ACC Vancouver Traditional Lead Climbing Course
Overview
Traditional (trad) climbing is the ultimate adventure in rock climbing: you are no longer
confined to routes with pre-placed bolts and anchors as in sport climbs or even top-rope
climbs or in the gym. This adds an extra dimension to the climbing experience: more
freedom, more fun!
This two-day course introduces participants to lead climbing using gear for protection.
The emphasis is on placing gear (camming devices, nuts, etc.) and evaluating
placements. Participants will be have the opportunity to practice gear placements on
mock leads and have their placements evaluated by the instructors and other members
of the group.
Prerequisites

Top-rope climbing experience: belaying, anchor building.

Minimum required climbing skills: 5.9

Rappelling experience.
Curriculum
I. Theory
Sport Climbing vs. Traditional (Trad) Climbing: On sport climbs the leader relies on
pre-placed bolts fixed permanently to the rock for protection. In contrast, trad climbs
require the placement of removable protective devices, e.g., nuts and camming devices
(cams). In both trad and sport climbs carabiners and slings are used to connect the
protection gear to the climber's lead rope, so that in the event of a fall the belayer below
can 'catch' the falling climber. Modern traditional climbs only occasionally have fixed gear
(pitons or bolts), except in the case where cracks are lacking to place adequate
removable gear.
Types of Protection: Nuts are metal (mostly aluminum) wedges usually threaded on a
wire that are placed into cracks. A secure placement requires some kind of constriction or
narrowing of the crack so that the nut can be wedged firmly into place. Thus nuts are
form fitting and transfer forces only in the direction of the constriction. Nuts are best
placed into cracks where the inside of the crack is wider than the outside. They usually do
not work in cracks with parallel sides or even flaring cracks.
In contrast, cams are spring loaded devices that are placed by retracting the cams by
pulling back the trigger bar. Once inserted in the crack the trigger bar is released and the
lobes of the cam expand until they touch the rock. A pull on the stem of the device as in a
fall will cause an outward rotation of the cams thereby increasing the friction force that
holds the cam in place. Thus, a camming device relies on friction between the cam and
the rock to hold it in place. Consequently camming devices can take up forces in multiple
directions which is important, e.g., when building gear anchors.
Gear Placements: The quality of a gear placement depends on several factors:
1. Quality of the rock: All cams convert the force due to a fall into a large outward
force to the rock. When placed, e.g., behind flakes these forces can cause the flake
to brake off. Avoid placing camming devices at the edge of a crack, particularly in
soft rock like sandstone (however, make sure that the trigger bar can still be
reached otherwise the cam is difficult to remove). Similarly, nuts exert large forces
on the constriction they are placed behind. Make sure that it is solidly connected to
the rest of the rock and cannot be levered away. Rock failure is the leading
cause of trad climbing accidents. Place all gear in solid rock.
2. Fit of the piece: A nut should contact the rock in as many points as possible. It
should not loosen or even come out when wiggling the wire. A well placed cam
should contact the rock at low to mid expansion range: 50% to 90% retracted.
Cams that are more than 90% retracted are called “over-cammed”, whereas cams
that are less than 50% retracted are “under-cammed” - see Figure 1. Overcammed cams are difficult to retrieve; under-cammed cams may not hold a fall
and therefore put the leader in danger: if in doubt, choose the larger cam.
Cams can walk in a crack: when placed in a crack that widens towards the inside of
the crack a cam can expand and fall out or fail when loaded.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 1: a) good placement; b) over-cammed; c) under-cammed.
3. Size of the piece: Larger cams and nuts can hold larger forces.
4. Expected direction of pull: In the case of a fall will the direction of the pull be such
that the nut or cam will actually hold the fall?
Since the first piece of protection that is placed on a climb must be able to withstand
forces in the up and outward directions, that first piece must always be a camming
device. Otherwise there exists the possibility that in case of a fall the whole series of
protection devices unzips from below!
Rope Types: There are three different types of rope, each with advantages and
disadvantages. Marking tapes at the end of the rope identify to which category a dynamic
climbing rope belongs.
Single ropes are the most common type of ropes used. The main advantage is simple
handling. A disadvantage is that in the descent only half of the length of the rope is
available for rappelling. Single ropes are marked with
︀and come in diameters of about
9mm to 11mm.
Twin ropes must only be used in pairs and are clipped together into each piece of
protection as with a single rope (twin-rope technique). The two ropes offer redundancy
and hence increase safety in the case of a fall over a sharp edge. Furthermore they allow
full-length rappels. However, they are more difficult to handle and with diameters
between 7.5mm and 8.5 mm are together heavier than single ropes. They also must not
be used to belay two followers on each strand alone. Twin ropes are marked with
at
the ends.
Double ropes (or half ropes) only offer standard safety when used as a pair, but beside
the twin rope technique they can also be used in double-rope technique where the “left”
and the “right” rope run separately through different protection pieces. This allows
friction to be reduced as mentioned above. A belay method that allows independent
control of each rope must be used. Double ropes allow full length rappels. They are also
suitable to belay two seconds on a single strand each. This is a huge advantage when
climbing in a party of three since the two seconds can climb together at the same time.
This saves time and therefore increases the safety margin of the climb. Double ropes
come in diameters between 8mm and 9mm and are therefore heavier and more difficult
to handle than single ropes. They are only marginally heavier than twin ropes. Double
ropes are marked with
at the ends.
Figure 2: Single, twin and double ropes.
Impact Force and Fall Factor: All ropes used for lead climbing are dynamic ropes.
They are designed to stretch on impact to absorb the energy that's generated by a fall.
The impact force is the force exerted on the protection system (protection piece, anchor,
belayer) in case of a fall. It depends on the elasticity of the rope (a stiffer rope has a
higher impact force), but also on the belay system (dynamic belay systems are designed
such that some length of rope will run through the belay device before the fall is stopped)
and the belayer (a small jump can greatly reduce the impact force).
The impact force also depends on the fall factor: this is the ratio of the height of the fall
divided by the length of the rope handed out by the belayer. A higher fall factor means a
larger impact force. The maximum fall factor in lead climbs occurs when the leader falls
after leaving the belay stance and before placing the first piece of protection: the leader
will fall twice the length of the rope handed out resulting in a fall factor of 2. Therefore it
is important to place the first piece as soon as possible to eliminate this worst case
scenario. It is a good habit to clip into the anchor itself when starting the lead.
The impact force that is specified for a particular rope (e.g., in the documentation that
comes with the rope when buying it) is the impact force for a standard UIAA fall: for
single and twin ropes (tested together) this is a fall with a weight of 80kg and a fall factor
of 1.77. Double ropes are tested on a single strand with a weight of 55kg. This impact
force is a measure of the elasticity of the rope; the actual value is more academic
because in a real fall the impact force is greatly reduced due to the dynamic belay
system.
a) fall factor 2
b) fall factor 0.5
c) fall factor 0.5
Figure 3: fall factor: a) length handed out 3m, fall distance 6m, fall factor 2; b) length handed out
4m, fall distance 2m, fall factor 0.5; c) length handed out 8m, fall distance 4m, fall factor 0.5.
Runnering and Rope Drag: Since few climbs are perfectly straight the rope when
clipped into each piece of protection will make an angle at that point. Particularly on
wandering climbs this can cause significant rope drag that can be reduced trough
“runnering”: extending the protection pieces using quickdraws or carabiners and slings
so that the rope runs in a straighter line. There is a disadvantage though: such extensions
will result in higher fall distances in case of a lead fall. It is a good idea to always carry a
few extendable quickdraws made out of a single length sling and two carabiners. By
unclipping any two strands of the sling the quickdraw extends to its full length.
An alternative way of reducing rope drag is to use a double rope.
a)
b)
Figure 4: extendable quickdraw: a) setup; b) extending the draw.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 5: a) rope drag; b) using slings, quickdraws to reduce rope drag; c) double rope technique.
Clipping: There are basically only four clipping situations: 1) carabiner gate right, clipping
with right hand, 2) carabiner gate left, clipping with right hand, 3) carabiner gate right,
clipping with left hand, 4) carabiner gate left, clipping with left hand. In cases 2 and 3
pinch the rope between your thumb and index finger, hold the carabiner down with your
middle finger and push the rope through the gate. In cases 1 and 4 use the thumb to hold
the carabiner down and push the rope through with your index and/or middle finger. It is
advisable to practice this on safe ground!
Figure 6: common clipping technique.
There are two clipping mistakes that must be avoided:
1. Back-clipping occurs when a climber clips into a quickdraw backwards with his end
of the rope against the rock. If you fall when back-clipped, you could fall across the
gate of the carabiner and unclip yourself.
2. Z-clipping occurs when a climber grabs a section of the rope below his last clip and
reaches up to clip the next bolt. A Z-clip will increase rope drag dramatically and if
you fall when Z-clipped, you will fall down to the last bolt clipped correctly. This
mistake is more common in climbing gyms where bolts are close together. When
clipping always grab the rope just below your tie-in point.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 7: Back-clip: a) correct clip; b) back-clip; c) unclipping of back-clipped draw.
Racks and Racking: The collection of gear carried while trad climbing is called a rack.
While the set of protection devices that make up a “standard” or “full” rack depends on
the climbing area (you need much more gear when climbing El Cap than you need in
Squamish) the following is a list that should get you started:
1. A full set of nuts: sizes #2 - #10 (about 8mm thickness to 30mm) and one nonlocking carabiner (to carry the set).
2. Black Diamond Camalot C4 sizes
carabiners (one for each cam).
#0.75, #1, #2, #3 together with non-locking
3. Three Cam Units (TCU) sizes #1, #2, #3 together with non-locking carabiners
(one for each cam).
4. About 8 sewn quickdraws.
5. 3 extendable quickdraws: 3 single length slings (60cm) and 6 non-locking
carabiners.
6. At least 2 double length (120cm) slings.
7. 4 locking carabiners (at least one pear-shaped HMS type).
8. 2 cordelettes: length 5m-6m, 7mm thick.
9. Nut tool.
You probably need a few extra carabiners (e.g., for the nut tool and cordelettes). With
time and experience you will double up on some of the sizes and extend the range.
It is important to recognize that the rack may need to be modified for particular climbs:
long finger cracks require many smaller cams, off-width cracks require large cams. In
other words: For some climbs (even in Squamish) this rack will not be sufficient, e.g.,
when climbing off-width cracks more larger cams are needed. The above is just a
guideline and no substitute for researching the intended climb (guide books, etc.) to
figure out what is actually required!
The way those cams, nuts, quickdraws, etc. are arranged on the harness (racking)
depends on the climb: E.g., for climbing a fist-size crack the larger cams should be racked
towards the front, the smaller units further back. Always keep some quickdraws in easy
reach. Generally, keep the heavier cams in the back – a #6 Camalot dangling off the front
of your harness is extremely cumbersome!
It is more or less a matter of taste whether to rack everything on the harness or to use a
gear sling. Racking on the harness is usually easier (the gear sling keeps getting in the
way), however, there are limits to what can be put on the harness. Thus, with a large rack
one is forced to use a gear sling.
Gear Anchors: At least three pieces of protection are used to build a gear anchor. A
cordelette (7mm thickness, 5m-6m length knotted to a loop) is clipped into the carabiners
of the three pieces. The system is equalized as shown in Figure 8. Since an anchor must
be able to take up upward and downward forces it must be multi-directional. Therefore,
at least one of the three pieces of protection must be a camming device.
Figure 8: Gear anchor
There is a problem with this anchor setup when all pieces are placed into a single vertical
crack – see Figure 9a. In case of a lead fall the anchor will be subject to an upward force,
which has to be taken up by the lowest piece alone. If it is a nut it probably will fail. Thus,
in this case the lowest piece must be a cam. However, even in case of a downward fall
the cordelette setup in a vertical crack does not equalize very well: due to the unequal
length of the three legs and the stretch of the cordelette material the lowest leg will
receive most of the load, see Figure 9b. If the lowest piece is a very solid placement this
is probably still ok. However, if you do not trust your placement in such a situation, you
may want to use a self-equalizing anchor setup: the equalette, see Figures 9c and 9d.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 9: a) cordelette setup in a vertical crack; b) force distribution for cordelette in vertical
crack; c), d) equalette.
Knot a figure-8 on a bight or an overhand on a bight into one end of the cordelette and
clip the resulting loop into the strongest piece for the anchor. This piece will receive
about ½ of the load. Then place two overhand “limiter” knots roughly where the master
point of the anchor should be. The remaining two legs are knotted with clove hitches into
the other two protection pieces for the anchor. Clip two locking biners into the master
point – one into each of its strands. You may have to adjust the clove hitches and the two
limiter knots so that the all legs become tight when pulling at the master point. This
anchor is self-equalizing. As such it is not 100% non-extending, however, the shockloading potential is limited due to the limiter knots. A word of caution though: do not rely
on the equalizing properties of an anchor: equalizing three marginal pieces of protection
will result in a marginal (read: not secure) anchor. First and foremost use the biggest and
strongest placements you can find and make sure that the protection is placed in solid
rock.
II. Practice
Gear Placement: Practice placing gear on the ground, evaluate placements.
Gear Anchor: Every participant should setup at least one anchor, have it evaluated and
finally rappel off the anchor.
Mock Leads: Place gear on a top-rope climb while pulling up a rope as well; have
placements evaluated by instructor and/or other participants. This should take up most of
the time of the course.
Trad Leads: If progress with mock leads permits, participants may lead a trad climb
under supervision of the instructor(s).
III. Multi-Pitch Trad Climbing
Additional topics related to multi-pitch climbing may be covered within this course, if time
permits and the learning progress of the participants allows the inclusion. This may
include the following topics:
Preparation: Know what you are getting into: How long are the pitches and what kind of
rope is needed? If you need to rappel the route or bail half way up the route: is your rope
long enough for the rappel? Take a topo of the climb with you so that you can check
before each pitch how difficult and how long the pitch is.
Rope Management: It is usually convenient that the climbers tied themselves into an
anchor with the rope itself using a clove hitch or a figure-8 on a bight. When the leading
climber is belaying the follower, some care has to be taken to take up the rope so that it
later on uncoils without problems. This can be accomplished by coiling the rope - ideally
in equal sized loops - over the section of the rope that secures the lead climber to the
anchor. Particularly on hanging belays that piece of rope is tight and provides a
convenient support for the coils. When the follower arrives at the anchor the procedure
depends on whether the partners switch leads or whether the previous leader leads the
next pitch as well. In the former case the rope is correctly laid out already and the
previous leader only needs to hand over the remaining gear and the new leader can
continue climbing. When the partners do not switch leads, the follower needs to tie into
the anchor and then the coils must be flipped over to his rope so that the coils that where
previously at the bottom of the pile end up on top.
Communication: It is of crucial importance that the climbing partners have a clear
understanding of the sequence of events in a multi-pitch climb. Communication can be
difficult when the pitch is long or convoluted or if it is difficult to hear your partner for
other reasons (e.g., noise: wind, hwy.). The following may serve as a guideline for the
necessary exchange between the lead climber and the belayer.
Lead: on belay?
Belayer: belay on.
Lead: climbing.
Belayer: climb on.
The leader starts climbing. During the climb the partners may communicate for various reasons. A
typical case is that the belayer lets the leader know how much rope is left, e.g., 10m remaining,
5m remaining, 2m remaining. When the next belay anchor is reached the leader builds an anchor
and ties into it. Then:
Lead: secure!
The lead climber is secured to the new anchor. The belayer can take him/her off belay. Then:
Belayer: belay off!
At this point the lead climber pulls in the remaining rope coiling it over the slings or the rope that
ties him/her to the anchor. As soon as the rope comes tight:
Belayer: that's me!
The leader sets up the top-down belay for the follower (if that has not been done already at the
same time when setting up the anchor). Then:
Lead: belay on!
At this point the follower is secured and can now (not earlier!) dismantle the anchor. Then:
Belayer: climbing.
Lead: climb on.
The partners should agree on a procedure what to do when they cannot hear each other.
This is a very common problem, e.g., in Squamish where the noise from the highway
makes hearing each other sometime impossible. Talk about what to do before each
climb!
Belaying from Above:
Belaying directly from the anchor, i.e., attaching the belay device directly to the anchor,
is almost always the best method when belaying from above. This requires either a belay
device like the ATC Guide or Reverso or simply a Munter hitch on a large pear shaped
carabiner (HMS carabiner). The use of self-locking devices (ATC Guide or Reverso) is the
recommended method even though it is strongly recommend to practice using a Munter
hitch at least once in while (so that you are prepared when dropping your belay device
half way up the mountain).
Indirect belays, i.e., attaching the belay device to the harness, should only be used in
exceptional cases. Belaying directly off the harness can be useful in cases where the
belayer has a very secure position (e.g., sitting behind a bolder) so that (s)he cannot be
pulled off the belay stance by a downward pull. Under those conditions this method may
be appropriate if the anchor itself is less than optimal.
Redirecting the rope through the anchor when belaying off the harness has the
disadvantage of doubling the forces on the anchor. Furthermore, the same disadvantages
of the method described in the previous paragraph apply as well: sudden forces can slam
the belayer into the wall, and if the second hangs in the rope the belayer is basically tied
to the belay stand whereas in the case of a direct belay, particularly with a self-locking
device, the belayer can move around relatively unrestricted to assist the second.
Connecting ropes for rappelling:
When doing full length rappels two ropes must be tied together. Obviously the type of
knot to use is of crucial importance for the safety of the rappel. There have been several
reported accidents when ropes where tied together with a figure-8 knot: that knot can flip
over repeatedly until it rolls off the ends. Do not use a figure-8 knot to tie two ropes
together for rappelling. It turns out that even the simpler overhand knot (the “EDK” European death knot) is less prone to flipping and rolling than the figure-8, even though
the danger is still present. You could use a double fisherman's knot to tie the ropes
together. This will hold, but has the disadvantages that it is difficult to untie and more
importantly it has a higher tendency towards getting stuck when pulling the rope than
the EDK. The recommended knot for tying two ropes together for rappelling is a double
overhand knot: the EDK and a second overhand knot tied immediately after the first – as
snug as possible. In all cases the tails should be at least one foot long.
Figure 10: Tying ropes together for rappelling: the EDK (left) and the “double overhand” knot
(right).