Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 755–770
www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
Renewable energy sources and rationale use
of energy development in the countries
of GCC: Myth or reality?
Haris Doukas*, Konstantinos D. Patlitzianas, Argyris G. Kagiannas,
John Psarras
Decision Support Systems Lab (EPU-NTUA), School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National
Technical University of Athens, 9, Iroon Polytechniou street, 15773 Athens, Greece
Received 17 February 2005; accepted 11 May 2005
Available online 20 July 2005
Abstract
The large oil and natural gas resource base and the greater competitiveness of conventional energy
supply technologies based on oil and gas is a key energy characteristic in the countries of the GCC.
Until today, mostly pilot and research Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and Rational Use of Energy
(RUE) activities were conducted. However, these countries seem to be ready to take a more active
part in the development of environmental friendly energy technologies. RES are expected to play a
greater role in the future based on the rich natural potential of the region. In addition, appropriate
efforts to formulate strategic RUE policies are initiated for assuring buildings sustainability and
providing guidelines for future architecture. In this context, GCC countries are realizing the
inevitability of putting climate change issues on the top of the list of priorities in the process of
economic and social development. This paper includes an analytical review of the current RES and
RUE development status in the GCC region, giving special emphasis to the business opportunities
that the region offers for regional and international companies involved in this market.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Renewable energy; Rationale use of energy; Gulf cooperation council countries
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C30 210 7723583/2083; fax: C30 210 7723550.
E-mail address: h_doukas@epu.ntua.gr (H. Doukas).
0960-1481/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2005.05.010
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1. Introduction
The development of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and Rationale Use of Energy
(RUE) was a central aim of the world energy policy in the last years. International studies
raised crucial concerns about increasing the share of RES in the energy balance that could
contribute to improve the security of energy supply by reducing dependence on imported
energy sources during the last decade.
Nowadays, limitations in the exploitation of conventional energy resources and the
necessity of the reform energy policies have given new impulse in development of these
environmental friendly energy technologies. In addition, new and innovative energy
technologies are developing, such as RES systems at the supply side, fuel cell, carbon
sequestration and other hydrogen vectors for future transport systems and improved
energy end-use efficiency at the demand side. Moreover, these technologies are estimated
to play a greater role in the future, in order to contribute to the abatement of the climate
change’s effects.
As concerns the above projections, and taking into consideration the fact that the
Russia’s Cabinet approved the Kyoto Protocol on global warming, the Kyoto Protocol is
entering into force. In addition, the decisions adopted at the COP 10 [1] and the adaptation
of the linking directive, which connects the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading
Scheme [2] with the implementation of RES and RUE projects through flexible
mechanisms, made clear that great investment opportunities will emerge for non-Annex I
Countries and new avenues for international cooperation will be opened.
In this context, the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) countries
(Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates) signed and ratified
into the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In addition,
almost all of them (except of Bahrain) have recently accessed the Kyoto Protocol [3].
However, since 1991, CO2 emissions have increased by more than approximately 50%
and the contribution of RES and RUE in these countries is relatively low. More
specifically, till now, only minor RES and RUE activities (pilot, research and real life
projects) were conducted and as a result, some small and medium capacity projects were
installed and tested. A pool of inhibits justifies this attitude, which includes [4,5]:
† The large oil and natural gas resource base and the greater competitiveness of
conventional energy supply technologies based on oil and gas;
† The high initial cost of RES and RUE projects in relation with the long time period of
depreciation of the investment;
† The lack of available funds of the enterprises for the implementation of these projects;
† The financial, technological and performance risks of these projects, which are often
high for an enterprise related to the expected results;
† The lack of awareness regarding the performance of modern and innovative
technologies.
On the other hand, GCC region is able to take a more active part in the development of
new technologies for exploiting and utilizing RES and RUE, because of the following
considerations:
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† GCC has significant potential for exploiting RES and especially solar energy;
† GCC has an area where many remote villages can benefit from RES applications;
† A significant technological background exists based on research activities in the
region. Applications of RES and RUE technologies (i.e. solar) have already been
developed and can be assumed as matured.
Nowadays, the increase of energy consumption in the GCC region is, to a certain
extent, an inevitable outcome of social and economic development. In this context, GCC
governments are fully aware that they cannot depend on oil for their income forever,
especially in the prevailing situation of price fluctuations, the rapid population and
consequently the increasing demand for electricity throughout the region. The GCC
countries are currently stating a process of environmental awakening. The governments,
the private sector and the general public are realizing the inevitability of putting climate
changes issues on the top of the list of priorities in the process of economic and social
development. As a result, the use and development of RES and RUE could make a
significant contribution to improving environmental protection and to guarantying
continuing oil supplies in conditions of stability and security in the region [6,7]. Special
attention is currently given by the GCC countries for the adoption of passive solar
technologies (e.g. solar cooling systems, solar water heaters) for reducing the energy cost
in the final demand sectors. Therefore, efforts to formulate strategic policies for assuring
buildings sustainability and guidelines for future sustainable architecture are initiated.
To the best of our knowledge, RES and RUE available information in these countries is
still rare in the international literature. Considering the above, the ultimate goal of this
paper is to present in a coherent and integrated way a review of the current status regarding
the RES and RUE development in the GCC region and to give emphasis to the business
opportunities that the region offers for regional and international companies involved in
the RES and RUE market. It is noted that the review presented is based on their recent
publications and collected information from all the possible sources.
The rest of the paper is structured along four (4) sections. The section that directly
follows presents the energy outlook of the GCC countries, given emphasis to the energy
indicators that especially have an impact on climate changes issues. The third section is
devoted to the review of the implemented activities regarding RES and RUE development
in each GCC country. Last, the fourth section is the conclusions, which summarizes the
main points that have arisen in the current paper and focuses on the opportunities for
market diffusion in the region, especially as concerns the solar, wind and hydrogen
technologies.
2. Energy outlook
The six GCC countries contain huge quantities of proved reserves of crude oil and
natural gas, estimated in early 2004 at around 478 billion barrels of crude oil and 41.920
billion cubic metres of natural gas, representing about 42 percent and 24 percent of the
world’s total, respectively, [8]. The GCC remains the EU’s 5th largest export market. GCC
member states are major suppliers of oil and gas to EU and at the same time a market for
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European exports. In 2002, 11% of the EU’s oil imports came from the area and GCC is
the EU’s principal trading partner in the Arab world [9].
Oil and gas will remain the major energy sources in the foreseeable future. Their use as
primary fuels is expected to further expand, due to the accelerated developments in the
respective technologies, which lead to more efficient processes in all aspects of exploration
and development technologies. Oil demand is expected to grow somewhat faster in the
future than over the past two decades. This is due, primarily, to the continuing increase in
world demand and to the lack of commercially viable and easily storable alternative, nonfossil energy resources, compounded by the expected fast economic growth in the rest of
the world, in spite of the recent economic recession in the far East [10].
On the other hand, world demand for natural gas is projected to increase rapidly to
2010, this being the fossil fuel with the fastest growing consumption [11]. Close to 60% of
the increase in annual gas demand is accounted for by the power generation sector. In the
recent past, technological improvements in the design, efficiency and operation of
combined cycle gas turbines have moved the economics of power generation in favour of
natural gas [12].
Consequently, contribution of RES is almost negligible till now and is estimated to be
relatively low in the foreseeable future. As concerns the evolution of the CO2 emissions,
since 1991 they have increased by more than 50% in GCC region [13,14]. The carbon
emissions in the GCC region between 1992 and 2002, according to the most recent
available data are presented in the Figs. 1 and 2.
In addition, the indicators of Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) per capita are very
high in the GCC region. For example, the TPES in Bahrain was 9,84 Toe per capita, in
Saudi Arabia 5,77 Toe per capita, in Qatar 19,93 Toe per capita, in Oman 4,27 Toe per
capita and in Kuwait 9,53 Toe per capita in 2002, while the average of 25-EU countries
was 2,42 Toe per capita and the average of OECD countries was 4,67 Toe per capita in
2002 [15].
Fig. 1. Carbon emission in the region per country. Source: Energy Information Administration, International
Energy Annual 2002, 2004.
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Fig. 2. Carbon emission in the countries of the GCC per fuel. Source: Energy Information Administration,
International Energy Annual 2002, 2004.
Moreover, CO2 emissions per capita, energy intensities and CO2 emissions per GDP in
the GCC countries are higher than the average of 25-EU and the average of OECD
countries [13]. Considering all the above, it is clear that energy efficiency could be
improved in the region. Fig. 3 illustrates the above information.
Moreover, the population of GCC countries is increasing lately and therefore electricity
consumption for domestic use is rising accordingly. Thus, the use of passive solar systems
(e.g. solar water heaters) to reduce the energy cost in the final demand sectors and
generally the promotion of RUE is both important and urgent.
Fig. 3. TPES/Capita and CO2/Capita in the countries of the GCC. Source: Energy Information Administration,
International Energy Annual 2002, 2004.
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3. Review of RES and RUE development
Till now, pilot, research and real life RES and RUE projects were conducted in the
GCC region. As a result, several small and medium capacity projects were tested and were
conducted by the institutions, scientific and research centres, companies and some relevant
governmental and no-governmental bodies. More specifically:
† Significant institutes and research centres have conducted research regarding RES and
RUE, such as the King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST) of Saudi
Arabia, the Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) and the Middle East
Desalination Research Center (MEDRC);
† Governments and their relevant ministries (Ministries of Electricity, Ministries of
Water Resources, etc.) have implemented a number of actions;
† Companies (mostly multinational) have implemented a number of RES projects,
mostly consisting of solar applications in the GCC region, especially using
photovoltaic solar systems;
† A number of other enterprises specialize in alternative power solutions especially
designed for Middle East, meeting the energy requirements of the region with solar,
wind energy and power backup systems;
† Universities in the GCC region have carried out demonstration small-scale RES and
RUE projects as well as feasibility studies for the viability of such RES and RUE
applications.
More analytically, the main RES and RUE activities in each one of the GCC countries
are presented in the following paragraphs.
3.1. Bahrain
Bahrain developed some RES and RUE activities and performed some progress during
the last decade. More specifically, adoption of solar technology is very advantageous in
Bahrain and small capacity projects were conducted. However, the main drawback of
using such technology is the decrease of the photovoltaic cells’ efficiency because of the
high temperatures in Bahrain, which in turn reduces the efficiency. Of course, the high cost
of the cells, energy storage and short operating lifetime are other disadvantages. Moreover,
the mixture of dust and humidity in Bahrain plays an important role in limiting the
efficiency of the solar cells [16].
According to the relevant estimations, the wind power density in Bahrain is not
encouraging. Furthermore, noise from the wind turbine is another problem. If windmills
are installed in the areas now considered to be isolated, in about 10 years time, they could
become inhabited, thereby reducing the local wind’s kinetic energy because of the
obstruction by buildings.
Regarding tidal power this type of energy is possible in Bahrain, but it has the
disadvantage that it is very cost-ineffective, because maximum tidal height does not
exceed 3 m. Unless a location with a tidal height larger than 6 m is chosen, it is not
recommended to invest money on such a project [16].
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According to the appropriate, adopting water technology can cause a disturbance for
fishermen. This does not hold out a worthwhile promise as a practical source of energy for
Bahrain. A very large number of turbines is estimated possible to be installed from this
type of RES (i.e. nearly 10,000 turbines) in the near future [16,17].
According to the study of W.E. Alnaser, a good solution, that is under construction, is a
mobile RES (hybrid) system consisting of wind generators and solar panels to produce 1.
5 kW of (alternating current) electricity for rural areas. This system utilizes solar power
(which is abundant in Bahrain) and wind power and is suitable for many applications, such
as mini mobile clinics, small schools, libraries and camping sites [18].
Furthermore, contribution to RUE is achieved by installing energy efficient motors
instead of standard efficiency motors. This transition becomes a necessity as a direct result
of limitation in energy sources and escalating energy prices. Although the unit energy
price is low and motor costs are at least 100% more in Bahrain than in the EU, retrofitting
energy efficient motors instead of standard efficient motors seem to be economic since pay
back periods of about 3 years can be achieved. It is estimated that, with the same amount of
energy consumption, motor’s output by w4% is increased by installing energy efficient
motors, which can lead to a very significant saving over the life cycle of the motors [19].
A very consumable sector in Bahrain is the tertiary and especially the domestic
buildings. The average energy use per area in domestic buildings is very high and most
buildings show less sustainable measures in terms of energy features, energy performance,
environmental features and privacy. A number of studies have been implemented
regarding the role of RES in building energy conservation [20] and illustrating the
electricity savings potentials in the residential sector of Bahrain [21].
3.2. Kuwait
Indeed, Kuwait is one of the world regions that receive a great portion of solar radiation
per year but, has got some difficulties to move towards the development of these energy
technologies. However, application of solar energy for power generation, desalination and
air-conditioning, were the major areas of research during the mid-seventies at the Kuwait
Institute for Scientific Research (KISR).
More specifically, a number of solar cooling systems were successfully installed and
tested in addition to a 100 kW solar power system and a solar thermal energy powered
multi-stage-flash desalination unit. The research and development work in the area of solar
cooling was mainly confined to the use of vapour absorption chillers fired by hot water at
less than 100 8C using flat plate collectors. For Kuwait, it is an attractive proposition as the
thermal energy collection subsystem has year-round utility for summer cooling, winter
heating and hot water for services [22].
In addition, a large proportion of funds were allocated for research in solar cooling
applications. By the year 1985, several small and medium capacity demonstration projects
were installed and tested and more were anticipated for the future. These systems used flat
plate collectors and small Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR) system of 5–10 tons
cooling capacity (TR). The first large installation in Kuwait was carried out in the early
eighties for a school building. Immediately thereafter, an equally important installation
comprising of 300 m2 of flat plate collector area and three 10 TR VAR chillers, was
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completed in 1983 for an office building of the Ministry of Defence. These two well
instrumented installations were tested for more than one summer season [22].
Furthermore, grid connected PV systems are a promising technique to enhance the
performance of the traditional grid utility system by reducing the total and peak electrical
load demands for Kuwait. The performance of grid connected photovoltaic systems in the
Kuwait climate has been evaluated and it was found that the peak load matches the
maximum incident solar radiation. So, the role of using the PV station to minimize the
electrical load demand and to cover peaks should be emphasized [23].
The potential of RUE in the country is great, taking into consideration that airconditioning (A/C) is the single largest consumer of electricity as it accounts for nearly
70% of the peak load demand and over 45% of the yearly electricity consumption. In this
context, energy conservation measures have been in practice in Kuwait since 1983,
through a well defined code of practice enforced by the Ministry of Electricity and Water.
More specifically, Kuwait was the first country in the Arab Gulf to implement energy
conservation measures in air-conditioned buildings through well defined codes requiring
adequate institution of walls and roofing, and not permitting the cooling demand or power
requirement per unit area to exceed a specific value, i.e. 65 W/m2 for residential buildings
and 100 W/m2 for institutional buildings. Applications of some of the cost-effective
energy conservation measures and use of cool storage for peak power savings have been
carried out as a demonstration project in two-storey buildings in the Center for Speech and
Audio Therapy (CSAT) [24]. Additional energy efficient products and techniques were
developed thereafter, however, have not been introduced as the electricity is highly
subsidized and the code has not been modified [25].
An interesting study for saving both energy and brackish groundwater supply water in
Kuwait was carried out and recommended drainage by deep wells to lower and maintain
the subsurface water at a desired level. As a result, a small Reverse Osmosis (RO) system
was installed in the Kifan residential area and fed with water from a 50-m-deep well that
already exists at this site [26].
Moreover, thermal energy collection subsystems are an attractive proposition due to the
year-round utility for summer cooling, winter heating and hot water for services. As of
today, the overall useful conversion of solar thermal energy to cooling is limited to 35%,
whereas the thermal energy collection and the cooling conversion subsystems have
capabilities of 50 and 70%, respectively. These subsystems also need electrical energy for
the auxiliary motors and consume water in their cooling tower, the latter being an
important factor in arid zone countries, where soft water is produced from seawater
desalination. The overall realistic conversion of solar-to-cooling thus, gets reduced
further [27].
3.3. Oman
Oman developed some pilot activities and a number of projects utilizing RES have been
executed by local manufacturers and industries, in most cases with governmental support
[28]. More specifically, a number of companies are specified in the supply, installation,
testing and commissioning of solar power systems such as Petroleum Development Oman
LLC, Oman Telecommunications, Oman Solar Systems Co. LLC etc. [29].
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In December 1996, the Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) successfully installed the
first wind-powered, electric water-pumping system in a remote location some 900 km
south of Muscat, the capital city of Oman. This activity clearly illustrated the fact that a
carefully planned and highly efficient, modern irrigation system can aid a lot in the
effective utilisation of the wind-powered water-abstraction system [30,31]. Furthermore, a
weather-monitoring station comprising temperature, wind speed/direction, humidity and
barometric pressure equipment was also installed to investigate the relationship between
weather conditions and power output [32].
A model for necessity weather data had been developed and assessed the monthly
average daily data of climatic conditions over the period 1987–1992. The estimated
average wind speed was 3.7 m/s. This is the minimum speed, needed in general for
effective wind turbines, but it is enough for water-pumping applications and Sur and
Thumrait are the most promising locations [33]. According to another study, assessing the
wind power potential using data from thirteen weather stations, are appreciably higher
than the national average and hence, these stations have a great potential for wind power
utilization [34].
Furthermore, a hybrid system combining wind/solar photovoltaic/diesel power
generator elements could be used to power a water supply/treatment facility in remote
locations of Oman. Harnessing the above RES can be particularly useful in remote rural
areas, which do not have the social amenity infrastructure enjoyed by the large towns and
cities [35].
Oman suffers a chronic shortage of water and over 80% of all fresh water consumed is
used for agriculture. As fresh water resources are finite, there is an inexorable pressure to
reduce agricultural use of water to meet the growing demand for domestic and industrial
use. A variety of solar desalination devices were developed [36].
Nowadays, both efficiency and economics have been studied in order to be considered
when choosing a solar desalination system in Oman. In the above framework, a very good
application is the Seawater Greenhouse, a new development that can produce fresh water
from seawater and cools and humidifies the growing environment, creating optimum
conditions for the cultivation of temperate crops in Oman [37].
3.4. Qatar
Even though the adoption of RES technologies could be very advantageous for Qatar,
based on relevant studies as well as small experiences from implemented projects, Qatar
has some difficulties in the development of the RES and RUE technologies.
More specifically, an assessment of the potential and economical feasibility of adopting
off-shore/on-shore wind energy has been contacted. This economical assessment took into
consideration the interest recovery factor, the lifetime of the wind energy conversion
system, the investment rate and operation and maintenance costs. The results indicated
that the cost of electricity generation from the wind in Qatar compares favourably to that
from fossil fuel resources.
An analysis is presented for the long term measured on-shore wind speed (1976–2000)
at Doha International Airport. A similar analysis is presented for the measured off-shore
wind speed at the Qatari Haloul Island. The establishment of wind farms on islands like
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Haloul with means to transfer generated electricity to the nearby on-shore areas is
expected to be both technically feasible and economically viable [38].
A basic economic evaluation of electricity generation in Qatar suggested that PV
technology is not far from being economically feasible. The advanced technology and
wide market demand for PV systems should result in improved conversion efficiency and
lower unit cost. However, PV systems are a clean source of energy and their positive
impact on the environment in the Qatar should be taken into consideration [39]. In
addition, some major district cooling service providers were developed and ongoing
contracts were expanded regionally in Qatar.
Qatar joined the consensus adoption of the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) along with the principles of Agenda 21. One of the principle
calls for the commitment of the State to institutionalise environmental impact assessment
for its new development projects. Within this context, a policy has been laid down for
environmental impact assessment of new industries and major infrastructure projects [40].
In addition, Qatar plans to promote RES and RUE technologies in the future by
establishing a link to international databases and encouraging local colleges and
universities to conduct research and development projects, in relation to environmental
issues specific to the nation’s industries and ecosystems [41].
3.5. Saudi Arabia
Since the mid-seventies, Saudi Arabia has been at the forefront of research and
development into RES and especially solar energy. The major relevant activities are
described as follows:
† Two major international programs were funded, in cooperation with the USA and the
Federal Republic of Germany, aimed at developing RES technology and demonstrating
its applications by designing and installing several pilot projects [42].
† A solar thermal seawater desalination pilot plant was completed by SOLERAS in 1984
in Yanbu, but was closed down for economic reasons [43].
† A PV powered brackish water desalination plant was installed in 1994 at Sadous
village in collaboration with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL-USA)
[43].
† An initial joint program (solar thermal dish project) with Germany was carried out to
produce a 100 kW with two thermal dishes [43].
† A 350 kW solar hydrogen production plant (HYSOLAR program) has been installed to
demonstrate the safe and reliable production of hydrogen from solar energy in the
technical scale [43].
† The R&D work on Phosphoric Aid Fuel Cells (PAFC) using hydrogen has successfully
progressed in recent years. Valuable experience such as acid management techniques,
and control of leakage of hydrogen gas and intermixing of hydrogen and air in the cells
of the stack due to lack of electrolyte in the matrix, etc. led to an improved design and
fabrication of the 1 kW PAFC stack. In another hydrogen utilization activity, locally
available internal combustion engines and ceramic mantle gas lamps have been
modified to use hydrogen as a fuel for small-scale demonstration purposes. Most of
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†
†
†
†
†
†
†
†
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the required components used in these activities have been designed and fabricated
locally at ERl, therefore, the staff of the ERl has gained professional experience in this
field [43].
KACST has introduced individual units of a forced closed type solar water heating
system for domestic water heating. More than 1,100 solar flat plate collectors have
been installed on the rooftop of w380 residences in KACST’s campus in Riyadh in
1996 [44].
KACST has used the PV system to power highway devices in various remote locations
within the Kingdom. The most significant projects are the lighting systems for two
remote tunnels located in the southern mountains of Saudi Arabia [43].
A 3 kW photovoltaic power system was installed at the solar village site for evaluation
of orientation, tracking, reliability, dust and temperature of PV modules on efficiency
and energy output [43].
From 1993 to 2000, KACST and the NREL conducted a joint solar radiation resource
assessment project to upgrade the solar resource assessment capability of the Kingdom
of Saudi Arabia. KACST deployed a high quality 12-station network in Saudi Arabia
for monitoring solar total horizontal, direct beam, and diffuse radiation [45].
The ERI, in cooperation with the Ministry of Agriculture and Water, conducted various
research studies in order to develop the most efficient systems for drying dates using
solar energy. A number of solar dryers have been designed, installed and
experimentally tested at the Al-Hassa and Qatif Agricultural experimental sites [46].
Water-pumping and desalination, using energy produced by a PV generator, is
expected to be reliable and cost-effective in remote rural areas of Saudi Arabia. A
demonstration plant for the purpose of R and D and public awareness was designed and
installed in Sadous village, near Riyadh [43].
The electricity utility in Saudi Arabia developed wind-diesel hybrid systems for remote
villages away from the grid [47,48].
For the identification of high-potential areas for RES applications in Saudi Arabia,
KACST is using 40-meter high mast to collect wind speed and direction data at 20, 30,
and 40 m above ground level. KACST is also maintaining 14 new generation solar
radiation data collection stations in different parts of the Kingdom. Another 40 or more
stations were being maintained by the Ministry of Agriculture to collect global solar
radiation and sunshine duration data [45].
Electrical energy conservation in Saudi Arabia can be achieved through the use of
efficient electrical equipment, application of passive energy technology in buildings (such
as insulation, evaporative cooling, ventilation and solar heating) and supportive tools (such
as public awareness, energy codes, regulations, energy information and databases) [49].
Because of the population growth and rapid development in Saudi Arabia, the demand
for electrical energy in recent years is approaching the power generated, mainly during the
summer months. More specifically, the electrical energy consumption in the residential
sector is at the highest levels compared to the industrial and agricultural sectors [50].
A relevant study estimated that a saving of about 2% of the electrical energy in the
industrial sector in the Kingdom could be achieved by applying solar thermal systems.
There are already two factories in the country producing flat plate collectors. Solar thermal
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absorption systems are ideal systems to be adopted and implemented for cooling and
refrigeration [51]. Furthermore, the high temperature water (steam) could be used to
generate electricity. The electrical energy could be used immediately or stored through the
production of hydrogen via electrolysers [52].
Saudi Arabia is a leading oil producer but is keenly interested in taking an active part in
the development of RES and RUE. Saudi Arabia has an area of more than 2 million km2
where many remote villages and settlements can benefit from RES applications and has
enormous potential for exploiting solar energy.
Saudi Arabia participated in many international conventions to protect the global
environment and reduce GHG emissions. However, it is not yet clearly stated whether
Saudi Arabia is willing to take off action especially as regards KP implementation. Saudi
Arabia is afraid the possibility of the fact that KP might disproportionately put the burden
on them [53]. For example, in the context of 10th anniversary UN Conference on Climate
Change in Buenos Aires, Argentina, Saudi Arabia blocked progress regarding the provision
of financial assistance to developing countries for addressing climate change impacts, since
Saudi Arabia negotiators demanded compensation for loss of their oil revenues [54].
3.6. UAE
UAE has one of the most diversified economies of all the major oil-producing Arabian
Gulf states and according to the population prediction for the next 100 years cannot fulfil
its share in the world energy market after the year 2015 [55].
UAE have shown a significant effort regarding the development of RES and especially
solar energy that could play a key role in bridging the gap between the supply of fossil
fuels and the energy demand.
There are some enterprises in UAE that specialize in alternative power solutions
especially designed, meeting the energy requirements of the region with solar, wind
energy and power backup systems. So, some installations in UAE were carried out and
they are characteristic examples of how RES can help country’s daily activities in order to
be in total harmony with the surrounding environment [56]. Most of these RES projects
concern the design, manufacture, supply, installation and commissioning of solar power
systems and solar photovoltaic systems projects such as [52]:
† Stand alone solar power systems and passive cooled shelters for 33 GSM base stations.
The installed total peak power is almost 600 kW;
† Solar powered pay phones, with total peak power installed w29 kW;
† Solar power systems for cell enhancers, with installed total peak power w9 kW;
† 46 aviation obstruction warning lights, with installed total peak power 5 kW.
In addition, a possible hydrogen energy system was studied in UAE. The only remedy
to the above problem is to exploit solar energy and to produce hydrogen through an
electrolysis process, in order to satisfy the gap between demand and fossil fuel
productions. It is estimated that implementing solar hydrogen energy systems on the
overall energy picture in the UAE would lead to additional income for the country, hence
improving income per capita of the country [57].
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The increased level of the domestic electricity consumption is owed to a large degree to
the air-conditioning, which is a major source of electrical energy consumption in UAE.
Consequently, the relationship between climate conditions and electric energy
consumption is considered as matter of crucial importance. In this context, an electricity
demand model has been constructed using time series techniques [58]. The fitted model
seems to represent these relationships rather well. Forecasts for electricity consumption
using the estimated model indicate that a small reduction in cooling degrees requirement
might induce a significant reduction in electric energy demand. Hence, a DSM program
with policy actions to include, among others, is a very good solution to reduce cooling
degrees requirement and therefore the level of the domestic electricity consumption.
Another very consumable sector is the tertiary and especially the domestic buildings. The
average energy use per area in domestic buildings is high and public buildings in UAE show
less sustainable measures in terms of energy features, energy performance, environmental
features and privacy. Issues considered in the assessment of buildings such as energy use per
square metre and CO2 emission are alarming. Furthermore, traditional buildings in the UAE
were found to be more sustainable than the contemporary buildings [59].
4. Conclusions
A significant technological background exists based on research activities in the region,
since applications of RES and RUE technologies (i.e. solar) have already been developed
and can be assumed as matured.
The solar applications (especially PVs) are regarded as the best—and least expensive—
means of providing the basic energy services that are lacking to every individual in the
region. In the above framework, these countries are available to use solar applications for
the following applications:
† Solar home systems in order to provide power for domestic lighting and other DC
appliances such as TVs, radios, sewing machines, etc.
† PV modules for lighting especially for homes and community buildings as well as to
telecom towers.
† Solar cooling systems for commercial applications, such as supermarkets, theatres and
cinemas, since air-conditioning is one of the largest electricity consumers in the region.
† Solar water heaters to reduce electricity consumption in water heating sectors for many
hot water domestic and industrial applications.
† Large solar power plants supplying off-grid desert communities.
In addition, the use of solar energy in thermal desalination processes is one of the most
promising applications of RES to seawater desalination. A solar distillation system may
consist of two separated devices (solar collector and distiller) or of one integrated system.
The first case is an indirect solar desalination process, and the second one is a direct solar
desalination. Many small-size systems of direct solar desalination and several pilot plants
of indirect solar desalination have been designed and implemented. Nevertheless, in 1996
768
H. Doukas et al. / Renewable Energy 31 (2006) 755–770
solar desalination was only 0.02% of the desalted water production. Indirect solar
desalination has interesting potential for development.
The use of these cost-effective solar applications can play an important role in starting a
renewable energy market. Using the RES technologies that have already proven to be
competitive, companies can make a profit today, while creating a path for the future
technological advantages or renewable energy in other applications. In some countries,
these industrial applications have provided an economic base to allow sufficient volume
and profitability to pursue wider markets.
Moreover, energy management and conservation and therefore promotion of RUE will
be a prerequisite for meeting the future energy demands. The efforts should be focused to:
† Disseminate and diffuse activities for raising public awareness in energy efficient
technologies.
† Promote of mutually beneficial technological cooperation between organizations and
professionals for innovative efficient technologies, addressed to the residential, tertiary
and industrial sectors.
Nowadays, the countries of GCC are keenly interested in taking a more active part in
the development of RES and RUE technologies, because the region has significant
potential (esp. solar). These countries have many remote villages and settlements that can
benefit from the friendly environmental energy applications. In addition, the demand for
electricity in the GCC countries is expanding as an inevitable outcome of social and
economic development. Consequently, their major challenge for the near future needs to
be the commercialisation and industrial use of large-scale RES and RUE applications.
To sup up, these technologies are estimated to play a greater role in the future, in order to
contribute to the abatement of the climate changes effects. In this framework, GCC
governments are fully aware that they cannot depend on oil and gas for their income forever.
For this reason, these countries have been accessing the Kyoto Protocol that is expected to
enter into force in practice. All the above make clear that great investment opportunities will
emerge for GCC Countries and new avenues for international cooperation will be opened.
Acknowledgements
This paper was based on research conducted within the ‘EUROGULF: An EU-GCC
Dialogue for Energy Stability and Sustainability’ (project number: 4.1041/D/02-008-S07
21089) project of the Synergy Programme managed by the Directorate General for Energy
and Transport (DG TREN) of the European Commission. The content of the paper is the
sole responsibility of its authors and does not necessarily reflect the views of the EC.
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