TSC 220
Making Stuff
the role of materials in sustainability
US Energy consump0on by Energy source, 2009 The challenge is to change the percentages in the three largest wedges, increase the smallest wedge drama0cally, and to do so in a rela0vely short 0me span.
Primary Energy Flow by Source and Sector, 2009
The 0meframe for the needed change in energy source and usage is perhaps on the order of few decades, which means we will need to accelerate the design, processing, property determina0on as well as shorten the 0me to move from a small scale laboratory test to a commercially viable product.
energy usage
in 2009, US total energy use:
94.758 quadrillion BTU (= 1 x 1020 J)
average power use per US resident:
1 x 1020 J/year ÷ 3.05 x 108 people
÷ 3.1536 x 107 seconds/year
= 10381 J/(second person)
= 10381 W/person
where do we stand (power per person)?
country
Canada
US
Finland
Sweden
France
United Kingdom
Switzerland
China
Senegal
usage (W/person)
11055
US has 6th largest
10381
power usage per
9613
person
7678
6018
world average
5218
~2000 W
5100
1516
310
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_energy_consumption_per_capita
how well do we use our energy?
Japan
US
Finland
UK
Germany
France
from www.gapminder.org/world
economic energy efficiency = GDP/energy
country
Switzerland
United Kingdom
Senegal
France
US
Sweden
China
Finland
Canada
GDP/energy
2004
8.27
7.25
6.46
5.92
4.60
4.53
4.36
3.78
3.42
in PPP 2000$/kg oil
equivalent
US: EEO in 2007
was about 2 times its
1960 value;
Switzerland’s EEO
dropped to 80% of
its 1960 value
to compete in future
will likely require a large
EEO
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_gdp_per_uni_of_ene_use-gdp-per-unit-energy-use
we have made some progress
paper and pulp
because it costs
er.
REDUCTION IN ENERGY USE, 1975 – TODAY
s the amount of
ut.
use chemicals in
plastics, as well as
uses coal, oil, and
chemicals. It also
of hydrocarbons
25%
41%
ed stone. A lot of
&KHPLFDOV
45%
6WHHO
23%
42%
60 percent more
ming a nation of
built everywhere,
3HWUROHXP5HILQHULHV
$OXPLQXP
3DSHU3XOS
33%
&HPHQW
Source: U.S. Department of Energy
PAPER RECYCLING
suppose: reducing US energy usage by 1/4
would save 23.6 quad per year (use would
be 7800 W per person)
if GDP were unchanged, the US EEO would
be 6.33, a more competitive value
a primary goal should be to reduce US usage
of energy:
will require new technologies and changes in
behavior
new materials are essential for sustainable
technologies
reduced energy use
energy generation and storage
for more information:
see NOVA program entitled “Making Stuff ”
videos of 4 programs at
http://video.pbs.org/program/979359664/
almost everybody worries about
materials
our palette
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
PERIOD
GROUP
IA
1
1
1
1.0079
H
He
efficiency
of electrical generation tied to magnets
HYDROGEN
3
6.941
Be
BERYLLIUM
22.990
19
39.098
40.078
3
21
IIIB 4
44.956 22
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (1)
B
BORON
10.811
VIA 17
9
14.007
VIIA
15.999
18.998
B
C
N
O
F
BORON
CARBON
NITROGEN
OXYGEN
FLUORINE
13
ELEMENT NAME
VA 16
8
12.011
26.982
14
28.086
15
30.974
16
32.065
17
35.453
HELIUM
10
20.180
Ne
NEON
18
39.948
P
Al Si
S Cl Ar
want very high magnetic
field
per mass
IVB 5
47.867 23
VB 6
50.942 24
VIB 7 VIIB 8
51.996 25 54.938 26
55.845
VIIIB
9
10
27 58.933 28
58.693
11
29
IB 12
30
IIB
63.546
65.39
ALUMINIUM
31
69.723
SILICON
32
72.64
PHOSPHORUS
33
74.922
SULPHUR
34
78.96
CHLORINE
35
79.904
ARGON
36
83.80
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
CALCIUM
SCANDIUM
TITANIUM
VANADIUM
CHROMIUM MANGANESE
IRON
COBALT
NICKEL
COPPER
ZINC
GALLIUM
GERMANIUM
ARSENIC
SELENIUM
BROMINE
KRYPTON
37
85.468
Rb
RUBIDIUM
55
132.91
Xe
Zr Nb Mo Tc
Ru Rhout
Pd Ag
In earth
I
Sn Sb Te
Sr Y magnets
best
made
of Cd
rare
elements
38
87.62
STRONTIUM
56
137.33
Cs
Ba
CAESIUM
BARIUM
87
7
20
10.811
IVA 15
7
IIIA 14
6
13
5
IIIA
13
5
SYMBOL
24.305
MAGNESIUM
GROUP NUMBERS
CHEMICAL ABSTRACT SERVICE
(1986)
POTASSIUM
4
6
12
ATOMIC NUMBER
Na Mg
SODIUM
5
9.0122
Li
11
GROUP NUMBERS
IUPAC RECOMMENDATION
(1985)
IIA
2
4
LITHIUM
2
3
18 VIIIA
2 4.0026
http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/
(223)
88
(226)
Fr
Ra
FRANCIUM
RADIUM
39
88.906
YTTRIUM
57-71
La-Lu
Lanthanide
40
ZIRCONIUM
72
Actinide
6
However three such elements (Th, Pa, and U)
do have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic
composition, and for these an atomic weight is
tabulated.
NIOBIUM
73
180.95
42
95.94
43
(98)
44
101.07
MOLYBDENUM TECHNETIUM RUTHENIUM
74
183.84
75
186.21
76
190.23
45
102.91
RHODIUM
77
192.22
46
106.42
PALLADIUM
78
195.08
Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
TANTALUM
TUNGSTEN
RHENIUM
OSMIUM
IRIDIUM
PLATINUM
(261)
105
(262)
106
(266)
107
(264)
108
(277)
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
RUTHERFORDIUM
DUBNIUM
SEABORGIUM
BOHRIUM
HASSIUM
La
Ce
LANTHANUM
CERIUM
ACTINIDE
89 (227) 90
7
Editor: Aditya Vardhan (adivar@nettlinx.com)
92.906
LANTHANIDE
57 138.91 58 140.12 59
(1) Pure Appl. Chem., 73, No. 4, 667-683 (2001)
Relative atomic mass is shown with five
significant figures. For elements have no stable
nuclides, the value enclosed in brackets
indicates the mass number of the longest-lived
isotope of the element.
178.49
41
HAFNIUM
89-103 104
Ac-Lr
91.224
232.04
109
(268)
(281)
107.87
SILVER
79
196.97
48
112.41
CADMIUM
80
200.59
49
111
(272)
MERCURY
112
204.38
118.71
TIN
82
207.2
51
121.76
52
127.60
ANTIMONY
TELLURIUM
83
84
208.98
(209)
53
126.90
IODINE
85
(210)
54
131.29
XENON
86
(222)
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
THALLIUM
LEAD
BISMUTH
POLONIUM
ASTATINE
RADON
114
(285)
Mt Uun Uuu Uub
MEITNERIUM UNUNNILIUM UNUNUNIUM
50
INDIUM
81
Au Hg
GOLD
114.82
(289)
Uuq
UNUNBIUM
UNUNQUADIUM
Copyright © 1998-2002 EniG. (eni@ktf-split.hr)
140.91
Pr
60
144.24
61
(145)
62
150.36
231.04
63
151.96
64
157.25
Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd
PRASEODYMIUM NEODYMIUM PROMETHIUM SAMARIUM
91
110
47
92
238.03
Ac
Th
Pa
U
ACTINIUM
THORIUM
PROTACTINIUM
URANIUM
93
(237)
Np
94
(244)
EUROPIUM GADOLINIUM
95
(243)
96
(247)
65
158.93
AMERICIUM
CURIUM
162.50
67
164.93
Tb
Dy
Ho
TERBIUM
DYSPROSIUM
HOLMIUM
97
(247)
Pu Am Cm Bk
NEPTUNIUM PLUTONIUM
66
98
(251)
Cf
99
(252)
Es
BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM
68
167.26
69
168.93
70
173.04
Er Tm Yb
ERBIUM
100
(257)
THULIUM
101
(258)
YTTERBIUM
102
(259)
Fm Md No
FERMIUM
MENDELEVIUM
71
174.97
Lu
LUTETIUM
103
(262)
Lr
NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM
reduced energy use
of the fuel we use for
sume the rest. These
es—carry people and
ercial vehicles have also
rs.
is reasonable, people may leave their cars at home.
AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY OF NEW PASSENGER CARS
35.0*
35 Miles per Gallon
30
28.0
28.5
1990
2000
31.2
24.3
25
20
15
13.4
10
5
0
1973
1980
2008
2020
*By 2020 new model cars and light trucks will have to meet a 35 mpg fuel economy standard.
Source: U.S. Department of Energy
Intermediate Energy Infobook
Improving vehicle efficiency – weight reduc0on
For 10% reduc0on in curb weight, you get about 6 to 7% saving in fuel consump0on. Of course, there is a fundamental limit to curb weight.
replacing aluminum with
composites
Boeing 787: >50%
composites by
weight
composites:
carbon
epoxy
properties similar to aluminium, but density is
lower: allows 20-50% reduction in aircraft
weight
nanomaterials for greater
strength
single walled
carbon nanotube: pure carbon
strongest and stiffest material yet
discovered
Young’s
modulus
(TPa)
Tensile
strength
(GPA
% Elongation at
break
SWNT
~1
53
16
MWNT
0.95
150
Kevlar
0.18
3.8
2
Steel
0.21
1.55
50
multiple walled
why so useful?
single walled
high strength and low density
not ready for large-scale use, but
will revolutionize structural
materials
spool of nanotube thread
ption
larm
eater.
us to
Every
ored
nergy
household energy use
ENERGY USE BY SECTOR
Transportation
28%
oups:
oups
d of
ears,
omes
heat
Most
ology
m in
ating
g are
f the
ut 60
f the
s are
ricity
. The
more
22%
Commercial
Industry
19%
31%
ding.
ants,
uped
ating
Residential
Source: Energy Information Agency
Heating oil is the third leading fuel used for home heating. In 1973,
the average home used 1,300 gallons of oil a year. Today, that figure
is about 800 gallons, a significant decrease. New oil furnaces burn oil
more cleanly and operate more efficiently.
In the future, we may see more use of renewable energy sources,
such as geothermal and solar energy, to heat and cool our homes
and workspaces.
ƒ Lighting
Homes and commercial buildings also use energy for lighting. The
average home spends 10 percent of its electric bill for lighting.
Schools, stores, and businesses use about 38 percent of their
electricity for lighting. Most commercial buildings use fluorescent
lighting. It costs more to install, but it uses a lot less energy to
produce the same amount of light.
Most homes still use the type of light bulb invented by Thomas
Edison over 100 years ago. These incandescent bulbs are not very
efficient. Only about 10 percent of the electricity they consume is
converted into light. The other 90 percent is converted to heat.
Compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs) can be used in light fixtures
throughout homes. Many people think they cost too much to buy
(about $3 - $10 each), but they actually cost less overall because they
lighting
40% of US energy use is in electricity
11% of home electricity use is in lighting, mostly
incandescent
38% of commercial/school electricity use in lighting
(mostly fluorescents)
compact fluorescent lightbulbs
•
•
•
most efficient
option to date
contain mercury
(a poison)
lifetime:
6,000-15,000
hours
LIGHTING EFFICIENCY
1879 Incandescent
escent
1.4
Today’s Incandescent
17
Today’s Halogen
Today’s Fluorescent
LUMENS PER WATT
20
100
solid state lighting
• based on semiconductor light•
•
•
emitting diodes (LEDs) or polymer
light-emitting diodes (PLEDs)
current LEDs are not as effective as
fluorescents: 17-79 lumens/W
versus 100 lumens/W
research is ongoing with goal of
increasing lumens/W
lifetimes: 35,000-50,000 hours
(which is why they are attractive in
traffic lights, etc.)
Colors and materials
elements in LEDs
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials, the following table shows
the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color
Infrared
Wavelength
(nm)
! > 760
Voltage (V)
Semiconductor material
"V < 1.9
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red
610 < ! < 760
1.63 < "V <
2.03
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange
2.03 < "V <
590 < ! < 610
2.10
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Yellow
2.10 < "V <
570 < ! < 590
2.18
Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
1.9[47]
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN)
< "V < Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Green
500 < ! < 570
Blue
2.48 < "V <
450 < ! < 500
3.7
Violet
400 < ! < 450
2.76 < "V <
4.0
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
multiple types
2.48 < "V <
3.7
Dual blue/red LEDs,
blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
Purple
4.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode#Disadvantages
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under development)
Page 8 of 28
refrigeration
•
•
•
accounts for about
8% of a household
energy use
based on refrigerant
gases that have
deleterious
environment effects
looking for new
technologies
REFRIGERATOR EFFICIENCY
2,500 kwh
per year
2,000
2,215 kwh
1,500
1,000
500
0
537 kwh
REFRIGERATORS
MADE BEFORE 1980
Source: ENERGY STAR®
2008 ENERGY STAR®
QUALIFIED
REFRIGERATORS
magnetic refrigeration
magnetocaloric effect
•
•
based on magnets
with very strong
fields - rare earth
elements
early in
development, but
could be much more
efficient
Permanent
magnet
Magnetocaloric
wheel
Hot heat
exchanger
Cold heat
exchanger
a new problem?
• “... the International Energy Agency ... warns that energy
•
•
used by computers and consumer electronics will not
only double by 2022, but increase threefold by 2030”
“increase was equivalent to the current combined total
residential electricity consumption of the United States
and Japan”
“ ... the number of people using personal computers will
exceed 1 billion over the next seven months and notes
that nearly 2 billion television sets are already in use
worldwide, averaging more than 1.3 sets in each home
with access to electricity. The agency also projects that
the world will count more than 3.5 billion mobile phone
subscribers by 2010.” http://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2009/05/14/14climatewiresoaring-electricity-use-by-new-electronic-de-12208.html
energy generation and storage
energy generation
source
cost ($0.01/kW-h)
gas
3.9-4.4
coal
4.8-5.5
nuclear
11-15
wind
4-6
geothermal
4-30
hydro
5-11
solar
15-30
tide
2-5
does not
include carbon
cost
http://peswiki.com/index.php/Directory:Cents_Per_KilowattHour#Conventional.2C_Renewable_Power_Generation
traditional sources
Oil extraction from more extreme environments Subsea Architecture
• Manifolds connect
wells to the platform
• High C/alloy steel
forgings welded to low
C pipelines
• 6000 ft water depth
• 100°C fluid
temperature, 4°C water
temperature
• Cathodically protected
Fe-Ni butter welds are often used
in extreme environments
32
Genera0on IV nuclear reactors
Gas Fast
Reactor
1500
Molten
Salt
Reactor
Temperature (°C)
1125
Very High
Temperature Reactor
750
375
Generations II-III
50
0
Supercritical
Water-cooled
Reactor
100
150
0
200
Displacement per atom (dpa)
Lead Fast Reactor
Challenge: how to make materials that can withstand these environments in record sePng 0me and predict the performance of these materials 60 to 80 years from now.
Sodium Fast Reactor
New alloy developments – self-­‐healing materials for reactor applica0ons
Material design strategy is focused on improving exis0ng materials with few developments of new materials. Ball milled nano-­‐ODS alloys and mul0-­‐interface structures show poten0al, at the laboratory scale of being self-­‐healing in terms of the radia0on damage but how to scale produc0on to make the quan00es needed to construct a reactor vessel. Unclear if they posses all the requisite proper0es for applica0on in the envisioned environments. Need to ask the ques0on is this the best we can do or are there unexplored opportuni0es for making new materials or pushing materials into new property space by different synthesis and processing strategies.
Zinkle et al.
Lead-­‐cooled nuclear reactor
Fast neutron spectrum, Toutlet 800 oC
Structural materials
Cladding
High Si F-­‐M, ceramics or refractory alloys
Out-­‐of core
High Si austenitic steels, ceramics or refractory metals
Material issues
Understanding materials behavior in these environments for cladding, reactor internals and heat exchangers. Primary use: electricity produc0on
solar energy
concentrated solar energy (heat)
direct generation of electricity
(photovoltaics)
solar energy potential
size of dots indicates area of panels needed to generate all the
world’s electricity needs with 8% efficiency panels
total capacity of 300 MW is expected to be installed in the same area by 2013.[50]
Capacity
(MW)
Name
Operational Solar Thermal Power Stations
Country
Location
354
Solar Energy Generating
Systems
150
Solnova Solar Power
Station
100
Andasol solar power
station
64 Nevada Solar One
50 Ibersol Ciudad Real
50 Alvarado I
50 Extresol 1
50 La Florida
USA Mojave Desert California
Spain
Spain
Notes
Collection of 9 units
Completed 2010
Seville
[51][52][53][54][55]
Solar power - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Granada
Completed 2009
[56][57]
the Green Energy Act, allows residential homeowners in Ontario with solar panel installations to sell the
USA Boulder City, Nevada
energy they produce back to the grid (i.e., the government) at 42¢/kWh, while drawing power from the grid at
[67] The program is[58]
Puertollano,
an averageCiudad
rate ofReal
6¢/kWh.
Completed
May 2009 designed to help promote the government's green agenda and
Spain
lower the strain often placed on the energy grid at peak hours. In March, 2009 the proposed FIT was increased
Completed July 2009
Badajoz
to 80¢/kWh for small, roof-top
systems (!10 kW). [68]
[59][60][61]
Spain
Spain
Torre de Miguel Sesmero Completed February 2010
As of November 2010, the[62][63][64]
largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Finsterwalde Solar Park
(Badajoz)
Spain
60 MW),(Badajoz)
the Strasskirchencompleted
Solar Park
54 MW), the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany,
Alvarado
July(Germany,
2010 [62][65]
(Germany, 80.7 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 80 MW), Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park (Spain,
53 MW), and the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 50 MW).[69]
Solar installations in recent years have also largely begun to expand into residential areas, with governments
World's
largestInphotovoltaic
power stations (50 MW or larger) [69]
offering incentive programs to make "green" energy a more economically
viable option.
Canada the RESOP
[66]
(Renewable Energy Standard Offer Program), introduced in 2006,
and updated in 2009 with the passage
of
DC Peak
Country
Power
(MW p )
Sarnia Photovoltaic Power
Plant[70]
Canada
97[69]
Constructed
Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic
Power Station [69]
Italy
84.2
Constructed 2009-2010
Finsterwalde Solar Park [72][73]
Germany 80.7
Phase I completed 2009, phase II and III 2010
Rovigo Photovoltaic Power
Plant[74][75]
Italy
70
Completed November 2010
Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park
Spain
60
Completed September 2008
Strasskirchen Solar Park
Germany 54
Lieberose Photovoltaic Park
[76][77]
Germany 53
Completed in 2009
Puertollano Photovoltaic Park
Spain
231,653 crystalline silicon modules, Suntech
and Solaria, opened 2008
PV power station
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power
50
Notes
Page 3 of 8
2009-2010[71]
The annual International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments, organized by EPIA notes that
concentrated solar energy
largest solar
electricity
generation plant
uses this
technology
parabolic mirrors concentrate sun and heat
the transmission/storage fluids (often molten
salts)
Concentrated solar with thermal energy storage –molten salts
Material challenges
Finding materials that can withstand the aggressive environment of a high temperature molten salt.
Normally strategies for protec0ng against corrosion are not applicable, the oxides are unstable at these temperatures in the molten salts.
Salt composi0on changes with 0me!
With concentrated solar need materials that can withstand large and repeated thermal shock. Solar chemical reactors operate at temperatures >1500 K
photovoltaics:
convert light directly into electricity
the best cells
based on Ga-based materials
expensive so now only used for special applications (e.g.,
space)
materials issues
key goal:
increase efficiency of photo conversion and to lower
cost (perhaps a contradiction)
old technology (crystalline silicon) is
being replaced by CdTe, CuInGaSe, amorphous Si
much research in this area, but resources of some of
these elements are limited
uch as high-temperature solar energy or process
waste heat – directly into electric power. Empa is deeloping new materials in this context for use at high
emperatures and targeting the highest possible enery conversion efficiency.
t
Solar concentrator
1
1
convert
heat directly
Solar thermal converter: a heat
to exchanger
electricity
heated by concenHot heat exchanger side TH
p
n
p
n
n
p
p
n
trated solar irradiation, thermoelectrically active n- and p-semiconductor legs and cooled heat
exchanger connected to a space
heating system
Cold exchanger side
TC
1
complex metal oxides
with specific crystal
structures
Circulating fluid
nsmry
ity
gy conversion efficiency.
thermoelectric generators
omiat
ce
eal-
from conventional materials can be used only at operating temperatures of up to a maximum of 300 degrees Celsius owing to their thermal instability. Such units operate at relatively poor energy conversion efficiencies – i.e.
high conversion losses are incurred – and are very expensive as well as highly toxic. Their suitability for use
in thermoelectric generators is therefore limited. At Empa, innovative synthesis processes are enabling the fabrication of improved n-Solar
and conp-conductive compounds
centrator
based on complex transition metal oxides with perovskite-type structure, such as titanates, ferrates, cobaltates and manganates, etc. that display high thermal stability in air, for instance, to temperatures of up to 1000
degrees Celsius. In-depth characterisations of the relationships between structure, composition and properties
should ultimately enable Empa researchers to «design»
Hot heat exchanger side TH
new materials with the desired material properties.
Heater
R
Crystal structure (left) and transmission electron microscopic image (right) of a tailor-made perovskite-type thermoelectrically
active cobaltate, a compound
made from lanthanum, cobalt
and oxygen
n
p
n
n
p
p
n
3
2
2
p
Cold exchanger side
TC
Circulating fluid
Heater
R
10 nm
wind energy
electricity is generated
by rotating a magnet
in a copper coil
turbine blades are fiber
composites (like in
airplanes)
paramagnetic centers. Magnetic moments in other orbitals are often lost due to strong overlap with the
neighbors; for example, electrons participating in covalent bonds form pairs with zero net spin.
magnets
High magnetic moments at the atomic level in combination stable alignment (high anisotropy) results in hig
strength.
Magnetic
properties
efficiency
of electrical
generation tied to magnets
Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are: remanence (Br ), which measures the
strength of the magnetic field; coercivity (Hci ), the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized; energy
product (BHmax ), the density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (T c), the temperature at which the
material loses its magnetism. Rare earth magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energ
product, but (for neodymium) lower Curie temperature than other types. The table below compares the
magnetic performance of the two types of rare earth magnet, neodymium (Nd2 Fe14B) and samarium-cobalt
(SmCo 5 ), with other types of permanent magnets.
want very high magnetic field
best magnets are made out of rare earth elements:
Nd2 Fe14B (sintered)
Br (T) H ci (kA/m) (BH) max (kJ/m3 ) Tc (°C)
1.0–1.4 750–2000 200–440
310–400
Nd2 Fe14B (bonded)
0.6–0.7 600–1200
60–100
310–400
SmCo 5 (sintered)
0.8–1.1 600–2000
120–200
720
Sm(Co,Fe,Cu,Zr) 7 (sintered) 0.9–1.15 450–1300
150–240
800
Alnico (sintered)
0.6–1.4 275
10–88
700–860
Sr-ferrite (sintered)
0.2–0.4 100–300
10–40
450
Magnet
Types
rare
earth magnets used in many products: cars,
Samarium-cobalt
maglev trains, electric guitars, ...
Main article: Samarium-cobalt magnet
rare earths
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
PERIOD
GROUP
IA
1
1
1.0079
H
1
HYDROGEN
6.941
LITHIUM
22.990
19
24.305
IIIA
13
5
10.811
VA 16
14.007 8
VIA 17
15.999 9
VIIA
HELIUM
39.098
MAGNESIUM
20
40.078
3
21
IIIB 4
44.956 22
Ca
Sc
Ti
SCANDIUM
TITANIUM
85.468
38
87.62
39
88.906
40
91.224
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
RUBIDIUM
STRONTIUM
YTTRIUM
ZIRCONIUM
10
20.180
13
ELEMENT NAME
26.982
CARBON
14
Al
VIIIB
9
10
27 58.933 28
28.086
NITROGEN
15
30.974
OXYGEN
16
32.065
P
Si
S
NEON
FLUORINE
17
35.453
Cl
18
39.948
Ar
want
per
V Cr very
Mn Fe high
Br mass
Kr
As Se
Co Ni magnetic
Cu Zn Ga Gefield
IVB 5
47.867 23
CALCIUM
18.998
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (1)
BORON
BORON
K
37
VB 6
50.942 24
VANADIUM
41
92.906
VIB 7 VIIB 8
51.996 25 54.938 26
IRON
CHROMIUM MANGANESE
42
95.94
Nb Mo
43
(98)
Tc
55.845
44
101.07
Ru
COBALT
45
102.91
58.693
NICKEL
46
106.42
11
29
IB 12
63.546 30
107.87
65.39
ZINC
COPPER
47
IIB
48
112.41
ALUMINIUM
31
69.723
GALLIUM
49
114.82
SILICON
32
72.64
GERMANIUM
50
118.71
PHOSPHORUS
33
74.922
ARSENIC
51
121.76
SULPHUR
34
78.96
SELENIUM
52
127.60
CHLORINE
35
79.904
BROMINE
53
126.90
ARGON
36
83.80
KRYPTON
54
131.29
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
RHODIUM
PALLADIUM
SILVER
CADMIUM
INDIUM
TIN
ANTIMONY
TELLURIUM
IODINE
XENON
83
84
best magnets
made out of rare earth elements
Cs Ba
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
55
132.91
56
137.33
57-71
72
178.49
NIOBIUM
73
180.95
MOLYBDENUM TECHNETIUM RUTHENIUM
74
183.84
75
186.21
76
190.23
77
192.22
78
195.08
79
196.97
80
200.59
81
204.38
82
207.2
208.98
(209)
85
(210)
86
(222)
La-Lu
CAESIUM
87
7
IVA 15
12.011 7
IIIA 14
10.811 6
13
5
SYMBOL
BERYLLIUM
12
POTASSIUM
4
6
He
GROUP NUMBERS
CHEMICAL ABSTRACT SERVICE
(1986)
Na Mg
SODIUM
5
9.0122
ATOMIC NUMBER
11
3
GROUP NUMBERS
IUPAC RECOMMENDATION
(1985)
IIA
2
4
efficiency
of electrical
generationB tied
NtoO magnets
F Ne
C
Li Be
B
3
2
18 VIIIA
2 4.0026
http://www.ktf-split.hr/periodni/en/
(223)
BARIUM
88
(226)
Fr
Ra
FRANCIUM
RADIUM
Lanthanide
HAFNIUM
89-103 104
Ac-Lr
Actinide
6
However three such elements (Th, Pa, and U)
do have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic
composition, and for these an atomic weight is
tabulated.
(262)
TUNGSTEN
106
(266)
RHENIUM
107
(264)
OSMIUM
108
(277)
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
RUTHERFORDIUM
DUBNIUM
SEABORGIUM
BOHRIUM
HASSIUM
La
Ce
LANTHANUM
CERIUM
ACTINIDE
89 (227) 90
7
Editor: Aditya Vardhan (adivar@nettlinx.com)
TANTALUM
105
LANTHANIDE
57 138.91 58 140.12 59
(1) Pure Appl. Chem., 73, No. 4, 667-683 (2001)
Relative atomic mass is shown with five
significant figures. For elements have no stable
nuclides, the value enclosed in brackets
indicates the mass number of the longest-lived
isotope of the element.
(261)
232.04
IRIDIUM
109
(268)
(281)
111
(272)
MERCURY
112
THALLIUM
LEAD
114
(285)
Mt Uun Uuu Uub
MEITNERIUM UNUNNILIUM UNUNUNIUM
BISMUTH
POLONIUM
ASTATINE
RADON
(289)
Uuq
UNUNBIUM
UNUNQUADIUM
Copyright © 1998-2002 EniG. (eni@ktf-split.hr)
140.91
Pr
60
144.24
61
(145)
62
150.36
231.04
63
151.96
64
157.25
Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd
PRASEODYMIUM NEODYMIUM PROMETHIUM SAMARIUM
91
GOLD
PLATINUM
110
92
238.03
Ac
Th
Pa
U
ACTINIUM
THORIUM
PROTACTINIUM
URANIUM
93
(237)
Np
94
(244)
EUROPIUM GADOLINIUM
95
(243)
96
(247)
65
158.93
AMERICIUM
CURIUM
162.50
67
164.93
Tb
Dy
Ho
TERBIUM
DYSPROSIUM
HOLMIUM
97
(247)
Pu Am Cm Bk
NEPTUNIUM PLUTONIUM
66
98
(251)
Cf
99
(252)
Es
BERKELIUM CALIFORNIUM EINSTEINIUM
68
167.26
69
168.93
70
173.04
Er Tm Yb
ERBIUM
100
(257)
THULIUM
101
(258)
YTTERBIUM
102
(259)
Fm Md No
FERMIUM
MENDELEVIUM
71
174.97
Lu
LUTETIUM
103
(262)
Lr
NOBELIUM LAWRENCIUM
energy storage
heat storage
chemical storage (batteries)
batteries
example:
anode:
Zn (s) + 2OH− (aq) →
ZnO (s) + H2O (l) + 2e−
cathode:
2MnO2 (s) + H2O (l) + 2e−
→Mn2O3 (s) + 2OH− (aq)
for storage need to be rechargeable with long
lifetimes
http://www.howstuffworks.com/battery.htm
material issues
for transportation, need low weight, long
lifetimes, high capacity, ...
• best candidate: lithium-ion batteries
for electrical generation, need long lifetimes,
high capacity, ...
• more options, including lithium-based
lithium-ion batteries
600 million cars on the road x 18 kg Li/car
= 10.8 million tonnes of Li needed
plus whatever other uses we need
(computers, etc.)
we will discuss how much we have in a future
lecture
The technological solu0on is only part of the answer to a sustainable energy program
• Materials are finite resources and yet we design without considera0on of end-­‐of-­‐
life recyclability.
• Materials for cri0cal technologies are scarce and we need to invest in finding alternate strategies for building systems.
• Assuming everyone aspires to reach a standard of living comparable to that in America, we would need to increase the produc0on of steel, copper and aluminum significantly.
hcp://www.mnforsustain.org/meadows_limits_to_growth_30_year_update_2004.htm
Engineers will need to become more knowledgeable about areas normally outside the usual curriculum. They should have an understanding of the social, economic and poli0cal impact to create a society that is truly sustainable.
questions