EMS UPDATE
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE ADVOCATE
Volume 17, Issue 4
July/August 2014
july/august 2014
January/February 2009
DEPARTMENTS
From The Director
From The Editor
GAA Activities
Industry News
GAA Calendar
Advocate Advertisers
18 EMS Update: Impacts Continue, But Industry Gaining Against Disease – GAA Survey To Yield Further Solutions
Global Aquaculture Alliance
20 Do Current Shrimp Practices Favor EMS? – Proper
Microbial Management Required After Disinfection
Dr. Peter De Schryver, Dr. Tom Defoirdt, Dr. Patrick Sorgeloos
22 The Bottom Line
Hidden Value Of Feed: Water Quality
On the cover:
Vietnam’s shrimp farmers, who operate from family to factory scale,
collectively produce annual shrimp harvests worth over U.S. $3 billion.
Thomas R. Zeigler, Ph.D.
26 Feed Management Improves Profits In Intensive
White Shrimp Farming
Page 22
Poh Yong Thong
Better Feed, Better
Performance
29 Commercial, Natural Feed Consumption Examined
In Amazon River Prawn Study
Since better feeds produce
less waste materials, they
also result in improved water
quality that indirectly improves shrimp performance.
Fabrício Martins Dutra, M.S.; Dr. Yara Moretto; Dr. Leandro Portz;
Dr. Eduardo Luis Cupertino Ballester
31 Sustainable Aquaculture Practices
Species, Pond Size Define Aeration Approaches
2
3
6
76
78
80
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
34 Pond Bottom Dryout, Liming – Part I. Disinfection
in Semi-Intensive Shrimp Ponds
Li Li, Ph.D.; Julio F. Queiroz; Embrapa Meio Ambiente;
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
36 Soy-Fed Fish News
Modeling Aquaculture Carrying Capacity
In Southeast Asia
Dr. David A. Bengtson
38 Tilapia Aquaculture In Ghana – Ponds Can Contribute
More To Overall Production, Food Security
Emmanuel A. Frimpong, Ph.D.; Iris E. M. Fynn
42 Diets For Pond-Raised Red Claw Crayfish –
Study Examines Alfalfa Hay As Forage Feed Supplement
Page 72
Polychaete
Worms
Adaptable and diverse,
polychaete worms can
reduce particulate matter
in culture water and also
provide a source of amino
acids in feed.
Kenneth R. Thompson; Carl D. Webster, Ph.D.; Yuka Kobayashi;
Vaun C. Cummins; Joao Fernando Albers Koch
44 Totoaba: Endangered Fish Species Has Aquaculture
Potential In Mexico
M. C. Christian Minjarez-Osorio; Mayra Lizett González, Ph.D.;
Martin Perez-Velazquez, Ph.D.
47 Market Test: Farm-Grown Freshwater Prawns –
Respondents New To Product Would Buy
Dan Kauffman, Ph.D.; Martha Walker, Ph.D.
50 Seafood Marketing
Competition Across Fish Species In E.U.
José Fernández Polanco, Ph.D.; Ignacio Llorente, Ph.D.;
María Odriozola
54 Seafood And Health
Is The Seafood Story That Complicated?
Roy D. Palmer, FAICD
56 Food Safety And Technology
Cathepsin Enzymes – Part II. Activities
In Cultured Species
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.; David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
58 U.S. Seafood Markets
Paul Brown, Jr.; Janice Schreiber; Angel Rubio
ii
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
62 Chemical Treatment Costs Reduced
With In-Pond Raceway Systems
Lisa B. Bott; Travis W. Brown, Ph.D.; Luke A. Roy, Ph.D.;
Terrill R. Hanson, Ph.D.
66 Ammonia Addition Enhances Microbial Flocs In Nursery Phase For Pacific White Shrimp
Carlos Gaona, Ph.D. Student; Dariano Krummenauer, Ph.D.;
André Freitas; Márcio Miranda, M.S.; Luis Poersch, Ph.D.;
Wilson Wasielesky, Jr., Ph.D.
70 Dietary Sodium Butyrate Improves Performance
Of Pacific White Shrimp
Bruno Corrêa da Silva, Felipe do Nascimento Vieira,
José Luiz Mouriño, Walter Quadros Seiffert
72 Polychaete Worms Reduce Waste, Provide Food
In Aquaculture
Dr. Adrian A. Bischoff
74 Algae Shows Promise As Alternative DHA Source
In Rainbow Trout Diets
Dr. Kyla M. Zatti, Chuyuan Zhang, Cláudia Figueiredo-Silva,
Dr. Andreas Lemme, Dr. Murray D. Drew
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
1
from the director
GLOBAL AQUACULTURE
ALLIANCE
The Global Aquaculture Al­li­ance is an international non-profit, non-gov­ernmental
association whose mission is to further en­vi­
ron­men­tally responsible aqua­culture to meet
world food needs. Our members are producers, pro­cessors, marketers and retailers of seafood prod­ucts worldwide. All aqua­­culturists
in all sectors are welcome in the organization.
OFFICERS
George Chamberlain, President
Bill Herzig, Vice President
Lee Bloom, Secretary
Jim Heerin, Treasurer
Iain Shone, Assistant Treasurer
Jeff Fort, Chief Financial Officer
Wally Stevens, Executive Director
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Bert Bachmann
Lee Bloom
Rittirong Boonmechote
George Chamberlain
Shah Faiez
Jeff Fort
John Galiher
Laura Garrido
Jim Heerin
Bill Herzig
Ray Jones
Alex Ko
Jordan Mazzetta
Robins McIntosh
Sergio Nates
John Peppel
John Schramm
Jeff Sedacca
Iain Shone
Wally Stevens
RELATIONSHIP MANAGER
Sally Krueger
sallyk@gaalliance.org
EDITOR
Darryl Jory
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
PRODUCTION STAFF
Assistant Editor
David Wolfe
davidw@gaalliance.org
Graphic Designer
Lorraine Jennemann
lorrainej@gaalliance.org
HOME OFFICE
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Telephone: +1-314-293-5500
FAX: +1-314-293-5525
E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Website: http://www.gaalliance.org
All contents copyright © 2014
Global Aquaculture Alliance.
Global Aquaculture Advocate
is printed in the USA.
ISSN 1540-8906
2
July/August 2014
Vietnam: A Lesson
In Market
Diversification,
Leadership
Wally Stevens
In October, the Global Aquaculture Alliance’s
Executive Director
annual GOAL conference returns to Ho Chi Minh
Global Aquaculture Alliance
City, Vietnam, for the first time since 2005.
wallys@gaalliance.org
Through GOAL, GAA carries out its mission of
responsible aquaculture by providing a venue at
which leadership development, cooperation and education are encouraged.
It’s the “leadership” piece that drew GAA back to Vietnam in 2014. This year’s
theme is “Celebrating Leadership,” and aquaculture’s role in the diversification of Vietnam’s economy in a mere 30-year span is a testament to the foresight and intuition of
Dr. Nguyen Huu Dzung of the Vietnam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers and others.
Last year, Vietnam exported Pangasius and shrimp to a total of 148 countries and 91
countries, respectively.
That’s quite a feat, considering that Vietnam’s economy didn’t open up until 1986,
when Vietnam initiated Đổi Mới, transitioning from a centralized economy with state
subsidies to a socialist-oriented market economy. Since then, Vietnam has signed a bilateral trade agreement with the European Union (1992), joined the Association of Southeast Asian Nations and ASEAN Free Trade Area (1995), signed a bilateral trade agreement with the United States (2001) and joined the World Trade Organization (2007).
In 1990, the value of Vietnam’s seafood exports barely topped U.S. $200 million. In
2013, shrimp and Pangasius exports alone reached $3.11 billion and $1.76 billion,
respectively. Aside from the growth of its seafood exports in terms of value and volume,
Vietnam is dependent on no one country or region. Think about it: Pangasius is a relatively new species on the global seafood scene, and it’s available in about three-quarters
of the world’s countries.
Pangasius is a relatively
There’s a lesson to learn from Vietnam,
and it’s one of market diversification.
new species on the global
Each year, GOAL sets out to link the
seafood scene, and it’s
varying facets of the aquaculture industry,
from the farmers and processors up the seaavailable in about threefood supply chain to the retailers and foodquarters of the world’s
service operators. The industry’s thought
countries.
leaders will take center stage in Ho Chi
Minh City, and it’s here that we collectively
move the dial on the challenges and opportunities facing aquaculture. Whether it’s disease risk management, aquafeed sustainability or marketplace accessibility for smallscale farmers, the industry can’t meet the world’s seafood needs without effectively
addressing these challenges.
If the growth of Vietnam’s seafood industry over the last 30 years is any indication
of what can be accomplished in a relatively short amount of time, then satisfying the
world’s seafood needs by ensuring the long-term sustainability of aquaculture – by effectively addressing these challenges – is not by any stretch an insurmountable task.
Sincerely,
from the editor
Relevant, Now
And Tomorrow
In this column, I would like to call your attention
to the conclusions of two recent reports that discussed the growing importance of our industry in
feeding our world’s growing population.
The first one is the United Nation Food and
Darryl E. Jory, Ph.D.
Agriculture Organization’s “The State of World
Editor, Development Manager
Fisheries and Aquaculture” (www.fao.org/3/
Global Aquaculture Advocate
a-i3720e.pdf). FAO is steadfastly promoting the
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
sustainable and responsible management of our
aquatic resources, calling it “Blue Growth.” According to FAO’s Director General José Graziano da
Silva: “The health of our planet, as well as our own health and future food security, all
hinge on how we treat the blue world. … We need to ensure that environmental wellbeing is compatible with human well-being in order to make long-term sustainable
prosperity a reality for all.”
The FAO report concluded that global fisheries and aquaculture production totaled
158 mmt in 2012, or around 10 mmt more than in 2010. Seafood now supplies close to
17% of the protein intake of the world’s population, and in some countries, this number
is more than 70%.
Global aquaculture production marked a record high of more than 90 mmt in 2012
(including close to 24 mmt of aquatic plants), and China accounted for over 60% of
global aquaculture production. Fisheries and aquaculture support the livelihoods of 10
to 12% of the world’s population.
Aquaculture has much potential to respond to the surging demand for food driven
by global population growth, but to continue to grow sustainably, aquaculture must
diversify into more farmed species and practices, and reduce its dependence on wild
fisheries for aquafeed ingredients.
The second report is the World Bank’s “Fish to 2030: Prospects for Fisheries and
Aquaculture” (www.fao.org/docrep/019/i3640e/i3640e.pdf). The World Bank report projected that 62% of food fish will come from aquaculture by 2030, and annual tilapia production is expected to almost double globally, from 4.3 mmt in 2010 to 7.3 mmt by 2030.
Its key concluding expectations were that aquaculture will produce two-thirds of
food fish by 2030; China will consume nearly 40% of all seafood; production of tilapia
and shrimp will nearly double between 2010 and 2030; the largest tonnage gains will be
in mollusks and carps; and aquaculture will grow fastest in India, Latin America and
Southeast Asia. The report concluded that growing demand for seafood represents a
major opportunity, but we must work together to improve fisheries and aquaculture, and
better understand the global market.
In the “Fish to 2030” report, Árni M. Mathiesen, assistant director general of
FAO’s Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, stated: “With the world’s population
predicted to increase to 9 billion people by 2050 – particularly in areas that have high
rates of food insecurity – aquaculture, if responsibly developed and practiced, can make
a significant contribution to global food security and economic growth.”
We at GAA are committed to support our industry’s responsible development. Our
recent GOAL meetings have included various presentations by world experts on important topics like health management, alternative ingredients and others, and we will
again feature these prominently in our GOAL 2014 event in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, in October.
We encourage your suggestions for current “hot” topics to cover, as well as your contributions of short articles. Please contact me for details about our article guidelines, and
let us know how we can best represent and serve our industry.
Sincerely,
Wally Stevens
global aquaculture advocate
FOUNDING MEMBERS
Darryl E. Jory
Agribrands International Inc.
Agromarina de Panamá, S.A.
Alicorp SAA – Nicovita
Aqualma – Unima Group
Aquatec/Camanor
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Colombia
Asociación Nacional de Acuicultores de Honduras
Associação Brasileira de Criadores de Camarão
Bangladesh Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Belize Aquaculture, Ltd.
Bluepoints Co., Inc.
Cámara Nacional de Acuacultura
Camaronera de Coclé, S.A.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Chicken of the Sea Frozen Foods
Continental Grain Co.
C.P. Aquaculture Business Group
Darden Restaurants
Deli Group, Ecuador
Deli Group, Honduras
Delta Blue Aquaculture
Diamante del Mar S.A.
Eastern Fish Co.
El Rosario, S.A.
Empacadora Nacional, C.A.
Expack Seafood, Inc.
Expalsa – Exportadora de Alimentos S.A.
FCE Agricultural Research and Management, Inc.
High Liner Foods
India Chapter – Global Aquaculture Alliance
Indian Ocean Aquaculture Group
INVE Aquaculture, N.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Long John Silver’s, Inc.
Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Maritech S.A. de C.V.
Meridian Aquatic Technology Systems, LLC
Monsanto
Morrison International, S.A.
National Fish & Seafood Co./
Lu-Mar Lobster & Shrimp Co.
National Food Institute
National Prawn Co.
Ocean Garden Products, Inc.
Overseas Seafood Operations, SAM
Pescanova USA
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Productora Semillal, S.A.
Red Chamber Co.
Rich-SeaPak Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sanders Brine Shrimp Co., L.C.
Sea Farms Group
Seprofin Mexico
Shrimp News International
Sociedad Nacional de Galápagos
Standard Seafood de Venezuela C.A.
Super Shrimp Group
Tampa Maid Foods, Inc.
U.S. Foodservice
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
3
JOIN THE WORLD’S LEADING
AQUACULTURE ORGANIZATION
Aquaculture is the future of the world’s seafood supply.
Be part of it by joining the Global Aquaculture Alliance,
the leading standards-setting organization for farmed
seafood.
Access science-based information on efficient aquaculture management. Connect with other responsible
companies and reach your social responsibility goals.
California Dreaming...
Improve sales by adopting GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices certification for aquaculture facilities.
Annual dues start at U.S. $150 and include a subscription to the Global Aquaculture Advocate magazine,
GAA e-newsletters, event discounts and other benefits.
Visit www.gaalliance.org or contact the GAA office
for details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture – www.gaalliance.org – +1-314-293-5500
GOVERNING MEMBERS
Alicorp S.A. – Nicovita
Alltech
Aqua Bounty Technologies
Blue Archipelago Berhad
Capitol Risk Concepts, Ltd.
Cargill Animal Nutrition
Chang International Inc
Charoen Pokphand Foods PCL
Darden Restaurants
Dataj Aquafarm Inc.
Delta Blue Aquaculture LLC
Diversified Business Communications
Eastern Fish Co., Inc.
Ever Nexus Sdn. Bhd.
Grobest USA, Inc.
High Liner Foods
Integrated Aquaculture International
International Associates Corp.
INVE B.V.
King & Prince Seafood Corp.
Lyons Seafood Ltd.
Maloney Seafood Corp.
Marine Technologies
Mazzetta Co. LLC
Megasupply
Morey’s Seafood International
National Fish & Seafood Inc.
Pentair Aquatic Eco-Systems
Pescanova USA
Preferred Freezer Services
Red Chamber Co.
Rich Products Corp.
Sahlman Seafoods of Nicaragua, S.A.
Sea Port Products Corp.
Seafood Exchange of Florida
Seajoy
Thai Union Group
Tropical Aquaculture Products, Inc.
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Wuhan Lanesync Supply Chain
Management Co., Ltd.
Zeigler Brothers, Inc.
4
July/August 2014
SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Akin Gump Strauss Hauer & Feld
Ammon International, Inc.
Anova Food Inc.
Aqua Star
Aquatec Aquacultura Ltda.
Aquatec Industrial Pecuaria Ltda.
A.Z. Gems Inc.
BioMar Group
Blue Ridge Aquaculture
Camanchaca Inc.
Channel Fish Processing Co., Inc.
Direct Source Seafood
DNI Group, LLC
DSM Nutritional Products
Fega Marikultura P.T.
Fortune Fish Co.
Gorton’s Seafood
Great American Seafood Imports Co.
H & N Foods International, Inc./Expack
H & T Seafood, Inc.
Hai Yang International, LLC
Harbor Seafood, Inc.
Harvest Select
International Marketing Specialists
iPura Food Distribution Co.
Long John Silver’s, LLC
Mahalo Seafood LLC
Maritime Products International
Mirasco, Inc.
North Coast Seafoods
Odyssey Enterprises, Inc.
Orca Bay Seafoods
Ore-Cal Corp.
PSC Enterprise LLC
Quirch Foods
Rubicon Resources
Seacore Seafood, Inc.
Seafood Industry Development Corp.
Seattle Fish Co.
Seattle Fish Co. of New Mexico
Seattle Shrimp & Seafood Co., Inc.
Slade Gorton & Co., Inc.
Solae, LLC
Star Agro Marine Exports Ltd.
Tampa Bay Fisheries, Inc.
Tampa Maid Foods
The Fishin’ Co.
global aquaculture advocate
The Great Fish Co.
United Seafood Enterprises, L.P.
ASSOCIATION MEMBERS
All China Federation of Industry
and Commerce Aquatic Production
Chamber of Commerce
American Feed Industry Association
Asociación Latino Americana
de Plantas de Rendimiento
Associação Brasileira de Criadores
de Camarão
Australian Prawn Farmers Association
Bangladesh Shrimp and Fish Foundation
China Aquatic Products Processing
and Marketing Association
Fats and Proteins Research
Foundation, Inc.
Indiana Soybean Alliance
Indonesian Aquaculture Society
International Fishmeal and
Fish Oil Organisation
Malaysian Shrimp
Industry Association
Marine Products Export
Development Authority
National Fisheries Institute
National Renderers Association
Oceanic Institute
Prince Edward Island Seafood
Processors Association
SalmonChile
Salmon of the Americas
Seafood Importers Association
of Australasia
Seafood Importers
and Processors Alliance
Soy Aquaculture Alliance
Thai Frozen Foods Association
Universidad Austral de Chile
U.S. Soybean Export Council
Washington Fish Growers Association
Washington State China Relations Council
World Aquaculture Society
World Renderers Organization
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
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gaa activities
GAA, ASC, GlobalGAP Continue Collaboration
The Global Aquaculture Alliance, Aquaculture Stewardship
Council (ASC) and GlobalGAP came together at Seafood Expo
Global in early May to develop the next steps toward achieving
efficiencies across the three groups’ programs that will provide
greater access to certification for aquaculture producers and processors. GAA develops the Best Aquaculture Practices standards
for aquaculture facilities.
In April 2013, the organizations signed a memorandum of
undertanding (MoU), agreeing to work together to reduce duplication across the programs’ auditing processes while recognizing
the continued integrity of each program. Last year, the three certification organizations published common requirements on
responsible sourcing of fishmeal and fish oils.
More recently, GAA and GlobalGAP, which already have
operational feed standards, took an active role in ASC’s development of feed standards. GAA and GlobalGAP representatives
are taking part as observers in ASC steering committee meetings
and actively participating in the technical working group on
marine ingredients.
Also under way is a comparison of the three organizations’
standards with the aim of identifying commonalities. Initially, the
focus is on Pangasius, and other species will be added over time.
“Our organizations got the message from producers about
‘audit fatigue,’ and we will work to capture efficiencies without
endangering the unique features of our programs,” said BAP
Standards Coordinator Dan Lee.
“When we signed the MoU, we made a promise to achieve
greater efficiencies to benefit all of our stakeholders,” said Bas
Geerts, ASC standards director. “Each of the organizations’
standards is very precise, so identifying the common elements
across them is a complex task … that will take some time to
complete, but it’s great to see the willingness of all three parties
committed to making this work.”
“We will not stop our efforts until we have published a single
set of criteria and language that can be used to demonstrate compliance with all elements addressing the same aspects in the three
6
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Visit www.gaalliance.org/survey/ To Participate
The Global Aquaculture Alliance is coordinating a case study
to identify the practices that prevent and/or manage early mortality syndrome (EMS), also known as acute hepatopancreatic
necrosis, at shrimp farms. The study will act as a foundation for
recommendations to the aquaculture community for better
global shrimp-farming practices.
The first phase of the study consists of a comprehensive survey designed to collect information on the disease status, practices and performance of shrimp farms in Asia and Latin America. All shrimp farms in countries that are affected or threatened
by EMS (China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Thailand, Mexico, India)
are encouraged to participate by completing the survey at www.
gaalliance.org/survey/.
The initial version of the online survey was presented in
English, although additional versions of the surveys in other languages were scheduled to be posted.
The study project is supported primarily by Allfish, a World
Bank public-private partnership organized by the International
Coalition of Fisheries Associations, with additional assistance
from the Seafood Industry Research Fund and C.P. Prima.
New Corporate Members Join Alliance
ASC CEO Chris Ninnes (left) joined GAA Executive Director
Wally Stevens and GlobalGAP Managing Director Kristian
Moeller for discussions on further cooperation among the certification groups.
standards,” said Kristian Moeller, managing director of GlobalGAP. “Duplication of control points shall become history.”
Over time, the organizations will work toward common
approaches to auditor training and chain of custody certification.
They will also explore common ways to manage certificate information and encourage objective messaging regarding the claims
made for certified aquaculture products.
“Our organizations got the message
from producers about ‘audit fatigue,’
and we will work to capture efficiencies
without endangering the unique features
of our programs.”
– Dan Lee
BAP To Undergo GSSI Pilot Testing
The Global
Aquaculture Alliance has accepted
an invitation from
the Global Sustainable Seafood
Initiative to participate in a GSSI
pilot testing program designed to
test and validate the GSSI benchmarking process.
GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices was the first certification
program to accept GSSI’s invitation. The testing will be conducted in the latter half of 2014.
GSSI is a global sustainability benchmarking organization
founded to help address sustainability issues through the development of a consistent and global benchmarking tool for seafood
certification and labeling programs that will provide comparabil-
GAA Launches EMS Survey
ity and transparency among existing programs.
The pilot testing will evaluate whether the GSSI benchmarking process is credible, achievable and verifiable, and create
awareness and prepare participating certification programs for
more formal benchmarking in 2015.
“We believe the marketplace is looking for a level playing
field, and we believe that GSSI is going to deliver that playing
field,” said Peter Redmond, BAP vice president of market development. “We’re very excited to be on the forefront of that.”
“We believe the marketplace is looking
for a level playing field, and we believe
that GSSI is going to deliver that
playing field.”
– Peter Redmond
The Global Aquaculture Alliance welcomes its newest Governing Member, Dataj Aquafarm Inc., a commercial producer of
white shrimp located in Mandaluyong City in the Philippines. It
is developing a semi-integrated production system incorporating a
multi-species hatchery facility with circular maturation tanks,
intensive growout culture, and processing and export facilities.
GAA also welcomes two new Sustaining Members. H & T
Seafood, Inc. is a seafood company based in Bell, California,
USA, that serves foodservice, restaurant, supermarket and seafood
distribution customers throughout North America. In addition to
its membership support, H & T is sponsoring several GOAL
2014 events: the gala reception, gala dinner and registration.
H & T’s product lines include “Double Blue” shrimp and the
“Fresh Harvest” line of freshwater and marine fish, crustaceans
and cephalopods. H & T also offers sushi-grade products and
surimi items.
Long John Silver’s, LLC is also a new Sustaining Member.
Long John Silver’s, the world’s largest quick-service seafood company, is “charting a new course” that includes sustainably harvested seafood. The company endorses GAA’s Best Aquaculture
Practices program, and offers seafood choices that include baked
seafood and vegetable sides to satisfy consumers’ evolving tastes.
Long John Silver’s recently announced that all its menu items
now have no trans fat. The company is also becoming more
vocal in promoting seafood under the “Think Fish” theme,
which encourages Americans to eat more fish.
Good Alternative
®
Shrimp from Best Aquaculture Practicescertified farms and plants are now rated
a “Good Alternative” by the Monterey Bay
Aquarium Seafood Watch® program.
Applying science-based criteria, Seafood Watch ranks various
fish, shellfish and other species, and makes recommendations
on seafood that is fished or farmed in ways that don’t harm
the environment. As with the BAP standards, Seafood Watch
addresses effluents; habitat, chemical and feed use; escapes
and disease risks; sources of stock and other issues.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance is proud that the Monterey Bay Aquarium
has recognized BAP certification in this way and supports the Seafood
Watch program in helping consumers and businesses make choices
for healthy oceans.
“Aquaculture offers the potential for substantial economic and social benefits,
but has complex ecological, social and economic costs. The long-term
sustainability of aquaculture depends on a balance and synergy of these costs
and benefits.”
– Seafood Watch
Scan to view the full
Seafood Watch
ratings for shrimp.
Seafood Watch® is a registered service mark of the Monterey Bay Aquarium.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
7
BAP Holds Responsible Aquaculture
Seminars In Mediterranean
The seminar in Turkey included a tour of Kilic Seafood Co.’s
hatchery and other facilities.
The Global Aquaculture Alliance’s Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) division held two successful seminars on responsible
aquaculture in Greece and Turkey in mid-May. Featuring members of BAP’s management and market development teams,
both seminars focused on the implementation of the BAP seafood processing plant standards and BAP finfish and crustacean
farm standards, and potential markets for products from BAPcertified facilities. The growth of the Mediterranean aquaculture
sector – specifically seabass, sea bream and trout operations – has
prompted the region’s producers to look at new market opportunities in Europe and North America.
Fish Co. First BAPCertified Farm In U.K.
R. H. Ward (Welton) Ltd.’s farm, The Fish Co., became
Europe’s first tilapia farm to attain Best Aquaculture Practices
(BAP) certification, as well as the first BAP aquaculture farm in
the United Kingdom, in April.
Located in Welton Cliff, Lincolnshire, the farm has been in
operation since 2007. At the facility, which prides itself on ethical and sustainable production, tilapia are reared in a centrally
heated recirculating system inside a custom-built 1,080-m2 facility heated by a waste wood biomass boiler and partially powered
by a 45-kW solar photovoltaic array.
Currently, the company produces approximately 50 mt of
tilapia annually but hopes to reach a full production capacity of
100 tons in the near future. The fish are processed by B & L Filleting, a local family-owned seafood-processing company in
Grimsby, and sold as gutted, whole round red tilapia to U.K.
supermarkets under the “The Fish Company” brand.
“It has been essential for The Fish Company to maintain a
standard of production in line with the stringent quality guidelines that consumers have come to expect,” Richard Beckett of
R. H. Ward said. “Attaining the BAP certification provides
assurances to our customers that our facility meets international
quality standards and is an endorsement of our commitment to
advanced, sustainable fish farming.”
8
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
“The Mediterranean seminars provided a platform for meaningful dialogue on the operational side as well as the market
value side of BAP,” said Emil Avalon, market development
manager for Europe. “The active participation of different
industry stakeholders was insightful and constructive, while
demonstrating a real interest in the subject.”
The first two-day seminar, which took place in Athens,
Greece, drew representatives from five of the country’s leading
seabass and sea bream producers. Nireus Group, Greece’s top
producer, sponsored the seminar, which included a tour of the
impressive Nireus facilities. Nireus is a vertically integrated
aquaculture company with facilities for broodstock development,
hatching and nursing of juvenile fish, growout, feed manufacturing and processing and packing.
The two-day seminar in Bodrum, Turkey, drew representatives from industry, academia, government and the consultancy
community. Dr. M. Altug Atalay, head of aquaculture for the
General Directorate for Fisheries and Aquaculture in Turkey,
addressed attendees at the beginning of the seminar.
Aquaculture producer Kilic Seafood Co. and 2A Eurotime, a
consultancy training and certification company, sponsored the
seminar. The group visited one of Kilic’s hatcheries, feed mills,
processing plants and its Bodrum retail outlet, which offers a full
range of seabass, sea bream, meagre and trout in various forms.
In addition to Avalon, the seminars were led by BAP Director William More, Vice President Lisa Goché and Jeff Peterson,
BAP director of quality control. Marcos Moya, BAP executive
consultant, also participated in the Turkey seminar.
NTSF Seafoods First
To Offer Three-Star
Pangasius
New Farms, Plants Join BAP Program
The latest list of global facilities certified to the Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) standards includes existing salmon farm
operations that have added additional farm sites, as well as new
tilapia and shrimp farms in Asia, Europe and Australia. The new
BAP-certified plants are in the United
States, India and China. The recently certified facilities are listed in the table below.
Table 1. Recent BAP certifications around the world.
Facility
Location
Country
Species
Charoen Pokphand Foods Public Co. Ltd.
– Nakhon Farm
Huasai, Nakhon Si Thammarat
Thailand
Shrimp
Gudur, Andhra Pradesh
India
Shrimp
TSM 6
Amphur Muang, Ranong
Thailand
Shrimp
TSM 18
Amphur Suksamran, Ranong
Thailand
Shrimp
Baliu, Mojiang County, Yunnan
China
Tilapia
Farms
Choice Canning Co. – IOM Group 1
Mojiang Baliu Xinfu Aqua Farm
Welton, Lincoln
United Kingdom
Tilapia
Van Diemen Aquaculture Pty., Ltd.
R. H. Ward (Welton) Ltd.
Rowella, Tasmania
Australia
Salmon
Cermaq Canada Ltd. (3 new farms)
British Columbia
Canada
Salmon
Cultivos Yadran S.A. (2 new farms)
Puerto Montt
Chile
Salmon
Exportadora Los Fiordos Ltda. (3 new
farms)
Puerto Montt
Chile
Salmon
Northern Harvest Sea Farms Ltd. (1 new
farm)
St. Alban’s, Newfoundland and Labrador
Canada
Salmon
Salmones Blumar S.A. (6 new farms)
Puerto Montt
Chile
Salmon
Salmones Camanchaca, S.A. (2 new farms)
Puerto Montt
Chile
Salmon
Vernon, California
United States
Shrimp, Catfish, Tilapia
Salmon, Pangasius
Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu
India
Shrimp
Haikou, Hainan
China
Tilapia
Ben Luc District, Long An Province
Vietnam
Processing Plants
Fisherman’s Pride DBA Neptune Foods
Nila Sea Foods Pvt., Ltd.
Hainan Jiadexin Foodstuff Co., Ltd.
Feed Mills
Green Feed Vietnam Corp.
Vietnam’s NTSF Seafoods Group became the world’s first
company to offer Pangasius eligible to bear three Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification stars in late April.
Greenfeed Vietnam Corp.’s feed mill, from which NTSF
Seafoods sources its feed, earned BAP certification in March.
The company’s NTSF Seafoods JSC processing plant and Tan
Loc Farm Zone farm earned BAP certification late last year.
The addition of the feed mill allowed NTSF Seafoods to offer
three-star Pangasius.
Located in the Thot Not district of Can Tho City, Vietnam,
NTSF Seafoods processes approximately 2,000 mt of Pangasius
annually. The Pangasius products are exported to a number of markets, including the United States, United Kingdom and Germany.
“We understand that we need to be sustainable, and we
found that BAP certification helps us to prove this to our customers,” said Vu Anh Thu of NTSF Seafoods. “BAP certification assures that we’re producing Pangasius in a safe and environmentally and socially responsible manner.”
At the end of March, the annual output of BAP-certified
Pangasius processing plants totaled more than 143,500 mt. The
first Pangasius facility was certified in March 2011.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
9
RAF Joins Partnership For Aquaculture Safety
The World Bank has selected the Responsible Aquaculture
Foundation (RAF) to participate in the Global Food Safety Partnership (GFSP), a public-private initiative dedicated to improving
the safety of food in middle-income and developing countries
through training and technical support. The program brings fishers and farmers together with businesses, governments, regulatory
bodies and international development organizations in a globally
coordinated but locally driven food safety approach.
RAF will provide educational support and science-based
programs to address major issues for responsible and successful
aquaculture production and product distribution.
Under the direction of Dr. Steve Otwell, emeritus professor from
the University of Florida, RAF’s Education Committee is developing
an online education platform that will serve as a source of training
materials and current references for diverse audiences ranging from
workers and management to authorities and auditors.
Initial work has focused on training modules that best suit the
products and situations in Malaysia. It builds on earlier training
on best practices and HACCP provided through the Best Aquaculture Practices certification program in Malaysia. Further development will shift to similar efforts in Vietnam and China.
To date, information has been collected during site visits and
group discussions on farm-raised shrimp, lobsters, tilapia and
other species in Malaysia. Video footage captured at processing
The Responsible Aquaculture Foundation will provide educational
support through online, interactive training.
operations will be used in the production of the interactive training modules, which include narration in appropriate languages
and ample visual support for self-directed training and on-site use.
Workshops for initial program demonstrations and delivery
are expected by September, with presentation of a project report
during GAA’s GOAL 2014 meeting in Vietnam in October.
BAP Shrimp Now Rated ‘Good Alternative’
The Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch program
recently added shrimp produced at facilities with Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP) certification to its “Good Alternative” list
of seafood product ratings.
The rating applies to shrimp from facilities with two-, threeor four-star BAP certification status.
Roper Joins BAP Team
The Global Aquaculture Alliance’s
Best Aquaculture Practices (BAP)
division has expanded its market
development team with the addition
of Carson Roper as BAP’s international business development manager.
Roper will work with Peter Redmond, BAP vice president of market
development, to expand relationships
with suppliers, distributors, retailers
and foodservice operators in Europe
and Asia.
“We are very excited to have
Carson join the team,” Redmond said. “He brings a wealth of
knowledge and a long and successful career in the seafood advocacy arena. Carson will do extremely well advocating the BAP
certification program.”
Based in France, Roper has 30 years of seafood experience in
various capacities, including sustainability initiatives and aquaculture certification programs.
Roper can be reached at +33-0-6-03-64-17-09 or carsonr@
gaalliance.org.
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July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
The determination came after an extensive evaluation of the
BAP farm standards for finfish and crustaceans by the Seafood
Watch science staff. To meet the Good Alternative recommendation bar, GAA strengthened the BAP requirements for habitat mitigation, water discharge and escapes.
“Seafood Watch has benchmarked more than 30 fisheries
and aquaculture ecostandards developed under robust ecocertification programs,” said Jennifer Dianto Kemmerly, director of
the Seafood Watch program. “Seafood buyers can have confidence that BAP-certified farmed shrimp is raised in an environmentally responsible manner.”
“This is a landmark recognition for the BAP certification
program,” said Peter Redmond, BAP vice president of market
development. “We are proud of the association with the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch program, and hope to build
on this relationship for years to come.”
Jeff Sedacca Continues
As GAA Board Director
Global Aquaculture Alliance Board Director Jeff Sedacca
joined other board members in being renominated to his position at the March GAA board meeting held in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. The president of the Shrimp and Aquaculture
Division of National Fish and Seafood will serve an additional
two-year term on the board.
During the meeting, GAA President George Chamberlain
proposed that board members become more involved in recruiting
GAA memberships and GOAL sponsorship. Sedacca will serve
on the membership and sponsorship committee during his term.
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Commitment To Excellence
Zhanjiang Guolian Seeks Further Growth Via Responsible Means
Editor’s Note: This series of profiles recognizes companies for their
commitment to responsible aquaculture and the Best Aquaculture
Practices program. The “Commitment to Excellence” seal denotes the
number of years a company has been committed to the BAP program.
Aquatic Products Co. Ltd., mainly for shrimp, and Guangdong
Gourmet Aquatic Products Co. Ltd. for tilapia. As one of China’s largest shrimp producers, Guolian harvests about 23,000 mt
of shrimp annually, about 15,000 mt of which are exported.
Zhanjiang Guolian Aquatic Products Co. Ltd. was established in 2001. But only five years into the company’s existence,
its seafood processing plant attained Best Aquaculture Practices
(BAP) certification in September 2006. Based in Zhanjiang,
Guangdong, China, the company’s first BAP-certified shrimp
farm and shrimp hatchery came in July 2007, followed by its first
BAP-certified tilapia farm in September 2009 and first BAPcertified feed mill in February 2012, allowing the company to
offer four-star shrimp.
As of May, Guolian was one of only six companies and the
only Chinese company qualified to offer four-star shrimp, meaning that all four steps of the shrimp production chain – processing plant, farm, hatchery and feed mill – are certified under the
BAP program. The other five companies are located in Thailand
and Vietnam.
Guolian is also dedicated to the ecosystems and communities
in which it operates. The company’s processing plant has
acquired ISO 14001:2004 certification, and its environmental
guidelines include the adoption of clean production practices
that are environmentally friendly, prevent pollution, save energy
and reduce waste.
Additionally, Guolian’s ponds are deep, with polyethylene
film covering the entire floor to reduce environmental impacts
and prevent cross-contamination between the ponds and surrounding soil. Its farms use a water-recycling system, and the
shrimp ponds do not require water flow in or out when the
shrimp reach adulthood. As a result, the company saves water
and reduces exposure to disease.
Committed To Responsible Aquaculture
It’s quite an accomplishment for a company that’s only 13
years old. Guolian’s eight-year association with BAP – the
world’s most comprehensive aquaculture certification system – is
a testament to its commitment to food safety and environmental
and social responsibility, from the very early days of its existence
through the present.
“From the beginning, Guolian strove to build a fully integrated shrimp production system, including hatchery, feed mill,
farms and processing plant,” said Chen Han, the company’s general manager. “Guolian has been able to achieve that and also
establish a strict quality control system with guidance from the
BAP standards, thus improving our product quality, reputation
and competitiveness in the marketplace.”
Guolian’s commitment to responsible aquaculture and the
BAP program has paid off.
“BAP certification has helped us open doors to new customers and new markets,” said Zhao Hongmei, the company’s vice
general manager. “It has not only helped us improve our production and management efficiency, but also won us clients.”
Currently, Guolian operates 22 farms, 13 of which are BAP
certified, and two processing plants – Zhangjiang Guolian
12
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
13
GOAL 2014 To Address Sustainability
Under ‘Celebrating Leadership’ Theme
Expert speakers will provide important insights during presentations and panel sessions at GOAL 2014.
Disease risk management, leadership and innovation, food
safety, aquaculture insurance and risk management, aquafeed
sustainability and marketplace accessibility are among the subjects on the agenda for the Global Aquaculture Alliance’s
GOAL 2014 conference at the Sheraton Saigon Hotel and
Towers in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
This year’s theme – “Celebrating Leadership” – will be
echoed across four days of presentations and discussions, beginning with a new day-long breakout on aquafeed sustainability on
October 7 and ending with a series of roundtables featuring the
world’s leading retailers, suppliers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) on October 10.
Special Feed Session
Moderated by Melanie Siggs of HRH The Prince of Wales’
International Sustainability Unit, the breakout feed program will
feature presentations and a vigorous question-and-answer session. Representatives of the feed ingredients sector – with interests that include fishmeal and fish oil, vegetable proteins, processed animal proteins and alternative protein sources such as
algae and insect meal – will be presenting.
Among the questions to be posed: What is needed to ensure
a responsible aquafeed supply? Can life cycle assessment and a
carbon footprint tool contribute to a more sustainable feed sector? How can aquaculture compete for ingredients?
Separate from the GOAL 2014 plenary, the breakout will be
held at the Park Hyatt Saigon, adjacent to the Sheraton Saigon.
There is no separate fee, and for those who cannot attend, a
summary will be provided during the plenary on day 2.
Day 1 – Production Data, Analysis
The day 1 plenary kicks off at the Sheraton Saigon on October 8 with opening remarks from GAA Executive Director
Wally Stevens and a welcome address from a representative of
Vietnam’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development,
which is co-hosting the conference along with the Vietnamese
Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers.
As usual, James Anderson of the World Bank and Ragnar
Tveteras of the University of Stavanger will summarize global production on shrimp and finfish based on their analysis of data collected by GAA Development Manager Darryl Jory, who surveys
producers worldwide annually. Among the species included in the
14
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
survey are shrimp, tilapia, Pangasius, catfish, salmon, trout, barramundi, milkfish, seabass, sea bream and cobia.
GAA President George Chamberlain will lead a panel on
disease risk management. That will address the results of a GAA
case study on early mortality syndrome (EMS). The hope is that
identifying the common denominators of proper management
will lead to the adoption of better shrimp-farming practices
industrywide. EMS, which first emerged in China in 2009, is
costing the industry over U.S. $1 billion annually.
Sponsored by Preferred Freezer Services, an award recognizing an individual or company for leadership and innovation will
also be presented on day 1.
Day 2 – Industry Challenges, Solutions
The day 2 plenary will zero in on four subjects: leadership
and innovation, food safety, aquaculture insurance and risk management, and aquafeed sustainability.
Two speakers are confirmed to address leadership and innovation – Ted van der Put, program director for IDH (the Dutch
Sustainable Trade Initiative), and a representative of the 4C
Association, whose “4C” sustainability approach to the coffee
industry may act as a model for the seafood industry.
Panel discussions on food safety and aquaculture insurance
and risk management are also scheduled. Steve Otwell of the
University of Florida and a European counterpart will address
the impacts of U.S. and E.U. legislation on imported seafood,
while Paddy Secretan, managing director of AUMS Ltd., will
lead a panel on aquaculture insurance and risk management.
Day 3 – Marketplace Panels
Led by Peter
Redmond, Best
Aquaculture Practices vice president
of market development, day 3 will
again feature a
series of roundtables with representatives of the
Ally Dingwall
Huw Thomas
world’s leading
retailers, suppliers
and NGOs.
They include Patrick Blow of Marks and Spencer, Ally
Dingwall of Sainsbury’s, Huw Thomas of Morrisons, Estelle
Brennan of Lyons Seafoods, Mike Berthet of M & J Seafood/
Brakes, Laky Zeraduchi of Seafood Direct, Joe Zhou of Darden
Restaurants, Carl Salamone of Wegmans Food Markets, Bill
DiMento of High Liner Foods, Josanna Busby of Delhaize,
Scott Williams of B.J.’s Wholesale Club and Jeff Sedacca of
National Fish and Seafood.
NGOs will be represented by Wendy Norden of Monterey
Bay Aquarium, Anton Immik of Sustainable Fisheries Partnership, Dawn Purchase of the Marine Conservation Society and
Kathleen Mullen-Ley of FishWise. In addition, Zhu Changliang, CEO of Wuhan Lanesync Supply Chain Management
Co. Ltd., will present on the Chinese seafood marketplace.
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14
GOA
LEADERSHIP
AND
LEARNING
Help make aquaculture’s journey toward greater
production and sustainability possible by joining
the 300-plus seafood professionals from around
the world who attend GAA’s annual Global
Outlook for Aquaculture Leadership conference.
Through GOAL, GAA strives to carry out its mission of responsible aquaculture by providing a
venue at which leadership development, cooperation and education are encouraged.
WHY ATTEND GOAL?
Since its inception in 2001, GOAL has evolved
into a must-attend event for many top-level seafood executives and aquaculture thought leaders.
GOAL features three days of information and
analysis on the farmed seafood value chain, with
a plenary session each morning and breakout
sessions in the afternoon.
Day 1 will focus on global shrimp and finfish
production data and health management.
Day 2 will focus on challenges and opportunities,
with innovation, food safety and feed sustainability
the main topics of discussion.
Day 3 will focus on the marketplace, centered on
BAP V.P. of Business Development Peter Redmond’s retail roundtables.
* On October 7, GAA will hold an open roundtable on the sustainability of aquafeed ingredients
as a follow-up to the aquafeed discussions at GOAL
2013. A summary will be presented on Day 2.
www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2014
To access the GOAL 2014 registration page, scan the QR code to the left.
®
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
15
CONFIRMED GOAL 2014 SPEAKERS
George Chamberlain
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Peter Redmond
Global Aquaculture Alliance
George Chamberlain
is GAA president and
a former president
of the World Aquaculture Society. He
helped establish
Integrated Aquaculture International,
now called iAqua.
Jim Anderson
World Bank, University of Rhode Island
Dr. James Anderson leads the World Bank’s
Global Program on Fisheries and Aquaculture.
He previously chaired the Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Economics
at the University of Rhode Island. Anderson’s
recent focused has been on food security, aquaculture development and market analysis.
Wally Stevens is acting director of GAA
and executive director
of RAF. Previously,
Stevens was president
of Ocean Products and
Slade Gorton & Co.
Ally Dingwall – Sainsbury’s
Wendy Norden – Monterey Bay Aquarium
As senior director of manufacturing and regulatory affairs, Bill DiMento oversees High
Liner Foods’ initiatives to reduce its environmental footprint and comply with seafood
standards. DiMento is a member of the Institute of Food Technologists and GSSI Steering
Board.
Wendy Norden is a senior science manager for the
Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch program. Since its inception in 1999, Seafood Watch
has become North America’s leading source of
science-based information to help transform the
seafood market in ways that preserve healthy ecosystems and sustain ocean wildlife.
Steve Otwell – University of Florida
Huw Thomas is the fisheries and aquaculture
manager for Wm. Morrison Supermarkets, the
U.K.’s fourth-largest retailer. With previous
experience in seafood buying and production
in the U.K. and Asia, Thomas’ responsibilities
now encompass seafood used across the business.
Dawn Purchase – Marine Conservation
Society
Ragnar Tveteras – University of Stavanger
Dawn Purchase is a senior aquaculture officer
at the Marine Conservation Society. She
advises on retailer procurement, responds to
consultation requests and standard development, and assesses species sustainability.
Purchase is a member of the BAP Standards
Oversight Committee.
Steven Hart – Soy Aquaculture Alliance
César Real – RMB Insurance Brokers
Dr. Steven Hart is executive director of the Soy
Aquaculture Alliance, a collaboration among
U.S. state soybean boards and commercial partners to develop U.S. aquaculture and use of soybased aquafeeds. Hart was formerly aquaculture
director for the Indiana Soybean Alliance.
César Real is CEO of RMB, a global insurance brokerage that specializes in risk solution
and mediation strategies. Real previously was
a marketing director for Grupo Meridional, a
holding company with interests in real estate,
fisheries and renewable energy.
Patrick Blow – Cowrie Associates, Ltd.,
Marks & Spencer PLC
Anton Immink – Sustainable Fisheries
Partnership
Carl Salamone – Wegmans Food Market
Patrick Blow is an aquaculture specialist
consultant who advises Marks & Spencer on
shrimp, salmon, trout and tilapia. He is a former managing director of Lake Harvest Aquaculture Group, a tilapia aquaculture operation
in Zimbabwe and Uganda.
Anton Immink is global aquaculture director for
the Sustainable Fisheries Partnership, where he
applies a wealth of experience in global aquaculture practices. Previously at Stirling Aquaculture,
he supported small- and large-scale farms development across Africa and Asia.
Carl Salamone is vice president of seafood for
Wegmans Food Markets, Inc., a supermarket
chain in the eastern U.S. Salamone opened
Wegmans’ first seafood warehouse, and under
his direction, it has constantly sought highquality and value-added products.
Estelle Brennan – Lyons Seafoods Ltd.
Andrew Mallison – International Fishmeal
and Fish Feed Organization
Paddy Secretan – Aquaculture
Underwriting Management Services Ltd.
Andrew Mallison is director general of IFFO, a
not-for-profit representing the marine ingredients
sector. Market research, technical advisory and
conference management are key duties. Mallison
was a previous Marine Stewardship Council director and managed seafood sourcing for Marks &
Spencer.
PAD (Paddy) Secretan is managing director of
AUMS Ltd., a company that provides information and training on aquaculture insurance
and risk. AUMS runs the Aquaculture Insurance and Risk Management series of biennial
conferences and also operates www.aquaculture.co.uk.
Kathleen Mullen-Ley – FishWise
Melanie Siggs – Prince’s Charities’
International Sustainability Unit, SeaWeb
Mike Berthet is director of fish and seafood for
M & J Seafood Ltd., representing the company on sustainability issues and ensuring its
commitment to responsible sourcing. Berthet
works with industry, governments and NGOs
to identify the drivers for safe, sustainable seafood sourcing.
Estelle Brennan is head of sustainability at
Lyons Seafoods Ltd., the U.K.’s leading supplier of cooked prawns, shellfish and other
seafood. The accomplished technical manager,
sustainability and trade specialist is a member
of the Best Aquaculture Practices Standards
Oversight Committee.
Josanna Busby – Delhaize America
Josanna Busby is the seafood category manager
at Delhaize America. Based in Belgium, Delhaize is one of the world’s largest food retailers,
with about 3,520 stores in eight countries on
three continents. Previously, Busby was a category manager for Food Lion.
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Kathleen Mullen-Ley is a project manager for
FishWise, a California-based non-profit that
promotes the health of ocean ecosystems by
providing innovative market-based tools to the
seafood industry and supporting environmentally
responsible business practices. As project manager, Mullen-Ley leads FishWise’s partnership
with the midwest retailer Hy-Vee, Inc.
Huw Thomas – Morrisons
Dr. Steve Otwell is a professor of seafood
technology at the University of Florida, where
he conducts research and extension services on
quality and safety. Otwell has also served lead
roles at the Seafood HACCP Alliance and
Seafood Science and Technology Society.
As the aquaculture and fisheries manager at
Sainsbury’s, Ally Dingwall is responsible for fishsourcing policy. Dingwall was previously general
manager for value-added processing at Huon
Aquaculture in Australia and worked for Uniq
plc, Pinneys of Scotland and Marine Harvest.
Mike Berthet – M & J Seafood Ltd.
16
Peter Redmond is
vice president of market development for
GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices division
and a former senior
director of Walmart’s
sustainability department.
Wally Stevens
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Responsible Aquaculture Foundation
Bill DiMento – High Liner Foods
Melanie Siggs is a senior advisor at Prince’s
Charities’ International Sustainability Unit, an
entity formed to help resolve key environmental
challenges. A former vice president of sustainable markets at SeaWeb, she led the development of Seafood Choices.
Professor Ragnar Tveteras is a business economist at the University of Stavanger’s Department for Industrial Economics, Risk Management and Planning. His research focuses on
aquaculture and seafood markets. Tveteras
received the 2006 Scana research prize for his
published works.
Ted van der Put – IDH, The Sustainable
Trade Initiative
Ted van der Put is program director for IDH,
The Sustainable Trade Initiative. IDH accelerates sustainable trade by building coalitions to
address poverty, environmental protection and
fair trade. Van der Put’s background includes
international management experience at Philips
Electronics.
Scott Williams – B.J.’s Wholesale Club
Scott Williams is associate vice president of
quality assurance and environmental stewardship at B.J.’s Wholesale Club, the third-largest
U.S. club store chain. A supporter of GAA’s
Best Aquaculture Practices, B.J.’s works with
suppliers to promote the long-term sustainability of seafood.
Laky Zervudachi – Direct Seafoods
Laky Zervudachi is sustainability director for
Direct Seafoods, the largest supplier of fresh
fish to caterers in the U.K. His experience in
sourcing seasonal fish helps chefs embrace best
practices that contribute to the sustainable seafood movement.
Joe Zhou – Darden Restaurants
Joe Zhou is senior director of seafood procurement at Darden Restaurants, where he ensures
the supply of seafood to the company’s 1,700
restaurants. In building long-term partnerships,
Zhou works with stakeholders from processors
to farmers, fishermen and distributors.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
17
production
Expert Observations
Chamberlain shared a number of observations and recommendations made by members of an expert committee on EMS
formed by GAA. For example, those working with EMS have
identified varying toxicity in the multiple strains of the Vibrio
bacteria that cause the disease. Although test methods are
improving, EMS losses continue to be confused with mortalities
caused by viral diseases such as white spot syndrome and Taura
syndrome.
EMS is thought to be transmitted vertically (on the outside
of eggs) from broodstock to postlarvae, and can also transfer to
shrimp via water, cannibalism, feces, plankton, macro-organisms, birds and biofilms. Once established in the environment,
EMS is difficult to control, Chamberlain said.
Importantly, it was found in China that antibiotics are not
effective against EMS. Sensitivity tests have shown the bacteria
responsible for EMS outbreaks have already developed resistance
to the full range of antibiotics. Research in Mexico showed that
pathogenic Vibrio strains have nearly the same resistance profiles
as non-pathogenic strains. However, Mexican researchers agree
that antibiotics are not effective, because they do not effectively
reach the pathogen, which colonizes chitinous surfaces.
To eliminate EMS and other pathogens from water, experts said, establish a balanced microbial population, stock with strong healthy
postlarvae and closely manage water and bottom quality.
EMS Update: Impacts Continue,
But Industry Gaining Against Disease
GAA Survey To Yield Further Solutions
Summary:
While early mortality syndrome (EMS) continues to
impact shrimp farmers, advancing knowledge is
increasing control of the disease. The incidence of
EMS in China varies in different regions. Fewer farms
in Vietnam and Thailand are stocking, and Malaysia’s
production remains down. New farms in Mexico have
escaped EMS, while India is considered EMS-free.
Antibiotics are not effective against EMS. To counter
EMS, experts recommend establishing a balanced
microbial population, stocking healthy postlarvae and
closely managing pond water and bottom quality.
Global Aquaculture Alliance President George Chamberlain
recently reported that as early mortality syndrome (EMS) continues to take a toll on the global shrimp-farming sector, advancing knowledge is progressively leading toward improved practices and better control of the disease.
In his May 20 presentation to members of the National Fisheries Institute Shrimp Council, Chamberlain updated the EMS
status of primary production areas and passed on recommendations for management methods to reduce the impacts of EMS.
EMS Status
Chamberlain said the incidence of EMS in China varies among
regions. In early 2014, EMS appeared at a low rate in eastern and
southwestern Guangdong, and Guangxi provinces, but manifested
18
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
at moderate to high rates in the Pearl River and Zhangjiang regions.
Farms in northern China had not been stocked.
Some operations have engineered deep ponds with selfcleaning bottoms that also use heavy water exchange to eliminate
sludge. The presence of covert mortality nodavirus and microsporidean parasites, other pathogens that affect the hepatopancreas organs of shrimp and cause slow growth and size variation,
have made clear identification of EMS more challenging in the
country.
Despite the presence of EMS, recent high shrimp prices continued to fuel rapid farm expansion in Vietnam, Chamberlain
said. Now that prices have dropped to U.S. $5.00/kg, fewer
farms are stocking, and postlarvae sales are dropping.
Thailand was again hit hard by EMS. First quarter estimates
showed only 30,000 mt of production versus 100,000 mt last
year. Coming off three months of low temperatures and facing
continued failure rates of over 30% in the first 40 days, many
farms are not expected to restock for a time.
In Malaysia, production remained down overall, although
concerted efforts at the large-scale farm run by Agrobest are
yielding rising results.
Chamberlain said Mexico’s first outbreaks of EMS came at
Nayarit in the center of Sinaloa and a couple of farms in Sonora.
New farms starting in the south and on the Gulf of Mexico seem
to have escaped EMS so far. Head-on shrimp production of
55,000 to 60,000 mt is projected for the country.
India faces an unsure prognosis regarding EMS. Test results
have been inconsistent and inconclusive, so the country’s producers should be considered free of EMS at the present time.
Deep ponds covered with plastic or bird nets enhance
biosecurity and allow better control of bioflocs and sludge.
Fisheries Institute and C.P. Prima of Indonesia – is available in
English and several other languages on the GAA website at
www.gaalliance.org. Versions in additional languages may be
added to better allow those in Asian and Latin American countries to participate.
Based on responses to the survey, a select number of farms
will be chosen to receive in-depth site audits and diagnostic testing to clarify what practices are most effective in managing EMS.
In combination with the survey results, these findings will be
distributed by GAA to help identify the common denominators
of proper management and promote the adoption of better
shrimp-farming practices industry wide.
Recommendations
• EMS-free broodstock are needed. Selective breeding for
resistance to EMS would involve challenging families and
selecting those with best survival as parents for the next
generation.
• Improve farm practices. To eliminate EMS and other pathogens from water, establish a balanced microbial population,
stock with healthy postlarvae and closely manage water and
bottom quality. Disinfection with chlorine or ozone eliminates multiple pathogens. To create a mature microbial community, probiotics and polyculture can help condition water.
Other suggestions were to maintain light to moderate bioflocs, avoid overfeeding and remove sludge regularly.
• Employ a nursery phase. Nurseries hold young postlarvae until
they are larger and more robust, while also confirming they are
free of EMS. Ten to 20 days in a nursery raceway, tank or net
pen allows important physical and medical evaluations.
• Improve farm infrastructure with biosecure intensive ponds.
Small, deep ponds covered with plastic or bird nets allow
more manageable disinfection and feeding, as well as better
control of water quality, bioflocs and sludge. Higher yields
(30-50 mt/ha) can cover the extra investment.
• Identify feed additives that reduce the incidence of EMS.
These could include quorum-sensing inhibitors, essential
oils or immunostimulants.
• Integrated farm management is needed. Fragmented systems do not provide needed controls at each step in the
production process. Zone management would avoid farm
sitings with shared inlet and discharge canals, and consider
the carrying capacity of ecosystems. Access to wellequipped local labs would provide better detection of EMS.
Global EMS Survey
Building on earlier studies coordinated by the Global Aquaculture Alliance that helped identify the cause of EMS and other elements of the disease, GAA is launching a new online survey to collect additional information on the EMS status of farms in affected
areas, as well as the practices they apply to combat the disease.
The comprehensive survey – funded by the World Bank Allfish project, the Seafood Industry Research Fund of the National
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July/August 2014
19
production
Pond Refilling
Do Current Shrimp Practices Favor EMS?
Pond Disinfection + Drying
Pond Stocking
Proper Microbial Management Required After Disinfection
Number of V. parahaemolyticus
in pond water
Expected risk for EMS outbreak
Dr. Peter De Schryver
Nutrients available for microbial growth
in pond water
Laboratory of Aquaculture
and Artemia Reference Center
Department of Animal Production
Ghent University
Rozier 44
9000 Ghent, Belgium
peter.deschryver@ugent.be
Dr. Tom Defoirdt
Dr. Patrick Sorgeloos
Laboratory of Aquaculture
and Artemia Reference Center
Department of Animal Production
Ghent University
Tilapia co-culture or biofloc ponds represent microbially mature systems containing
beneficial bacteria that compete with EMS-causing bacteria.
Summary:
Disinfection of ponds eliminates
most, but not all microorganisms.
After refilling ponds, surviving
microorganisms – including fastgrowing bacteria such as Vibrio
parahaemolyticus, which causes
early mortality syndrome in
shrimp – may benefit from the
availability of nutrients in sediment and water and lack of competing microorganisms. Colonization of the water with a mature
and diverse microbial community
prior to stocking may avoid the
establishment of high numbers
of vibrios and as such limit the
pathogens’ potential impacts.
Early mortality syndrome (EMS),
also known as acute hepatopancreatic
necrosis, typically affects shrimp postlarvae within 20 to 30 days after stocking
and can cause up to 100% mortality. The
Global Aquaculture Alliance estimated
that annual losses to the Asian shrimp
culture sector amount to more than U.S.
$1 billion. The causative agent of EMS
has been reported to be a bacterium,
20
July/August 2014
more specifically a pathogenic Vibrio
parahaemolyticus strain. This bacterial
species is a normal member of the natural
microbiota in marine environments.
At this moment, research has been
mainly oriented toward studying the
pathology and etiology of EMS, although
efforts to develop strategies to prevent or
remedy the disease are equally – if not
even more – needed. Based on the ecology of the causative agent, it seems that
approaches with a focus on controlling
the presence or activity of vibrios in general have a high chance of decreasing the
risk of EMS outbreaks.
Pond Disinfection
Disinfection of ponds – whether or
not combined with pond drying – eliminates most micro- and macroorganisms,
but is ineffective in achieving total microbial eradication, especially in biofilms and
pond sediment. After refilling ponds,
surviving organisms can benefit from the
high availability of nutrients in the pond
sediment and pond water, and the low
abundance of other microorganisms to
compete with them for these nutrients.
These conditions favor the growth of
fast-growing bacteria.
Considering the fact that many patho-
global aquaculture advocate
genic vibrios, including the EMS pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus, are fast-growing, opportunistic bacteria able to multiply
outside their hosts, pond disinfection is
likely to result in their increased abundance in ponds. The introduction of
shrimp postlarvae and feed in disinfected
ponds adds to this effect by increasing the
nutrient availability that promotes this
microbial bloom (Figure 1).
The risk of a disease outbreak is likely
to increase with rising levels of the causative agent in the rearing water. Therefore, without additional follow-up management, pond disinfection can, in the
long run, increase rather than decrease
the risk for EMS.
In fact, EMS outbreaks resemble the
outbreaks of luminescent vibriosis in the
1990s. This disease is caused by bacteria
belonging to the Harveyi clade of vibrios,
of which V. parahaemolyticus is also a
member. Like EMS, luminescent vibriosis occurred during a typical 10- to
45-day time frame following stocking of
shrimp postlarvae in growout ponds.
Outbreaks of the disease were in general
preceded by a substantial increase in the
number of vibrios in the pond water following pond disinfection.
Mature Microbial Community
High numbers of V. parahaemolyticus
in rearing water can be avoided by colonization of the water with a mature and
diverse microbial community prior to
stocking. This creates an equilibrium
between the density of microorganisms
and the level of available nutrients in the
Time
Figure 1. Representation of how pond disinfection can contribute to the proliferation
of EMS pathogens in ponds.
rearing water, which in the authors’ opinion is the best mechanism to prevent the
EMS-causing vibrios from reaching high
densities and causing a disease outbreak.
The key to establishing a mature and
diverse microbial community in culture
ponds is allowing a conditioning period
after disinfection but prior to stocking,
during which nutrients are added to promote microbial growth. This initially
results in a high abundance of fast-growing bacteria that will subsequently gradually be replaced by a large diversity of
slower-growing microorganisms in a
mature community. Nutrients can be
added, for example, by culturing tilapia in
ponds during the conditioning period.
Mature Water Approach
The potential of the mature water
principle was recently illustrated during
culture of Atlantic cod larvae by Dr. Kari
Attramadal and Prof. Olav Vadstein at
the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology in Trondheim, Norway.
They compared the application of a flowthrough system – which selects for fastgrowing microorganisms in the culture
water – with two mature water systems,
one in flow-through mode and one in
recirculation mode. It was observed that
the microbial community in the mature
water was much more diverse and stable,
and that the survival of the larvae reared
in the mature water systems was 72%
higher than in the non-mature system.
There are indications from practice
that the mature water approach will also
work in shrimp culture. For example, it
has been observed that EMS is less prevalent in ponds colonized by copepods. This
indicates naturally mature ecosystems, as
copepods require constant amounts of
phytoplankton and bacteria as feed.
Greenwater – often induced by tilapia
co-culture – and biofloc technology systems have also been associated with lowered incidence of EMS in practice. Such
systems are characterized by mature
microalgal and bacterial communities,
and have been shown to result in
decreased vibrio levels and decreased animal mortality. The bacteria present in
these systems are able to effectively compete with the EMS-causing pathogens
for available nutrients and as such to control their presence.
It needs to be stressed that the mature
ecosystem approach aims at preventing
EMS and does not cure EMS-infected
shrimp. Therefore, farms should make
sure the larvae used for stocking are free
of EMS.
Perspectives
The recent outbreaks of early mortality syndrome suggest that modern intensive shrimp-farming practices need to be
critically reviewed. The authors argue
that the use of only disinfectants and
antibiotics will not solve the problem.
One should rather take advantage of the
natural competition among microorganisms to keep EMS-causing bacteria from
reaching high densities in culture systems.
Editor’s Note: This article was summarized
from “Early Mortality Syndrome Outbreaks:
A Microbial Management Issue in Shrimp
Farming,” published April 24 by Dr. Peter
De Schryver and co-authors in PLOS
Pathogens, a journal of the Public Library
of Science.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
21
production
the bottom line
Hidden Value Of Feed:
Water Quality
Thomas R. Zeigler, Ph.D.
Senior Technical Advisor
Past President and Chairman
Zeigler Brothers., Inc.
P. O. Box 95
Gardners, Pennsylvania 17324 USA
tom.zeigler@zeiglerfeed.com
Feed drives production performance as limited by the genetic profile of the shrimp
but can also reduce results when feed waste products degrade the culture environment.
by the shrimp or the wasted feed from
improper feeding practices.
Summary:
The intrinsic values of better
feeds directly affect shrimp
growth and performance in a
positive way, but because better
feeds produce less waste materials
in culture systems, they also result
in improved water quality that
indirectly improves shrimp
performance. In addition, the
improved water quality results in
lower operating costs, which need
to be considered when evaluating
the unit cost of feed.
Feed is the primary driver in the success of recirculating aquaculture floc systems (RAFS) for shrimp. Feed drives
animal performance as limited by the
genetic profile of the shrimp. The major
additions to RAFS water are shrimp and
feed. Therefore, feed must also be the
primary driver of water quality resulting
from the metabolites excreted by the
shrimp, the indigestible waste produced
22
July/August 2014
Feed Fate,
Chemical Processes
When feed is consumed, digested,
adsorbed and metabolized by the shrimp,
waste by-products of these processes are
excreted into the water. These include
primarily ammonia and carbon dioxide.
The ammonia, which is toxic to shrimp,
is oxidized by the floc bacteria, converting it into nitrite (also toxic) and then
into nitrate, which is much less toxic.
Under aerobic conditions, the wasted
feed and feces are converted to carbon
dioxide and water by the floc bacteria. If
anaerobic conditions are allowed to exist,
another type of bacteria in the solid waste
material can produce hydrogen sulfide,
which is very toxic to shrimp.
Solid waste materials require proper
management for RAFS to function properly. These solids, in addition to the solids resulting from excess floc, can be
removed mechanically. Added probiotic
bacteria can also be used to biodegrade
global aquaculture advocate
most of these materials, but that creates
more bacteria/floc in the system. Like the
shrimp, the bacteria are living organisms
that produce additional biomass while
consuming oxygen and producing carbon
dioxide as they grow and multiply.
On one hand, the bacteria are a positive necessity, because they remove toxic
nitrogen compounds and digest solid
waste materials. However, on the other
hand, they have a negative effect by reducing water quality and potentially shrimp
performance. With either method of waste
remediation, there are associated costs.
Collectively, the chemical processes
taking place in RAFS reduce pH and
alkalinity, which is countered by the
addition of sodium bicarbonate. The carbon dioxide produced by both the shrimp
and bacteria can at higher levels produce
an anesthetizing effect on the shrimp and
create suboptimal pH that can suppress
bacteria growth, while competing with
the absorption of oxygen by the shrimp.
Since optimum levels of oxygen are absolutely critical to achieve maximum metabolic efficiency in the system and the animals, oxygen supplementation is required
through mechanical aeration or injection.
Relevant Example
Researchers at the Texas A & M
AgriLife Research Mariculture Laboratory at Flour Bluff in Corpus Christi,
Texas, USA, recently published results
from a trial they conducted comparing
two feeds. These data can be used to
demonstrate the theme of this article.
In the trial, a standard commercial
feed (SCF-35) typically used in pond
production and fed to shrimp stocked at
15-30/m2 was compared to a high-density feed (HDF-35) specially formulated
for intensive RAFS with stocking densities of 100/m2 or greater. Both feeds contained 35% protein and 7% fat. Each feed
was applied for 67 days to three 40-m3
RAFS raceways, each stocked at 500/m3
with juvenile shrimp weighing 2.66 g.
The primary production data are presented in Table 1. HDF-35 significantly
outperformed SCF-35 in shrimp yield,
average weight, growth rate and feed
conversion, with the difference ranging
12 to 13% for the different parameters.
These differences existed even though
both feeds were formulated with 35%
protein and 7% fat.
Feed Affects Performance
Normally, when evaluating studies of
this type, the emphasis is placed on the
primary production data, Table 1. However, in examining the importance of feed
on water quality, which can both directly
and indirectly affect shrimp performance
and system economics, it should be noted
that the HDF-35 treatment required
12.6% less feed to produce a unit of gain.
For each kilogram of shrimp produced,
0.18 kg less feed was required. Accordingly, there would be proportionately less
waste products and metabolites for the
system to remove in some way.
It would be assumed that considering
the differences in feed-conversion ratio
values, differences in water quality parameters would also be expressed (Table 2).
There were indeed significant treatment
effects on total suspended solids, volatile
suspended solids and turbulence.
Considering the higher values for
these parameters for the CFS-35 treatment, one would predict higher levels of
floc/bacteria in these raceways, which
would increase carbon dioxide production
and the requirement for oxygen and
sodium bicarbonate supplementation to
maintain optimum water quality standards. Also, it is assumed these conditions would be more stressful to the
shrimp, as suggested by the differences in
primary production parameters (Table 1).
Strong evidence for the correctness of
these observations is presented in Table
3. The HDF-35 feed resulted in 11% less
oxygen, 22% less sodium bicarbonate
(even though it produced a higher alkalinity value) and 10% less water required.
In addition, operating hours for the foam
fractionators and settling tanks were
reduced by 35 and 78%, respectively.
These data all support the prediction of
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
23
Table 1. Production summary for 67-day growout study.
SCF-35
HDF-35
Difference
8.71
19.74
1.76
1.43
88.3
9.74
22.12
2.03
1.25
87.3
+ 1.03 (11.8%)*
+ 2.38 (12.1%)*
+ 0.27 (15.3%)*
- 0.18 (12.6%)*
+ 1.00 (1.1%)
Yield (kg/m )
Average weight (g)
Growth (g/week)
Feed-conversion ratio
Survival (%)
3
* Significant difference, P < 0.05.
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Table 2. Water quality values for 67-day growout study.
SCF-35
Weekly Data
Mean
Alkalinity (mg/L)
Total suspended solids (mg/L)*
Volatile suspended solids (mg/L)*
Turbulence (NTU)*
Total ammonia nitrogen (mg/L)
Nitrite-nitrogen (mg/L)
Nitrate-nitrogen (mg/L)
Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen
demand (mg/L)
Phosphate (mg/L)
Suspended solids (mg/L)
171.00
278.00
205.00
125
0.26
0.47
136.00
37.00
102.00-230.00
155.00-460.00
116.70-287.50
67.9-246.0
0.10-0.51
0.10-1.22
45.54-285.71
14.50-62.80
208.00
223.00
161.00
90.00
0.22
0.40
140.00
37.00
123.00-274.00
115.00-551.70
92.00-435.00
45.7-132.0
0.08-0.49
0.06-2.24
39.53-358.72
10.40-69.50
10.00
11.00
0.28-21.06
2.50-27.00
9.00
8.00
0.52-16.37
2.00-21.00
Time
Mean
MinimumMaximum
Mean
MinimumMaximum
a.m.
p.m.
a.m.
p.m.
a.m.
p.m.
29.50
30.30
5.90
5.50
7.10
7.10
28.30
28.06-30.47
28.81-31.54
4.61-7.58
4.49-6.96
6.66-7.49
6.25-7.51
24.56-36.69
29.60
30.46
5.90
5.50
7.10
7.10
28.30
27.46-30.71
28.23-31.59
4.56-6.96
4.65-6.61
6.59-7.50
6.24-7.57
24.44-36.51
Daily Data
Temperature (°C)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/I)
pH
Salinity (ppt)
BAP certification is
now available for:
* Significant difference, P < 0.05.
other Finfish and
Oxygen (m /kg shrimp)
Sodium bicarbonate (kg)
Water use (L/kg shrimp)
Foam fractionators (hours)
Settling tanks (hours)
Molasses (L)
• Salmon, Shrimp and
Crustacean Farms
• Processing Plants
• Shrimp Hatcheries
HDF-35
MinimumMaximum
Mean
MinimumMaximum
Table 3. Inputs and operating variables for 67-day growout study.
3
SCF-35
HDF-35
Difference
0.73
53.6
138.3
1,253
392
10
0.65
41.6
124.7
812
87
10
- 0.08 (11%)
- 12.0 (22%)
- 13.6 (10%)
- 441 (35%)
- 305 (78%)
0
• Feed Mills
Developed by Global
Aquaculture Alliance
www.gaalliance.org
+1-314-293-5500
greater undigested solids and higher floc
levels, which required removal at an associated cost.
The HDF-35 reduced operating costs
from improved water quality and thus
would improve profitability. There is
considerable opportunity for further feed
improvements that could be achieved
with additional exploration.
Perspectives
Keep aquaculture
sustainable – now
and into the future.
GO BAP!
24
July/August 2014
RAF systems are very complex in
nature and involve numerous factors that
are interrelated to system success and
profitability. A total systems approach is
required for effective decision making.
As research and commercialization of
RAFS continue, consideration should be
given to the following.
global aquaculture advocate
• Researchers should identify, track and
report quantitatively and economically
all input and operating variables associated with these systems.
• Large commercial projects should be
constructed as a series of smaller
independent modules so that
through well-planned continuing
trials, all input and operating variables can be tracked to determine
cause-and-effect relationships for all
line item costs and their respective
effects on profitability.
Bottom Line: Feed drives
water quality and related
operating costs.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
25
production
Feed Management Improves Profits
In Intensive White Shrimp Farming
Poh Yong Thong
General Manager
Aqua Nutrition and Technical Service
P.T. Gold Coin Indonesia
Jalan Raya Bekasi km 28,
Desa Medan Satria
Bekasi 17132, Jawa Barat, Indonesia
yt.poh@goldcoin-id.com
quality feed will result in better average
daily growth, survival and feed conversion, and thereby a better bottom line.
Tray-Based Feed Programing
Feeding guides developed by a feed
mill or individual farmer are based on
many trials and errors. In the first 25 to
30 days after stocking the postlarvae, the
Monitoring feed consumption via feed trays can indicate adjustments in feed
feeding program is called blind feeding.
applications that maintain water quality and enhance shrimp health.
The daily feed volume given to the postlarvae is deliberately programed to be
excessive. Much of the feed actually goes
to fertilize the pond water and enters the food web in the pond
ecosystem to end up mainly in the shrimp.
Summary:
During this early stage, the postlarvae prefer natural feed. It
To ensure optimal water quality and clean pond botis not until 22 to 25 days after stocking that the juvenile shrimp
toms at shrimp farms, choosing consistently goodbegin to take the commercial feed. Better-quality postlarvae
quality feed and close monitoring of feed trays supgrow faster and begin to consume the feed earlier.
ported by a proven feeding guide are recommended
Several weeks after stocking, feed trays should be used to
practices to control the amount of feed applied to
monitor whether the feed amount is correct. This measure is
ponds. The use of auto-feeders and biofloc technology,
very important in intensive shrimp farming, because water qualas well as awareness of ponds’ carrying capacities, can
ity can change abruptly, affected by weather conditions and feed
help shrimp farmers reduce feed costs, preserve capital
input. Through meticulously monitoring the feed trays, farmers
and maximize profit.
can detect a slowdown in feeding and adjust the feed amount,
thus enhancing shrimp health.
A 90-cm-wide by 120-cm-high water barrier positioned 15
About 50% of the operational cost of shrimp farming comes
to 30 cm upstream of the feed tray can ensure that no feed is
from the aquafeed used. Feed management faces several huge
swept away by strong currents from aerators.
challenges. The shrimp feed sinks to pond bottoms, and feeding
adequacy cannot be visually monitored like in fish feeding. Feed
Water Quality
requirements change daily because of weather conditions and
“To culture shrimp, one must first cultivate the water” is the
water quality fluctuations.
adage
of many shrimp farmers in Asia. As shrimp are reared in a
Because of high density in a small volume of water, overfeedsmall
space
with a small volume of water to maximize profit, the
ing can quickly overload pond ecosystems, resulting in changes
shrimp
excretions,
uneaten feed and myriad opportunistic microin water quality and blooming of opportunistic microbiota, some
biota growing in it put tremendous strain on pond ecosystems.
of which can be pathogenic. A better understanding of shrimpAny inputs to the systems can greatly affect the water quality in
feeding management can avoid these problems and greatly
the small volume of pond water, as ponds are the “kitchens” as
improve the bottom line.
well as the “toilets” of the shrimp. Shrimp farmers must always
take a holistic approach in managing ponds, keeping particularly
Feed Quality
close watch on water quality and pond bottom hygiene.
Not all feeds are created equal. Some feeds have better
Two of the major parameters that greatly influence shrimp
digestibility, amino acid profiles and fatty acid profiles, and conhealth are ammonia and hydrogen sulfide levels. The presence of
tain sufficient immune stimulants. Selecting a consistently good-
26
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Auto-feeders intermittently distribute small quantities of feed
that are caught by the shrimp before sinking to the pond bottom and losing nutrients.
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide quickly escalates if there is overfeeding. Ammonia, the by-product of protein degradation,
becomes noxious at pH higher than 8.5. Uneaten feed, shrimp
feces and dead microbiota become hydrogen sulfide in anaerobic
areas of pond bottoms. Hydrogen sulfide becomes toxic at a pH
of 6.5 and high temperature.
In intensive shrimp ponds with little water exchange or low
salinity, minerals such as magnesium, potassium and calcium can
become deficient due to direct uptake by the shrimp from the water.
These have to be periodically monitored to ensure optimal levels.
Bottom Quality, Sludge Removal
If feeding and water quality are not managed well, sunken
shrimp feces, uneaten feed and dead microbiota accumulate in
areas of stagnant water and become sludge. Pathogenic bacteria
grow profusely on the nutrient-rich sludge. When further shrimp
feed sinks onto these areas, it is contaminated by the pathogenic
bacteria and, if eaten by the shrimp, can result in disease.
Pond bottoms should be periodically monitored by farmers,
especially in semi-intensive systems where the number of aerators
used is low. The sludge areas can be marked by poles so they do not
receive feed. In intensive systems, the aerators normally sweep the
sludge into a stagnant area, where the sludge can be periodically discharged. Some farmers even siphon the sludge periodically.
Auto-Feeders
The first use of auto-feeders in shrimp feeding was revolutionary. In the past, it was thought that feed must be spread evenly in
a pond so that all shrimp can feed optimally. But with auto-feeders, the shrimp learn to come to the feeders when they are hungry.
An auto-feeder disseminates small quantities of feed intermittently in minutes. Much of the feed is caught by the shrimp before
it sinks to the pond bottom. The feed does not have time to lose
its nutrients or pick up pathogenic bacteria from the pond bottom.
The author has tried using an auto-feeder, which spread feed
over an area of only 300 m2 in a pond of 8,000 m2. The growth,
survival and feed conversion achieved were better than when the
conventional method of spreading feed all over the pond was used.
Fasting
Fasting or interrupted feeding is a useful practice that not
only allows the scavenging Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, to clean up remaining organic matter on pond bottoms, but also allows the microbiota to catch up on consuming
the rich nutrients in the water. Both actions produce cleaner
pond bottoms and better water quality. It is a good practice to
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
27
production
In biofloc systems, strong aeration keeps organic matter
in perpetual suspension. Significant amounts of microbiota “piggyback” on the organic matter,
recycling the rich nutrients available in the water.
Commercial, Natural Feed Consumption
Examined In Amazon River Prawn Study
Fabrício Martins Dutra, M.S.
Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba
Zoology Post-Graduation Program
Street Vinicius of Moraes, 661
Apartment 03, Dallas Garden
Palotina, Paraná, Brazil CEP 859500-000
fabriciomd@ufpr.br
gaa recognizes
that aquaculture is the only
sustainable means of increasing
seafood supply to meet
the food needs of the world’s
growing population.
through the
development
of its Best Aquaculture Practices
certification standards, GAA has
become the leading standards-setting
organization for aquaculture seafood.
carry out occasional weekly fasting for half a day to one day
when the shrimp are over 70 days old.
Applying reduced portions of feed after the sun sets is
another good practice, because most ponds experience low dissolved-oxygen concentrations in the absence of photosynthesis.
It is best to completely stop feeding for half a day or more if the
water temperature is well below 26° C, and the feed in trays is
not consumed.
Biofloc technology is evolving to become a more and more
important aspect of aquaculture. In biofloc systems, strong aeration keeps organic matter in perpetual suspension. Significant
amounts of microbiota “piggyback” on the organic matter, recycling the rich nutrients available in the water.
What goes to waste in conventional aquaculture becomes
natural feed for the culture species, saving farmers significantly
on feed costs. However, only filter feeders such as L. vannamei
and tilapia can benefit from the natural feed in a biofloc system.
Different ponds have different carrying capacities. For example, new clean ponds can produce 1,000 kg shrimp/hp aeration.
However, ponds with old and dirty bottoms may produce only
400 kg/hp aeration.
Carrying capacity is defined by such factors as the level of
technology applied at a facility, the pond construction method
(e.g., earthen ponds, plastic-lined ponds or concrete ponds) and
amount of available aeration. Pond productivity can range 10-50
mt shrimp/ha.
When the carrying capacity of a pond is reached, problems
such as low dissolved-oxygen levels, slow growth, diseases and
mortality can arise. At these times, it is best to partially or totally
harvest the pond to ensure preservation of capital.
Temperature
The Pacific white shrimp is an aggressive feeder that eats
more at higher temperatures. In research, Dr. Chalor Limsuwan
of Kasetsart University in Thailand showed that shrimp feed
more at 32 than at 30° C. However, the growth of shrimp at
both temperatures was the same, so to save feed and money,
farmers should not feed excessively at temperatures above 30° C.
28
July/August 2014
learn more at www.gaalliance.org
global aquaculture advocate
University of Paraná, Palotina
Aquaculture and Sustainable Development
Post-Graduation Program
Palotina, Paraná, Brazil
Biofloc Technology
Carrying Capacity
®
Dr. Yara Moretto
Dr. Leandro Portz
Dr. Eduardo Luis Cupertino Ballester
In a study, natural food was able to maintain prawn growth
for several weeks with little or no supplementary feeding.
Summary:
In a 60-day study, Amazon River prawn postlarvae
stocked in pens within a culture pond were given commercial feed or received no feed beyond the natural
organisms in the pond. The results showed that the
zootechnical indices for the two groups of prawns did
not differ statically for weight, total length and survival. Even though natural feeding supplied the basic
needs of the prawns over the study period, artificial
feeding provided additional elements essential to
prawn reproductive development.
The Amazon River prawn, Macrobrachium amazonicum, is a
species with great production potential and important zootechnical characteristics such as quick growth and high tolerance to
environmental conditions. Moreover, its high nutritional and
gastronomic market values give it great socioeconomic and environmental importance in the northern and northeastern regions
of Brazil. The M. amazonicum freshwater prawn is also widely
sought in artisanal fishing. However, little is known about its
nutritional requirements and feeding behavior under culture
conditions.
Studies on the feeding behavior of prawns show that even in
a production system with an artificial feed supply, natural feeding typically represents a significant part of these animals’ diets.
Although most of the macronutrients needed for freshwater
prawns are supplied by prepared feeds, the required micronutrient levels may derive from natural productivity. Previous studies
showed that between 53 and 77% of the growth of Pacific white
shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei, was derived from grazing on natural food items present in ponds.
Several studies have shown that among the natural foods
available, benthic fauna is an important food source in prawn
farming. The benthic community is an important component in
the sediment of rivers and lakes, and is crucial for the nutrient
dynamics and transformation of matter into energy flow. It represents one of the main and essential food sources of the aquatic
fauna, directly contributing to ecology dynamics.
The use of pens as experimental units in natural water bodies
or ponds has allowed investigations of several aspects related to
prawn feeding ecology and zootechnical performance.
Feeding Study
A 60-day study was carried out by the authors in a commercial pond with M. amazonicum postlarvae weighing 0.63 ± 0.17 g
and measuring 4.28 ± 0.34 cm in length. The postlarvae were
stocked at a density of 10 prawns/m² in six pens with 10 m² of
bottom area.
In Treatment P.F., prawns were fed a commercial diet with
35% crude protein at a rate equivalent to 10% of the total biomass.
For treatment PNF, prawns in the remaining pens were not fed.
Table 1. Mean and standard deviation values
for limnological variables in treatment prawns.
Variables
Water Temperature (° C)
Depth (cm)
Transparency (cm)
pH
Dissovled oxygen (mg/L)
Alkalinity (meq/L)
Hardness (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Ammonia (mg/L)
Treatment
PNF
P.F.
28.90 ± 2.23*
1.47 ± 0
28.95 ± 3.45
7.60 ± 0.75
5.92 ± 1.80
25.31 ± 13.65
22.39 ± 9.51
0.021 ± 0.016
0.062 ± 0.103
29.00 ± 2.29
1.47 ± 0.01
28.95 ± 3.46
7.60 ± 0.72
6.04 ± 1.80
25.31 ± 13.65
22.39 ± 9.51
0.021 ± 0.016
0.062 ± 0.103
* Mean values did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between treatments.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
29
In each pen, sediment samples were collected for analyses of
the benthic community and sediment granulometry. The following water quality variables were monitored throughout the experiment: dissolved-oxygen concentration, temperature, pH, water
transparency, nitrite and ammonia levels, alkalinity and hardness.
omidae, Polymitarcyidae and Ampullariidae.
Oligochaeta was the taxon occurring the most and with the
greatest total abundance (91.28%) among the treatments. Total
abundance was less notable for the other taxa: Chironomidae,
8.06%; Glossiphoniidae, 0.28%; Ceratopogonidae, 0.20%; Polymitarcyidae, 0.10%; and Chaoboridae, 0.06%. Ampullariidae was
found only in the PNF treatment, at 0.02% of the total abundance (Table 3).
No significant difference was determined between the treatments for the average total abundance of benthic macroinvertebrates over the experimental period, although reductions in some
macroinvertebrate species were found. That indicated the prawns
were able to adapt by increasing predation on the benthic community when there was no exogenous feeding.
Results
Over the experimental period, temperatures ranged from 26.67
to 31.29° C. Dissolved oxygen had higher values in treatment P.F.
(6.04 ± 1.80 mg/L) than in PNF (5.92 ± 1.80 mg/L). The pH values fluctuated slightly and remained close to neutral. The other
variables had similar values between treatments (Table 1) and were
within the suitable range for prawn culture. The granulometric
fraction of the soil had a prevalence of sandy sediment.
The final survival did not differ statically between treatments
(Table 2). The average weights and total lengths also followed the
same pattern at the end of the experiment, with individual weights
of 4.43 ± 0.93 g for treatment PNF and 4.83 ± 1.03 g for treatment P.F. The total average length was around 8.03 ± 0.43 cm in
treatment PNF and 8.42 ± 0.51 cm in treatment P.F. Hence, it
appeared the natural food was able to maintain prawn growth for
several weeks with little or no input of supplementary feeding.
At the end of the experiment, ovigerous females were found
in treatment P.F pens, but not in treatment PFN pens, which
indicated that even though natural feeding supplied the basic
needs of prawns over a certain period, artificial feeding still provided elements essential to prawn reproductive development.
The benthic fauna found in the culture water included multiple
orders of macroinvertebrates.
Table 2. Mean and standard deviation values for the performance of tested prawns.
Treatments
Initial Body
Weight (g)
Final Body
Weight (g)
Initial Body
Length (cm)
Final Body
Length (cm)
Survival (%)
Feed-Conversion Ratio
Total
Biomass (g)
PNF
P.F.
0.63 ± 0.05*
0.63 ± 0.05
4.43 ± 0.93
4.83 ± 1.03
4.28 ± 0.14
4.28 ± 0.14
8.03 ± 0.43
8.42 ± 0.51
80.0 ± 9.6
73.0 ± 3.5
–
1.5:1
352.97 ± 48.79
354.20 ± 16.96
* Means values did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) between treatments.
Table 3. Abundance of benthic macroinvertebrate communities
and their frequency of occurrence in the treatment prawns.
Occurrence Of Benthic Community
PNF
Total
30
July/August 2014
P.F.
Total
Number
(%)
Number
(%)
Number
(%)
389
112,889
0.31
88.66
389
141,889
0.26
93.48
778
254,778
0.28
91.28
333
111
13,389
0.26
0.09
10.51
222
56
9,111
0.15
0.04
6.00
556
167
22,500
0.20
0.06
8.06
167
0.13
111
0.07
278
0.10
56
0.04
–
–
56
0.02
127,333
100.00
151,778
100.00
279,111
100.00
global aquaculture advocate
Species, Pond Size Define
Aeration Approaches
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
Aerator Types
During the experimental period, a total of 279,111 individuals
were recorded for the benthic macrofauna studied (Table 3). The
analysis revealed the presence of four main orders – Rhynchobdellida, Mesogastropoda, Ephemeroptera and Diptera – and one
class, Oligochaeta. Within these orders, eight families were identified: Glossiphoniidae, Ceratopogonidae, Chaoboridae, Chiron-
Annelida
Rhynchobdellida
Glossiphoniidae
Oligochaeta*
Arthropoda
Diptera
Ceratopogonidae
Chaoboridae
Chironomidae
Ephemeroptera
Polymitarcyidae
Mollusca
Mesogastropoda
Ampullariidae
sustainable aquaculture practices
School of Fisheries, Aquaculture
and Aquatic Sciences
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama 36830 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Community
Taxa
production
The common splasher aerator types
are vertical pumps (turbine aerators) and
paddlewheel aerators. Propeller-aspirator-pump aerators rely on the venturi
principle to introduce air bubbles into the
water. Diffused-air aeration systems consist of an air blower connected by tubes to
a network of diffusers on the pond botShrimp farmers now tend to install paddlewheel aerators somewhat uniformly
tom for discharging fine bubbles of air
over pond surfaces to spread sediment more evenly over pond bottoms.
into the water. All of these types of aerators have been used successfully in aquaculture, but each type has certain advantages and disadvantages that make it more appropriate for some
applications than others.
Summary:
Vertical pump aerators do not circulate water well and are
Each type of aerator has advantages and disadvantages.
best suited for small ponds of 0.25-ha area or less. Paddlewheel
The combination of paddlewheel aerators and propelleraerators are particularly well suited for larger ponds because they
aspirator-pump aerators can be particularly effective in
create strong water currents, but smaller paddlewheel aerators
deep ponds. Diffused-air systems are most approprican be used effectively in ponds as small as 0.1 ha. Depth is not a
ate for small ponds. The amount of aeration can be
increased as feeding rate increases to conserve energy.
major factor influencing the efficiencies of vertical pump and
Aeration in shrimp ponds usually can be reduced from
paddlewheel aerators, but these types function best in ponds
mid-morning until early evening. Research has demonwhere water depth is generally between 0.75 and 2.00 m.
strated that considerable energy can be saved by using
Propeller-aspirator-pump aerators can be used over a wide
aerator automation systems.
range of pond sizes. In shallow ponds less than 0.75 m deep,
however, they can cause some erosion of the pond bottom.
These devices have the capacity to create deep water circulation
in ponds where water depth is mostly over 2.00 m. The combiPond aquaculture is becoming increasingly intensive, and as a
nation of paddlewheel aerators and propeller-aspirator-pump
result, more feed is used, and mechanical aeration is a common
aerators can be particularly effective in mixing pond water, espepractice. There are many types of pond aeration systems, but
cially in deep ponds.
most operate on one of two principles.
Diffused-air systems have the disadvantage of poor perforWith “splasher” aerators, water is splashed into the air to
mance in shallow water, because the hang time of bubbles in the
increase the area of contact between air and water for diffusion
water is so brief that little oxygen diffuses into the water. Moreof oxygen from air into the water. Alternatively, air bubbles can
over, they are not well suited for large ponds because a great
be released into the water from diffusers placed near the bottoms
length of tubing and numerous diffusers must be deployed. Difof ponds. With these “bubbler” aerators, small bubbles rise
fused-air systems are most appropriate for ponds of 0.25 ha or
through the water column, creating a large surface area for diffuless in area. These aerators are particularly attractive for comsion of oxygen from the air inside the bubbles into the water.
plexes of small ponds in which a single air blower can provide air
There have also been efforts to develop pure oxygen contact systo diffusers in several ponds.
tems for pond use, but satisfactory devices are not yet available.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
31
Some producers place air diffusers in front of paddlewheel
aerators. In the typical pond, water is too shallow to allow efficient oxygen transfer by diffused-air aeration. In the author’s
opinion, it would be more efficient to simply invest in more paddlewheel aerators than to install diffused-air systems to supplement paddlewheel aerators.
A number of air-lift pump devices are also available for use in
aquaculture ponds. While these devices cause vertical circulation
of the water column, they are not true aerators. The rising bubbles in the air-lift tube cause some oxygenation, but the amount
of oxygen transfer per unit of power is much less than it is for
standard aerators.
Oxygen Transfer Efficiency
The oxygen transfer efficiency of mechanical aerators in
ponds varies during the day with respect to dissolved-oxygen
concentration. Dissolved-oxygen concentrations typically are
lowest near dawn, increase during the day to a peak in midafternoon and then decline during the night.
Aerators are most efficient in transferring oxygen to water
when there is no dissolved oxygen present, and efficiency
declines as the dissolved-oxygen concentrations increase. When
water is saturated with dissolved oxygen, aerators cease transferring oxygen to the water. When water is supersaturated with dissolved oxygen – as it often is during the afternoon – aerators
increase the rate of diffusion of oxygen from the water to air.
The minimum acceptable dissolved-oxygen concentration for
aquaculture ponds was considered in the past to be 2 mg/L for
most warmwater species. However, based on experience and
research findings, this opinion has changed. Today, many
researchers feel that dissolved-oxygen concentrations in warmwa-
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July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Dissolved-Oxygen Monitoring
ter ponds should not fall below 4 mg/L. Nitrifying bacteria do not
function well when dissolved-oxygen concentrations falls to 2 or 3
mg/L on a daily basis. Thus, maintaining a dissolved-oxygen concentration above 4 mg/L also encourages the oxidation of potentially toxic ammonia nitrogen to comparatively harmless nitrate.
Frequent dissolved-oxygen measurements should be made in
aerated ponds to assure that the amount of aeration is sufficient
to avoid undesirably low concentrations. Automatic systems can
be used to turn aerators on and off in response to upper and
lower dissolved-oxygen concentration set points. A secondary
benefit of aerator controllers is that dissolved-oxygen concentrations can be recorded over time.
Research has demonstrated that considerable energy can be
saved by using aerator automation systems. The cost of these
controllers has declined, and reliability has increased in recent
years. In the United States, a large number of catfish farmers
have adopted aerator automation.
Aeration And Pond Biota
Most producers tend to view aeration as a means of providing more oxygen for respiration of the culture species so that
standing crops can be increased. While this is true, aeration also
provides oxygen for use by microorganisms that decompose
uneaten feed, feces and dead plankton. Living plankton also use
oxygen in respiration.
Although the algal component of the plankton produces
more oxygen by photosynthesis than is used in respiration during
daylight, the algae continue to respire at night. But in the dark,
photosynthesis and oxygen production cease.
There is a lot of competition between microorganisms and
the culture species for the dissolved oxygen added to water by
aerators. This competition does not change much with respect to
intensity of culture in greenwater ponds, because the amounts of
organic waste and plankton tend to increase in direct proportion
to increases in feeding rates.
Aeration And Aquafeeds
Based on the biochemical oxygen demand of feed (about 1.2
kg oxygen/kg feed) and the average oxygen transfer efficiency of
aerators, about 1 hp of aeration is needed for each 10 kg/ha
increment of daily feed input to maintain nighttime dissolvedoxygen concentrations above 4 mg/L.
Most ponds can safely maintain a standing crop of 1,000 kg/
ha without aeration, reflecting a daily feed input around 30 kg/
ha in most ponds. Thus, if the goal is to produce 6,000 kg/ha
(180 kg feed/ha/day at an input of 3% body weight/day), the
aeration rate at the end of the culture period should be about 15
hp/ha. Of course, if a safety factor is desired, aeration at the end
of the crop could be based on the entire feed input at 18 hp/ha.
The amount of aeration can be increased as feeding rate
increases to conserve energy rather than applying the entire
amount of aeration throughout the culture period.
In tilapia culture, a lower minimum dissolved-oxygen concentration of 2 or 3 mg/L can be allowed. This lessens the aeration rate required per 10 kg/ha increment of feed to 0.5 hp or
0.75 hp, respectively.
In fish culture, it usually is permissible to turn off aerators
after mid-morning and not turn them back on until early evening. Shrimp live on the bottoms of ponds, where dissolved-oxygen concentrations are lowest, and movement of oxygenated
water across the bottom is beneficial. Nevertheless, the amount
of aeration in shrimp ponds usually can be reduced from midmorning until early evening.
Diffused-air systems are most appropriate for smaller ponds
and tanks with enough depth to allow oxygen to diffuse
from the rising air bubbles into the water.
cular water flow pattern, but this usually created sediment deposits
in the central area of ponds. Shrimp farmers now tend to install
aerators somewhat uniformly over pond surfaces to spread sediment more evenly over bottoms. Regardless of the aerator installation pattern used, care should be taken to keep strong water currents from eroding embankments and increasing sediment
deposition on pond bottoms.
Contact
Editor Darryl Jory
for author guidelines.
E-mail:
editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Telephone: +1-407-376-1478
Fax: +1-419-844-1638
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improved environment!
Probiotic strains support gut health.
Biodegrading strains and enzymes
stabilize water quality and pond bottom.
Aerator Positioning
Farmers frequently ask about the best ways to position aerators
in ponds, and there apparently are no definitive research findings to
allow a defensible answer. In fish ponds, it is probably acceptable to
place one or more large aerators at one end of the pond, because fish
will move into the oxygenated area. If the pond is rectangular, aerators should drive the water current along the long axis of the pond.
Shrimp do not move to oxygenated areas as well as fish do, so it is
logical to use several small aerators to provide somewhat uniform
aeration over the entire pond area.
Aerators once were positioned in shrimp ponds to create a cir-
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July/August 2014
33
production
Soil Respiration
(CO2-C/100 cm2/day)
50
Soil A
(4.00% C)
40
Soil B
(3.56% C)
30
20
10
Figure 1. Soil
moisture effects
on soil respiration in three
soils of different
organic carbon
concentrations.
Soil C
(2.76% C)
0
50
40
30
20
Soil Moisture (%)
10
0
Left: Post-harvest draining leaves pond bottoms wet. Right: Dryout and liming of pond bottoms neutralize soil acidity and destroy
unwanted organisms.
Soil Respiration
(CO2-C/100 cm2/day)
60
Pond Bottom Dryout, Liming
In the Americas, many shrimp producers use large ponds and
manage them for semi-intensive culture. The main pond bottom
soil management practices used by these producers are pond dryout and liming between crops.
There are three basic reasons for these practices: acceleration
of organic matter decomposition, neutralization of soil acidity and
destruction of unwanted organisms, including disease agents.
Pond Soil Moisture, Respiration
Immediately after draining a pond, the pores in bottom soil are
full of water that usually is depleted of dissolved oxygen, but in the
dry pond bottom, pores and cracks in the soil fill with air that contains about 250 ppm oxygen. Aeration of soil as a result of drying
increases the availability of oxygen for oxidation of organic matter
by aerobic bacteria and chemical oxidation of reduced substances
such as ferrous iron, manganous manganese, nitrite and sulfide
present in soil at the end of the growout period.
34
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Li Li, Ph.D.
College of Fisheries and Life Science
Shanghai Ocean University
Shanghai, China
Julio F. Queiroz
Embrapa Meio Ambiente
São Paulo, Brazil
Claude E. Boyd, Ph.D.
School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences
Auburn University, Alabama 36849 USA
boydce1@auburn.edu
The relationship between soil moisture concentration and
respiration rate (organic matter decomposition) in three bottom
soils is illustrated in Figure 1. Respiration was low until soil
moisture concentration fell below 30%, and highest rates of respiration were in the soil moisture concentration range of 10 to
20%. Respiration rate dropped quickly as soil moisture concentration fell below 10%, because there was insufficient moisture
for optimal microbial activity.
Larger aquatic animals that can survive in puddles of water
die when puddles in pond bottoms dry up. Planktonic organisms
and soil microorganisms also die from desiccation when soils
become so dry that no biologically available water is present. Of
course, some microorganisms form spores or cysts that survive
desiccation for protracted periods, but pond dryouts certainly
lessen the abundance of soil microorganisms.
In a laboratory study, sediment from a recently drained pond
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
Day
40
Figure 3. Effects
of pH on soil
respiration.
20
10
0
5
6
7
8
Soil pH
9
10
11
(soil A of Figure 1) was held at its optimum moisture concentration of 18% by periodic water additions. The respiration rate
declined steadily as the more readily decomposable organic matter
was used up (Figure 2). The respiration rate after 30 days was only
about 20% of the initial rate, and almost 80% of the total carbon
dioxide released by respiration occurred within 20 days.
This suggested the readily oxidizable organic matter – the
part of the organic matter that would be problematic during the
next crop – was broken down very quickly. Moreover, most soils
become too dry for appreciable microbial decomposition of
organic matter within two to three weeks during dry weather.
There therefore is not much need for drying pond bottoms more
than three weeks.
Pond Soil Drying, Tilling
cally reduced soil has a dark – often black – color because of the
presence of ferrous iron. By digging into the soil surface or
breaking columnar blocks of soil, one can observe soil color and
ascertain if the soil has been oxidized.
Soil can be tilled to break its surface and pulverize clods to
encourage drying and aeration. Probably the best implement for
tilling pond bottoms is a disk harrow. It usually is sufficient to till
to a depth of 10 to 15 cm, with the most effective practice to till
the bottom twice, but in opposite directions. Of course, heavy clay
soils benefit more from tilling than do lighter silt or sandy soils.
If excessive sediment accumulates in pond bottoms, soils will
not dry completely, and tilling may not be possible because the
wet sediment will not support the weight of the tillage equipment. Also, the soil may be so moist that it cannot be pulverized
well. Where sediment is more than 10 to 15 cm deep, it often is
advisable to remove it from pond bottoms to facilitate dryout.
Soil pH, Liming
30
Soil Respiration
(CO2-C/100 cm2/day)
The main pond bottom soil management practices used
in semi-intensive culture are pond dryout and liming
between crops. These practices accelerate organic matter
decomposition, neutralize soil acidity and destroy unwanted organisms. Since most soils become too dry for
microbial decomposition of organic matter within three
weeks, there is little need to dry pond bottoms more
than that period. Where bottom sediment is deep, remove it to facilitate dryout. Ponds with soil pHs below
7.5 should be limed to enhance decomposition.
Figure 2. Respiration in a soil
sample from a
freshly drained
pond held at
optimum soil
moisture concentration for
respiration.
0
Part I. Disinfection in Semi-Intensive Shrimp Ponds
Summary:
50
Many pond
soils break into
colum-nar blocks.
By breaking the
blocks, one can
observe the soil
color and determine if the soil has
been oxidized.
Soils dry first on the surface, which creates an impediment to
further evaporation and oxidation. Many soils break into columnar blocks, which facilitates drying and aeration, but the surfaces
of the blocks dry and hinder evaporation and oxidation. Chemi-
The pH level of pond soils has a pronounced effect on
microbial degradation of organic matter, as illustrated in Figure
3. Ponds with soil pHs below 7.5 should be limed to enhance
the rate of decomposition. Liming can be accomplished by
spreading either agricultural limestone (finely pulverized limestone) or lime (limestone that has been burned in a kiln to drive
off carbon dioxide).
Lime is available as burnt lime that consists of oxides of calcium and magnesium or as hydrated lime produced by treating
burnt lime with water to convert oxides to hydroxides. In terms
of their abilities to neutralize acidity, burnt lime and hydrated
lime are roughly 1.8 and 1.4 times stronger, respectively, than
agricultural limestone.
Typical liming rates based on the use of high-quality liming
materials in a soil containing about 30% clay are provided in
Table 1. Liming rates should be decreased for coarser-textured
soils or increased for finer soils at about 200 kg/ha/percentage
unit of clay. However, pond managers seldom know the clay
content of bottom soils, and the best approach probably is to use
the amounts shown in Table 1 regardless of soil texture.
Table 1. Liming rates for typical pond
bottom soil containing about 30% clay.
Liming Rate (kg/ha)
Soil pH
Agricultural
Limestone
Hydrated
Lime
Burnt Lime
4.5 or less
4.6-5.0
5.1-5.5
5.6-6.0
6.1-6.5
6.6-7.5
Above 7.5
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
4,500
3,700
3,000
2,200
1,500
750
0
3,400
2,800
2,200
1,700
1,100
600
0
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
35
production
soy-fed fish news
How much aquaculture activity can an
ecosystem sustainably handle? There are
some 16,500 fish cages in Jatiluhur Reservoir in Indonesia. Survival of carp there is
about 65%, and the water below about 10
m is devoid of oxygen. Photo courtesy of
U.S. Soybean Export Council.
Modeling Aquaculture Carrying Capacity
In Southeast Asia
Summary:
The modeling of common water bodies to determine
aquaculture carrying capacity has been identified as
a critical need for countries in Southeast Asia. These
countries would like to use models for aquaculture in
various bodies of water, but modeling capabilities are
currently limited. In addition, there is disagreement
about how to balance the needs of farmers with protection of ecosystems. Effective management of carrying
capacity will require a regional approach and participation by industry, governments, academia and non-governmental organizations.
At the United States Soybean Export Council (USSEC) 2011
meeting on Global Soy in Aquaculture in Kona, Hawaii, USA,
Lukas Manomaitis and Hsiang P. Lan identified the modeling of
common water bodies to determine aquaculture carrying capacity as
a critical need for Southeast Asia. As evidenced elsewhere, overdevelopment of aquaculture can result in environmental problems and
excessive disease and mortality of cultured fish.
Aquaculture is expanding rapidly in Southeast Asia, and there is
great potential to exceed carrying capacities in places beyond those
ecosystems that have already experienced impacts from aquaculture.
USSEC wants to see stable development of the aquaculture
industry in the region, which represents a promising market for soybased aquaculture feeds. With 626 billion people, Southeast Asia is
larger than the Japanese, North American, or European Union
markets individually, and they consume about 17 mmt of seafood
annually. Although much of Southeast Asia’s aquaculture production is becoming certified by third-party mechanisms for export,
large amounts of production for domestic consumption are not subject to such certification and often see little or no regulation.
36
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Dr. David A. Bengtson
these countries would like to have and use models for lakes/reservoirs, rivers, and bays/estuaries. However, modeling capability
seems limited, at least in agencies responsible for aquaculture,
and data to put into the models are quite limited, as well. In
addition, there is uncertainty or disagreement within countries
about how to properly balance the needs of farmers with protection of ecosystems.
Since exceeding carrying capacity in many places makes the
industry very inefficient due to high levels of disease or mortality, it is likely farmers could be convinced to alter practices based
on economic reasons, not just ecological ones. Whatever national
regulators think, permits are largely distributed at the local level,
so farmers and local officials must be educated about these overcapacity issues.
Regional Workshop
Because the countries have similar problems and might benefit from a regional approach to managing carrying capacity, a
two-day regional workshop sponsored by USSEC was held last
June in Bangkok, Thailand. It was attended by 24 country representatives from seven Southeast Asia countries, four outside
speakers and four USSEC personnel.
The objectives of the workshop were to discuss issues of aquaculture carrying capacity in the Southeast Asia region and introduce participants to modeling and spatial-planning tools for carrying capacity. The event hoped to identify and prioritize aspects of
carrying capacity that can be addressed on a regional basis.
After considering the issues for two days, the participants
unanimously agreed on a list of 12 recommendations focused on
science, training and development of experts in the region,
examining socioeconomic issues associated with aquaculture car-
rying capacity and obtaining funding for national and regional
efforts related to capacity concerns.
Perspectives
Although the regional approach is still taking shape, efforts
at determinations of carrying capacities in the individual countries are proceeding, both by members of the group and others.
Several interesting questions have emerged about aquaculture
carrying capacity and its implementation.
The first question is whether carrying capacity is better
addressed by governments or by industry. Governments often
work slowly, but industry can work quickly when its self-interest
is at stake.
The second question is, given that aquaculture is usually permitted by local officials, how can we develop a training program
to help those officials understand the need for limiting permits?
In 2013, Dr. Michael Rice of the University of Rhode Island
developed such a program for officials in one province of the
Philippines, and hopes to expand it to other countries.
Third – and this is where the socioeconomics and politics
come in – what is the proper division of a water body for large
production by companies and small-scale production by local
farmers? Many more questions obviously exist, but these are the
most important ones at the moment.
The effort to model and implement aquaculture carrying
capacity in Southeast Asia will be long-term, and there is great
need for active participation by multiple parties: industry, government, academia and non-governmental organizations. If you
are interested, please feel free to join the parade.
PL
Department of Fisheries, Animal and Veterinary Sciences
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881 USA
bengtson@uri.edu
Assessing Needs
The United Soybean Board contracted the author to work
with USSEC to assess the needs and capabilities of the countries
in Southeast Asia to conduct modeling of carrying capacity, and
to hold a workshop to develop a regional approach to the use of
capacity modeling in aquaculture development.
We can broadly define aquaculture carrying capacity as the ability
of an ecosystem to accommodate aquaculture, but more specific carrying capacities have also been defined. These include physical capacity,
the maximum amount of aquaculture units that can physically fit in a
water body; and production capacity, the maximum amount that does
not cause unacceptable impacts to the farms themselves.
Ecological capacity is the maximum amount of activity that
does not cause unacceptable impacts on the ecosystem. Similarly,
social carrying capacity is the maximum level that does not cause
unacceptable impacts on human society.
Advanced
A
dvanced larval &
post larval nutrition
for shrimp
Modeling Impacts
In 2012 and 2013, the author visited regulators as well as
aquaculture sites, in Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam to assess modeling of aquaculture’s
impacts on ecosystems. A separate project to do similar work in
Cambodia was begun in 2013 with U.S. Agency for International Development funding via the Aquafish Innovation Lab at
Oregon State University.
The main findings were similar for all the countries. First,
w w w. s k r e t t i n g . c o m / m h f
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
37
Tilapia Aquaculture In Ghana
Ponds Can Contribute More To Overall Production, Food Security
Emmanuel A. Frimpong,
Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Fish and Wildlife
Conservation
College of Natural Resources
and Environment
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
156 Cheatham Hall
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061-0321 USA
frimp@vt.edu
Iris E. M. Fynn
A 2011 survey documented that the cost of feed, not its availability, was the primary
constraint to wider adoption of cage culture in Ghana.
Aquaculture in Ghana has overcome its historic fits and starts
and is helping to narrow the
gap between domestic seafood
production and consumption.
Production is based on Nile tilapia,
with 90% of the reported volume
raised in cages. Although low
productivity and potential underreporting of pond numbers are
limiting the contributions
of pond aquaculture, the sector
has huge potential to expand
and reduce the cost of tilapia.
Updated and expanded extension
services could help address
numerous problems in the sector.
Fish and seafood consumption in
Ghana has always been much higher than
the global average of 17 kg/capita/year,
with current annual estimates at 25-30
kg/capita or 60% of the dietary animal
protein consumed. Fish are thus crucial
for Ghana’s food security, which raises
concerns about the sufficiency of fish
production in the country. Marine fish
catches, which constitute the bulk of
domestic fish production in Ghana, have
been declining 2% yearly from a base of
38
July/August 2014
Fish Farming In Ghana
Figure 1 shows that the contribution
of aquaculture to domestic fish production has overcome its historic fits and
starts. Reaching about 30,000 mt in
2013, domestic aquaculture has been
growing at an exponential rate of 50%/
year for the past 10 years, stabilizing the
deficit between domestic production and
consumption. The gap stabilized at its
highest point of almost 60% between
2011 and 2012, and is now narrowing
(Figure 2). In fact, if Ghana can sustain
its current aquaculture growth rate, the
gap should be closed completely between
2020 and 2021.
This is, of course, the most optimistic
scenario. The growth of aquaculture in
Ghana has been spurred by many positive
60
50
40
Figure 2. Capacity of
aquaculture to bridge
the gap between fish
production and consumption in Ghana.
30
20
10
0
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year
developments, including domestic strategic planning for the sector, improving
governance and an enabling business
environment that has encouraged the
establishment of at least one major fish
feed mill in the country and the continuing development of a genetically
improved strain of Nile tilapia.
Cage Culture Leads Output
Behind the encouraging production
numbers is a vibrant and growing cage
culture subsector that emerged only about
a decade ago and an anemic pond culture
subsector that has operated in the country
2015
2020
2025
since the 1950s. About 95% of all domestic aquaculture production reported to the
Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) of the United Nations is Nile tilapia, the rest being mostly African catfish
produced in tanks or in ponds as polyculture with tilapia. Of the tilapia production, upwards of 90% of the total volume
reported in Ghana was from cage systems, with ponds contributing only 1,000
to 1,500 mt in 2013.
Based on surveys conducted in 2010 to
2012 by U.S.-based Virginia Tech and
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology (KNUST) in Ghana,
there are currently between 70 and 100
cage farms in Ghana. Of these, the top
several farms appear to account for most of
the 27,000 mt of tilapia produced in 2013.
Meanwhile, reports estimate the number of pond-based farms in Ghana at
4,000 to 6,000, with a total area of 600 to
1,000 ha. These numbers have not been
updated since 2006, although a study published in 2008 reported an annual rate of
growth in pond-based fish farms at 16%.
At the estimated pond area, pond productivity would average 1,500-2,500 kg/ha
– indicating grossly underproductive
ponds. Research and outreach activities
undertaken by Virginia Tech and KNUST
with sponsorship by the U.S. Agency for
International Development AquaFish
Innovation Lab have been aimed at
addressing the combination of low productivity and potential underreporting of
pond production that is leading to relegation of the subsector to the background.
Strategic Role
For Pond Aquaculture
At an average breakeven production
cost of more than U.S. $2/kg, tilapia produced in Ghana are much more expensive
than in many countries in Africa and
Domestic Consumption
Aquaculture Production
Marine Fishing
Inland Fishing
Total Wild-Caught
Total Domestic Production
1,400,000
Annual Production (mt)
Summary:
400,000 mt in 1995, whereas inland
catches have flattened at about 85,000 mt
since the early 2000s.
Meanwhile, domestic consumption
has been rising at approximately 1% annually, with the current estimate at almost 1
mmt. Ghana has been a net importer of
seafood to meet the deficit in domestic
production, which has hovered around
50% for the past several years (Figure 1).
Department of Fish and Wildlife
Conservation
College of Natural Resources
and Environment
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
Requirement-Production
Gap (%)
production
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
1995
2000
2005
2010
Year
2015
2020
2025
Figure 1. Increasing contribution of aquaculture to total domestic fish production in Ghana.
global aquaculture advocate
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
39
A typical harvest
from ponds in
Ghana includes
a few large and
many small fish.
globally. A 2011 study comparing Ghana’s tilapia retail prices to those in Egypt,
China and the Philippines found prices
were four to six times higher in Ghana
and concluded that Ghana’s tilapia were
not competitive on the international or
local markets.
The authors surmise that growth of
the industry and the ability of the producers to sell products have been sustained by the Ghana government’s ban
on importation of tilapia into the country, which cannot be a permanent solution to the problem of high production
costs. Furthermore, Togo, which shares
its western border with Ghana, currently
allows importation of frozen tilapia,
where imported tilapia from China sold
for about U.S. $1.50/kg in 2013.
Due to the porosity of the border
between Ghana and Togo, and the proximity of the heart of Ghana’s aquaculture
activity, the Volta Lake, to the Togo bor-
der, it is conceivable that even without
direct legal imports, Ghana’s tilapia producers currently effectively compete in
the international tilapia market. The
leading cage producers in Ghana are
already exploring avenues for export to
other West African countries, citing
slowing demand or the inability of local
consumers to afford their product. All
these trends do not support a ban on
imports as a long-term solution.
Costly Feed
The main reason for the high cost of
tilapia in Ghana is the cost of feed, which
at the current average price of about U.S.
$1.70/kg and constituting about 70% of
production cost in cage farming, makes it
almost impossible to cut the cost of production. Both imported and locally manufactured feed are priced tightly around
this average, implying that even having
more local feed plants may not reduce
Most ponds in
Ghana are manually
constructed in a laborintensive process
that results in small,
shallow ponds.
40
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
feed prices significantly in the short term.
Compared to costs in Egypt, feed costs
are three times as high in Ghana for feed
that is about 30% crude protein. This is
one significant reason the Ghana government should pay more serious attention to
the improvement of pond aquaculture by
facilitating access to the right types of feed
and best aquaculture practices.
Done properly, pond aquaculture can
cut the feed-conversion ratios obtained in
cage culture in half. In addition, tilapia
grown in ponds through growout and fattening can do well on extruded feed with
25% crude protein, the cheaper and most
common type of feed used in Egypt but
completely missing from the feed market
in Ghana. Pond aquaculture in Ghana
clearly has a huge potential for growth
through sustainable intensification. Farm
experiments the authors conducted
recently in Ghana showed that productivity of 10,000-14,000 kg/ha is easily
attainable with fertilization and supplementary extruded feed – and without the
need for aeration.
Pond Distribution Improves
Food Security
Another significant aspect of pond
aquaculture in Ghana is that it is not geographically concentrated like cage culture
is. Although mostly small in scale, farms
are fairly uniformly distributed throughout the southern regions of the country.
This ensures that what is produced is
mostly consumed domestically, including
by the poor, which meets the improved
nutrition and food security objectives of
aquaculture development.
Adopting low-cost technologies and
sound, targeted policies to improve pond
aquaculture will ensure that the price of
tilapia targeted at the local market is reasonable. When productivity is increased,
and the citizens of Ghana throughout the
country can afford locally produced tilapia, food security will be increasingly
within reach.
Focus On Productivity
On-farm experiments have revealed
that given the right feed and water quality, tilapia strain and adequate control of
reproduction in ponds, growth is still
reduced by up to 18% because of the
shallowness of ponds. The average water
depth in a large number of ponds surveyed in Ghana was 50 cm, only half the
recommended depth.
More than 80% of the fish ponds in
the Ghana were constructed manually,
and in many parts of the country, levees
are narrow and poorly compacted, and
ponds may be only knee deep. While
there are exemplary ponds in the country,
the widespread presence of these lesser
ponds indicates a lack of knowledge of
pond construction or technical support
from extension services, or both.
Other causes of low productivity
learned from research include the use of
mostly farm-made sinking feeds or just
food residues; continuing widespread use
of wild, unknown and mixed strains of
tilapia due to inadequate dissemination of
improved strains to farmers and the hatcheries that serve them; and limited and
imperfect use of sex-reversal technology.
Where sex-reversed fingerlings are
available, the authors have documented
failure rates exceeding 15% in growout
ponds, guaranteeing prolific reproduction
and reduced growth in the absence of
polyculture with predators such as African
catfish. Some hatcheries claim much better rates of sex reversal, but access to these
hatcheries is generally spotty, because the
biggest and most successful hatcheries are
concentrated around the Volta Lake – far
from most of the pond farmers.
More Research,
Extension Needed
Since most of the causes of low productivity can be traced to inadequate
extension or technical support, there is
need for Ghana to revamp its extension
services and increase efforts toward
farmer education on proper pond construction and maintenance, as well as to
provide support for mechanical excavation of ponds. Extension officers need to
be better trained, and their numbers
should be vastly increased.
The potential underreporting of pond
production is also attributable to the
shortage of extension officers, who would
know where farms are and where new
farms are springing up. Using publicly
available satellite imagery, the authors’
research has documented two to seven
times as many ponds as have been
reported by the Fisheries Commission of
Ghana in different regions. Work to
update pond data has been going on in
Ghana for years with the support of the
FAO, but the slow pace of that work is
another manifestation of inadequate government support for extension and basic
data gathering to support sound aquaculture policies.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
41
production
Alfalfa hay applied to crayfish ponds provided
forage material that supplemented commercial
feed in a study at the Aquaculture Research
Center of Kentucky State University.
Diets For Pond-Raised Red Claw Crayfish
Study Examines Alfalfa Hay As Forage Feed Supplement
Summary:
Red claw crayfish have numerous
attributes that make the species
a good choice for aquaculture,
including flexibility in feeding
that may allow expensive prepared diets to be supplemented
or replaced by natural foods or
forages. A pond-based study that
compared the growth performance of red claw crayfish fed
a 28%-protein diet containing
alfalfa hay and crayfish that
received a diet containing 42%
protein content with alfalfa hay
and a vitamin/mineral premix
found that crayfish performed
equally well in both treatments.
The Australian red claw crayfish,
Cherax quadricarinatus, is a freshwater
crayfish species native to the tropical
region of Queensland, Australia, and
southeastern Papua New Guinea. Aquaculture of red claws is increasing because
this species has numerous attributes that
make it a good choice for aquaculture,
including tolerance of fluctuating temperature and water quality, rapid growth
and excellent yield. The non-aggressive
crayfish tolerate high stocking densities if
sufficient shelter is available and have a
42
July/August 2014
simple life cycle that supports straightforward production technology.
Red claws are very flexible in their
feeding habits, consuming decaying plant
and animal matter, as well as macrophytes,
benthic invertebrates, algae, bacteria and
fungi. This may allow expensive prepared
diets to be supplemented or replaced by
natural foods or forages. Combining pellet-based feeding with forage has the
potential to reduce diet costs.
Earlier research conducted at Kentucky
State University reported that the protein
content of prepared diets for red claw crayfish can be lowered if combined with supplemented alfalfa hay. While red claws
seem to use prepared diets efficiently, additional research is necessary to understand
the use of feed forage combinations to
reduce production costs. Another option in
which costs can be reduced is to eliminate
more expensive dietary components, such
as vitamin and mineral premixes.
Pond Study
A pond-based study by the authors
compared the growth performance of red
claw crayfish fed a diet moderately low
(28%) in protein containing alfalfa hay and
devoid of vitamin and mineral supplements
with crayfish that received a diet containing
42% protein content with alfalfa hay, or red
claws fed only alfalfa hay.
Juvenile crayfish were obtained from a
domestic supplier and shipped without
global aquaculture advocate
Kenneth R. Thompson
Kentucky State University
Aquaculture Research Center
103 Athletic Road
Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 USA
Ken.thompson@kysu.edu
Carl D. Webster, Ph.D.
Yuka Kobayashi
Vaun C. Cummins
Joao Fernando Albers Koch
Kentucky State University
Aquaculture Research Center
water in insulated containers with moist
cool packs. Red claws with average individual weights of 15.7 ± 1.0 g were placed
into aerated pond water for acclimation.
Animals that appeared healthy and active
were placed into nine, 0.02-ha ponds at a
rate of 640/pond or 3.2/m2. The ponds,
which had an average water depth of 1.1
m, were located at the Aquaculture
Research Center of Kentucky State University in Frankfort, Kentucky, USA.
Three replicate ponds were randomly
assigned to each of the three treatments. In
treatment 1, red claws were fed a complete
control diet containing 42% crude protein
and dried alfalfa hay with 14% protein as
potential forage at a rate of 500 kg/ha/
month. In treatment 2, red claws were fed a
diet containing 28% protein without vita-
min and mineral supplements but with
alfalfa hay added at 500 kg/ha/month.
Crayfish in treatment 3 received only dried
alfalfa hay at a rate of 500 kg/ha/month.
Dietary ingredients were processed
into 4-mm sinking pellets by a commercial
feed mill. One-half of the total daily ration
was distributed twice daily over the surface
area of each pond for 105 days. Red claws
in all ponds were fed 10% of their estimated body weights during the first two
weeks, with feed volume based on body
weight decreased at two-week intervals to
3% over the remainder of the study. The
assumed weekly growth rate was 4.2 g
based upon previous published data.
Dry hay bales were placed into the
ponds prior to biweekly distribution of hay
over pond bottoms. Water temperature and
dissolved-oxygen concentrations were measured twice daily. Total ammonia nitrogen,
nitrite nitrogen and alkalinity were measured three times weekly. An electric aerator ran in the center of each pond.
Results
After 105 days, the final average
weights and percentages of weight gain
for red claws fed the complete diet were
significantly higher (83.0 g and 398%,
respectively, P < 0.05) than for the crayfish fed only alfalfa hay (44.9 g and
202%, respectively), but did not significantly differ (P > 0.05) from the values
for red claws given the supplemental diet
(76.2 g and 367%, respectively – Table
1). There was no significant difference (P
> 0.05) in feed-conversion ratios, which
averaged 5.01, between red claws fed the
control and supplemental diets.
At 65.1% and 57.2%, respectively,
survival did not differ significantly (P >
0.05) between the crayfish in treatments
1 and 2. However, red claws fed only
alfalfa hay had survival of only 30.3%.
Crayfish fed the control and supplemental diets had significantly higher (P <
0.05) total yields of 1,708 and 1,378 kg/
ha, respectively, compared to 431 kg/ha
for the red claws fed only alfalfa hay.
Table 2 summarizes the water quality
conditions in the ponds. Dissolved-oxygen concentrations averaged 8.0 ppm for
the morning and 9.1 ppm for the afternoon. There was no significant difference
(P > 0.05) between morning and afternoon water temperatures, which averaged
23 and 25.0° C, respectively. There also
was no significant difference in total
ammonia nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen and
alkalinity levels among the three treatments, which were within acceptable limits for red claw crayfish.
Discussion
Vitamin and mineral premixes typically
cost U.S. $15-35/ton in the United
States, although costs vary with geographic location and availability. Results of
this study demonstrated that red claws
grown in ponds at low density can be fed a
diet containing 28% crude protein without
vitamin and mineral premixes with no
adverse effects on growth, survival, tail
muscle yield and body composition.
The 6.18 feed-conversion ratio (FCR)
for red claws fed the supplemental diet
was lower than or similar to previous
reports, but higher than values reported
by others. The higher FCR values in this
study were probably due to several factors. The actual survival at harvest was
lower than the 70% estimated survival
used to determine feeding rates. Secondly, the water stability of the diets (62
to 67%) was lower than the 88 to 95%
stability published elsewhere.
As red claws are bottom feeders and
typically slow eaters compared to finfish,
the water stability of a diet is very important. However, while the percentage of diet
fed should be reduced from the levels used
in the present study, the 4.2 g/week calculation of growth rate appears accurate.
The total yield of red claws fed the
supplemental diet was higher than that
reported in other studies. This was due to
the slightly higher final individual
weights and survival percentages in this
study, but not density, as the stocking
Flexible in their feeding habits,
Australian red claw crayfish possess
numerous attributes that make the
species a good choice for aquaculture.
density used was similar to the rates
found in other reports.
Perspectives
The results of the present study indicated that in ponds receiving forage
input, red claw crayfish performed as well
with a supplemental diet containing
moderately low protein and no vitamin/
mineral premixes as with a more complete diet with much greater protein and
added vitamins and minerals. The use of
such supplemental diets can help reduce
costs and thereby increase producer profits. Further research should be conducted
using lower-protein diets without vitamin
and mineral premixes to determine the
minimum protein level for pond-grown
red claws.
Table 1. Mean production performance values for Australian
red claw crayfish fed control and experimental diets.
Feed Treatment
Attribute
42% Protein/
Premixes/Hay
28% Protein/Hay
Hay Only
Final weight (g)
Weight gain (%)
Weight gain (g/week)
Feed-conversion ratio
Survival (%)
Yield (kg/ha)
83.0 ± 0.1a
398.0 ± 2.0a
4.42 ± 0.03a
3.99 ± 0.03a
65.1 ± 0.4a
1,708 ± 11a
76.2 ± 0.7a
367.0 ± 12.0a
3.99 ± 0.06a
6.18 ± 1.65a
57.2 ± 7.4a
1,378 ± 179a
44.9 ± 4.2b
202.0 ± 27.0b
2.00 ± 0.27b
–
30.3 ± 1.0b
431 ± 49b
Means with different superscripts within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05).
Table 2. Mean water quality parameters of ponds stocked
with red claw crayfish fed control and experimental diets.
Feed Treatment
Parameter
42% Protein/
Premixes/Hay
28% Protein/
Hay
Hay Only
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L, morning)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/L, afternoon)
Temperature (° C, morning)
Temperature (° C, afternoon)
Total ammonia nitrogen (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Alkalinity (mg/L)
7.86 ± 0.06b
9.28 ± 0.09
23.10 ± 0.21
25.20 ± 0.23
0.99 ± 0.03
0.019 ± 0
122.0 ± 1.9
8.02 ± 0.05ab
9.09 ± 0.05
22.80 ± 0.18
24.70 ± 0.22
0.95 ± 0.03
0.004 ± 0
114.0 ± 1.0
8.20 ± 0.04a
9.04 ± 0.04
23.00 ± 0.17
25.00 ± 0.18
1.30 ± 0.04
0±0
108.0 ± 1.5
Means with different superscripts within a row are significantly different (P < 0.05).
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
43
production
Totoaba: Endangered Fish Species
Has Aquaculture Potential In Mexico
M. C. Christian
Minjarez-Osorio
Departmento de Investigaciones
Científicas y Tecnológicas
Universidad de Sonora
Mayra Lizett González, Ph.D.
Departmento de Investigaciones
Científicas y Tecnológicas
Universidad de Sonora
Edificio 7-G
Blvd. Luis Donaldo Colosio s/n
e/Sahuaripa y Reforma
Col. Centro, C.P. 83000
Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
mgonzale@dictus.uson.mx
Martin Perez-Velazquez, Ph.D.
The fast-growing totoaba is now considered a priority species for aquaculture in Mexico.
Summary:
Totoaba, a large, fast-growing fish
of the Gulf of California, became
endangered due to overfishing.
The Mexican government therefore created an aquaculture program in Baja California to support
restocking for the recovery of wild
totoaba stocks. The importance
of the project has grown due to
entrepreneurial interest in totoaba
aquaculture. Reproduction and
larviculture have been achieved
in captivity, which could further
advance breeding and pilot-scale
growout. Work by the authors is
examining the nutritional requirements for this species.
The totoaba, Totoaba macdonaldi, is a
carnivorous sciaenid fish endemic to the
Gulf of California in Mexico. The species
is one of the largest sciaenids, reaching
up to 2 m in length and 136 kg in weight,
with a steel-blue color and small black
spots during the juvenile stage. Adults
migrate annually during the fall from
south to north through the Gulf of California, and during the winter, they arrive
at their reproduction and nursery area
near the Colorado River Delta, between
44
July/August 2014
the states of Sonora and Baja California,
Mexico.
The fishery of totoaba was one of the
most important activities in the area during the 1920s, and because of the species’
abundance, the first human settlements
along the coastline of Sonora and Baja
California were established. However,
since the 1940s and up to the 1970s, a
significant reduction of their natural
stocks by overfishing was evident, since
large amounts of totoabas were captured
throughout the Gulf of California just to
extract their swim bladders, which were
mainly exported to Asia. The rest of the
animals, including the fillets, was usually
discarded into the ocean.
In addition to overfishing, the ecological alterations of the Colorado River
Delta and the by-catch of totoaba juveniles led the species to the brink of
extinction. Measures were taken, and the
fishery of this species was completely and
indefinitely banned since 1975, followed
by the inclusion of totoaba on the Mexican government’s list of endangered species in 1994.
Recovery Of Wild Stocks
A totoaba breeding and aquaculture
program was created by the Mexican government in Ensenada, Baja California,
Mexico, 20 years ago to help the develop-
global aquaculture advocate
Departmento de Investigaciones
Científicas y Tecnológicas
Universidad de Sonora
ment of restocking programs for the
recovery of wild stocks. The program has
shown moderate success in broodstock
management and juvenile production.
Nowadays, the importance of the project has grown due to the interest of entrepreneurs in totoaba’s great aquaculture
potential as a fast-growing species.
Totoaba fillets are highly appreciated in
national and international markets, and
the swim bladders of the fish can be commercialized individually in the Asian market, where high prices are easily reached.
The government program recently
expanded with the addition of another
laboratory, the Center for Reproduction
of Marine Species of Sonora State
(CREMES) at Kino Bay, Sonora, which
also achieved reproduction and larviculture of totoaba in captivity. The federal
and state governments allowed the institution to catch wild fish in the Gulf of
California, which were acclimated to laboratory conditions and spawned viable
eggs after a year of adequate husbandry
and nutrition. Rearing of the progeny is
currently under way.
This is the first time totoaba have
been successfully reproduced in captivity
outside the state of California, which
opens new possibilities for expansion of
the breeding program for this species. In
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
45
In a nutrition study, totoabas
showed high survival and
daily weight gains over 2 g.
addition, pilot-scale efforts have been
carried out rearing totoaba in sea cages
near Ensenada, on the Pacific west coast
of Baja California, and within the Gulf of
California in La Paz, Baja California Sur,
and in Guaymas, Sonora, over the last
three years. Although results have been
promising in terms of the fast growth
rates observed, fish in these trials have
been fed commercial aquafeeds for other
species, which do not necessarily meet
the specific nutritional requirements for
this species.
Thus, research to determine the nutritional requirements of totoaba is of great
importance in developing suitable formulations that will allow the species to reach
its growth potential in aquaculture systems. This goal is currently being cooperatively pursued by the Department of Scientific and Technological Research at the
University of Sonora, the University of
Baja California, the Ensenada Center for
Scientific Research and Higher Education
(CICESE), and CREMES.
Initial Studies: Protein
Requirements
An eight-week experiment was performed at the University of Sonora’s Kino
Bay Experimental Station to determine
the protein requirements of juvenile
totoaba. A total of 120 juveniles with initial mean weight of 74.7 ± 5.3 g were
donated by Pesquera Delly, S.A. de C.V.
The fish were randomly and equally distributed in a semi-enclosed recirculating
aquaculture system consisting of 24,
250-L tanks. Three isolipidic diets with
8% crude fat were formulated to contain
47, 52 and 55% crude protein.
A commercial feed containing 38%
crude protein and 7% crude fat was used
as an external reference, but not included
in the statistical analysis. Each diet was
assigned to six replicates. The feeding
rate was adjusted biweekly to provide 5%
of the biomass daily. The daily ration was
divided into three feedings provided at 9
a.m., 2 p.m. and 7 p.m. Dissolved-oxygen
levels were maintained above 5 mg/L.
Temperature, salinity and pH showed
mean values of 28.4° C, 38 ppt and 7.8,
respectively, whereas the mean value for
ammonia was 0.4 mg NH4-N/L.
At the end of the trial, no statistical
difference was observed among the treatments for growth, survival, weight gain or
other biological indices evaluated. Totoabas showed a daily weight gain of 2.1 to
2.3 g and a mean feed-conversion ratio of
2.2. Mean survival was above 97%.
Results obtained in this initial study
were promising and showed the potential
for this species as comparable to that of
red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, another sciaenid commercially cultured worldwide.
Totoaba is now considered a priority species for aquaculture in Mexico, and efforts
to establish this industry are being made
by government agencies in collaboration
with research institutions. Soon, commercialization of totoaba will hopefully be
done without harming wild stocks..
GOAL 2014
HO Chi MINH CITY
VIETNAM
En un esfuerzo por compartir la acuacultura responsable con más acuacultores de todo el mundo,
la Alianza Global de Acuacultura ofrece traducciones gratuitas al español de su revista Global Aquaculture
Advocate en línea.
Visite www.gaalliance.org/magazine/archives.php y haga clic en los botones debajo de las fotos de portada
para ver el Advocate en español en un navegador de Internet o para descargar una copia en formato PDF.
Patrocinado por Alicorp SAA – Nicovita y National Renderers Association
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Product demonstrators and adequate signage helped
define the test and attract participants.
Perspectives
¡En Español!
46
marketplace
Market Test: Farm-Grown Freshwater Prawns
Respondents New To Product Would Buy
Summary:
A small test market at a high-end grocery store near
Washington, D.C., USA, showed that farm-grown
freshwater prawns would sell to high-income consumers
who had not previously tried the product. About 83%
of first-time buyers said the shrimp, presented less than
24 hours after harvest, tasted good or very good. About
62% of first-time buyers said they would buy again next
year. Although both head-on and deheaded shrimp
were offered, most customers were reluctant to try the
head-on samples.
A small test market near Washington, D.C., USA, showed
that farm-grown, giant freshwater prawns would sell to highincome consumers who had not previously eaten the product.
Sponsored by the USDA Federal State Marketing Improvement Program, the test market was a joint undertaking of the
Virginia Aquafarmers Network (VAN), an agricultural cooperative, and researchers at Virginia Tech’s Virginia Seafood Agricultural Research and Extension Center.
The two-day market test in September 2013 occurred at a
high-end Wegmans grocery store in Fairfax, Virginia, USA. The
Fairfax store sells more seafood than any other Wegmans store
in Virginia. Shrimp was the featured item in the seafood department, with signs posted to explain the test market. The retailer
sold 350 lb (159 kg) of shrimp for $15.99/lb ($35.18/kg).
Virginia Tech and Virginia Marine Products Board employees at the shrimp display encouraged customers to sample the
cooked product and gave 115 surveys to purchasers who agreed
to complete the questionnaire after eating the shrimp at home.
The U.S. $15 store gift cards that respondents received after they
filled out and mailed in the surveys were in part responsible for
the excellent 80% response rate.
Dan Kauffman, Ph.D.
Seafood Business Specialist
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
dkauffma@vt.edu
Martha Walker, Ph.D.
Community Viability Specialist
Virginia Tech
Pre-Test Handling
A VAN member grew the shrimp in a pond just south of
Richmond, Virginia. At harvest, the head-on shrimp were put
through two washes and then plunged into a pondside salted ice
slush and cooled to below 0° C. The cooling took 15 to 20 minutes. The shrimp were then packed on ice and taken to a processor, where the animals’ sharp rostrums were clipped as a precautionary measure, since a portion of the shrimp was sold head-on.
The shrimp were layer packed with extra ice to make sure the
product remained cold and shipped by refrigerated truck to the
distributor, who in turn took them to the store, where they were
offered for sale less than 24 hours after harvest.
Because of government regulations, freshwater shrimp usually
aren’t allowed to be headed at pond side and then sold. So one of
the purposes of the test market was to see if consumers would buy
head-on freshwater shrimp, obviating the need for processing.
Results
Almost 76% of the 92 respondents said they had never purchased freshwater shrimp. Of those first-time buyers, 83% said
the shrimp tasted good or very good.
However, the high evaluation of taste didn’t totally match purchase intentions. About 62% of first-time buyers said they would
buy again next year. A smaller group of 21 respondents had previous
experience with freshwater shrimp. Of those, 72% said they were
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
47
Other 18%
Local
Product
29%
Try
Freshwater
42%
Try
Head-On
3%
Disagree
2%
Figure 1. Motivations to
purchase freshwater prawns
stated by survey participants.
Seafood
Boil Idea
8%
Strongly
Disagree
1%
Neutral
12%
Strongly
Agree
47%
Agree
37%
Figure 2. Participants
strongly responded to the
statement that being able to
buy food produced locally
was important.
likely or very likely to buy the shrimp at harvest next year. Similarly,
72% of buyers who had previous experience with the shrimp also
rated the taste of the shrimp good or very good. When the previous
and new experience groups were averaged together, the intention
to purchase next fall came in at 65%.
Both head-on and de-headed were sold at the same price by
the store, so it wasn’t a true test, as normally de-headed shrimp
cost more. However, consumers were encouraged to try head-on
in the store to see if they could taste a difference.
Enzymes in the hepatopancreas, the digestive gland in the head
of the shrimp, give head-on shrimp a short shelf life. But some
think if the product is just harvested and handled carefully, as this
was, head-on shrimp are more flavorful. Most store customers were
reluctant to try the cooked head-on samples. But some of those who
did elected to purchase head-on. Several said they would serve the
shrimp that evening, believing it would be a unique treat.
Overall, about 33% of the 92 respondents bought head-on
shrimp. However, only 10 of the 69 first-time buyers in the survey purchased head-on shrimp. Of those, 60% said they would
purchase head-on again next year. Most of the buyers of head-on
shrimp said they had previously eaten head-on freshwater or saltwater shrimp. About 50% said they would buy head-on product
again next year.
Motivation
Shrimp purchasers said they were primarily motivated to buy the
shrimp because they wanted to try freshwater prawns (Figure 1).
Purchasers were also given a brochure with recipes and alternative cooking methods. The information in the brochure can be
found online at www.pubs.ext.vt.edu/CV/CV-31/CV-31_pdf.
pdf. The brochure also gave a link to a video, which showed how
to do a stove-top freshwater shrimp boil with potatoes, sausage
and corn on the cob.
Almost 60% of the respondents had household incomes of more
than U.S. $130,000, placing them in the top 12% of U.S. households for income. About 80% of the respondents had incomes of
more than $80,000, which placed them in the top 30% of U.S.
household income. Nearly 44% of the purchasers fell in the 50 to 65
age group, while 30% were in the 36 to 49 age cohort.
More than 81% of the surveyed buyers felt that being able to
buy shrimp that was never frozen was important to the purchase
decision. Nearly 81% (Figure 2) indicated that being able to buy
food produced locally was “important to me.”
At least for this set of customers, doing store specials or features like a freshwater shrimp promotion were important ways to
build customer loyalty. More than 90% of the customers who
returned surveys agreed or strongly agreed that “offering unique
foods like Virginia farmer-grown shrimp or other items unavailable elsewhere makes me more likely to shop at Wegmans.”
Taste Evaluations
Cooking methods affected purchasers’ evaluations of the taste
of the shrimp. Grilled shrimp got the highest taste evaluation,
with a 4.6 on a five-point scale with 3.0 considered a neutral rating. The 4.6 rating was about halfway between tasting “good” or
“very good.” Grilled shrimp also had the smallest standard deviation in the evaluations of cooking methods. Sauteed, at 4.3, and in
a seafood boil, at 4.2, produced the next-highest ratings for taste.
At 3.0, broiled shrimp scored the lowest on taste.
No survey question asked purchasers to compare freshwater
with saltwater shrimp. However, written comments on the surveys indicated a split between those who preferred the milder,
light taste of freshwater shrimp and those who liked the more
pronounced taste of saltwater shrimp.
One saltwater aficionado wrote “(The) taste of these was not
as satisfying as the shrimp I usually buy.” Another said, “There
wasn’t much flavor.” A third made his point by noting: “(I) prefer saltwater, if given the choice.”
However, after cooking the freshwater shrimp at home, a
person who preferred freshwater shrimp wrote, “The shrimp
were less fishy in taste – mild and tender.” “Juicy and sweet” was
the way another respondent characterized the taste. “They were
so nice; we were lucky to be able to buy these shrimp,” was
another buyer’s summation.
Perspectives
The test market showed the importance of product demonstrators and adequate signage when selling seafood about which
customers have limited knowledge. Customers clearly liked the
idea of seasonal local production.
The features and taste attributes of the shrimp needed to be
explained, as they were not observable by looking at the shrimp.
The retailer had several requests and suggestions, which improved
the test market. Catering to retailer’s ideas can help sell product
and build long-term relationships for mutually profitable business.
More than 90% of the customers who
returned surveys agreed that “offering
unique foods like Virginia farmer-grown
shrimp makes me more likely to shop
at Wegmans.”
International Aquaculture Associations:
Join GAA
Partner With the Leading Global
Aquaculture Standards-Setting Group
Global Aquaculture Alliance members represent seafood
producers, processors, marketers and retailers – the entire
seafood value chain. GAA facilitates cooperation among
these diverse sectors and provides leadership and
coordination on emerging aquaculture issues.
GAA’s Best Aquaculture Practices certification standards
are now implemented worldwide at processing plants and
aquaculture facilities for shrimp, tilapia and channel catfish.
BAP standards for feed mills will complete the value chain.
Hook into this sustainability chain by joining GAA as an
Association Member. Membership includes elibility to vote
on GAA policy and serve in officer positions. Contact the GAA
office for complete membership details.
Global Aquaculture Alliance
Feeding the World Through Responsible Aquaculture
®®
48
July/August 2014
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302 – St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Web: www.gaalliance.org – Telephone: +1-314-293-5500 – E-mail: homeoffice@gaalliance.org
global aquaculture advocate
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
49
marketplace
seafood marketing
Competition Across Fish Species In E.U.
José Fernández Polanco,
Ph.D.
Universidad de Cantabria
Avenida de los Castros s/n E-3900
Santander, Cantabria, Spain
polancoj@unican.es
Ignacio Llorente, Ph.D.
María Odriozola
Universidad de Cantabria
Pricing for Pangasius, the most popular tropical white fish in the European Union,
significantly affects that of imported tilapia.
Summary:
In Europe, most frozen white
fish fillets operate in an undifferentiated market. Although
differences in quality and processing affect pricing, there is
also competition across species
and exporting countries. Analysis showed that prices for tilapia
from the leading exporter China
were not affected by any competitor, but pricing for tilapia
from other countries was highly
related. Low Pangasius prices
affected the market share of tilapia,
which may help explain why
Pangasius is a most popular fish
in the European Union.
difficult, if not impossible, to estimate, as
their recordings were aggregated into
those of more generic commodities.
However, since 2010, new items have
been introduced on the list of tariff codes,
and the most relevant tropical species are
now differentiated, allowing study at the
species level. It is too soon for a long-tern
analysis, but the evolution in these three
years points to an interesting competitive
scenario.
Tropical freshwater fish have become
one of the most important aquaculture
commodities in the first decade of the century. Production has significantly grown in
developing countries, resulting in a surplus
that requires targeting the markets in developed countries in the search of higher prices
and profits. The real figures of this trade are
50
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
Perch-4%
(6,978 mt)
Freshwater Fish Marketed
In E.U.
Three main species of tropical fish are
marketed in significant volumes in the
European Union, with frozen fillets the
most common presentation. Pangasius,
Nile perch and tilapia are the top species,
according to the volumes imported in
2013 (Figure 1). Imported volumes of
Pangasius and Nile perch declined by
30% in the last three years, while those of
tilapia remained stable and even increased
slightly to about 20,000 mt.
There is a sort of specialization by
continents and countries in the origins of
Tilapia-11%
(19,240 mt)
Figure 1. Frozen fillets of tropical freshwater fish imported into the E.U. during
2013. Source: Eurostat.
Pangasius-85%
(142,001 mt)
these commodities. Vietnam, where the
bulk of Pangasius production is located,
monopolizes that market. It is the only
country with regular monthly supply and
faces only occasional minor competition
from Chinese imports, which have a marginal market share below 0.5%. The average price for a kilogram of frozen Pangasius fillets was 1.76 euros (U.S. $2.39) in
2013.
Nile perch production is mainly
located in Africa. Tanzania leads the
exports to the E.U. in quantities and
prices, followed by Uganda and Kenya
(Table 1).
Tilapia imports are dominated by
China and other Asian countries with
minor market shares (Table 1). Vietnam
started to become a regular actor in the
market of this species in 2011, with a
break in the following year but consolidation of a 5% market share in 2013. Differences in the levels of quality and processing also result in differences in the
prices of frozen tilapia fillets across
exporting countries.
Competition Across Species,
Countries
Competition is tested using price
integration. This analysis tests relationships across prices of different commodities. Two products are competitors when
their prices are correlated. Then, when
one of the competitors raises or drops
prices, the other will act in the same way
to avoid losing sales or profits. The conclusion is that one of the products is causing the prices of its competitor.
The above rationale was used to test
for competition across producers of the
same or different tropical species in the
E.U. market. Available data covers only
from 2010 to 2013, so only short-term
effects could be tested at this time.
Two products are competitors when their prices are
correlated. Then, when
one of the competitors
raises or drops prices, the
other will act in the same
way to avoid losing sales
or profits.
Frozen Fillets
Competition across species gains in
power in the case of frozen fish fillets.
Although fillets of some species like cod are
well differentiated in Europe, the majority
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
51
of white fish fillets – even those properly
identified as different species – operate in
an undifferentiated market. This means
they can be direct substitutes, and only differences in the price of the species may
make the distinctions among them.
Nile perch producers do not appear to
be directly competing, since causality
across the prices of imports coming from
Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya can be
rejected. However, this is not the case for
tilapia imports, where prices for the fish
from China, Indonesia and Thailand
have been found to be correlated (Table
2). With tilapia, China’s prices are not
affected by any competitor, and the country exerts the role of price leader. The
prices of tilapia imported from Indonesia
are caused by the prices for tilapia from
Thailand. And Thailand is affected both
by China and Indonesia.
Pangasius Versus Tilapia
Let’s now consider the case of
Pangasius competing with tilapia. The
best combination is given when China,
Thailand and Vietnam are put together
in the same model. In this case, Thailand
and China are exporting tilapia, while
Vietnam exports primarily Pangasius. The
results of the causality analysis can be
seen in Table 3.
The relations observed for tilapia
exporters are confirmed, with the variation of low causality from Thailand on
China as a result of the inclusion of the
prices of Vietnamese Pangasius. The
prices of Pangasius cause the prices of
tilapia exports from China and Thailand,
but none of these exerts any influence on
the Vietnamese prices.
Table 1. Frozen fillets of tropical freshwater fish
imported into the E.U. during 2013. Source: Eurostat.
Country
Imports (mt)
Market Share
Price (euro/kg)
Nursery Feeding Program
Nile Perch
Tanzania
Uganda
Kenya
4,384
1,974
620
62.8%
28.3%
8.9%
3.38
3.45
3.50
Tilapia
China
Indonesia
Vietnam
Thailand
16,014
1,901
980
215
83.7%
9.9%
5.2%
1.2%
2.52
4.65
2.86
4.90
Table 2. Causality tests for tilapia exporters.
China
Indonesia
Thailand
China
Indonesia
Thailand
0.138
0.111
0.008***
0.181
0.182
0.005***
0.321
0.047*
0.006***
Table 3. Causality tests for tilapia and Pangasius exporters.
China
Thailand
Vietnam
China
Thailand
Vietnam
0.058*
0.041**
0.113
0.044**
0.073*
0.181
0.064*
0.067*
0.034***
Perspectives
With the exception of Nile perch,
which needs to be assessed over a longer
period to confirm the lack of competition,
the other two tropical species are involved
in a competitive framework. Chinese tilapia exports are influencing the prices for
products from Indonesia and Thailand,
but are not affected by them.
The Chinese leadership in the tilapia
market is put in question when Pangasius
is taken into account, and a low but significant impact of Thai prices on Chinese
tilapia appears. The results of this second
analysis confirm that Pangasius prices
affect those of tilapia, and are not affected
by them. This situation may help explain
why Pangasius is the most popular tropical fish in the European Union and the
low market shares of tilapia, with less
competitive prices.
The prices of Pangasius
cause the prices of tilapia
exports from China and
Thailand, but none of
these exerts any influence
on the Vietnamese prices.
nutrition through innovation
Lower Your Risk,
Increase Your Prots.
Proper design and management of nursery systems for shrimp culture has been shown to greatly
increase protability while reducing risk at the farm. Feeds and feeding drive these systems and are
fundamental to juvenile performance and water quality.
After extensive research, Zeigler has developed a feeding program specically designed to support
hyper-intensive nursery systems.
Stage
Nursery 1
Nursery 2
Nursery 3
Nursery 4
Nursery 5
Particle Size
0.3–0.6 mm
0.6–0.8 mm
1.0 mm
1.5 mm
2.0 mm
Animal Size
2-10 mg
10-100 mg
100-400 mg
400-1500 mg
1.5-3.0 g
}
 Concentrated nutrient prole to compensate for
reduced feeding in managing water quality.
 Food particle sizes target animal weight, not stage.
 Customized feeding rates recommended based
upon specic nursery conditions.

Vpak added to support animal health and
disease resistance.
Contact a Zeigler representative to learn more about the program.
Reap The Benefits
Of Responsible Aquaculture
Through the development of its third-party certification program, the
Global Aquaculture Alliance is carrying out its mission of responsible
aquaculture every day. Encompassing environmental and social
responsibility, food safety, animal welfare and traceability, the Best
Aquaculture Practices program is the world’s most comprehensive
certification system for aquaculture facilities.
Currently, more than 600 farms, processing plants, hatcheries and feed
mills are BAP certified. The facilities are audited annually by independent,
ISO-accredited certification bodies, and training courses are conducted
regularly to ensure auditors are well informed of the latest improvements
to the BAP standards. Additionally, GAA’s market development works with
retailers, foodservice operators and suppliers worldwide to promote the
BAP program and responsible aquaculture in the marketplace.
52
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
For more on BAP Standards, contact:
Global Aquaculture Alliance
www.gaalliance.org • +1-314-293-5500
nutrition through innovation
717-677-6181 phone
www.zeiglerfeed.com
info@zeiglerfeed.com
www.nutrimar.com.mx
global aquaculture advocatewww.g.ventas@nutrimar.com.mx
July/August 2014 53
marketplace
seafood and health
Is The Seafood Story
That Complicated?
Roy D. Palmer, FAICD
GILLS
2312/80 Clarendon Street
Southbank Victoria 3006 Australia
roydpalmer@gmail.com
www.gillseafood.com
Eating fish is part of a heart-healthy diet, and many types are good sources
of important fatty acids.
Summary:
The United States Food and Drug
Administration has updated
its advice for pregnant women
on mercury and seafood with
greater emphasis on the benefits
of eating fish. This is a positive
story, but reporting on the new
perspective muddied its message
with opinion and innuendo. Let
us all find the way to continue to
promote aquaculture’s healthy,
renewable products in ways that
keep the stories simple, so the
messages are not lost on the journey to consumers.
It is summer in the Northern Hemisphere – the ideal time to be promoting
and selling seafood. There is much to be
happy about, yet the story reaching some
consumers is being complicated and
made negative.
FDA Mercury Update:
Missed Opportunity
It was announced that the United
States Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) updated its advice for pregnant
women on the appropriate levels of mercury
54
July/August 2014
in seafood. This is a positive story, because
finally the government has awakened to the
fact that its mercury advisory has done
more damage than good. It was ill-advised
and focused on the risks instead of the
overwhelming benefits of eating seafood.
FDA Commissioner Margaret Hamburg reportedly said the new advice will
not require mercury labels on seafood
packages. What a strong and positive
message. Finally, after a long-awaited
study that many insiders said was held up
due to internal politics rather than any
sound scientific advice, women – especially those of a child-bearing age – will
be able to better understand what to eat
when they’re pregnant.
“It’s an advisory, not an effort to mandate labeling,” Hamburg was reported as
saying. Eating fish is part of a hearthealthy diet, and many types are good
sources of omega-3 fatty acids that are
important for brain development. This is
genuinely a great seafood story, right?
But no… Somehow the truth was
coming out from the highest level, based
on years of study and promoted by the
commissioner, yet who got most of the
story? The Center for Science in the Public Interest, a consumer advocacy organization that for years has been running disinformation about seafood for some reason
and wants mandatory labeling.
global aquaculture advocate
So instead of being a positive story,
this has taken a major turn and is now
highlighting the dangers of accumulating
mercury from eating seafood. No facts, no
science, but lots of opinion and innuendo.
The article ended on the topic of
genetically modified foods (let us confuse
consumers more), where Commissioner
Hamburg reiterated her support for voluntary labels and said a “considerable
amount of scientific study does not suggest the kinds of public health concerns
that some consumers have worried
about.” Additionally, Hamburg said she
did not believe FDA should have to do a
mandatory safety review of all engineered
foods, highlighting that FDA now
reviews the safety of genetically modified
animals, but has a voluntary review for
companies that want to sell modified
crops for consumption.
What was a simple positive story
became a complicated piece leaving questions to anyone reading it. What a shame,
what a missed opportunity.
Chronic Diseases, Prevention
In the U.S., 75% of the health care
dollars goes to treatment of chronic diseases. These persistent conditions – the
nation’s leading causes of death and disability – leave in their wake deaths that
could have been prevented, lifelong disability, compromised quality of life and
burgeoning health care costs. The situation is no different in Australia or in
Europe, and regrettably the Western
ways of processing and marketing food to
the masses have now filtered through to
Asia and elsewhere, where they will likely
increase chronic disease in the future.
In India, the Centre for Chronic Disease Control reports: “The burden of
chronic diseases has reached epidemic
proportion in India along with the penitence of preternatural diseases. It is now
experiencing a polarized and protracted
double burden of disease. India, the second most populous country, has the highest number of diabetics in the world, and
annual coronary deaths are expected to
reach 2 million by 2010. At the present
stage of India’s health transition, chronic
diseases contribute to an estimated 53% of
deaths and 44% of disability-adjusted life
years lost. Cardiovascular diseases and diabetes are highly prevalent in urban areas.”
Healthcare And Nutrition
Chronic diseases can be helped enormously by simple nutrition. Why are we
not promoting good nutrition at all levels
of healthcare? Pills and drugs are not necessarily the solution – education on good
nutrition (incorporating fish and seafood)
would have much greater impact. We fail
to deliver on preventative measures, which
must be the most cost-effective.
Lahsen Ababouch, chief of Fish Utilization and Marketing at the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) in Rome, said a few
months ago at a conference in Mexico:
“Seafood harvested from aquaculture is a
complete nutrient package, being the
major source of animal proteins and
micronutrients for many coastal populations, and a renewable and sustainable
source of polyunsaturated fatty acids for
optimal brain development and the prevention of coronary heart disease.
“Additionally, it is a unique and complete source of micronutrients and an
important source of vitamins generally
scarce in rural diets. These are essential
benefits which families should consume
weekly to ensure a happy, healthy life and
comply with dietary guidelines.”
Seafood, Food Security,
Nutrition
FAO’s Committee on World Food
Security High Level Panel of Experts
recently promoted its paper titled “Report
on Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture
for Food Security and Nutrition.” The
report, which highlights that fish have
received little attention in food security
and nutrition strategies, covers the facts
and makes recommendations.
Following are a few of those points.
The more we promote them, the more
chance we have of them being adopted:
• Fish deserves a central position in
food security and nutrition strategies.
This covers four issues highlighting
the need to promote small-scale production and nutrition education: tackling micronutrient deficiencies, especially among children and women;
strengthening international assistance
and cooperation to build capacity in
food security and nutrition; eliminating harmful subsidies that encourage
overfishing; and redirecting that funding toward public-good investments
that support infrastructure and capacity development to improve the livelihoods and economic possibilities in
food security and nutrition. Additionally, states, national and international research institutes, and development agencies should conduct
regular studies to better understand
pathways between fish, gender and
nutritional standards, and review
fisheries’ discard practices to ensure
a sustainable program.
• Threats and risks for world fisheries
include the effects of climate change.
• Opportunities and challenges in
aquaculture cover several areas.
National and international research
organizations funded by governments
and other agencies should aim to
enhance sustainability and productivity outcomes, highlighting areas such
as food safety, health control,
improved feed stocks that do not
compete with human foods, domestication and genetic improvement,
integration models and improved
linkages with the food chain, with
due consideration given to ecosystem
integrity. States and other private and
public stakeholders and international
actors should take actions to reduce
fishmeal and fish oil use in feed and
encourage the promotion of low-trophic-level fish (herbivores and omnivores) and put in place collaborations
to encourage the sharing of learning
experiences in aquaculture.
• Other important topics include
small-scale versus large-scale operations, trade and markets, social protection and labor rights, gender
equity, and governance.
Perspectives
Let us all find the way to continue to
promote the fantastic products that we
are producing through aquaculture. We
have a renewable resource that we can
evidence is farmed responsibly. Let us
keep the stories simple, so the message is
not lost on its journey to consumers.
the scientific way to protect your investment
Increase Yield
Maximize Survival
Improve FCR
shrimpshield.com
800.493.4831 or 970.568.7754 (US)
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
55
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food safety
and technology
Cathepsin Enzymes
Part II. Activities In Cultured Species
George J. Flick, Jr., Ph.D.
University Distinguished Professor
flickg@vt.edu
Carp
Shrimp
Cyprinus carpio and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix carp have been used to pro-
Table 1. Activities of tested enzymes in actomyosin in carp.
Activity in Actomyosin (x 10-6 unit/mg protein)
Carp
global aquaculture advocate
L-like
H-like
B-like
26.47
5.47
5.17
Only limited information has been published on cathepsins
in shrimp. However, cathepsin D obtained from banded shrimp,
Penaeus japonicas, and grass or black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon, had optimal temperatures at 50 and 45º C. The thermostability of the cathepsin D from black tiger shrimp was higher
than that from banded shrimp. Although both cathepsins had
similar optimal pH values near 3, banded shrimp had broader
pH stability than the black tigers.
Ge
any • Made in
erm
G
in
REAL
BREWERS‘
YEAST
de
Studies have found that cathepsins B, D and L degraded myosin heavy chain and α-actinin in seabass. Tropomyosin and actin
were only susceptible to the action of cathepsin L. Troponin T
was resistant only to the action of cathepsin D. Desmin, a major
intermediate filament protein essential for the structural integrity
and function of muscle, was degraded by cathepsins B and L.
Slight changes of some other myofibrillar or cytosolic proteins were also observed. When compared with protein modifications observed in stored post-mortem muscle, these results
suggested that cathepsin D could be involved in a post-rigor
myofibrillar degradation mechanism.
Seabass
M ade i n G e
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July/August 2014
was correlated with muscle degradation,
and cathepsin L gene expression related
to muscle degradation and texture.
Pre-slaughter stress, especially longterm stress, accelerated cathepsin activity,
resulting in faster muscle degradation,
directly or indirectly connected to the low
initial muscle pH. Research produced similar results in seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax
L., where cathepsin B and L activities
were found in more important amounts in
the white muscle. On the other hand,
cathepsin D activity was 1.4 times higher
in meat than in fish muscle, while cathepsin H was negligible in both muscles.
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56
In studies, Atlantic salmon, salmo
salar, were subjected to 20-minute shortterm and 24-hour long-term pre-slaughter crowding stresses. The significant
negative effects seen were mostly due to
long-term stress at early stages post-mortem, but short-term stress also had significant impacts on the muscle quality of
pre- and post-rigor fillets.
Pre-slaughter long-term stress lowered
muscle pH, softened the fillets and
increased muscle cathepsin L gene expression immediately post-mortem. A tendency
for increased cathepsin B gene expression
and total cathepsin B activity was also
noted. Stress further accelerated the influence of myofiber-myofiber detachments,
increasing the percentage of myofiber-myocommata detachments over storage time.
Significant correlations were observed
among muscle pH and cathepsin B + L
activity, muscle texture and muscle degradation parameters. Cathepsin B activity
Food Science and
Technology Department
Center for Applied Health Sciences
Duck Pond Drive
Virginia Tech (0418)
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
a
•M
Decomposition of fresh fish and shellfish is primarily due to exogenous microbiological contamination from processing
and marketing. However, endogenous
decomposition through catheptic enzyme
activity post-mortem can also be a contributing cause for quality loss and spoilage.
Pre-slaughter stress, especially longterm stress, has been shown to increase
cathepsin gene expression and cathepsin
activity, resulting in texture loss, low fillet
yield and decreased water-holding capacity.
Atlantic Salmon
Assistant Professor
davekuhn@vt.edu
Post-mortem softening of trout and other fish species often
results in low yield and decreased product quality. In research,
extracts of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, stored five days
were incubated with cathepsins B, L and D, alone and in combination, to evaluate the effects on texture-related proteins.
Cathepsins D, B and L affected, respectively, 10, nine and
four of the 17 protein bands associated with firmness. Most
changes induced by cathepsin D were unfavorable to firmness.
This implied that cathepsin D is likely involved in the textural
change of trout due to muscle structure decomposition.
It is also possible the proteolysis could occur in temperatures
between 15 and 55º C, and also be active during some cooking
processes. It has been noted that the amino acid sequence of carp
cathepsin B is similar to 80% of that in rainbow trout.
y
Stress has been shown to have
significant negative impacts on
the muscle quality of pre- and
post-rigor fish fillets. Stress can
lower muscle pH, soften the
fillets and increase muscle
cathepsin L gene expression
immediately post-mortem. Correlations have been observed
among muscle pH and certain
cathepsin activity, texture and
muscle degradation parameters.
Cathepsin D alone and in combination with other cathepsins
presents the greatest proteolytic
activity on some fish muscles.
David D. Kuhn, Ph.D.
in G
Proteolytic activity by catheptic enzymes
varies with species and individual enzyme.
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Rainbow Trout
Cathepsin L can hydrolyze the main protein in carp surimi and lead to reduced
gel strength.
Summary:
duce surimi, since fillet production with the species can cause
meat waste due to the high amount of fish bone in the edible
portion of the fish.
Myofibrillar components, especially myosin heavy chain, are
essential for surimi gel formation. However, when the surimi
passes through the temperature zone of 40 to 60º C to form a
gel, its protein components can be degraded, eventually causing
very low gel strength.
Many researchers have demonstrated that this degradation is
caused by endogenous proteases in fish muscle, especially serineand cyteine-type proteases. Cathepsins L and B, both cysteine proteases, can hydrolyze a broad range of proteins, such as myosin,
actin, nebulin, myoglobin, hemoglobin and insoluble collagen.
When cathepsin L enzyme activity was not inhibited, the gel
strength significantly decreased by 24.3% compared to the control. However, the gel strength of surimi with an enzymatic
inhibitor increased by 13.7%. Both the sodium dodecylsulphate
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis electrophoretic pattern and
microstructure figures revealed that cathepsin L could hydrolyze
the main protein in carp surimi and was one of the enzymes
involved in the modori phenomenon, a process where very low
gel strength causes surimi gel disintegration.
Studies have shown that carp actomyosin is affected by L-, H-,
and B-like cathepsins (Table 1). Subsequent studies have indicated
there are at least two kinds of cathepsin B enzymes in carp.
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July/August 2014
57
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Value-Added Shrimp Imports Rise In Weak Market
Note: The U.S. Commerce Department announced an
increase in the preliminary shrimp duty rates for Vietnam, India
and Thailand. These duty rates were most onerous for imports
YTD Imports Up For Most Salmon Forms
Paul Brown, Jr.
Whole Fish
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
P. O. Box 389
Toms River, New Jersey 08752 USA
pbrownjr@urnerbarry.com
Janice Schreiber
Angel Rubio
Urner Barry Publications, Inc.
Rising imports of shrimp have been led by product from
Vietnam and Indonesia.
easy-peel, were down 3.9% in April, but YTD imports remained
higher at 11.1%. Peeled shrimp imports were up 17.5% in April,
pushing YTD imports up about 10.0%. Cooked imports were up
sharply, with Vietnam the leading supplier. Breaded shrimp
imports were also sharply higher.
Shrimp Market
Summary:
Year-to-date shrimp imports were up 13.4% in April,
with product from most major producing countries
higher. Imports of peeled, cooked and breaded shrimp
were up sharply. After higher pricing trickled down to
consumers, prices are moving lower amid increased supply. April YTD figures for whole salmon continued a
decrease, while fresh fillet imports continued a YTD
increase. Import volumes of fillets from Norway were
much higher. April tilapia imports reflected seasonal
changes: whole fish and fresh fillets trending lower and
frozen fillets up slightly. Colombia has displaced Ecuador as the third-largest supplier of fresh fillets. Following a seasonal slowdown, the market for channel catfish
firmed in May. Pangasius imports fell to their lowest
monthly level since March 2008 following heavy imports
in February and March.
According to April figures, imports of shrimp to the United
States were up 11.5%, compared to those of a year ago, led by
product from Vietnam and Indonesia (Table 1). Imports from
India and Ecuador were both down slightly for the month.
Thailand’s exports of shrimp to the U.S. continued to run
sharply lower. Year-to-date (YTD) import numbers were up
13.4%, with all major shrimp-exporting countries sharply higher,
with the exception of Thailand.
Imports of headless, shell-on shrimp (HLSO), including
from Vietnam, but also significant for India. Should Commerce
uphold these rates, they would become effective sometime in the
summer and could have an effect on the market.
The shrimp market has been generally correcting lower based
on renewed production and supplies meeting what was a lackluster demand for high-priced shrimp throughout the severe U.S.
winter. Global shrimp production and resulting U.S. imports,
particularly from Asia, have only just begun. Despite continuing
fears regarding early mortality syndrome issues, the production
situation appears to be improving. The market for all but very
large shrimp began a decline in February that accelerated in
April and continued.
The sluggish demand and high-priced inventories initially limited buying interest by U.S. importers to only immediate needs.
Essentially, importers were buying hand to mouth – much like
their customer bases. This situation was accelerated by declining
markets overseas, which increased the level of caution among buyers. June imports typically begin a rise that peaks in October.
Urner Barry’s index for HLSO farm-raised shrimp showed a
four-year price average for 2009 through 2012 of U.S. $3.73.
The average for 2013 and year-to-date 2014 was $5.47, an
increase of $1.74 or 47%.
Consumers, initially insulated from the higher prices by
retailers and restaurants, are likely unimpressed with the recent
high prices of shrimp, which have finally trickled down and
probably cut their consumption. Prices that have been strong at
the producer/processor, importer and wholesale levels for the last
year are now moving lower amid the increased supply and anticipated production in order to buy back demand.
The current U.S. market is barely steady to weak in most categories, as replacement offerings overseas continue to suggest
lower spot market pricing.
Table 1. Snapshot of U.S. shrimp imports, April 2014.
Form
April 2014
(1,000 lb)
March 2014
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Month)
April 2013
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(1,000 lb)
YTD 2013
(1,000 lb)
Change
(Year)
Shell-on
Peeled
Cooked
Breaded
Total
28,905
34,979
12,598
6,544
83,026
35,609
40,783
9,958
5,321
91,671
-18.8%
-14.2%
26.5%
23.0%
-9.4%
30,091
29,765
9,165
5,480
74,501
-3.9%
17.5%
37.5%
19.4%
11.4%
133,845
149,670
44,080
29,759
357,354
120,491
136,044
37,361
23,025
316,921
11.1%
10.0%
18.0%
29.2%
12.8%
Although YTD imports of whole salmon from Canada
continued to decline in April, imports from Norway
and the United Kingdom were up over 65%.
April YTD imports of salmon to the United States continued the year with a 4.17% increase when compared to imports
from the same time last year (Table 3). Fresh whole fish imports
decreased YTD, while fresh fillet volumes were up from 2013
YTD levels. Total salmon imports were down over 6.00% in volume from March to April.
April YTD figures for whole salmon continued the year with
a decrease. March imports were 23.4% below April 2013 YTD
figures. In contrast, a monthly comparison revealed an increase
between March and April of 3.0%.
Looking at April 2013 versus April 2014 imports, fresh
whole fish saw a decrease of 11.7%. Canadian imports, down
47.8%, continued to see the largest drop. Europe had large
increases, with imports from Norway and the United Kingdom
up 68.6% and 66.9%, respectively.
The Northeast whole fish market during the second half of
May and beginning of June was barely steady to weak. Supplies
ranged adequate to fully adequate for a quiet to dull demand.
Additional downward pricing pressure was reported due to the
amount of both Chilean and European fish readily available in
the Northeast market. All sizes still remained well above their
three-year price averages, but were trending closer to them.
The European whole fish market weakened during May and
trended lower during June, as well. The market continued to be
weak, with an unsettled undertone on all sizes. The European
whole fish market has seen pricing below the three-year averages.
The West Coast whole fish market saw most of May and the
first two weeks in June barely steady to weak on all sizes. Since
the beginning of May, 10- to 12-lb West Coast whole fish
trended lower by U.S. $0.55.
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Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
58
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
59
A combination of lackluster demand and downward pricing
pressure from European whole fish, Chilean whole fish and fillets created a weaker market in the West. Supplies were fully
adequate to ample for a lackluster demand. All sizes were trending toward and just below the three-year averages.
Fillets
Imports of fresh fillets continue 2014 with increases. YTD
figures revealed an increase of 15.7% in April. Monthly overall
fillet imports were down, however, with a total for April of 21.9
million lb – 15.8% lower than in March 2014. When comparing
April 2014 to April 2013, fillet imports saw a 16.0% increase.
The U.S. imported 16.7 million lb from Chile during April,
reaching a level 9.0% higher YTD. Imports from Norway, at 2.1
million lb during April, were 218.8% higher YTD.
The market for Chilean fillets weakened during the second
half of May and first part of June. Supplies were fully adequate
to ample for a dull demand. For example, 2- to 3-lb D-trim fillets have trended U.S. $0.65 lower since the middle of May. All
sizes were slightly below their three-year price averages. The
European fillet market was unchanged.
Table 2. Snapshot of U.S. salmon imports, April 2014.
Form
April
2014 (lb)
March
2014 (lb)
Change
(Month)
April
2013 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(lb)
YTD 2013
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh whole fish
Frozen whole fish
Fresh fillets
Frozen fillets
Total
14,350,308
662,191
21,905,795
9,742,701
46,660,995
13,931,064
668,955
26,006,452
9,175,428
49,781,899
3.01%
-1.01%
-15.77%
6.18%
-6.27%
16,250,546
414,117
18,886,627
4,551,863
40,103,153
-11.69%
59.90%
15.99%
114.04%
16.35%
54,074,067
2,913,659
90,230,934
36,426,325
183,644,985
70,546,909
1,716,031
78,088,840
25,938,884
176,290,664
-23.35%
69.79%
15.55%
40.43%
4.17%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
U.S. Tilapia Imports Reflect Typical Seasonal Shifts
Fresh Fillets
Catfish Market Firms As Pangasius Imports Hit Low
Channel Catfish
U.S. import levels for channel catfish recorded in April
declined from March and when compared to the same month
last year (Table 4). This pattern was observed in previous years
with the exception of last year, when imports showed a non-seasonal pattern throughout the first five months of the year.
On a year-to-date (YTD) basis, imports during the first four
months of 2014 year were 68% greater when compared to the
same period last year. The market firmed in May due to limited
supplies. At the moment, the market holds a firm undertone.
Pangasius
April imports of Pangasius declined steeply from the previous
month and when compared to the same month a year ago. Also,
imports fell to their lowest monthly level since March 2008. The
main reason behind this was the high level of imports during
February and March, when historical behavior suggested a drop,
but imports surged, largely due to uncertainty surrounding the
administrative review announcement that month. Despite the
Table 4. Snapshot of U.S. catfish imports, April 2014.
Form
As seasonally expected, April imports of fresh fillets
decreased from the previous month. However, when compared
to the same month a year ago, imports also adjusted lower, with
YTD figures showing a 3% decrease since April 2013. Also,
Colombia has displaced Ecuador as the third-largest supplier of
fresh fillets. Shipments from Colombia have remained flat compared to last year’s levels, while shipments from Ecuador continue to decline.
The market has remained generally steady to about steady.
This is seasonally normal, as consumption during the summer
usually softens.
large drop in imports in April, figures showed a 24% increase
year over year.
The next step for importers and packers overseas will be to
prepare for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) catfish
inspection program that is slated to be implemented over the
next couple of years. Despite industry efforts to repeal the duplicative and costly program, the inspection program was passed in
the 2014 Farm Bill in early February. However, the Food and
Drug Administration and USDA are working on a plan to transfer regulatory oversight of siluriformes fish and fish products
from FDA to the Food Safety and Inspection Service, and
updates will be available as they progress.
The Pangasius market holds a steady undertone after firming
up slightly in late April and early June, mostly due to rising
replacement costs. Inventories were reportedly adequate.
Pangasius
Channel catfish
Total
April
2014 (lb)
March
2014 (lb)
Change
(Month)
April
2013 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(lb)
YTD 2013
(lb)
Change
(Year)
9,676,296
808,619
10,484,915
22,116,067
1,001,713
23,117,780
-56.2%
-19.3%
-54.6%
16,115,469
1,165,404
17,280,873
-40.0%
-30.6%
-39.3%
74,657,119
6,797,038
81,454,157
60,184,659
4,034,162
64,218,821
24.0%
68.5%
26.8%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
global aquaculture
Frozen Fillets
April imports of frozen tilapia fillets increased slightly when
compared to the same month a year ago.
Frozen Whole Fish
Although imports of frozen whole tilapia to the United
States historically and seasonally decrease in March, imports
during March and April 2014 reached the lowest monthly level
since March 2000, when imports recorded 3.6 million lbs (Table
3). Imports levels over the next few months will provide a clearer
picture of a potential trend.
April imports of frozen tilapia fillets increased slightly from
the previous month and when compared to the same month a
year ago. This is seasonally normal, as most distribution lines are
filled after Lent.
Historically, March and April see the lowest level of imports
on a monthly basis. This year, the future is uncertain, given that
the market currently holds a mixed undertone. Many importers
have reported high replacement costs, but this is seasonally normal, as well. On the other hand, some traders have reported
plentiful inventories in the U.S.
Either way, it is more than clear that carryover inventories
from late 2013 until now carry high holding costs. Bids and
offers from the upcoming harvests in China will provide a clearer
picture of the position traders in the U.S. are likely to take.
sustaining member
Table 3. Snapshot of U.S. tilapia imports, April 2014.
Form
April
2014 (lb)
March
2014 (lb)
Change
(Month)
April
2013 (lb)
Change
(Year)
YTD 2014
(lb)
YTD 2013
(lb)
Change
(Year)
Fresh fillets
Frozen whole fish
Frozen fillets
Total
5,017,434
3,959,686
14,765,859
23,742,979
5,685,714
3,899,377
13,582,477
23,167,568
-11.8%
1.5%
8.7%
-2.0%
5,226,716
6,241,167
12,818,196
24,286,079
-4.0%
-36.6%
15.2%
-25.0%
20,553,307
23,687,868
106,804,795
151,045,970
21,184,694
26,354,607
92,849,475
140,388,776
-3.0%
-10.1%
15.0%
2.0%
Sources: Urner Barry foreign trade data, U.S. Department of Commerce.
60
July/August 2014
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July/August 2014
61
innovation
so acute disease losses are less likely to
occur. Chemotherapeutics are most successful when environmental stressors are
minimized and good health management
practices are followed.
Chemical Treatments
Individual raceway cells in an IPRS system can be equipped with a tarp to contain chemical treatments. Fish are monitored for signs
of stress until the treatment ends. At the end of the treatment, the tarp is removed and water flow moves the chemical out into the pond,
where it quickly becomes diluted.
Chemical Treatment Costs Reduced
With In-Pond Raceway Systems
Summary:
Production approaches such as
in-pond raceway systems (IPRS)
are providing an alternative to
traditional catfish culture in the
southeastern United States. By
dividing ponds into smaller, more
controllable areas, IPRS can
substantially reduce chemical
treatment costs, improve treatment delivery and allow new
treatments that are cost-prohibitive in traditional pond settings.
Farmers have also noted increased
feeding efficiency, and it is much
easier to verify the response of fish
to antibiotic feed and monitor
mortalities.
Production approaches such as inpond raceway systems (IPRS) and split
ponds are providing an alternative to traditional pond culture for raising catfish in
the southeastern United States. Currently,
approximately 600 ha of commercial split
ponds are in production in Mississippi,
Arkansas and Alabama, and the area continues to increase each year. In addition, a
small number of farmers in Alabama have
been successfully implementing IPRS on
their commercial catfish operations.
A significant advantage noted by farm-
62
July/August 2014
Lisa B. Bott
School of Fisheries, Aquaculture
and Aquatic Sciences
Auburn University
203 Swingle Hall
Auburn, Alabama 36849 USA
lbb0006@auburn.edu
Travis W. Brown, Ph.D.
National Warmwater
Aquaculture Center
United States Department
of Agriculture
Agricultural Research Service
Stoneville, Mississippi, USA
Luke A. Roy, Ph.D.
Aquaculture/Fisheries Center
University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff
Pine Bluff, Arkansas, USA
Terrill R. Hanson, Ph.D.
School of Fisheries, Aquaculture
and Aquatic Sciences
Auburn University
ers utilizing these systems is the reduced
costs associated with the chemical treatment of diseases, which are notably lower
than for traditional earthen ponds.
Diseases In IPRS
The Alabama Fish Farming Center in
Greensboro, Alabama, and Auburn Uni-
global aquaculture advocate
versity have been tracking the incidence
of disease in IPRS since 2008. The most
common diseases observed include
columnaris, enteric septicemia of catfish
and problems caused by Aeromonas
hydrophila bacteria. There have also been
cases involving parasites such as trichodina, henneguya, ich and others.
Fish kills caused by disease outbreaks
have varied in scope, ranging from a few
dead fish to thousands, depending on the
disease and severity of infection. While
disease outbreaks are never desired, one
advantage that IPRS have over traditional
pond culture is they are much cheaper to
treat with chemicals.
The application of chemical treatments
in IPRS is based on temperature, water
quality and parasite/bacteria findings from
fish. Since chemical treatment cost is not a
limiting factor in IPRS, as it is in traditional ponds, a more proactive approach to
keeping fish healthy can be applied. In
addition to formalin and hydrogen peroxide (approved for food fish treatment),
potassium permanganate and copper sulfate have been used to treat pond water.
All chemicals should first be diluted with
water before application to avoid “hot
spots” that could stress the fish.
In order to treat an individual raceway
cell in an IPRS, a barrier is needed to
keep the chemical treatment in the cell
for the allotted amount of time. At Dean
Wilson Farms in Browns, Alabama,
USA, a plastic tarp approximately the
width of the raceway cell is attached to a
6-m-long PVC pipe of 5-cm diameter.
The pipe rests on top of the cell wall, and
a piece of reinforcing bar is used to
reduce the buoyancy of the bottom side
of the tarp. This allows the tarp to stretch
across the entire open channel area.
Treatments are only administered during the day, when photosynthesis is greater
than respiration. Water flow to the raceway
cell is shut off, aeration is applied with a
diffuser grid and regenerative blower, the
chemical treatment is added to the cell, and
fish are monitored continuously.
Measurements of dissolved-oxygen
concentrations in the cells being treated
are highly recommended. After the treatment, the tarp is removed, water flow is
restarted, and aeration is reactivated in a
very simple and inexpensive, yet efficient
way to treat for diseases.
Proactive Health
Management
The best example of a proactive
health management approach in the
IPRS is the periodic treatment of the
water in the flow-through raceways with
potassium permanganate to help reduce
organic loads. There is evidence that
repeated exposure of the aquaculture system to the compound enhances fish survival and feed conversion, especially
under intensive farming conditions.
A minimum of five days between
treatments is recommended. In intensive
systems such as IPRS, a 5-ppm application rate is recommended for 30 minutes
to an hour. In traditional ponds, applications of 2 to 4 ppm based on the organic
load are recommended. A treatment rate
of 3 to 4 ppm is demonstrated in Table 1
for a traditional pond system compared to
an IPRS cell. This type of treatment also
serves as a preventive and/or control measure against waterborne protozoa such as
Ichthyobodo, monogenetic trematodes,
and bacterial infections.
Research has shown that high concentrations of potassium permanganate
can be added to ponds with heavy plankton blooms without danger to fish. A
simple bioassay can be performed to
determine the correct concentration of
potassium permanganate required,
although most culturists make repeated
applications until a pink hue persists in
the pond water.
Culturists are seldom concerned with
high application rates of chemicals and
associated mortality of plankton dissolvedoxygen depletion in the IPRS since the
treated water volume is usually less than
5% of the total pond water volume (Figure
1). Some farmers have used average Secchi
disk visibility measurements to estimate
the abundance of plankton or organic
matter concentration, which has aided in
Raceways
Raceways
Water Flow
Figure 1. Diagram
of IPRS at Dean
Wilson Farms in
Browns, Alabama,
USA. Arrows indicate water flow.
Adapted from
Travis Brown,
2010.
Central Baffle
Standpipe
Levee Road
Disease Prevention, Control
A management approach that focuses
on disease prevention and control is the
key to a successful farming operation.
Site selection, water source and fish supplies should be carefully considered. All
fish stocked should be free of obligate
pathogens. Nets, boots, buckets and other
commonly used equipment should be
sanitized on a regular basis, especially if
they are used at another location.
Although a disease prevention program is important in controlling fish disease, it’s not a guarantee. Such programs
are, however, worth the effort from an
economical and production standpoint.
Control methods reduce pathogen levels
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
63
Table 1. Cost comparison of one chemical treatment for raceway cells versus a traditional pond.
Traditional Pond
(2.3 ha, 1.67 m depth)
Raceway Cells (43.6 m3)
Chemical
Cost
(U.S. $)
Quantity/
Treatment
Concentration
Formalin
$1.92/L
Potassium
permanganate
$7.60/kg
Chemical
Total Cost
1 Cell
Total Cost
5 Cells
6.54 L
(150 ppm)
$12.56
$62.78
0.22 kg
(5 ppm)
$1.67
$8.36
Quantity/
Treatment
Concentration
Total Cost
1 ha
Total Cost
2.3 ha
333.6 L
(20 ppm)
$640.51
$1,473.18
49.8 kg
(3 ppm)
$378.48
$870.50
66.5 kg
(4 ppm)
$505.40
$1,162.42
Table 2. Preventative measure schedule for treatment
of water with potassium permanganate in an in-pond
raceway system producing catfish in Alabama, USA.
Water Temperature
(° C)
Average Secchi
Disk Visibility (cm)
Concentration
(mg/L)
Time
(minutes)
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
30.2
22.8
24.5
19.0
22.5
25.1
25.6
25.5
20.9
16.3
2
4
3
5
5
5
4
4
5
6
45
45
30
30
30
30
30
20
15
15
making decisions regarding treatment
concentrations (Table 2).
Formalin As Parasiticide
Formalin, a parasiticide approved for
use with catfish, is another proactive treat-
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July/August 2014
ment in IPRS. The recommended application rate in raceways is 150 ppm for 30
minutes. An indefinite treatment rate of 15
to 25 ppm is recommended for ponds.
During periods of high water temperatures,
critical oxygen depletions can occur days
after treatment. Therefore, both IPRS and
ponds should have sufficient aeration to
support the biomass of the systems.
The total cost for a formalin treatment
at 150 ppm in a five-cell raceway for a 2.3ha pond is U.S. $62.78. In contrast, treating a 2.3-ha pond of 1.67-m average
depth at 20 ppm with formalin would cost
$1,473.00 or $641.00/ha. Similarly, the
cost of treatment with potassium permanganate is much lower in an IPRS compared to a traditional earthen pond.
The total cost for the five-cell raceway
system using potassium permanganate at
5 ppm would be $8.36/treatment, while
for a 2.3-ha pond, similar treatment at 3
and 4 ppm would cost $871.00 to
$1,162.00, respectively (Table 1). The
cost of chemical treatment in an IPRS
system is also lower than treating a split
pond production system, since split ponds
have a larger fish culture area, approximately 20% of the total pond area.
It is also worth noting that since raceways can be flushed at the end of treatment, it is possible to use a much higher
treatment concentration than in tradi-
global aquaculture advocate
tional earthen ponds, as presented in the
formalin treatment example. Presently
formalin is not routinely used in pond
settings, as it is cost prohibitive, so the
IPRS approach opens up more affordable
chemical treatments.
Tracking Treatment
In addition to the lower cost of treating
the water in IPRS compared to traditional
ponds, it is easier to monitor and track
mortalities in an IPRS. Inventory control is
a vital component of modern livestock production that is missing in some commercial
pond aquaculture systems.
Farmers have also noted that due to the
increased feeding efficiency and smaller culture area in these systems, it is much easier
to verify the delivery and response of fish to
antibiotic feed in an IPRS. There are also
considerably less time and labor – and
hence lower costs – involved to treat raceways versus whole ponds.
Perspectives
The IPRS in Browns, Alabama, has
demonstrated production capabilities of
16,200 kg/ha of hybrid catfish in the most
recent production cycle. While intensively
aerated traditional ponds have achieved
similar production, traditional ponds without the benefit of increased aeration more
typically produce 5,000-6,000 kg/ha.
In-pond raceway systems provide an
alternative production method that can
substantially reduce chemical treatment
costs, improve treatment delivery efficiency and allow new treatments that are
cost-prohibitive in traditional pond settings. Several generations of IPRS technology have now been tried on commercial farms, where the sizable reductions in
operating costs can help offset inputs
whose costs have increased, such as feed
and electricity. As designs continue to
improve and additional capital and operating cost reductions are realized, the
future for IPRS systems is promising.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
65
innovation
Ammonia Addition Enhances Microbial Flocs
In Nursery Phase For Pacific White Shrimp
Carlos Gaona, Ph.D. Student
Dariano Krummenauer, Ph.D.
André Freitas
Márcio Miranda, M.S.
Luis Poersch, Ph.D.
Wilson Wasielesky, Jr., Ph.D.
Laboratório de Carcinocultura
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande
Rio Grande 96201-900 Brazil
capgaona@gmail.com
advantages to get better performance from cultured marine
shrimp. One of these advantages is improved water quality
achieved by recycling nutrients derived from nitrogen, such as
ammonia and nitrite. By keeping concentrations of the nitrogenous compounds below toxic levels, the different phases of
shrimp farming have better results.
In this sense, the nursery phase may be used for biofloc systems prior to animal stocking for growout. Size uniformity in
animals and reducing the risk of diseases are the main advantages of nurseries. As a short-term phase, it can be used to start
the biofloc formation and water reuse in the growout phase.
In biofloc systems for marine shrimp culture, the main source
of nitrogen is the feed offered. Cultured organisms metabolize
the feed and excrete nitrogen as ammonia. Another source of
ammonia in the water is the decomposition of feed not consumed by bacteria. The control of ammonia levels is separated
into three processes: absorption by microalgae, bacterial assimilation and nitrification.
Experiments were conducted at the Marine Aquaculture
Station of the Federal University of Rio Grande to assess
the microbial aggregation rate in a biofloc system for Pacific
white shrimp.
Summary:
In a study, “pre-fertilization” in the nursery phase of
a biofloc system for shrimp was tested. The objective
was to accelerate the biofloc formation to minimize
ammonia concentrations, avoiding high peaks during
culture. This also encouraged the establishment of bacterial communities involved in the nitrifying process.
The highest suspended solids concentrations occurred
immediately after the pre-fertilization, demonstrating
the more rapid formation of microbial aggregates with
utilization of ammonium chloride.
Settleable Solids (mL/L)
In aquaculture, successful production depends on favorable
conditions – both physical and chemical – for the growth of the
target species. Water quality maintenance plays an important
role in providing a suitable environment for cultured animals,
especially in increasingly intensive technical culture systems.
Systems that use biofloc technology combine a number of
66
4
Control
1.5/7
3.0/7
Ammonia, Bacteria In Biofloc Systems
The maintenance of heterotrophic and nitrifying (autotrophic) bacteria in biofloc systems depends on the dissolved
ammonia in the pond water. At the beginning of the cycle, the
heterotrophic bacteria are stimulated by the addition of organic
carbon, then consume and metabolize ammonia, incorporating it
1.5/3
3.0/3
3
Figure 1. Settleable solids values during
the pre-test at different concentrations
and frequencies of ammonium chloride
application.
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
July/August 2014
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
Day
12
13
global aquaculture advocate
14 15 16
17
18 19
20 21
Where ammonia was added, higher amounts of settleable
solids were observed.
in microbial biomass. Subsequently, the nitrifying bacteria oxidize ammonia to nitrite and to nitrate through autotrophic aerobic bacteria groups known as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
The Nitrosomonas group is responsible for ammonia oxidation to
nitrite, whereas Nitrobacter oxidizes nitrite to nitrate. However, in
using ammonia, autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria mainly
depend on the nutrient from cultured organisms’ excretions.
In traditional systems, the ammonia concentration tends to
increase over the production cycle due to the increasing biomass
of shrimp cultured, a greater supply of inert food and organic
matter accumulation. Even following established recommendations for feeding, traditional semi-intensive and intensive production systems must often perform partial exchange of water so
that ammonia concentrations do not affect the animals’ growth
or reach lethal levels.
Minimizing Ammonia Accumulation
One of the ways to minimize ammonia accumulation in biofloc systems is to accelerate the nitrifying process before the
entry of ammonia to the system. This addition can be made
before or after shrimp stocking in order to establish the ammonium-oxidizing bacteria.
In order to provide nutrients for the biofloc formation, the
frequency of the additions is important because the initial phase
involves dominant heterotrophic bacteria. These bacteria have a
high capacity to capture the ammonia and convert it into microorganism protein. This limits the availability of nutrients for
autotrophic bacteria, which already have slow growth. As a
result, nitrite, the intermediate product of nitrification, can reach
undesirable levels.
Strategies for adding ammonia in different concentrations
and intervals vary depending on the responses of biofloc formation due to the stimulation of microbial growth by nutrient supply. These variations occur because the addition can be made
before the beginning of culture or after the stocking of animals.
It is noteworthy that the presence of shrimp affects ammonia
concentration due to animal excretion and decomposition of
organic matter. The ammonia levels in the culture system should
therefore be considered in calculations for the addition of compounds that contain ammonia.
Ammonia Study
At the Marine Aquaculture Station of the Federal University
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July/August 2014
67
Total Suspended Solids (mg/L)
500
Table 1. Average nitrogen compound
concentrations in a study with pre-fertilization
by the addition of ammonium chloride
to a nursery-phase biofloc system.
Pre-fertilization
400
Parameter
300
Ammonia (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Nitrate (mg/L)
200
Control
100
0.5mg/L
3.0mg/L
0
Pre1234
Week
Figure 2. Total suspended solids values in a study with pre-fertilization by the addition of ammonium chloride to a nursery-phase
biofloc system.
of Rio Grande in southern Brazil, experiments were conducted
to assess the microbial aggregation rate in a biofloc system for
Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei. Financial support
for the work was provided by the National Council for Scientific
and Technological Development, the Ministry of Fishery and
Aquaculture and Coordination for the Improvement of Higher
Level Personnel.
The pre-test analyzed different concentrations of ammonium
chloride in the growout phase, with concentrations of 1.5 and
3.0 mg/L at two frequencies of application (three and seven
days), compared to treatment without the ammonia addition.
Figure 1 shows that where ammonia was added, higher
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July/August 2014
Control
0.5 mg
Ammonium
3.0 mg
Ammonium
3.54 ± 2.93
3.54 ± 1.53
4.19 ± 0.82
4.20 ± 2.74
4.36 ± 1.67
4.06 ± 0.82
4.49 ± 2.93
5.42 ± 1.81
4.25 ± 0.85
amounts of settleable solids were observed compared to the
treatment without the use of the nutrient. It was also found that
the most frequent applications had higher amounts of biofloc
settled at the end of the test. The observation that supplying
nutrients (ammonia) frequently stimulated biofloc formation
during culture verified the likelihood of accelerating this formation by starting the process prior to stocking animals.
In a study, “pre-fertilization” was tested in the nursery phase.
The objective was to accelerate the biofloc formation to minimize ammonia concentrations, avoiding high peaks during culture. This also encouraged the establishment of bacterial communities involved in the nitrifying process.
The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse with nine,
35-m² tanks, comprising three treatments with three replicates.
Over a week, ammonium chloride was added at concentrations
of 0.5 and 3.0 mg/L, composing two treatments. Sugar cane
molasses was used as a carbon source to reach a carbon:nitrogen
ratio of 6:1.
A control treatment without the addition of ammonia was
used to compare the biofloc formation rate. The ammonia concentration was measured in the water culture water as the total
ammonia nitrogen (TAN). Shrimp with an average weight of
0.03 g were stocked at a density of 3,000/m2.
Results
The nitrogen compound concentrations did not differ significantly among treatments (Table 1). Note that even without the
addition of ammonium chloride, the average TAN concentration
in the control treatment was similar to the TAN values where
there was nutrient addition, demonstrating the feasibility of prefertilization without compromising the ammonia balance in culture.
The highest total suspended solids concentrations occurred
immediately after the pre-fertilization in the test treatments
(Figure 2). This demonstrated the more rapid formation of
microbial aggregates with utilization of ammonium chloride.
In a general way, the fertilization can be defined according to
the time of culture – before stocking and making use of pre-fertilization, as well as the addition of ammonia after the animals
are stocked.
The acceleration of biofloc formation in the nursery phase
enables water reuse for growout, optimizing the maintenance of
water quality. The use of ammonia for fertilizing biofloc systems
is feasible and promotes the emergence of bacteria to form biofloc without compromising water quality.
The need for nutritious
food has never been greater.
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69
Dietary Sodium Butyrate Improves
Performance Of Pacific White Shrimp
Bruno Corrêa da Silva
Empresa de Pesquisa Agropecuária e
Extensão Rural de Santa Catarina
Centro de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento
em Aquicultura e Pesca
Antônio Heil Street, Km 6
Itajaí, Santa Catarina, Brazil
brunosilva@epagri.sc.gov
Felipe do Nascimento Vieira
José Luiz Mouriño
Walter Quadros Seiffert
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
Departamento de Aquicultura
Laboratório de Camarões Marinhos
Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
Testing was performed in biofloc tanks as well as clearwater systems.
Summary:
With the use of antibiotics
increasingly limited, aquaculture
has sought new feed additives to
improve the nutrition and health
of aquatic animals. Sodium butyrate has potential as an additive
for marine shrimp diets, improving both the balance of intestinal
bacterial flora and performance
of the shrimp. In research using
both clearwater and biofloc
systems, shrimp that received
diets supplemented with sodium
butyrate had higher survival and
productivity. Sodium butyrate
also had an antimicrobial effect
against three Vibrio strains.
The emergence of bacterial diseases
such as early mortality syndrome, caused
by a strain of Vibrio parahaemolyticus, has
caused negative impacts on the production of marine shrimp. With the use of
antibiotics in animal production prohibited in many countries due to environmental problems and the selection of
resistant bacteria, the industry has sought
70
July/August 2014
new feed additives to improve the nutrition and health of aquatic animals.
The use of organic acids and their
salts in animal production has gained
attention in recent years. These additives
may promote benefits to cultured animals
that include inhibiting pathogenic bacteria in the gastrointestinal system, development of highly available energy,
increased absorption of macro- and
micronutrients in diets and, therefore,
greater productivity.
Among the organic acids, sodium
butyrate deserves special attention. In
swine and poultry production, studies
have shown benefits from dietary supplementation with butyrate, such as
increased weight gain, feed efficiency and
immunological parameters, along with
benefits for intestinal mucus. However,
despite its current commercial use in
aquaculture, studies of sodium butyrate’s
effects in marine shrimp diets have been
limited.
Shrimp Performance
In Clearwater
With the financial support of the
Brazilian Ministry of Fisheries and
Aquaculture and the Financier of Studies
and Projects, the authors conducted studies at the Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina in Brazil to evaluate the potential use of sodium butyrate as a feed addi-
Table 1. Growth performance of L. vannamei
cultured in clearwater with dietary supplementation
of sodium butyrate at different concentrations.
Treatment
Control
Butyrate 0.5%
Butyrate 1.0%
Butyrate 2.0%
Final Weight (g) Survival (%) Feed Efficiency
9.3 ± 0.9
10.6 ± 0.2b
10.3 ± 0.1b
10.8 ± 0.5b
a
88.7 ± 0.6
92.3 ± 1.5ab
89.3 ± 0.6ab
93.0 ± 1.4b
a
Yield (kg/ha)
0.53 ± 0.03
0.59 ± 0.01ab
0.55 ± 0.01ab
0.61 ± 0.01b
992 ± 89
1,176 ± 5b
1,100 ± 0b
1,237 ± 23b
a
a
Table 2. Growth performance of L. vannamei
cultured in biofloc systems with dietary
supplementation of 2% sodium butyrate.
Treatment
Control
Butyrate 2%
global aquaculture advocate
Final Weight (g) Survival (%) Feed Efficiency
13.3 ± 0.3
13.3 ± 0.5
76.5 ± 0.5
81.6 ± 2.8b
a
0.45 ± 0.05
0.46 ± 0.06
Bacteria Count (Log10 CFU/g)
Bacteria Count (Log10 CFU/g)
innovation
9
a
8
b
7
b
6
5
Control
Butyrate 0.5%
25,400 ± 1,500
27,110 ± 460b
a
Butyrate 1.0%
Butyrate 2.0%
9
a
8
b
7
6
Control
tive for Pacific white shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, in different culture systems.
Four diets were evaluated for a clearwater system: a control diet without supplementation and three diets containing
sodium butyrate at concentrations of 0.5,
1.0 or 2.0%. The treatments were evaluated
in triplicate, totaling 12 experimental units.
Each experimental unit was populated
with 150 shrimp with an average weight of
2.5 g, resulting in a density of 12 shrimp/
m². The experimental units consisted of
6,000-L fiberglass tanks with aeration and
heating systems that maintained 29.0 ±
0.4º C. The tanks also had a waterexchange system that supported daily
exchange up to 50% of the tank volume.
After 50 days of culture, shrimp fed
diets supplemented with sodium butyrate
presented final weights 9.9 and 16.1%
higher than those for the shrimp fed the
control diet. Shrimp that received the diet
supplemented with 2.0% sodium butyrate
also showed higher survival, feed efficiency
and productivity (Table 1).
Shrimp Performance
In Biofloc System
Yield (kg/ha)
b
Figure 1. Vibrio
species counts
in the intestines
of L. vannamei
cultured in
clearwater with
dietary supplementation of
sodium butyrate
at different concentrations.
Eight experimental units of 800-L
volume were stocked with 200 shrimp
with an average weight of 3.9 g, maintaining an initial density of 250 shrimp/
Figure 2. Vibrio
species counts
in the intestines
of L. vannamei
cultured in
biofloc systems
with dietary
supplementation
of 2% sodium
butyrate.
Butyrate 2.0%
m3. The units had 4 m² of bottom and
side surface and 2 m² of additional artificial substrate in order to increase the
well-being and comfort of the animals.
In addition, the units had aeration
and heating systems, and a water clarifier
to maintain the total solids concentration
between 400 and 600 mg/L. The treatments consisted of shrimp fed a diet supplemented with 2% sodium butyrate and
shrimp fed a control diet without supplementation.
After 42 days of cultivation, shrimp
given the diet supplemented with sodium
butyrate had higher survival and, consequently, higher productivity. However,
no difference in weight gain or feed efficiency was observed between the treatments (Table 2).
Effects Against Vibrio Species
The antimicrobial effects of sodium
butyrate against three strains of Vibrio
(Vibrio harveyi, V. alginolyticus and V.
anguillarum) were evaluated in vitro in
microplates at pH values of 6 and 7. The
sodium butyrate had an antimicrobial
effect against all three Vibrio strains. At
pH 6, the minimum inhibitory concentrations were between 7.5 and 15 mM,
whereas at pH 7, total inhibition was
observed between the concentrations of
30 and 120 mM.
In vivo bacterial counts of Vibrio species were performed in shrimp cultured in
clearwater and bioflocs (Figures 1 and 2).
In clearwater culture, dietary supplementation of sodium butyrate at 0.5 to 2.0%
showed reductions of 95.3 to 98.4% in
Vibrio counts in the shrimp’s intestines.
In the biofloc system, the shrimp fed
diets supplemented by 2% sodium butyrate had a decrease of 92.3%.
Perspectives
The authors believe that sodium butyrate has the potential to be used as a
feed additive for L. vannamei, improving
the balance of intestinal bacterial flora
and performance of marine shrimp grown
in different systems.
However, further assessments of the
effects of dietary supplementation with
butyrate, in physiological and morphostructural alterations in the digestive tracts of
marine shrimp, are needed to better understand the action mechanisms of this feed
additive. In addition, since the organic salts
are highly water-soluble, coated forms of
organic salts should be evaluated to improve
efficacy, as well as the use of lower concentrations in the diets.
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
71
innovation
Polychaeta belong to the phylum
Annelida, the annelids, and so far, about
10,000 individual species have been
described, with body sizes from 1 mm up
to almost 3 m. The majority of the polychaetes live in marine and brackish waters
72
July/August 2014
Particulate Nutrients In RAS
Commercial aquaculture is nowadays
applying more and more manufactured
aquafeeds. All aquaculture candidates
global aquaculture advocate
10
15:0
15:1
16:0
16:1
17:1
18:0 (n-9/n-12)
18:1 (n-9/n-21)
18:1 (n-7)
18:2 (n-6)
18:3 (n-6)
18:3 (n-3)
20:0
20:1 (n-9)
20:2 (n-6)
20:3 (n-6)
20:4 (n-6)
21:0
20:3 (n-3)
20:5 (n-3)
22:0
22:1 (n-9)
22:2 (n-6)
22:6 (n-3)
14:1
0
42 g for the first trial, and 355 ± 49 g and
607 ± 91 g for the second trial. The
growth of the macroalgae was always positive. They showed specific daily growth
rates in the range of 0.10 to 2.54%. The
maximum growth rate of the microalgae in
continuous culture was 2.5%/hour.
The polychaetes reproduced during
the initial weeks of the first trial, but due
to the low fish biomass, very low amounts
of particulate matter arrived at the polychaete reactor. Most of the polychaetes
starved to death or started to prey on each
other. During the second trial, fish biomass was sufficient to support a stock of
around 1,000 worms/m², which corresponded to about 1 kg polychaete biomass/m². After a growth period of 100 to
110 days during the second trial, the
polychaetes again started to reproduce.
Advantages Of Cultured
Polychaetes
Fatty Acid
Figure 1. Fatty acid composition of Nereis diversicolor fed exclusively with particulate
matter from RAS fish culture.
Leucine
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
Methionine
Cultured
Valine
Tyrosine
Alanine
Arginine
Wild
Glycine
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Histidine
Infaunal organisms such as polychaetes can shorten the degradation time
of the particulate matter by using the particles as their food source and thus gaining energy for their metabolism. Water
movement through the burrows of the
polychaetes ventilates sediment with oxygen-rich water and therefore allows more
bacteria to settle on the burrow walls and
degrade further particulate matter.
Table 1 presents the biochemical
composition of what is commonly called
solid waste from a recirculating aquaculture system. This matter, however, is not
really waste, but a potentially valuable
resource that contains significant
amounts of energy, as well as nutrients
such as carbon and nitrogen. To make
maximum use of the material, the quest is
to find the right organism to reduce/consume the waste and whose biochemical
20
Threonine
Possible Solution
Wild
30
Serine
Adaptable and diverse, polychaetes
can adapt their feeding behaviors
to environmental conditions,
switching from carnivorous or
herbivorous to detritivorous or
omnivorous feeding. Polychaetes
can reduce particulate matter in
culture water by consuming the
particles as food. Water movement through the burrows of the
polychaetes ventilates sediment
with oxygen-rich water, allowing more bacteria to settle and
further degrade particulate matter. Nereis diversicolor, a marine
polychaete that can tolerate wide
temperature and salinity ranges,
is a good candidate for RAS enhancement.
with very few exceptions. There are freeliving species as well as sediment dwellers, but sessile species are also described.
Most sediment-dwelling species inhabit
tubes on sandy mud, gravel or clay.
Polychaetes are able to adapt their
feeding behaviors to their environmental
conditions, switching among carnivorous,
herbivorous, planktivorous, bacterivorous,
detritivorous and omnivorous feeding.
Nereis diversicolor, a marine polychaete
belonging to the family Nereididae, can
tolerate a wide range of surrounding temperatures (4 to 25° C) as well as salinities,
from only a few units to more than double
the salinity prevalent in the oceans. Its
reproduction is monotelic, so it reproduces
only once in its lifetime, with death always
following reproduction.
During maturation, individuals change
from a reddish-brown color to bright
green in males and dark green in females.
Individuals that do not reproduce elongate
their somatic growth for a time.
93.15 ± 0.20
49.42 ± 0.58
9.99 ± 0.24
26.24 ± 0.33
1.95 ± 0.09
40
Glutamic Acid
Summary:
94.63 ± 1.31
64.57 ± 3.99
14.64 ± 0.50
36.72 ± 1.53
3.45 ± 0.36
Cultured
Aspartic Acid
The marine polychaete Nereis diversicolor can be integrated into recirculating
aquaculture systems to reduce particulate matter.
share a common trait in that they use only
a small fraction of the applied nutrients.
The major fraction is excreted either in
dissolved or particulate form. The fraction
of particulate matter depends on the type
of feed and feed management, as well as
culture species, but on average, 15 to 20%
of the applied feed nutrients transfer into
particulate matter in the culture water.
Several technical devices are used to
treat the problem of particulate matter,
such as drum filters or swirl separators.
Sedimentation tanks or ponds present
another uncomplicated, but unfortunately
less-efficient method. Due to the sinking
behavior of the particulate matter, a reasonable time is required to remove all solids from the water column. These particles cause a continuous oxygen demand
due to the time-consuming microbial
activity required for degradation.
Particulate Matter From
Gilthead Sea Bream
50
13:0
14:0
Aquaculture and Sea Ranching
Faculty of Agricultural
and Environmental Sciences
University of Rostock
Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 6
18059 Rostock, Germany
adrian.bischoff-lang@uni-rostock.de
Particulate Matter From
European Seabass
Water (%)
Organic material (%)
Energy (kJ/g)
Carbon (%)
Nitrogen (%)
Fatty Acid Content (%)
Dr. Adrian A. Bischoff
Content
Amino Acid Content
(µg/mg, dry weight)
Polychaete Worms Reduce Waste,
Provide Food In Aquaculture
Table 1. Biochemical composition of particulate
matter originating from the culture
of European seabass or gilthead sea bream.
Amino Acids
Figure 2. Amino acid composition of Nereis diversicolor fed exclusively with particulate
matter from RAS fish culture.
composition fits the nutritional requirements of the culture organism.
Integrated Removal
Of Particulates
To investigate the application of polychaetes in reducing waste as well as feeding fish, a closed, land-based recirculating
aquaculture system was created. It consisted of several individual compartments,
including separate units for the culture of
gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata; poly-
chaetes, Nereis diversicolor; and algae
(either the macroalgae Solieria chordalis or
the microalgae Nannochloropsis). A nitrifying biofilter provided back-up, in case
of an emergency. The system also utilized
water and air pumps, air diffusers and
two protein skimmers.
The growth of the fish and algae was
comparable to that achieved in conventional recirculating aquaculture systems
during two 160-day trials. The initial and
final fish weights were 66 ± 13 g and 295 ±
Due to their biochemical make-up,
especially the fatty acid (Figure 1) and
amino acid compositions (Figure 2), cultivated polychaetes could be a reasonable
resource for modern aquafeeds. All the
essential fatty acids and amino acids were
detected in usable concentrations.
Replacing fishmeal partially by polychaete meal or increasing the amino acid
composition of new feed formulas by
adding polychaete meals will be areas of
interest during the next years of polychaete research.
Another important topic for modern
aquaculture, which relies on stocking of
pathogen-free animals, is pathogen-free
diets, especially if live feeds are required.
Polychaetes can be used to induce a controlled spawning process within several
fish and crustacean species, and are able to
supply spawners with essential nutrients
such as fatty acids and amino acids. Culturing polychaetes such as N. diversicolor
for several generations within land-based
systems without uncontrolled connections
to the surrounding environment can provide pathogen-free culture due to the lack
of all host organisms for pathogens.
Polychaetes can be used
to induce a controlled
spawning process within
several fish and crustacean
species, and are able to
supply spawners with
essential nutrients.
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
73
innovation
Algae Shows Promise As Alternative
DHA Source In Rainbow Trout Diets
Dr. Kyla M. Zatti
Research Associate
University of Saskatchewan
51 Campus Drive
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
S7N5A8
kyla.zatti@usask.ca
Chuyuan Zhang
Doctorate Student
University of Saskatchewan
Cláudia Figueiredo-Silva
Dr. Andreas Lemme
Aqua Nutrition Research Managers
Evonik Industries A.G.
Hanau, Germany
The growth trial evaluated the use of DHA-rich algae biomass to increase the fatty
acid content of rainbow trout tissues.
Summary:
A growth trial in Canada evaluated the use of algae biomass
to increase the concentration of
long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids in the tissues of rainbow
trout. Results showed that a diet
containing algae had no negative
effects on the growth performance of the fish. Whole-body
contents of eicosapentaenoic acid
and docosahexaenoic acid were
higher in fish fed a fish oil-based
diet, but similar between fish fed
diets with a canola oil/fish oil
blend or canola oil and algae.
The rapid growth in the aquaculture
industry has put pressure on demands for
feed ingredients from marine origins,
particularly fish oil. Since the world’s
total production of fish oil is static, and
global demand for aquafeeds exceeds the
available supplies, alternatives to fish oil
need to be considered.
Due to the availability and lower cost
of oilseed crops, vegetable oils appear to
be a logical replacement for fish oil in
feed. However, while fish oil is an excellent source of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs),
74
July/August 2014
most vegetable oils are relatively poor
sources of these fatty acids and in particular are devoid of eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Studies have shown that replacement
of fish oil with vegetable oils in salmonid
diets significantly lowered the composition of EPA and DHA in fish tissues,
thereby compromising the nutritional and
beneficial health properties of consuming
the fish. Therefore, the replacement of
fish oil with vegetable oils while maintaining adequate levels of EPA and DHA
in fish products remains a significant
challenge for the industry.
Microalgae
A more promising fish oil replacement
is microalgae. Rich in omega-3 fatty acids,
microalgae are single-celled organisms
that range in size from a few micrometers
to a few hundred micrometers. They have
the ability to produce EPA and DHA and
are the primary source of these lipids in
marine environments.
Of the estimated 30,000 species of
microalgae, only a few hundred have been
investigated for their chemical compositions. Only a few are currently of commercial significance as nutritional supplements in human and animal nutrition
and for use in cosmetics and biofuel production. Currently, microalgae are used
global aquaculture advocate
Dr. Murray D. Drew
Professor and Associate
Academic Dean
University of Saskatchewan
in aquaculture as pigments and as an LCPUFA source in larval feeds for mollusks,
shrimp and abalone. More recently, the
omega-3 content of microalgae has been
of particular interest as a potential fish oil
replacement.
Trout Trial
In research by the authors conducted
at the Prairie Aquaculture Research Centre to evaluate the potential of algae biomass as an alternative DHA source in
aquafeed, triplicate groups of rainbow
trout with individual body weights of
about 70 g were set up in a randomized
84-day trial in which the fish were fed
one of four diets. The control diet (F.O.)
was based on fish oil as a source for key
fatty acids. In diet C.O., fish oil was
replaced with canola oil. Diet FO+CO
had equal amounts of fish oil and canola
oil, while diet CO+A contained a 70:30
blend of canola oil and an algae product
with 12.5% DHA.
The diets were formulated to contain
386.2 g/kg digestible crude protein and
17.58 MJ/kg digestible energy, and met
all other nutrient requirements of rainbow trout. Canola oil was added to balance the diet for digestible energy, and
the CO+A and the CO+FO diets were
formulated to contain the same level of
Table 1. Mean growth performance data
of rainbow trout fed different diets.
Diet
Parameter
Initial weight (g)
Final weight (g)
Average daily gain (g)
Feed intake (g/fish)
Specific growth rate (%/day)
Feed-conversion ratio
C.O.
F.O.
CO+FO
CO+A
Standard
Error
P
Value
68.5
216.9
1.8
198.5
1.4
1.4
70.6
230.0
1.9
201.1
1.4
1.3
66.7
209.7
1.7
181.6
1.4
1.2
70.5
220.6
1.8
204.6
1.4
1.4
2.837
10.529
0.132
5.340
0.078
0.085
0.73
0.61
0.78
0.60
0.97
0.62
Table 2. Body content and retention efficiency
of lipid and major omega-3s in trout after 84 days.
Diet
Parameter
Content (mg/g)
Total lipid
Alpha-linolenic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid
Docosahexaenoic acid
Retention (%)
Total lipid
Alpha-linolenic acid
Eicosapentaenoic acid
Docosahexaenoic acid
C.O.
F.O.
CO+FO
CO+A
Standard
Error
P
Value
150.90
1.39c
11.63a
16.44a
122.30
4.03b
2.09b
5.26b
117.00
4.09b
3.43b
7.50b
146.30
7.23a
1.92b
8.68b
6.12
0.66
1.22
1.25
0.11
< 0.01
< 0.01
< 0.01
77.70
48.40
55.30
111.50b
67.80
22.20
145.10
688.90a
68.80
42.70
21.10
66.50b
77.30
43.50
109.30
72.70b
3.82
4.34
19.41
101.16
0.76
0.12
0.09
0.02
Means in the same row with the same letter are not significantly different (P < 0.05).
DHA. The fish were fed twice daily to
visual satiety, and feed intake was measured weekly.
Before the experiment, six fish were
selected at random from the whole population to determine initial whole body fatty
acid content. The fish were randomly collected, killed, pooled and homogenized for
analysis. After the last day of feeding,
three fish from each tank were randomly
processed in the same manner.
Results
Partial or total replacement of fish oil
with canola oil or a blend of canola oil
and algae had no significant effect on
trout growth performance (Table 1). As
expected, the whole body fatty acid composition of fish generally reflected that of
the diets. Whole body lipid content and
lipid retention efficiency were not significantly affected by the feed treatments
(Table 2).
The sources of oil did not significantly impact the final lipid contents of
the fish (P = 0.11). Whole body EPA and
DHA contents were higher with fish oilbased feed than in the other dietary treatments, but similar between the CO+FO
and CO+A groups, suggesting that algae
can effectively supply omega-3 fatty
acids. Also interesting was the fact that
total or partial replacement of fish oil
with canola oil or the canola blends
enhanced alpha-linolenic acid content,
mainly due to the high level of the fatty
acid in these diets.
There was no significant difference in
total lipid retention among the dietary
treatments. Apparent retention of total
lipid ranged from 67.8 to 77.7%, suggesting that about 22 to 32% of the lipid was
used for energy. There was a trend (P =
0.09) toward higher retention of EPA in
the C.O. and CO+A fish compared to
the other two groups.
Furthermore, the retention of EPA in
fish in the C.O. and CO+A treatments
was over 100%, indicating a net synthesis
of this fatty acid. Fish that received the
diet with canola oil only had significantly
higher DHA retention than fish fed the
other three diets. As expected, EPA was
less efficiently retained than DHA in the
bodies of the rainbow trout.
Perspectives
The replacement of fish oil and particularly DHA in aquaculture diets is one
of the central problems threatening to
constrain the growth of aquaculture.
Although feeding diet with canola oil and
algae in this trial resulted in lower DHA
content and poorer DHA retention than
those in fish that received the fish oil
diet, algae has the potential to replace
fish oil in canola-oil-based diets. Fish fed
the CO+A feed had final DHA content
and apparent DHA retention similar to
fish that received the CO+FO diet, while
growth performance was not compromised.
Increasing the lipid digestibility of
algae could likely further enhance DHA
retention and DHA content in fish products. Extracting oil could be a possible
approach to achieve greater digestibility
from the algal product, but this would
increase the costs of using algae oil significantly. Since extrusion of fish feed can
increase the digestibility of nutrients, a
further recommendation would be to
determine the optimal extrusion parameters required to maximize the digestibility
of the algae/canola oil feed.
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
75
industry news
Future Leaders Partner With SIRF
Through New Wally Stevens Fund
The Seafood Industry Research
Fund (SIRF) has established a new
fund to honor GAA Acting Director
Wally Stevens as the founder of the
National Fisheries Institute’s Future
Leaders program.
SIRF board member Daniel
DiDonato donated U.S. $4,000 to
establish the Wally Stevens Future
Leaders’ Perpetual Fund at the May
SIRF board meeting. The fund will
Wally Stevens
be supported on an ongoing basis
conceived and
through donations from Future Leadcontinues to shape
ers alumni.
the Future Leaders
For 16 years, the Future Leaders
program.
program has served as a networking
and learning opportunity for up-andcoming seafood professionals. Each
year, a new Future Leaders class travels to important seafood cities, expanding business knowledge through expert lectures and
seafood facility tours.
“Wally has influenced the seafood industry in so many ways,
and the Future Leaders program is certainly one of those influences that bears his stamp,” Future Leaders alum DiDonato
said. “The program takes young professionals at a formative
point in their careers and introduces them to all facets of the seafood industry, a benefit designed by Wally and deserving of recognition.”
To contribute to the new fund, visit www.sirfonline.org/
funding.
Norm Grant (right)
was honored for his
efforts promoting
Vietnamese seafood
in Australia.
Norm Grant Receives
Vietnam Award
Norm Grant, chairman of the Seafood Importers Association
of Australia, was recently honored for his efforts working with
Vietnam’s government and industry, and engaging his members
in promotional activities in Australia and Vietnam.
While Australia is large, its fisheries resources are poor, and
its fish-farming industry is limited. It must look to other nations
for seafood. Vietnam is Australia’s third-biggest supplier, mainly
for fish such as Pangasius.
76
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
People, Products, Programs
Please send short news items and photos for consideration to:
Darryl E. Jory
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
E-mail: editorgaadvocate@aol.com
Fax: +1-314-293-5525
Grant has worked hard to make Vietnamese seafood more
familiar, so that Australians have the confidence to buy it. He is
also working to address the complexity of trade due to the many
regulations regarding food safety and animal health, as well as
the island nature of Australia.
Grant has established strong relationships with the Vietnamese Trade Commission in Australia, and in Vietnam with the
Trade and Industry, and Agriculture and Rural Development
Ministries, as well as the Vietnam Association of Seafood
Exporters and Processors.
“There are all sorts of things we need to develop together in
investment and knowledge transfer,” Grant said. “We are well
placed to do that, because Australia has world-class education
facilities and training, and there are already many Australian
companies investing in Vietnam.”
Zeigler Hires Craig Browdy
As Research Director
Zeigler Bros., Inc., a technologybased feed manufacturer with emphasis on nutritional innovation for all
stages of aquaculture, has hired Dr.
Craig Browdy as its director of
research and development. The experience that Browdy brings to this
position will further strengthen the
company’s product and technology
development programs.
Tim Zeigler, vice president of
sales
and marketing, explained: “SciCraig Browdy has
entific innovation has always been at
decades of experience in aquaculture.
the heart of our corporate culture, and
we see continuing investment in this
area as a key component of our future
growth strategies.”
A past president of the World Aquaculture Society, Browdy
has over 30 years experience in aquaculture, managing commercial, academic and government research programs. His work has
applied basic science and innovative technology development to
commercialize new products, advance production systems, and
improve fish and shrimp health and nutrition.
“I’m looking forward to working with the Zeigler team to
further the development of aquaculture and to make contributions to the application of effective products and technologies for
Zeigler customers worldwide,” Browdy said.
Zeigler reaches global markets through its franchising program and worldwide distribution network. For more information, please contact Zeigler at info@zeiglerfeed.com or +1-717677-6181.
Brown Appointed
NSF Seafood Director
Public health organization NSF International has appointed Greg Brown as its
global managing director of seafood
under its Global Food Division. Brown is
an accomplished international seafood
safety professional with a reputation for
creating effective and sustainable seafood
supply chain solutions.
Based in NSF’s Shanghai, China, office,
Brown will set seafood safety and quality
strategy and work with NSF’s global offices
and laboratories to provide product evaluations, laboratory testing, facility audits and
certification for seafood companies.
Brown has more than 18 years of
expertise in seafood procurement, quality
and safety. He helped develop Darden
Restaurants’ seafood quality inspection and
safety testing program in Asia, which was
the foundation for NSF’s Global Seafood
Program. As seafood director for U.S.
Foods, Brown initiated DNA testing for
species authenticity and partnered with
GAA for BAP certification of shrimp.
For additional information on NSF
International, contact seafood@nsf.org or
603-726-0150, or visit www.nsf.org.
MPEDA Pathology
Lab Accredited In India
Marine Products Export Development
Authority’s Central Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory at Rajiv Gandhi Centre for
Aquaculture has become the first aquaculture pathology laboratory in India accredited by the National Accreditation Board
for Testing and Calibration Laboratories.
The state-of-the-art lab was initially set
up as a research and development arm of
MPEDA in 2011 in Sirkali, Tamil Nadu.
The laboratory has been serving India’s
aquaculture industry by providing diagnosis
of diseases encountered during the culture
of finfish, shrimp and freshwater prawns.
Equipped with the latest disease diagnostic tools, the lab has units for molecular
pathology, histopathology and microbiology. It has been routinely screening for 16
crustacean pathogens and three finfish
pathogens and conducts need-based disease
surveillance for the seafood export industry.
The lab has been participating in proficiency testing conducted by the Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory at the University of Arizona, USA, a World
Organization for Animal Health reference
laboratory for crustacean diseases.
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global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
77
calendar
JULY 2014
PAES Recirculating Aquaculture
Technology Workshop
July 31-August 1, 2014
Apopka, Florida, USA
Phone: +1-877-347-4788
Web: http://pentairaes.com/learn-aboutaquaculture/ras-technology-workshopjuly-31-august-1-2014/
AUGUST 2014
Larval Fish Conference
August 17-21, 2014
Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
E-mail: pascal_sirois@uqac.ca
Web: www.larvalfishcon.org/Conf_home.
asp?ConferenceCode=38th
International Conference
on Recirculating Aquaculture
August 22-24, 2014
Roanoke, Virgnia, USA
Phone: +1-540-553-1455
Web: www.recircaqua.com/icra.html
Send event listings in English to:
Event Calendar
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
homeoffice@gaalliance.org
Fax: +1-314-293-5525
SEPTEMBER 2014
Seafood Expo Southern Europe
September 22-24, 2014
Barcelona, Spain
Phone: +31(0)10-7527700
Web: www.seafoodexpo.com/southerneurope/
Vietfish 2014
August 6-8, 2014
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Phone: +84-08-62-81-04-42
Web: www.en.vietfish.com.vn
OCTOBER 2014
GOAL 2014
October 7-10, 2014
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Phone: +1-314-293-5500
Web: www.gaalliance.org/GOAL2014
IFFO Annual Conference
October 27-29, 2014
Vancouver, Canada
Phone: +44-2030-539-195
Web: www.iffoevents.com
NOVEMBER 2014
China Fisheries & Seafood Expo
November 5-7, 2014
Qingdao, China
Phone: +86-10-58672620
Web: www.chinaseafoodexpo.com
10 &
International Conference on
Recirculating Aquaculture
You are invited to participate in the AES Issues Forum on Aug. 21, 2014, and the 10th
International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture (ICRA) on Aug. 22-24, 2014,
both taking place at The Hotel Roanoke and Conference
Center in Roanoke, Va.
The AES Issues Forum focuses on engineering solutions to specific aquaculture
challenges. The biennial International Conference on Recirculating Aquaculture
offers a wider scope of aquaculture-related topics, including research,
enterprise and discovery, and unique opportunities for discussion.
Agriculture
and Life Sciences
College of
78
July/August 2014
You can also explore new products and
technologies at our trade show.
Step Up Your Support For
Responsible Aquaculture
Consider Corporate Membership In GAA
Help the Global Aquaculture Alliance continue to advocate fish and shellfish farming as a solution to growing food needs by
joining GAA. You’ll be joining with hundreds of other individuals, businesses and groups from varied aquaculture and seafood
industry sectors that support responsible aquaculture on six continents.
Corporate membership is required to serve on GAA’s board of directors Qualify for discounts at GAA’s annual
GOAL conferences and save on advertising, too. Visit www.gaalliance.org/about/joingaa.php for more information
on corporate dues and benefits.
GAA Membership Benefits
Subscriber
(U.S. $60/
year)
Individual
Member
(U.S. $150/
year)
Sustaining
Member
(U.S. $1,000/
year)
Governing
Member*
(U.S. $1,50015,000/year)
Association
Member**
(U.S. $500/
year)
Six issues of Global Aquaculture Advocate
X
X
X
X
X
GAA Update e-newsletter
X
X
X
X
X
GAA publication discount
X
X
X
X
X
Registration discount – World Aquaculture Society,
other GAA-sponsored events
X
X
X
X
X
Join your colleagues in industry, government, and academia to share your successes
and learn about the latest advancements in the field.
Registration discount – GOAL conference
–
$100
$300
$600
$200
Sponsorship discount – GOAL conference
–
–
10%
20%
5%
Have you considered being an exhibitor at the trade show or becoming a
conference sponsor? Visit www.recircaqua.com/tradeshow.html
for more information.
Advertising discount – Global Aquaculture Advocate
–
–
15%
30%
–
Eligible for GAA board, officer positions
–
–
–
X
X
Eligible to serve on committees
–
–
X
X
X
Eligible to vote on GAA issues
–
–
X
X
X
Benefit
E
rEg arly
is
is n tratio
ow
Ope n
n
For complete information on
the conference and online
registration, visit
www.recircaqua.com or contact
us at aquaconf@gmail.com or
540-553-1455.
*
Governing membership dues are based on annual seafood sales.
Association membership is for trade organizations and groups only. Registration discounts apply only to designated representatives of the group.
**
Hotel Roanoke
Virginia Tech does not discriminate against employees, students, or applicants on the basis of race, color, sex, sexual orientation, disability, age, veteran status,
national origin, religion, or political affiliation. Anyone having questions concerning discrimination or accessibility should contact the Office for Equity and Inclusion.
global aquaculture advocate
GAA’s Global Aquaculture Advocate, the “Global Magazine for Farmed Seafood,” presents practical information on efficient and responsible aquaculture
technology, current seafood issues and updates on GAA activities. Subscribe
today at www.gaalliance.org/magazine/.
Each issue of the Advocate covers farmed seafood production, innovative
technology, the marketplace and aquaculture advocacy. The Advocate’s blend
of content makes it a useful resource worth keeping for future reference.
Your annual subscription includes Subscriber level membership in the
Global Aquaculture Alliance and valuable benefits such as registration discounts to most GAA-sponsored events, discounts on other GAA publications and a subscription to the GAA Update electronic newsletter.
World Congress of Aquaculture
and Fisheries
October 16-18, 2014
Dalian, China
Phone: 0086-411-84575669-855
Web: www.bitcongress.com/wcaf2014/
Aquaculture Europe 2014
October 14-17, 2014
Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
Phone: +32 59 32 38 59
Web: www.easonline.org/component/
content/article/39-uncategorised/259aquaculture-europe-2014
AES Issues Forum
ICRA is supported by
Subscribe To The World’s Leading
Aquaculture Publication
Seafood and Aquaculture Events
Seafood Expo Asia
September 2-4, 2014
Wanchai, Hong Kong
Phone: +1-207-842-5504 -- Web: www.
asianseafoodexpo.com
International Congress
on the Biology of Fish
August 3-7, 2014
Edinburgh, Scotland
Phone: +44-131-451-3461
Web: http://icbf2014.sls.hw.ac.uk
Stay Informed
Subscribe To The Advocate: www.gaalliance.org/magazine/
Join The Global Aquaculture Alliance: www.gaalliance.org/about/joingaa.php
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
79
advertising
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63
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33
Bioo Scientific
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19
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IBC
GOAL 2014
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International Conference
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78
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YSI, a xylem brand
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Importing Quality. Exporting Integrity.
Advertising Office
4111 Telegraph Road, Suite 302
St. Louis, Missouri 63129 USA
Reach
The Leaders...
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GAA Corporate Members
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Sally Krueger
at
Tel.: +1-314-780-1444
E-mail: sallyk@gaalliance.org
Take advantage of special
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80
July/August 2014
global aquaculture advocate
SAIL® Brand farm raised shrimp is grown and processed under the strictest
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800-526-9066 easternfish.com
global aquaculture advocate
July/August 2014
81
TX-3000 RAISES ThE BAR ON AQUATIC FEED PRODUCTION
Our business in life is not to get ahead of others,
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