . , 1 9 3 3 .
to 1 8 6 0 .
Greenb i e , Sydney , and Mar j o r i e Bars tow , G o l d o f Ophir :
in the Mak ing of Amer i c a . N ew York , 1 9 3 7 .
Gr ime , J . H . , H i s tory of Midd l e Tenn e s s e e Bapt i st s .
Gunn , John C . , Gunn ' s Dome s t i c Med i c ine .
------
, Gunn ' s New Dome s t i c Phys i c i an .
Ha l l , Jos eph S . , Sayings from O l d Smoky .
------
The Ch ina Trade
Nashv i l l e , 1 9 0 2 .
Knoxv i l l e , 1 8 3 0 .
C inc inna t i , 1 8 6 0 .
Ashev i l l e , N . C . , 1 9 7 2 .
, Smoky Mount ain F o l k s and The ir Lore .
Ashevi l l e , N . C . , 1 9 60 .
The Phonet i c s o f Great Smoky Mountain Speech .
York , 19 4 2 .
------�'
Ham er , Phi l ip M . , T enne s s e e :
193 3 .
A H i s tory :
Hardacr e , Val , Woo d l and Nug g e t t s o f Go ld :
Cu l t ivat ion . New York , 1 9 68 .
1673- 1932 .
New
4 vo l s .
New York ,
The S t ory of Am er i c an G i n s eng
Haywood , John , The C iv i l and Po l i t ic a l His tory o f the S t a t e of Tenn es s ee .
Knoxvi l l e , 1 8 2 3 .
Henry , Me l l inger E . , F o l k - Songs from the Southern H i gh l and s .
1938 .
______
, Songs Sung in the South ern Appa l ach i an s .
New York ,
London , 1 934 .
Henry , Wi l l iam Wert , Patr i c k Henry , L if e , Corre spondenc e and Speeche s .
3 v o l s . New Yo rk , 1 8 9 1 .
Hind l e , Brooke , Techno l ogy in Ear ly Amer i c a .
Chap e l Hi l l , 1 9 6 6 .
240
Horn , S t an l ey F . , ed . , Tennes s ee ' s War , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 69 .
Nashv i l l e , 1 9 6 5 .
Hum e s , Thomas W . , The Loya l Mount aineer s o f Tenn e s s e e .
Knoxv i l l e , 1 8 8 8 .
Hur l burt , J . S . , H i s tory o f the Rebe l l i on in Br ad l ey C ounty , E a s t
I nd i anapo l i s , 1 8 6 6 .
Tenn e s s e e .
I saac , Paul E . , Prohib i t i on and Po l i t i c s :
1 8 8 5 - 1 9 2 0 . Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 6 5 .
Turbu l ent D ec ad e s i n Tenn e s s e e ,
Kephar t , Horac e , Our Southern H i gh l ander s .
New York , 1 9 2 2 .
Kur ath , Hans , A Word Geogr aphy o f the Eas t ern Un i t ed S t a t e s .
1 94 9 .
L e f l er , Hugh T . , H i s t ory of North C aro l ina .
L es l ey , J . P . , I ron Manufacturer ' s Guid e .
2 vols .
Ann Arbor ,
N ew York , 1 9 56 .
Phi l ad e l ph i a , 1 8 59 .
Mart i n , I saac P . , A Min i s t er in the Tenn e s s e e Va l l ey :
Nashv i l l e , 1 9 54 .
S ixty- S even Years .
Mas on , Robert L indsay , Th e Lure of the Great Smok i e s .
Bos t on , 1 9 2 7 .
Mas s eng i l l , S amu e l Evans , The Ma s s engi l l s , Mas s en ga l es , and Var i an t s ,
1 4 9 2 - 1 9 3 1 . Br i s to l , Tennes s ee , 1 9 3 1 .
Mas t er son , Wi l l i am H . , Wi l l i am B l ount .
Bat on Rouge , 1 9 54 .
Mead , Margaret , C oming of Age in Samoa .
----
, From the South Seas .
New Yor k , 1 9 28 .
N ew York , 1 9 39 .
Mead e , Rob er t D outhat , Patr i c k Henry :
1957 .
Patr i o t in the Mak ing .
Ph i l ad e l ph i a ,
M i chaux , F . A . , Trave l s to the Wes tward o f the A l l egany Mountains to the
States o f Ohio , Kentucky , and Tenne s s e e in the Year 1 8 0 2 , trans .
from the French .
London , 1 8 0 5 .
Mi l l er , P erry , The N ew Engl and M ind :
193 9 .
The S event eenth C entury .
Moody , J . B . , Th e D i s t ingu i s h in g Doctrines of Bap t i s t s .
New York ,
Nashv i l l e , 1 9 0 1 .
Mc Br i de , Robert M . , ed . , Mor e Landmarks o f T enne s s e e H i s tory .
1 9 69 .
Nashv i l l e ,
McTeer , W i l l A . , H i s tory o f New Prov idence Presbyter i an C hurch , Maryv i l l e ,
Tenne s s ee , 1 7 8 6 - 1 9 2 1 . Maryv i l l e , 1 9 2 1 .
24 1
Nas h , Roder i c k , Wi l d ernes s and the Amer i c an Mind .
N ev ins , A l l an , The Even 1ng P o s t :
1922 .
N ew Haven , 1 9 6 7 .
A Century of Journ a l i sm .
N ew Y ork ,
P a t t on , James W . , Uni on i sm and Recons truc t ion in Tenn e s s e e , 1 8 60 - 1 8 69 .
Chap e l H i l l , 1 9 34 .
P h i l l ip s , Pau l Chr i s t l er , The Fur Tr ad e .
2 vo l s .
Po s ey , Wa l t er B . , Metho d i sm i n th e O l d Southwe s t .
------
N orman , 1 9 6 1 .
Tusc a l o os a , 1 9 3 3 .
, Re l ig ious Str i fe on the Southern Front i e r .
P o t t er , Dav i d M . , P e op l e o f P l enty .
Baton R oug e , 1 9 6 5 .
Chi cago , 1 9 54 .
Prucha , Franc i s P au l , Amer i can I nd ian Po l icy in the F ormat ive Year s :
The I nd i an Trade and I nt ercour s e Ac t s , 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 3 4 . C ambr idg e , 1 9 6 2 .
Ram s e y , J . G . M . , Anna l s o f Tennes s e e .
Char l e ston , 1 8 5 3 .
R ic e , Ot i s K . , The A l l egh eny Front i er :
1 8 3 0 . L exington , 1 9 7 0 .
W e s t Virginia B e g innings , 1 7 3 0 -
R i l ey , B . F . , Bap t i s t s of the South i n S t a t e s E a s t o f the M i s s i s s ipp i .
P h i l ade lph i a , 1 89 8 .
Rob ert son , Mary Emi l y , The Att i tude of Tenn e s s eans Toward the Union ,
1 8 47 - 1 8 6 1 . New York , 1 9 6 1 .
R ob i n s on , John J . , Memo ir o f Rev . I saac Anders on , D . D .
Knoxv i l l e , 1 86 0 .
Rutman , Darrett B . , Amer i c an Pur i t an i sm :
Phi l ad e l ph i a , 1 97 0 .
F a i th and Pract i c e .
S afford , James M . , Geo logy o f Tenne s s e e .
Nashv i l l e , 1 8 69 .
S impson , A l an , Pur i t an i sm in O l d and N ew Engl and .
Chi cago , 1 9 5 5 .
Smi th , James W . , and A . L e l and Jam i s on , ed s . , Re l igion in Ameri c an L i fe :
The Shaping of Amer i c an R e l igion . 4 vo l s . Princ eton , 1 9 6 1 .
Sor i n , Geral d , The New York Abo l it ion i s ts : A C a s e S tudy o f P o l i t i c a l
Rad i c a l i s m . Westport , Conn e c t i cut , 1 9 7 1 .
Spain , Rufus B . , At Ease in Z i on : S o c i a l H i s t ory o f the Southern
Bapt i st s , 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 0 0 . Nashv i l l e , 1 9 6 1 .
S t r i ck l and , W . P . , e d . , Autob i ogr aphy o f P e t er C artwr i ght , The Backwo o d s
Preacher . N ew York , 1 8 5 6 .
242
S tupk a , Arthur , Great Smoky Mountains Nat ional P ark .
1960 .
Wash ington , D . C . ,
Sweet , Wi l l i am W . , The Metho d i s t Epi s copal Church and t h e C iv i l War .
C in c i nnat i , 1 9 1 2 .
Swe e t , Wi l l i am Warr en , The R i s e o f Method i sm i n the We s t .
1920 .
Tayl or , 0 . W . , Ear l y Tenne s s ee Bapt i s t s , 1 7 68 - 1 8 3 2 .
Nashvi l l e , 1 9 5 7 .
C i n c i nnat i , 1 8 99 .
T emp l e , O l iver P . , E a s t Tenn e s s e e and the C iv i l War .
Thornborough , Laur a , The Great Smoky Mountains .
Tinde l l , S . W . , The Bapt i s t o f T ennes s e e .
1930 .
N ew York ,
New York , 1 93 7 .
2 vol s .
Kingspor t , Tenne s s ee ,
Turn er , Freder i ck Jackson , The Fron t i e r in Ameri can H i s tory .
1920 .
Watson , Thomas E . , Fore ign Mi s s ions Exp o s ed .
N ew York ,
At l anta , 1 9 1 0 .
Wi l l i ams , Samuel Co l e , H i s t ory of the Lo s t S t at e of F rank l in .
C i t y , 1 9 24 .
, ed . , Li eut . Henry Timber l ak e ' s Memo irs , 1 7 5 6 - 1 7 6 5 .
City, 1927 .
----
W i l son , S amue l Tynda l e , The Southern Mountaineers .
Johnson
Johnson
N ew York , 1 9 1 4 .
Wood , Gordon , Voc abu l ary Change : A Study o f Var i at i on i n Reg i onal Word s
i n E ight o f the S outhern S t a t e s . Carbond al e , 1 9 7 1 .
Woodward , Grace S t ee l e , The Cheroke e s .
Norman , 1 963 .
Wri gh t , Jame s B . , Great Smoky Mountains Nat ional Park .
2.
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 8 .
Ar t i c l e s
Ayr e s , H . B . , and W . W . Ashe , "The Southern Appal ach ian Fores t s , " U . S .
G eo l og ic a l Surv ey Pro fe s s i ona l Paper No . 3 7 , Wash ington , 1 9 0 5 ,
pp . 1 7 7 - 8 1 .
--­
Baker , Rona l d L . , "The Ro l e o f Fo l k Legends in P lace -Name R e s earch , "
Journal o f Ame r ican F o l k lor e , LXXXV (October - D ec emb er , 1 9 7 2 ) , 3 67 - 7 3 .
Buchanan , Ron a l d H . , "Geography and F o l k L i fe , " Fo l k L i f e , I ( 1 9 6 3 ) ,
5- 1 5 .
243
Burn s , I n e z , "Set t l ement and E ar l y H i s t ory o f t h e Cove s of B l ount County ,
Tennes see , " E a s t Tenn e s s ee Hi s tori c a l S o c i ety ' s Pub l i cat i ons , No . 2 4
(1952) , 44-67 .
Burt , J e s s e , " E a s t Tennes s e e , L in co l n , and Sherman , " E a s t Tenn es s e e
Hi s to r i c a l S o c iety ' s Pub l i ca t i on s , No . 3 4 ( 1 96 2 ) , 3 - 2 5 .
Campbe l l , J ames B . , "East Tennes s e e Dur ing the F ed era l Oc cupat i on , 1 8 6 3 1 8 6 5 , " E a s t Tenne s s ee H i s t or i ca l S o c i ety ' s Pub l i c a t i on s , No . 1 9
( 1 94 7 ) ' 64 - 8 0 .
Carpenter , Char l es , " Var i at ions in the South ern Moun t a in D i a l ect , "
Ame r i can Speech , V I I I ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 2 2 - 2 5 .
Comb s , J o s iah , "Th e Language o f the Southern H i gh land er , " PMLA , XLV I
(1931) ' 1302-22 .
D or son , Ri chard M . , " Current Fo l klore Theorie s , " Curr ent Anthropo l ogy ,
I V (1 963) , 9 3- 1 1 2 .
Doug l a s , Wi l l iam 0 . , "The P e op l e o f Cad e s Cove , " Nat i on a l Geograph i c ,
C X X I I (Ju l y , 1 96 2 ) , 6 0 - 9 5 .
F ink , Haro l d S . , "The Eas t Tenne s s e e C amp a i gn and the Bat t l e of Knoxv i l l e
i n 1 8 63 , " E a s t Tennes s e e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i ety ' s Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 2 9
( 1957) ' 79- l l 7 .
F ink , Paul M . , " E a r l y E xp lorers i n th e Gr eat Smo k i e s , " Ea s t Tenne s s e e
H i s to r i c a l S o c i ety ' s Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 5 ( 1 9 33) , 5 5 - 6 8 .
, "Smoky Mount ains H i s t ory as To l d in P l ace - Name s , " E a s t
Tenn e s s e e H i s tor i ca l S o c i e ty ' s Pub l i c at i on s , No . 6 ( 1 9 3 4) , 3 - 1 1 .
----
G a l p in , W . Fre eman , ed . , " Le t t er s o f an E a s t Tenn e s s e e Abo l it ioni s t , "
Eas t Tenn e s s e e H i stor i c a l S o c i e ty ' s Pub l i c a t ions , No . 3 ( 1 9 3 1 ) ,
134-49 .
Gordon , C . H . , "No t e s on the G eo l o gy o f the Cove Are a s of E a s t Tenne s s e e , "
S c i ence , L I (May , 1 9 2 0 ) , 4 9 2 - 9 3 .
Hamer , Marguer i t e Bart l ett , "The Pr e s i d ent i a l C ampaign of 1 8 6 0 i n
T enne s s e e , " East Tenn es s ee H i s to r i c a l S o c i ety ' s Pub l i ca t i ons , No . 3
(1931) ' 3-22 .
Hes s e l t ine , W . B . , "The Underground Rai lro ad From Confed erate Pr i s ons to
E a s t Tenne s s e e , " Eas t Tenn e s s ee H i s t o r i ca l Soc i e ty ' s Pub l i ca t i on s ,
N o . 2 ( 1 93 0 ) , 5 5 - 69 .
244
Hough , Wal t er , "Jam e s Mooney , " in A l l en Johnson and Dumas Ma l one , eds . ,
D i c t i onary of Ame r i can B iography . 2 0 vo l s . , 2 supp l ements , and
i nd e x . New York , 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 58 .
Jacob s , W i l bur R . , "The Tip of an I c eb er g : Pr e - C olumb i an I n d i an
D emography and Some Imp l i cat i ons for Rev i s i on i sm , " Wi l l i am and Mary
Quarter l y , X X X I ( J anuary , 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 2 3 - 3 2 .
King , Ph i l ip , and Arthur Stupka , "Th e Great Smoky Moun t a in s , Thei r
G eo lo gy and Natur a l H i s tory , " Sc ient i fi c Month l y , LXXI ( Ju ly , 1 9 50 ) ,
31-43 .
McTeer , Wi l l A . , "Among Loyal Mountaineers , " i n M i s c e l l aneous Pamphl ets
on the C i v i l War . Undated vo l um e i n Spec i a l C o l l e c t i on s , Univer s i ty
o f Tenne s s ee Library , Knoxv i l l e .
Mart i n , Asa Ear l , "The Ant i - S l av ery Soc i e t i e s o f Tenne s s e e , " Tenne s s e e
H i s tor i c a l Mag a z ine , I ( D e c ember , 1 9 1 5 ) , 2 6 1 - 8 1 .
Mead , S i dney E . , " D enominat i ona l i sm : The Shap e o f Prot e s tant i sm i n
Amer i ca , " Church Hi story , XX I I I ( D e c ember , 1 9 5 4) , 2 9 1 - 3 20 .
Mooney , James , comp . , "Myth s o f the Cherokee , " Bur eau o f Amer i c an
E thn o l o gy , N inet eenth Annua l Repor t , 2 vo l s . , Wash ington , 1 9 0 0 , I ,
1 1 - 54 8 .
Myer , W i l l iam E . , comp . , " I n d i an Tr ai l s o f the Southea s t , " Bureau o f
Amer i c an E thno l o g y , Fort y - S e cond Annu a l R eport , Washi ng ton , 1 9 2 8 ,
pp . 7 2 7 - 8 5 7 .
N euman , Robert B . , "No t e s o n the Geo l ogy o f Cad e s Cove , Great Smoky
Mountains Nat ional Park , Tenn e s see , " Tenne s s e e Academy of Sc i ence
Journa l , X X I I (Ju l y , 1 9 4 7 ) , 1 67 - 7 2 .
Queener , Verton M . , "A Decad e o f East Tenn e s s e e Repub l i c an i sm , 1 8 67 1 8 7 6 , " Ea s t Tennes s ee H i s to r i c a l S o c i e ty ' s Pub l i c at i on s , No . 14
(1 942) , 59- 8 5 .
R edf i e l d , Rob ert , "The Fo l k S o c i e ty , " Amer i c an Journal o f S o c i o l o g y , L I I
( 1 94 7 ) , 2 9 3 - 3 0 8 .
R i ed l , Norb ert F . , "Fo l k l o r e and the Study o f Mat er i a l Aspec t s of Fo l k
C u l ture , " Journa l o f Ameri can F o l k lore , LXX I X ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 5 5 7 - 6 3 .
S h e l ton , W . H . , "A Hard Road to Tr av e l Out o f D i x i e , " C entur y , XVI I I
(October , 1 8 9 0) , 9 3 1 - 4 9 .
Sh i e l d s , A . Rando lph , "Cad es Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains Nat ional
Park , " Tennes s e e H i s to r i c a l Quar t er l y , XX I V (Summer , 1 9 6 5 ) , 1 0 3 - 2 0 .
245
S k i pp er , E l v i s E a g l eton and Ruth Gov e , ed s . , ' " S tray Thought s ' : The
C iv i l -War D iary of Eth i e M . Foute Eag l eton , " Part I , Ea s t Tenn e s s e e
Hi st or i c a l S o c i e ty ' s Pub l i c a t i on s , No . 4 0 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 28 - 3 7 .
, " ' Stray Thoughts ' : The C iv i l - War D i ary of Eth i e M . Fout e
Eag l e ton , " Part I I , E a s t Tenne s s ee H i s to r i c a l S o c i e ty ' s Pub l i ca t i on s ,
No . 4 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 1 6- 2 8 .
--=---:-
U l m , Amanda , "Rememb er the C h es tnut , " Annua l Report of the Smithsoni an
I n s t i tut ion , 1 9 4 8 . Was hington , 1 9 4 8 , pp . 3 77 - 8 2 .
W i l so n , Char l es W . , Jr . , "Th e Great Smoky Thrus t Fau l t i n the Vic in i t y
of Tuckal eeche e , Wear , and C ad e s Cove s , B l ount and S ev i er Coun t i e s ,
Tenne s s ee , " Tenn e s s ee Ac ad emy o f S c i ence Journa l , X (Januar y , 1 9 3 5 ) ,
57-63 .
Wr i gh t , Natha l i a , "Montv a l e Springs under the Propr i et o r sh ip o f S t er l ing
Lan i er , 1 8 5 7 - 1 8 6 3 , " E a s t Tenne s s e e Hi s t o r i c a l Soc i et y ' s Pub l i cat i on s ,
No . 1 9 ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 4 8 - 63 .
3.
Unpub l i shed Works
Barnet t , Pau l Edward , A Comparative Study of Pheno l i c s in Che stnut
( C a s t anea) , and Th eir R e l a t i o n s h ip s w i th Res i s tanc e to Endothia
paras 1 t 1 c a . D octoral d i s s ertat i on , Univer s i t y o f Tenn es s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 7 2 .
B i gg s , R i l ey 0 . , The Deve lopment o f Ra i lroad Tran spor t a t i o n in E a s t
Tenn e s s e e During the Reconstruc t ion P e r i od . Mas t er ' s the s i s ,
Univers i t y o f Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 34 .
Bruhn , Mary E l l en , Vegetational Suc c e s s ion o n Thr ee Gra s sy B a l d s o f t h e
Gr eat Smoky Mountains . Ma s ter ' s thes i s , Un iver s i t y of T ennes s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 64 .
Bur ch f i e l , W i l l i am W . , Jr . , The Unaka Mountains o f Tennes s e e and North
Caro l ina . Mas t er ' s t h e s i s , Univer s i t y of Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 94 1 .
Edward s , Lawrenc e , Hi s tory o f the Bapt i s t o f Tennes s ee w i t h Part i cu lar
A t t en t i on to t h e Pr im i t iv e Bap t i s t s o f E a s t Tenne s s ee . Mas t er ' s
thes i s , Un ivers i ty o f Tenn e s s ee , Knoxv i l l e , 1 94 1 .
Eubank s , Dav id Lawson , Dr . J . G . M . Rams ey o f E a s t Tenn es s e e : A C ar eer
of Pub l i c S erv i c e . Doctoral d i s s ertation , Un iver s i ty o f Tenn es s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 96 5 .
G amb l e , Margaret E l i s abeth , The Heritag e and F o l k Mus i c o f Cad e s Cov e ,
Tennes s ee . Mast er ' s t h e s i s , Univer s i ty o f Southern Ca l i fornia ,
1947 .
246
G arr ett , Beat r i c e L . , Confeder ate Government and the Union i s t s o f E a s t
Tenn e s se e . Mas ter ' s thes i s , Univers i ty o f Tenne s s ee , Knoxv i l l e ,
1932 .
Gauding , Harry H . , A H i s t ory o f Wat er Transporta t i on in E a s t Tennes s e e
Prior to t h e C iv i l War . Mas t er ' s the s i s , Univer s it y o f Tenne s s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 3 .
G i l b ert , V . C . , Jr . , Vegetat i on o f the Gra s s y Balds o f the Great Smoky
Mountains Nat i on a l Park . Mas t er ' s th e s i s , Univ e r s i t y of Tenn es s e e ,
Knoxvi l l e , 1 9 5 4 .
G la s s i e , Henry H . , Southern Mountain Hous e s : A S tudy in Ameri can Fo l k
Cu l tur e . Mas t er ' s the s i s , S t ate Univer s i ty o f N e w York at Oneont a ,
1965 .
Jones , M . J ean , The Regional Eng l i sh of the Former Inhab i t an t s o f Cades
Cove in the Great Smoky Mountains . D o ctor a l d i s s ertat ion , Univ ers ity
o f Tennes s e e , Kno xv i l l e , 1 97 3 .
L anham , Ben T . , Jr . , Type-Of- Farming Regions , and Factors Inf luencing
Type -Of - F arming Regions in T ennes s e e . Master ' s the s i s , Univ er s ity
of Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 8 .
Leab , Grace , Th e Temp erance Movement in Tennes s e e , 1 8 60 - 1 9 0 7 .
the s i s , Univ ers it y of Tenn e s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 938 .
L ed ford , Al l en Jame s , Metho d i sm in Tennes s ee , 1 7 8 3 - 1 8 66 .
Univ ers i t y of Tenn e s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 4 1 .
Ma s t er ' s
Mas t er ' s thes i s ,
Mark , A . F . , An E c o l o g i c a l S tudy of the Gras s B a l ds o f the Southern
Appa l ach i an Mount ains . Doctoral d i s s ert at ion , Duk e Univer s it y ,
Durham, N . C . , 1 9 5 8 .
Mart in , George C . , Jr . , The E ffect of Physi ogr aphy on the Trade Rout e s
of E a s t Tenne s s ee . Mas t er ' s thes is , Univer s i t y o f Tennes s e e ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 3 2 .
Merr i t t , Frank , S e l e c t ed Aspec t s o f Ear l y Carter County H i s tory , 1 7 60 1 8 6 1 . Mas t er ' s the s i s , Univer s i ty o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxvi l l e , 1 9 5 0 .
Orr , Horace Eugene , Th e Tenne s see Church es and S l av ery .
Un iv er s i ty o f Tenn e s s ee , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 2 4 .
Mas ter ' s thes i s ,
R i t t , Arno l d , Th e E scape of Feder a l Pr i s o ners Through E a s t Tennes s e e ,
1 86 1 - 1 8 65 . Mas t er ' s the s i s , Univers it y o f Tenn es s e e , Knoxvi l l e ,
1965 .
R i t t g e r s , Fred H . , A Geographi c a l Surv ey o f B l ount Coun ty , Tennes s e e .
Master ' s the s i s , Univer s i ty o f Tennes s e e , Knoxvi l l e , 1 9 4 1 .
247
Rob l yer , Les l i e F . , The Ro ad to State-Wide Proh ib i t ion in Tenn e s see ,
1 8 9 9 - 1 909 . Master ' s the s i s , Univer s ity o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxvi l l e ,
1949 .
Scot t , Thomas A l l an , Nat ional Impact of Tennes s e e Through her Migrating
S ons , 1 8 3 0 - 1 90 0 . Mas t er ' s thes i s , Un iv ers i t y of Tennes s ee , Knoxv i l l e ,
1 9 66 .
Smi th , Frank P . , Mi l i t ary H i story o f Eas t Tennes s ee , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 6 5 .
thes i s , Univer s i t y o f Tenne s s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 36 .
Mas t er ' s
Tay l or , Rob ert Lov e , Jr . , Mainstr eams o f Mountain Thou ght : At t i tudes o f
S e l e c ted F igur e s in t h e Heart o f the Appa l ach ian South , 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 0 3 .
D oc toral d i s s ertat ion , Univer s ity o f Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 7 1 .
Whe l an , Pau l A . , Unconven t i o na l War fare in Eas t Tenn es s e e , 1 8 6 1 - 1 8 65 .
Ma s t er ' s thes i s , Univers i t y o f Tennes s e e , Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 6 3 .
Wood s , Fr ank W . , Natural Rep l ac ement o f Che s tnut by Other Sp e c i e s in the
G r e at Smoky Mountains . D o c toral d i s s er t at ion , Univ er s ity o f Tennes s ee ,
Knoxv i l l e , 1 9 5 7 .
APPEND I X
Cades Cove Tour Map
( N umerals I nd i c a te Points o f I n terest )
�:
N
..,.
(.()
Ranger Stalioo
Permittee'• Quarters
Pioneer Bulld!nq•
\0 elG pupLA.IL
\ R A \ L 4.
I:>ALD \Z.A.\L.
Parldnq Area
GK:tGOZ.Y/
I
F I GURE 7
CADES COVE TOUR MAP
�
(S}
®
,___.....__
Pand Road•
Uopned RoocU
�
�
Gra••l Roada
,, ..___
K EY � _
A
B
C
D
E
f
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
,
To wnsend ---_
-,
K/nzel Springs
Myers Gem.
Tuck81�ecl7ee Chapel
Camp Ground Ch.
wcxs/e echee Bap. Ch.
B ethel Ch.
Brickey Cem.
Coker Hill School
Coker Hill Ch.
L ower School
...._ 0 ,.
-...1-t
"- '
��/,.
L .s
' ,
L ;� -
-,�
Cave Spring
Dunn Spring
N Wear Cove Bap. Ch.
0 Blo o m ery Forge
P Codes Cove Prim. B;,p. Ch.
Q. Cades cove Mefh. Ch.
Chilhowe e Spln. 1 M . Co.
R
s
T
u
V
1_
cars_ons Iron wor .s
A mrtnes Forge
Buc hanan Cem .
Mon tvale
Spr ings�
·''"·
Mille r Cove M8fh. Ch.
Place names
on
T H E C O V ES
this
map art! not all con ­
temp orary with each
oth er. J.S.l!. DEL . I � 5 Z
B LO U N T
0
O F
S. G "- L E
F I GURE 8
THE COVES O F BLOUNT COUNTY
C O U NTY
OF
M I L E.
S
3
N
(J1
0
C
6
i,
o·- £
b ...
s
v
v
-�
\_
,-...:.._
- - -,
�-�-··
�,
,� '
"
�'
"'
A
<..
__ ,
0
\.._
A:>'"
: r -15
- �
,J
,_;--�"
;,"
"
•
"'
. �....
0
�'
.•
u
u
N
INU>AN
:'""' G•te
2S'0
T, A
�'"·"1�q
ilo "'o
_ !.,.
(lit��_;
N
�---/
' ""\
�\ .._,.---�
T a t e r'
�
G�v�•·��.'�:.,._ '
\,
�.
1
\
I
./
�IP.t
J
o;.ades C;-C
..,_
.,
�;;
_
·, ' \ ' '
•
Gresorys. Cave)
! -J
i
'
o;�: ,:
..
TFI
.,
,. ..
�
'
F-
\ _. ,.�.(- '
"'
l"
a�
,
�
�
,
.
Johr'l
,.,
· -....
\....._____
------....,
'
'- , ,� - - -
\
.
�-,\._.'
'-' I
--._
I
;;
�
"
�?
.,.
,_,"''
.
,: <&�\)
L' '"'"'' •
c.�p, ..,.
'e
,c
' ,.
C 'f
>
' I,
��
''l'.
f
�
..
11"
r._t-
c. '
--- "-
--.,
i"
"\
.. .
<
· ...____ __,!
-
(
-I
'
�-
)
·"
'«..� '
c
. "<>
�-
/\
­
c� _,.
,'" 'tf
'0 '
1.. ) I
41
�·
j
""
'
'
\
- \F
\
// -� /
\
..
' ·
u
'
t;
.
I (
•\
�
.,.
,
.,.
I
1)..
r
ii
·�.7•.o co�/
- - OvcriOOio.,,.- /
e
id&
'
u
o'
'
,
"
,•
'
>
�
<
.)
,..
0
..
b
�
...
0
.
"
:<.
-<>
�
<
'
c
c
""
/
,
, / __....,.Esrq,.-rt:a,
...
_ 1Gate
, .. q
(
"
\�-· - - - ROAD
/ , ..., ,..-;• >C0o;�
-.-:·
c�•b
,..:
1.F'..... �. �
.,«.. ., Gap
I
I
/
•
... :�. -� -..�.._ -.: L
/
,,
._/
)
c """' � � /
'
�,..r 1
').
\
•o�s-� -- cP" .- 1
t
.
��•
:
�'"
/
'·•
'-.:s
.
<;
'
•
s•• ,,, ' I
1
:
/
-.,
,
.
.
.
n
•r.c
�
'
I ) ,---;·�----,,
��'a, '
/I
•
/"
Otsposal ' ·
1t_,�llho' t
I
-'
i
' o
t
c' /
-- �..
/,8
\
!j,!d o � �.te B ,.
�I
.
4!1n�f!r
/ ' (
W•t�'
1•>
,,,
,,•
.}
T,\''k'>
<
...·l'
'
.�
\
_,. �:-/�.:,, �_______,_ \
�)
w
'
�/
�"
�___;,
/Ct��1S{'\. ·ce m
.. ../. -...
�'
l
f.. \
, p· '
/ " ·....-- . ....C� o p � f/ ( · ..
_;
\
/
- B!' a n (' h _
�
/ .--'P'� /
-\��:�
-;-; �:--.
I
r;.,t,.
·, '- (
._'·
,...-�� , , .
k/)
1/
.\
-......,r:r...,
�
�{"'
/
"
I
q\
'-.._
I
t
.
;
"'
,
.
/
'-.ri__M.a
p,.!.--;c-"'
�\\/
.
·
1\
'
'
·
'
'"'
'
,.
(1·,-t'1 {)lo·Jf""
' "'
,
, ..;';.ac•
I
?.
\
,
\
llr-1
.
,
I
Cem
,
Cem
E
'E
\�,...- -,.,..�·:
..N'T""''.o.. ..- - - '[
' ,
'
D
lc
S
-�-C-,- ---0- ,._,_ V
.)
· ·
A/
\
I
' •m -::
. / \
,
"••o, _
r•'"
,/ .
-.
;
.1,,,
'\
,o/
·,
.
.,\
-.
-vo•d
cc. -�
I
1
P .�'C--...___ _ n_
.�
:
\.. , ,
"'"' �. �
\
"-. n
I
/
a"'/;, -..,
:!'/
(
,
·< "
.<
_, /
J:, ' �j-�
v
)---Q(,-,._
.. \ '
' HM
"- ----'-'- /�
Cree�· - --1-- '
'I
-�o
I
------ ,6'"·
'
- - , -_
\ ' ·-� ' ' "
-�
;<---.___
.
·"e4
,
.-i
____.---\/
'
-\
I -- ; �
�
\' ''"
'
:::: , _
<
\.,
/ -,
''O
: - -- '
} , / Fora\.
:;­
_
�
....
"
�?
'
< '
• C J[ter Sh,elds
'
\
-�.
:::,
'<'
"
(' , : -- -.. �..q ' r,oton OltvPf \.._
'
Pl<�ce
�ord
'
� · 1 1 5 1 / � Lawson
"'
C�m � P 1 Place
_. _
- /
. ; < . -"" , � -. �o�
·,_. .Pet•< C'b\" hm
-.., o'"'
'
,, f •
Fe� - i""
�''-, <;
�
- -ro,,
·
� '
!
' P,r-�,. C<l�
, o.o
.--. 1
'v , ' ''"{,�
\. c.A.J·2.P�
,
,.,
�
Trail
\
'
��
.g:�l!
".766
Cab1e/
B<>ck.y
, _;,�//
//
'"" 'JU�
- , --: ·-,'�
\
\
\,
�
'
\
,Q'-'�
���
John P Ca t..l e ---' ' .s>
)
\
M o i l Are-a
· �
<""--;..
'; ':_r�
-- +
'
---.._
->.,.
·"
(
· ,,�--..._ \
0
,,
_
-
_
Fo•d
- ·
-·
-:_�
I'\·
•'
�;�e_m_ --
� , __ ..::. •\'/ :
-r
'\
l \, �
I
'
,, \
_;
I
v-�A.ora �
J�- ford
�f�
ord �\0,
'-Jtra
-
o.cr'c::>
�·
\
i
,,/ _
F I G UR E 9
CADES COVE QUADRANGLE , U . S . D E PT . OF THE I NTER I OR , GEOLOG I CAL SURVEY MAP
N
(.J1
"""'
V I TA
Durwood C l ay Dunn was born November 3 0 , 1 9 4 3 , in Chi ckamauga , G eo rg i a .
After attending e l ementary s cho o l s i n Chat tanoog a , Tenn e s s e e , h e was
graduated w i th honors from Chatt anoo ga H i gh S choo l in 1 9 6 1 .
He a t t ended
the Univer s i ty o f Tenne s s ee and r ec eived a Bach e lor of Ar t s d e gr e e in
Latin and h i s tory w i th honor s in 1 9 65 .
I n 1 968 h e r e c e ived the Mas ter
o f Art s degree in h i s tory at Tenn e s s ee , s tudying under Dr . Waldo H .
Heinr i chs .
He taught h i s to ry and p o l i t i ca l s c i ence from 1 9 7 0 unt i l 1 9 7 4
at Hiwa s s e e C o l l eg e , Mad i sonv i l l e , Tenne s s e e .
I n 1 9 7 5 h e accepted a
p o s i t i on as i n s t ructor in h i s t ory at Tenn e s s e e Wes l eyan C o l l eg e , Athen s ,
Tennes s e e , where h e i s pre s en t l y emp loyed .
He rece ived the Doctor of Ph i lo sophy d egre e with a maj or in h i s tory
i n Augus t , 1 9 7 6 .
He is a memb er of Phi B e t a Kappa , Phi Kappa Phi , the
Ameri can H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i on , and o ther pro fe s s i ona l organ i z at i ons .
252