Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 30 (2013) 120–124
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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfca
Original Research Article
Nutrient composition of four species of winged termites consumed in
western Kenya
John N. Kinyuru a,*, Silvenus O. Konyole b, Nanna Roos c, Christine A. Onyango a, Victor O. Owino d,
Bethwell O. Owuor e, Benson B. Estambale b, Henrik Friis c, Jens Aagaard-Hansen c, Glaston M. Kenji a
a
Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya
University of Nairobi, Kenya
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
d
Winfood Project, University of Nairobi, Kenya
e
Catholic University of Eastern Africa, Kenya
b
c
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 22 February 2012
Received in revised form 13 February 2013
Accepted 17 February 2013
The objective of this study was to gain knowledge on the nutrient composition of Macrotermes
subhylanus, Pseudacanthotermes militaris, Macrotermes bellicosus and Pseudacanthotermes spiniger termite
species consumed in western Kenya. Proximate, iron, zinc, calcium and fatty acid composition were
analysed in order to ascertain their potential in food-based strategies to improve nutritional health. The
fat content was 44.82–47.31 g/100 g, protein 33.51–39.74 g/100 g, available carbohydrate 0.72–8.73 g/
100 g, iron 53.33–115.97 mg/100 g and zinc 7.10–12.86 mg/100 g. The level of unsaturated fatty acids
was 50.54–67.83%, while n-6:n-3 ratio ranged between 5.80:1.00 and 57.70:1.00, signifying potential
nutritional and public health significance. The termites may be exploited to provide high-quality diets
especially in the developing countries, which have been plagued by iron and zinc deficiencies as well as
poor supply of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid sources.
ß 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Entomophagy
Edible insects
Nutrition
Iron
Zinc
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Food analysis
Food composition
Biodiversity and nutrition
Indigenous food
1. Introduction
According to FAO (2010), more than 2.5 billion people, mainly
in Africa and Asia, commonly eat insects. Currently attention is
being drawn to this valuable traditional food resource, which if
tapped or exploited is likely to be a more sustainable solution for
nutrient deficiency. Edible winged termites form an important part
of the food culture in the Lake Victoria region of East Africa
(DeFoliart, 1999; Ayieko, 2007). In many households termites are a
delicacy enjoyed by almost all ethnic communities in western
Kenya.
There are different species of edible winged termites collected
for human consumption in western Kenya. Depending on the
termite species and season, methods of harvesting vary (Ayieko
et al., 2010). In the western Kenya region, termites are collected
* Corresponding author at: Department of Food Science and Technology, Jomo
Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi,
Kenya. Tel.: +254 723667432.
E-mail addresses: jkinyuru@gmail.com, jkinyuru@agr.jkuat.ac.ke (J.N. Kinyuru).
0889-1575/$ – see front matter ß 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2013.02.008
during the April and October rainy seasons. They are prepared by
blanching in boiling water then drying in the sun, and then frying
in their own fat. They are consumed as part of a meal or as a
complete meal with tapioca, bread, roast corn, or simply eaten as
snack food. Some mothers even grind the dried termites into flour
and use it as a sprinkle in baby porridge (Bergeron et al., 1988).
Termites are also eaten raw directly from the emergence hole
(Christensen et al., 2006; Ayieko et al., 2010).
Although termite harvest begins with the onset of the rains and
the swarming of the winged termites, villagers have shown that
some termites could be induced to emerge even during the dry
seasons, making them available throughout the year. This has
created attachment to the termite enterprise by locals to the extent
that in some parts of the region, termite mounds are owned by
individuals and sometimes form part of inheritance when one dies
(Banjo et al., 2006).
It is postulated that termites contain high-quality nutrients
including highly digestible proteins (Kinyuru et al., 2010a), as well
as minerals, which are more bioavailable than minerals from plant
foods (Omotoso, 2006). They may therefore be utilised to manage
the widespread nutrient deficiency in developing countries
J.N. Kinyuru et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 30 (2013) 120–124
(FAO/WHO, 2001) practising entomophagy. Most of the literature
concerning the comprehensive nutrient composition of insects in
western Kenya has focused on other insects such as grasshoppers
(Ruspolia differens) [Kinyuru et al., 2010b] and black ants (Calebara
vidua) (Ayieko et al., 2012). Christensen et al. (2006) summarised
the mineral content of ‘oyala’ ‘ogawo’ and ‘agoro’ termites from
Lake Victoria region of Kenya. Another study focused on the culture
of harvesting and consuming Macrotermes subhylanus termite in
western Kenya (Ayieko et al., 2010). Therefore, this report provides
a more comprehensive summary of the proximates, mineral and
fatty acid composition of four termite species commonly
consumed in western Kenya.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sampling design
Representative samples of sun-dried M. subhylanus, P. militaris,
M. bellicosus and P. spiniger termite species were collected from
markets in six major towns namely Maseno, Luanda, Mumias,
Bungoma, Webuye and Kakamega. Samples were collected from
six vendors in each town during the wet season between April and
October in 2010. From each vendor, samples weighing 0.25 to 2 kg
of each termite species were obtained. A single sample per town for
each species was obtained by pooling 100 g from each vendor. This
formed six composite samples for analysis for each termite species
representing western Kenya. The samples were packaged in
standard gauge polythene bags and stored in cool boxes lined
with ice packs. They were transported to the Food Biochemistry
laboratory at Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and
Technology within 12 h after collection.
121
Japan) according to AOAC (1996) using external standards (Sigma–
Aldrich Chemie, Steinheim, Germany). In-house control material
was used to determine the precision and accuracy of the results.
The in-house control sample was vacuum-packed in polythene
bags and stored at 20 8C. The stability of this material was tested
regularly.
2.5. Fatty acid composition
Fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatography. The extraction of the lipids was performed by Folch extraction
method (Folch et al., 1957). Prior to methylation, the extracted
lipid was redissolved to a concentration of 10 mg/mL in
chloroform:methanol (2:1, v/v). The samples were methylated
according to Bligh and Dyer (1959) and 0.2 mL were injected into
the Gas Chromatograph (GC) capillary column (Supelcowax,
internal diameter 30 m 0.53 mm) maintained at an injection/
detection temperature of 220 8C under a flame ionisation detector.
Identification of the fatty acid methyl esters was by comparison of
retention times with standards (Sigma Chemical Co) and was
expressed as percentages of total methyl esters The polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids ratio (PU/SA) and n-6:n-3
fatty acids ratios were calculated (Mann, 1993; Nurhasan et al.,
2010).
2.6. Data analysis
Data were reported as mean standard deviation for each
termite species.
3. Results and discussion
2.2. Sample preparation and analysis
3.1. Proximate composition
Once in the laboratory, the composite samples were dewinged
and moisture content determined. The rest of the samples were
freeze-dried, homogenized and stored at 20 8C for further analysis.
All the reagents for analysis were of analytical grade.
Table 1 shows the proximate composition of the edible
termites. Moisture content for termites was found to be 6.50–
8.76 g/100 g, values which were higher than those reported in
National Food Composition Tables for Kenya (NFCT) [Sehmi, 1993]
for sun-dried termite consumed in western Kenya (1.70 g/100 g).
The level of moisture content in any dried food is highly dependent
on the drying environment among other factors. Some of the foods
are dried on bare ground; water may therefore accumulate around
it instead of draining away during the drying process making the
drying process cumbersome (Owaga et al., 2010). These are some
of the reasons why there may have been a difference in the
moisture content observed between the species.
The fat content of the termites (44.82–47.31 g/100 g) was lower
than the values reported in NFCT (Sehmi, 1993) for sun-dried
termite (53.40 g/100 g) but higher than the values reported for
other termite species studied by Banjo et al. (2006) (19.70–24.10 g/
100 g) in Nigeria. The values of the studied termites were also
higher than that of Nausitermes spp. termite (40.23 g/100 g)
reported by Oyarzun et al. (1996).
The protein content of the four termite species (33.51–39.74 g/
100 g) was within the range reported for dried termite (35.70 g/
100 g) reported in the NFCT (Sehmi, 1993). The protein content
2.3. Proximate composition
Moisture content was analysed by the drying method, crude
fat by Soxhlet extraction method and crude protein by semimicro-Kjeldhal method (AOAC, 1996). Protein content was
calculated by utilising 6.25 as the protein: nitrogen ratio. Crude
ash was determined by incinerating in a muffle furnace at 550 8C
(AOAC, 1996). Dietary fibre was determined by enzymatic
gravimetric method – Prosky (AOAC, 1995). Available carbohydrate value was calculated as the difference between 100 and the
sum of the percentages of water, protein, lipids, ash and dietary
fibre.
2.4. Iron, zinc and calcium content
Quantification of iron, zinc and calcium was performed by
atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) (Shimadzu AA-6200, Tokyo,
Table 1
Proximate composition of the edible winged termites (g/100 g).
Termite
Moisture
Proteina
Fata
Total asha
Dietary fibrea
Available carbohydratea
Macrotermes subylanus; dewinged
Pseudacanthotermes militaris; dewinged
Macrotermes bellicosus; dewinged
Pseudacanthotermes spiniger; dewinged
6.50 0.02
5.04 0.15
5.13 0.18
8.76 1.61
39.34 0.12
33.51 0.85
39.74 0.61
37.54 0.12
44.82 2.89
46.59 2.13
47.03 1.04
47.31 0.13
7.58 0.05
4.58 0.06
4.65 0.09
7.22 0.38
6.37 1.18
6.59 0.07
6.21 2.04
7.21 0.44
1.89 0.76
8.73 1.87
2.37 0.98
0.72 0.01
Values are mean SD; n = 6.
a
Values are on dry weight basis.
J.N. Kinyuru et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 30 (2013) 120–124
122
Table 2
Mineral composition of the edible winged termites (mg/100 g).
Iron
fibre and some definitions include chitin as dietary fibre
(Michaelsen et al., 2009).
Termite
Calcium
Zinc
Macrotermes subylanus;
dewinged
Pseudacanthotermes militaris;
dewinged
Macrotermes bellicosus;
dewinged
Pseudacanthotermes spiniger;
dewinged
58.72 1.29
53.33 1.46
8.10 2.80
48.31 7.09
60.29 1.11
12.86 0.92
63.60 6.53
115.97 3.46
10.76 1.93
42.89 1.75
64.77 2.66
7.10 1.82
Values are mean SD on dry weight basis; n = 6.
exhibited by the termites in this study was higher than that of red
meats reported by Williams (2007) and therefore they may offer an
affordable source of protein. Other studies have reported that
termites have high protein quality beneficial for human nutrition
(Ramos-Elorduy et al., 1997; Verkerk et al., 2007; Kinyuru et al.,
2010a), especially in an otherwise plant-dominated diet, typical in
western Kenya
The ash content of the studied termites (6.21–7.21 g/100 g) was
higher than values reported for dried termite (4.80 g/100 g) in
NFCT (Sehmi, 1993). The higher ash content in the termites may be
due to residual soil contamination during harvesting and drying
although care was taken to avoid soil contamination after
sampling. Sorting is however a procedure to remove any visible
soil, dust and other physical contaminants before analysis of such
food samples. The carbohydrate content of the studied termites
(0.72–8.73 g/100 g) was within the range of the value reported for
dried termite (3.50 g/100 g) according to NFCT (Sehmi, 1993).
However, carbohydrate in insects, including termites, has been
reported in a highly variable range of 1.00–29.00 g/100 g of dry
weight (Verkerk et al., 2007). This variability is evident among the
species analyzed (0.72–8.73 g/100 g) in this study. The dietary
fibre content of the studied termites was 6.21–7.21 g/100 g,
however, there are no fibre values in NFCT (Sehmi, 1993) reported
for sun-dried termite to compare with. Various authors have
suggested that the fibre in insects represents chitin because it is
similar structurally to cellulose (Finke, 2002, 2007; Barker et al.,
1998). Therefore, high fibre content in insects may be due to chitin.
However, there is no universally accepted definition of dietary
3.2. Calcium, iron and zinc
Calcium, iron and zinc content were the minerals of interest as
shown in Table 2. M. bellicosus termite had the highest calcium
and iron content while P. militaris termite had the highest zinc
content. The NFCT (Sehmi, 1993) reports calcium and iron
contents of dried termite species to be 91.00 mg/100 g and
21.00 mg/100 g respectively. Values for zinc content are missing
completely from the NFCT (Sehmi, 1993). The levels of calcium,
iron and zinc of the insects obtained in this study are in
agreement with previous studies on termites (Oyarzun et al.,
1996; Christensen et al., 2006; Onigbinde and Adamolekun,
1998). However there was wide variability in iron content
between M. bellicosus (115.97 mg/100 g) and the other species
analyzed (53.33–64.77 mg/100 g). This difference could be
attributed to species difference as well as possible soil
contamination during harvesting. However, this variability
deserves further investigation. Consumption of soil especially
from termite moulds in western Kenya is a common practise
(Geissler et al., 1997) and so possibility of insect contamination
with soil does not hinder local consumption. Contrary to the high
zinc and iron contents in insects, calcium content has been
reported to be relatively low in other termite species as well as in
other insects (Oyarzun et al., 1996; Onigbinde and Adamolekun,
1998; Kinyuru et al., 2010a; Banjo et al., 2006; Ekpo and
Onigbinde, 2007).
Of specific importance while focusing on the nutritional
significance from edible insects is the contribution of micronutrients, which are well documented to be deficient and causing
severe public health problems in poor populations in Kenya
(Hongo, 2003). Deficiencies of iron and zinc are core public health
problems, especially for child and maternal health (Michaelsen
et al., 2009). Reports on contents of zinc and iron in various insects
generally indicate that insects are a valuable source of these
minerals (Yhoungaree et al., 1997; Christensen et al., 2006). In
addition, Christensen et al. (2006) suggests that bioavailability of
these minerals from the insects is likely to be higher than from the
plant foods. Therefore, cereal-based diets used for feeding infants
Table 3
Fatty acid composition of the edible winged termites.
Fatty acid (% of total lipids)
Macrotermes subylanus
Pseudacanthotermes militaris
Caprylic acid (C10:1)
Capric acid (C10:0)
Lauric acid (C12:0)
Myristic acid (C14:0)
Palmitic acid (C16:0)
Palmitoleic acid (C16:1)
Stearic acid (C18:0)
Oleic acid (C18:1)
Linoleic acid (C18:2)
Linolenic acid (C18:3)
Total saturateda
Total unsaturatedb
Monounsaturatedc
Polyunsaturatedd
PU/SA ratio
n-6: n-3
nd
nd
nd
1.06 0.04
27.65 3.53
4.17 0.40
6.34 0.04
48.60 3.59
10.75 0.66
1.43 0.13
35.05 0.89
64.95 0.94
52.77 0.22
12.18 2.13
0.34 0.24
7.50: 1.00
nd
0.21 0.04
nd
nd
26.04 2.34
5.84 0.30
5.92 0.48
50.26 1.60
11.54 0.44
0.20 0.02
32.17 0.57
67.83 0.50
56.10 0.63
11.73 0.30
0.36 0.05
57.70: 1.00
All values as means SD on dry weight basis; n = 6.
nd – not detected.
Limit of detection = 0.05% of total lipid.
a
Sum total percentage of 10:0, 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, 18:0.
b
Sum total percentage of 16:1, 18:1, 18:2, 18:3.
c
Sum total percentage of 16:1, 18:1.
d
Sum total percentage of 18:2, 18:3.
Macrotermes bellicosus
0.42 0.25
0.24 0.05
0.18 0.09
1.16 0.15
38.35 3.37
0.63 0.05
9.53 0.54
41.74 2.61
5.03 0.12
0.87 0.01
49.46 0.29
50.54 0.23
44.64 0.28
5.90 0.15
0.12 0.05
5.80: 1.00
Pseudacanthotermes spiniger
0.39 0.02
0.31 0.01
0.22 0.01
0.76 0.01
28.04 0.12
3.24 0.02
6.12 0.10
49.27 0.02
10.48 0.08
0.78 0.05
35.84 0.04
64.16 0.04
52.90 0.02
11.26 0.07
0.31 0.02
13.40: 1.00
J.N. Kinyuru et al. / Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 30 (2013) 120–124
and young children in developing countries could receive a boost
with the addition of insects to the diets.
3.3. Fatty acid composition
The results presented in Table 3 show that all termite oils
contained more unsaturated fatty acids than polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA). Oleic acid was the predominant fatty acid in
the lipid fraction of the studied termite species (41.74–50.26%),
palmitic acid was the second major fatty acid (26.04–38.85%),
and linoleic acid was third (5.03–11.54%). Oyarzun et al. (1996)
reported that oleic acid was the major fatty acid (51.10%) in
Nasutitermes spp. of termites collected in Venezuela. In addition,
Ekpo and Onigbinde (2007) found that oleic and palmitic acids
are the major fatty acids in Macrotermes bellicosus termite oil.
The findings of this study therefore correlated well with other
studies. Other researchers have reported significant amounts of
linolenic and linoleic acids (DeFoliart, 1991; Ekpo and Onigbinde, 2007).
Oil from M. subhylanus species had higher content of n-3 fatty
acids (1.43%of total lipids) as compared to the other species
analyzed. P. Militaris contained the lowest amount of n-3 fatty
acids (0.20%) but relatively high concentrations of n-6 fatty acids
(11.54%). The n-6:n-3 ratios ranged between 5.8:10 and 57.7:10 in
the termites analyzed. P. militaris had a marginally high n-6:n-3
ratio (57.70:10), while M. bellicosus had the lowest (5.80:10). Based
on n-6:n:3 ratio, the termites offer high-quality fat for the human
diet among the communities practising entomophagy. The Codex
recommendation for a n-6:n-3 ratio is between 5.00 and
15.00:1.00 in infant formula (Koletzko et al., 2005) and therefore
the termites maybe a moderate source of n-3 fatty acids which
have been associated with human growth and health implications
(Michaelsen et al., 2011).
PU/SA ratio under 0.20 has been associated with high
cholesterol level and high risk of coronary heart disorders (Mann,
1993). All the insects analyzed had PU/SA ratios above 0.20 except
M. bellicosus termite. Oyarzun et al. (1996) reported a PU/SA ratio of
0.20 for Nasutitermes spp. of termite from Venezuela, while Ekpo
and Onigbinde (2007) reported a PU/SA ratio of 0.80 for a
Macrotermes spp. of termite from Nigeria. The PU/SA ratios of
>0.20 for most of the termites analyzed suggest that the insects
can be associated with a lower risk for certain coronary heart
diseases.
4. Conclusion
This study provides an overview of the nutrient composition of
selected termites in western Kenya. The termites contain significant proportions of proteins, fats and minerals. The oil is of high
quality with significant contribution of n-3 fatty acids and hence
possible nutritional significance. The termites have unique
nutrition qualities that can be exploited to provide high-quality
diets, especially in the developing countries, which have been
plagued by iron and zinc deficiencies as well as poor supply of
dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid sources. Result from this study
may be integrated into the national food composition database of
Kenya to enhance its value.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Danish International Development Assistance (DANIDA) for financial support through the
Winfood Project. Winfood Project is a multi-country collaborative
project involving the Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty
LIFE Sciences, University of Copenhagen; Institute of Tropical
and Infectious Diseases, University of Nairobi; Jomo Kenyatta
123
University of Agriculture and Technology, Kenya and the Department of Fisheries Post-harvest Control, Cambodia. The authors
would like to thank Ms. Monica and the team involved in field
collection of the termite samples. The authors also thank Mr.
Simon Ochanda, Ms. Lydia Nalonja and Mr. Paul Karanja for their
technical support during analysis.
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