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LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA
BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA
M A L AY S I A
KDN PP11720/1/2006 ISSN 0128-4347 VOL.27 SEPT-NOV 2005 RM10.00
WASTE
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Volume 27 September-November 2005
contents
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M A L AY S I A
4
President’s Message
Editor’s Note
6
Announcement
Letter To Editor
Cover Feature
10 Municipal Solid Waste – A Problem Or
An Opportunity?
18 Biomass Energy From The Palm Oil Industry
In Malaysia
26 An Innovative, Environment-Friendly And CostEffective Wastewater Treatment System UniFED™
Guidelines
34 General Advice On Giving Of Second Opinion
Update
35 Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling
(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 Dan Perintah Kualiti
Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa Yang Ditetapkan)
(Buangan Terjadual) 2005
10
Engineering & Law
40 Instructions & Variations Part 2
Environment
44 Providing Sludge Dewatering Services For
Multiple-Site Operations Via A
Mobile Dewatering Unit – Series 4
18
Feature
47 Construction Waste Management:
Are Contractors Unaware or Just Recalcitrant?
50 Laboratory Chemical Waste Management
26
54 The Role of A Concessionaire In Solid Waste
Management – Series 1
BORANG
47
Pg 30
Pembaharuan Permit –
Engineering Consultancy Practice
Tahun 2006
Sdn Bhd (Body Corporate)
Pg 32
Pembaharuan Permit –
Engineering Consultancy Practice
Tahun 2006
Pemilik Tunggal(Sole Proprietor)/
Perkongsian (Partnership)
Cover photo courtesy of Ir. Vincent H.K. Tan
THE INGENIEUR 2
President’s Message
KDN PP11720/1/2006
ISSN 0128-4347
VOL. 27 SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER 2005
Members of the Board of Engineers Malaysia
(BEM) 2004/2005
President
YBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar
Registrar
Ir. Dr. Mohd Johari Mohd Arif
Secretary
Ir. Dr. Judin Abdul Karim
Members of BEM
YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Md Radzi Mansor
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Md Sidek Ahmad
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Hj. Keizrul Abdullah
YBhg. Mej. Jen. Dato’ Ir. Ismail Samion
YBhg. Datuk Ir. Santhakumar Sivasubramaniam
YBhg. Datu Ir. Hubert Thian Chong Hui
YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Ashok Kumar Sharma
YBhg. Dato’ Ir. Abdul Rashid Maidin
Ir. Prof. Abang Abdullah Abang Ali
Ir. Prof. Dr. Mohd Ali Hashim
Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan
Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman
Tuan Hj. Basar Juraimi
Ar. Paul Lai Chu
Ir. Ho Jin Wah
Ir. P E Chong
Editorial Board
Advisor
YBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar
Chairman
YBhg Datuk Ir. Shanthakumar Sivasubramaniam
Editor
Ir. Fong Tian Yong
Members
Ir. Mustaza Salim
Ir. Chan Boon Teik
Ir. Ishak Abdul Rahman
Ir. Prof. Dr. K. S. Kannan
Ir. Prof. Dr. Ruslan Hassan
Ir. Prof. Madya Dr. Eric K H Goh
Ir. Nitchiananthan Balasubramaniam
Ir. Shahkander Singh
Ir. Prem Kumar
Executive Director
Ir. Ashari Mohd Yakub
The issue of waste has been around since mankind
set foot on earth. The attitude of “not my problem” and
“don’t care” over generations has escalated this issue to a
critical level today. Thus, it is timely that in this bulletin
we address this highly significant issue. Managing waste
is everybody’s social responsibility. It is necessary to work
together with everyone doing his bit to reduce the
undesirable effects of waste.
Waste is a generic term for things that have outlived
their usefulness or their purpose over time. Waste is also
unwanted output generated from all activities be it from
the office, industry or home – municipal solid waste, agriculture waste, industrial
waste, medical waste or construction waste. Every minute, every hour someone
is discarding waste. Malaysians generate more than 18,000 tonnes of solid waste
a day amounting to some eight million tonnes a year! And industries generate
more than 420,000 tonnes of scheduled wastes a year! Only a small percentage
is being recycled or recovered (less than 5% of municipal solid waste and scheduled
waste).
Why is waste management crucial in any society? Besides the obvious reason
of protecting the environment, there are many other inherent benefits. In this
bulletin, some opportunities and strategies for waste management are highlighted.
The private sector has already invested in research for the reuse/recycle of the
waste generated by the nation.
There are sufficient legislations and guidelines for local Governments and
relevant agencies to regulate the control of the various forms of wastes generated
and discharged. However, there is often a lack of corporate responsibility as well
as civic consciousness on the part of those who continuously flout the law,
indiscriminately, and dangerously dump wastes. We, Malaysians, need to be
mindful of our future generations in managing wastes in ways that are sustainable
and environmentally acceptable.
There is encouragement by the Government to produce green energy utilizing
plantation (e.g. oil palm) wastes and municipal solid wastes as alternative sources
of fuel to produce energy, namely electricity and heat. Waste is viewed as a
source of renewable energy which can be put to good use. The implementation
of this still needs much Government intervention. Our engineers are capable of
applying technologies to generate electricity from wastes, but are constrained by
financial and economic barriers.
YBhg. Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Wahid bin Omar
President
BOARD OF ENGINEERS MALAYSIA
Publication Officer
Pn. Nik Kamaliah Nik Abdul Rahman
Assistant Publication Officer
Pn. Che Asiah Mohamad Ali
Design and Production
Inforeach Communications Sdn Bhd
Buletin Ingenieur is published by the Board of
Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia)
and is distributed free of charge to registered
Professional Engineers.
The statements and opinions expressed in this
publication are those of the writers.
BEM invites all registered engineers to contribute
articles or send their views and comments to the
following address:
Publication Committee
Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia,
Tingkat 17, Ibu Pejabat JKR,
Jalan Sultan Salahuddin,
50580 Kuala Lumpur.
Tel: 03-2698 0590 Fax: 03-2692 5017
E-mail: bem1@jkr.gov.my publication@bem.org.my
Web site: http://www.bem.org.my
Advertising/Subscriptions
Advertisement Form is on page 9
Subscription Form is on page 56
Editor’s Note
With increasing concern over the effects of the wide range
of waste that is going into the environment – solid waste,
sewerage, construction waste, and hazardous and industrial
waste – the Publication Committee feels it expedient to follow
up from the December 2003 publication with another round
of subjects on the environment to keep readers updated with
the latest information.
In the wake of the Government’s intention to introduce self-regulation on
the building delivery system, we are pleased to receive and publish a “Letter to
the Editor” with some interesting suggestions on the subject that may be of
interest to practising engineers.
We would welcome more “Letters to the Editor” so that The Ingenieur may
be a medium for constructive views and suggestions related to the engineering
profession.
Ir. Fong Tian Yong
Editor
THE INGENIEUR 4
Announcement
Publication
Calendar
The following list is the
Publication Calendar for the
year 2005 and 2006. While
we normally seek
contributions from experts
for each special theme, we
are also pleased to accept
articles relevant to themes
listed.
Please contact the Editor or
the Publication Officer in
advance if you would like to
make such contributions or
to discuss details and
deadlines.
December 2005: WATER
March 2006: ENGINEERING PRACTICE
June 2006: MINERALS
September 2006: BUILDING
December 2006: ENVIRONMENT
Letter To Editor
Dear Editor,
The Role Of A Consulting Engineer In CFO Self-certification;
the Certificate of Completion and Conformity (CCC): A case
for the Consulting Engineer to be a Member of the ACEM
In Malaysia to be a consulting engineer (or an engineering consultant) a natural person, who is a graduate with
an engineering qualification from a recognised institution of higher learning, must be a BEM registered professional
engineer (i.e. a P.Eng who can use the title Ir. before his or her name), and concurrently, a licensed provider of
Engineering Consultancy Practice (ECP), either as a sole-proprietor, or in partnership, or as a share-holder/
director of a body-corporate. In both capacities, a consulting engineer is governed by the Registration of Engineers
Act 1967 (Revised 2002) and its companion Registration of Engineers Regulation 1990 (Revised 2003). The
Malaysian consulting engineer’s professional conduct and practice – including the manner of discharging one’s
duties with skill, due care and diligence - are well documented in the Principle Act and Regulation; which in turn
are being administered by the Board of Engineers, Malaysia (BEM). The Regulator came into being on the
August 23, 1972.
The BEM and The IEM
Besides being registered with and licensed by the BEM, a Malaysian consulting engineer is most likely a corporate
member of the Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (IEM).
The IEM is a grass-root members’ organisation which has been in existence since 1959. It is a society registered
under the Societies’ Act with the primary objective “…to promote and advance the science and profession of all
THE INGENIEUR 6
Letter To Editor
aspects of engineering…”. The IEM assumes the role and function as a learned society in the science and art of
engineering. Based on the traditional linkage and trust among the BEM and the IEM; the Regulator of engineers
and the practice of engineering, as the Designating Authority (DA) has appointed the IEM, a Certified Body (CB), to
carry out two major functions on BEM’s behalf, which are as follows:
●
●
To conduct training and operationalise BEM’s structured life-long education programmes, such as the Professional
Development Programme (PDP) for registered graduate engineers during their pupilage en-route to their
professional examinations; and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) for registered professional engineers.
To conduct assessment examinations of engineers’ competency for professional status (i.e. professional interviews)
The IEM maintains a set of current and ever ascending benchmarks of international best practices by way of
representing Malaysia and active participation at the various international engineering fora, such as the World
Federation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO); ASEAN Federation of Engineering Organisations (AFEO); Federation
of Engineering Institutions in Islamic Countries (FEIIC); Federation of Engineering Institutions South-East Asia &
Pacific (FEISEAP); Commonwealth Engineers’ Council (CEC); ASEAN Engineers’ Register (AER); APEC Engineers’
Register and EMF etc. To ensure its high standard for membership, the IEM has in place mechanisms which will
encourage members-in-benefit to be in compliance with its Constitution, By-laws and Regulations.
It can be seen that a typical Malaysian consulting engineer benefits by being a corporate member of the IEM – it
gives him or her public recognition as a professional; and as a member of a learned society, the engineer is also
recognised as an intellectual.
The ACEM
Then there is the Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia (ACEM); formed more than 42 years ago, “with the
object of promoting the advancement of the profession of consulting engineering”. The ACEM focuses its attention
on matters affecting the status, professional conduct, emolument and the general interests of those Malaysian
engineers who have adopted engineering consultancy practice as their profession.
Members of the ACEM are BEM registered Professional Engineers cum licensed providers of ECP, are most likely
corporate members of the IEM. However, not all BEM licensed ECP providers are members of the ACEM! Here lies
the issue of peer acceptance, and the problem of perception by house-buyers, the public and other stake-holders
concerning the proposed CFO self-certification: the CCC. Are non-ACEM member but BEM licensed ECP providers
truly recognised as consulting engineers upon whom house-buyers, the public and authorities can place their trust?
Is public interest reassured? And seen to be assured? It is a cardinal and universal covenant amongst professionals
worldwide - to reassure consumers of their professional services (viz. their clients) that public interest and essential
requirements are not compromised, profession specific fraternity associations of the like as the ACEM shall exercise
peer judgement over members of their own association. The aim: Professionalism must be the sole agenda, and be
seen as the only agenda!
ACEM is also a members’ only profession specific organisation that exercises fraternity wide self-regulation among
its members – who are both individuals and panel firms; matching that of the BEM’s licensing of ECP providers. In
its efforts of maintaining the high standard expected of Malaysian consulting engineers who are members; the
ACEM since its earlier and formative years (for some 40 years now) has had been organising and conducting
capability and capacity (C&C) building in-career training programmes for its members, their professional and paraprofessional staff; with the aim of improving and upscaling the delivery system of Malaysian consulting engineers.
All those C&C building in-career training programmes were ahead of the BEM’s PDP and CPD programmes. They
have been useful and goal-attaining in that certain determined para-professionals, with perseverance and who
pursued the earlier ACEM run basic draughtsmen courses and then progressed on to the designers’ course, eventually
succeeded to qualify as professional engineers, after a period of self-study under the mentorship of ACEM members
(who were their employers) and having passed the BEM/IEM professional exams. Quality service among members
of the ACEM has thus been established as the profession’s culture with a tradition of constant up-grading of the
delivery system.
As the consulting engineering profession specific fraternity, the ACEM has well established Aims and Objectives;
plus transparent definitions of both the Profession and Practice of Engineering Consultancy: which are binding
to ACEM members and are published in the ACEM’s yearly Directory. Besides, there are other ACEM documents
THE INGENIEUR 7
Letter To Editor
in force. Of the various documentation, is one with special focus on the important topic of “Professional
Practice.” The special ACEM publication dealing with FAQs on issues relating to Professional Practice has
been endorsed by the President of the BEM, YBhg. Tan Sri Dato’ Ir. Hj Zaini Bin Omar, who said in the
Foreword, among other things, that he “........... believe(s) the FAQ published is intended to guide and assist all
practising engineers in their quest to be more vigilant and guarded in their professional practices and at the
same time avoid the associated pitfalls”.
Three-tier regulatory regime
Besides its policies and guidelines which are in line with international best practices, the ACEM being a longtime Member Association of FIDIC, also subscribes to positions adopted by FIDIC; such as in the areas of QBS,
Conditions-of-Contract, environmental sustainability and others; and most important of all – the adoption
of FIDIC’s Integrity Management System (IMS). Being conscious of the need to manage risks, the ACEM also
administers a Group Professional Indemnity (PI) scheme which supports ACEM members in providing that
additional comfort to their clients in the over-all matter of Professional Practice. All these are expected of a
dependable professional consulting engineer who subscribes, as a matter of fact, to a Three-tier Regulatory
Regime being built up by the sum total of: Third Party, Second Party and First Party Regulations. Third Party
Regulation – the BEM; Second Party – the ACEM, and the First Party will be the self – the engineer, the
natural person.
Therefore, to ensure that the necessary mechanism is in place for CFO self-certification: CCC, besides the
official guidelines that would be issued by the Government (via. The Ministry of Housing and Local Government)
and the refinement of the BEM’s code-of-professional practice (as contained in BEM Circular No. 3/2005) –
which will all be aggregated into the Third Party Regulation; the consulting engineer must also be subjected
to a Second Party (peer and fraternity-wide self) Regulation by being a member of the ACEM. Besides being
guided by ACEM’s own codes and policies, plus FIDIC’s stance and policies, ACEM members are also expected
to subscribe to the ACEM adopted FIDIC’s IMS and ACEM Group PI coverage.
Condition Precedent – Globally
In conformity to globalisation, advanced countries such as those in Europe when establishing benchmarks for
best practices of the delivery system, require their domestic consulting engineers, as condition precedent, to
be members of profession-specific fraternity associations. For example, consulting engineers are to be members
of their domestic associations of consulting engineers, which in turn would also be members of FIDIC. This
condition precedent requirement which provides a Second Party (peer and fraternity-wide self) Regulation
has resulted in the higher esteem position that consulting engineers are perceived by the public.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is the Author’s opinion that BEM licensed ECP providers as the consulting engineers who are
expected to sign-off CCC, should also be members of ACEM. Because PAM is both a learned society (like the
IEM) and the profession specific fraternity association for providers of architecture professional services
(equivalent to ACEM), BAM registered professional architects are also members of PAM – so why not Malaysian
consulting engineers?
Recommendation
It is therefore the recommendation when official guidelines concerning CFO self-certification: the CCC are
being drawn up, that there be a Three-tier Regulatory Regime as recommended herein; with a condition
precedent that non-ACEM member but BEM licensed ECP providers should also apply to the ACEM to be
screened for membership by peer acception, and to subscribe to ACEM Values.
from,
Ir. Rocky H.T. Wong
Past Chairman - ACEM
THE INGENIEUR 8
cover feature
Municipal Solid Waste –
A Problem Or An Opportunity?
By Sivapalan Kathiravale, Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus & Mohamad Puad Abu
MINT Incineration and Renewable Centre (MIREC), Malaysian Institute of Nuclear Technology (MINT)
W
aste, regardless of its kind
(either in solid or liquid
form) is produced since the
dawn of human existence and it is
not excessive to say, waste is the first
thing generated before people are able
to contribute to the betterment of
lives. Indifferent of the various
definitions, the problems regarding
the disposal and management of
waste have then never been out of
the issues of open discussion. This
controversial subject has become
more severe when the growth of waste
has reached a critical condition due
to the increasing demands on the
consumption of natural resources and
raw material in the creation of
products to enrich people’s lives.
Hence, the current and future
generations must ensure that all
resources be preserved, fully utilized
and well managed.
Generation rates of Municipal
Solid Waste (MSW) vary according to
the economic and social standing of
a country. This, in return, will also
affect the management style of the
MSW generated. Generally, the
higher income community generate
more waste, recycle more and have
the money to employ new technology
to treat their waste. As for the lower
income communities, the waste
generated is more organic in nature,
which calls for lesser recycling,
whereas disposal is by open dumping.
The effects of this naturally would
mean that in the lower income
countries pollution to water and air
is huge as compared to the more
developed countries. However, on the
other hand, does waste alone generate
harmful gasses that pollute the world
or does manufacturing, transportation
and power production, which are
rampant in the more industrialised
countries contribute more towards
pollution?
This subject is
argumentative and could be discussed
at length. However, the environment
cannot wait for its population to
debate on the above matter. Action
needs to be taken in a world where
economic power determines the
treatment method. Hence, the idea
of recovering all ‘wealth’ in the waste
is essential to ensure that even the
poorest countries could benefit from
all waste management technologies.
For this to work, recycling, reuse and
recovery of energy is essential in an
integrated approach towards waste
management.
WASTE GENERATION RATES
MSW could be considered to be
produced in proportion with the
economic productivity and the
consumption rate of the population
of the countries’ resources. Countries
with higher incomes produce more
waste per capita and per employee,
and their waste generally contains
more packaging material and
recyclable items. In low-income
countries, commercial and industrial
activities are limited; thus recycling
activities are limited. Table 1 reflects
the generation rates as compared to
the economic level and the
management cost. In most low
income countries, land availability,
due to lack of economic value, makes
it easier to operate open dumps as
compared to developed countries
where land cost is too high due to
economic and residential demand,
and calls for more sophisticated
management methods such as
incineration, refuse-derived fuel,
composting, material recovery
facilities and others [1,2]. At the same
T H E I N G E N I E U R 10
time, the generation rate with the
related disposal cost alone does not
reflect the MSW management
condition in most countries. Many
other factors, such as land availability,
public opinion, political, economical
and legal conditions too do govern
over the decision made to tackle the
MSW management problem in a
country.
Mostly, when waste generation
is considered, many reflect on the
quantity of the waste that is
generated, forgetting the quality
of the waste that is disposed off.
Ta b l e 2 r e f l e c t s s o m e o f t h e
generation rates, a country’s income
and the composition of the MSW
generated. Indications from Table 2
show that in the lower income
countries generation rates are lower.
At the same time the recyclable items
such as plastic, paper and glass are
low as compared to the higher income
nations. This goes to show that the
socio economic status of a country
has adverse effect on the generation
rates and also the recycling rates, not
to mention the fact that the
population does not get to enjoy the
product of the modern world such as
excessive packaging.
As for Malaysia, the capital city
of Kuala Lumpur is usually the
center of attention for waste
management problems due to the
congestion and over production of
MSW. It is reported that on average,
the daily collection is between
18,000 and 25,000 tons/day for
Malaysia and in Kuala Lumpur it is
as high as 3,000 tons/day [6,7]. On
average, the generation rate is about
0.8 to 1.2 kg/capita/day and this
generation rate is increasing
annually at a rate between 2 and 3%.
As for other Asian countries the
cover feature
Table 1:Global Perspective of Municipal Solid Waste Generation Rates and
The Respective Management Costs [3,4]
Units
Low
Income
0.50 to 0.75
0.35 to 0.65
Middle
Income
0.55 to 1.10
0.45 to 0.75
High
Income
0.75 to 2.20
0.65 to 1.50
Mixed Urban Waste – Large City
kg/cap/day
Mixed Urban Waste – Medium
kg/cap/day
City
Residential Waste Only
kg/cap/day 0.25 to 0.45
0.35 to 0.65
0.55 to 1.00
Average Income from GNP
US$/cap/yr
370
2,400
22,000
Collection Cost
US$/ton
10 to 30
30 to 70
70 to 120
Transfer Cost
US$/ton
3 to 8
5 to 15
15 to 20
Open Dumping Cost
US$/ton
0.5 to 2
1 to 3
5 to 10
Sanitary Landfill Cost
US$/ton
3 to 10
8 to 15
20 to 50
Tidal Land Reclamation Cost
US$/ton
3 to 15
10 to 40
30 to 100
Composting Cost
US$/ton
5 to 20
10 to 40
20 to 60
Incineration Cost
US$/ton
40 to 60
30 to 80
70 to 100
Total cost without Transfer
US$/ton
13 to 40
38 to 85
90 to 170
Total cost with Transfer
US$/ton
17 to 48
43 to 100
105 to 190
Cost as % of Income
%
0.7 to 2.6
0.5 to 1.3
0.2 to 0.5
* Income based on 1992 Gross National product data form the World Development Report, 1994
Table 2 : Socio-economic data, generation rates and major waste components in some countries [4,5]
City
Country
High Income
New York
USA
Sydney
Australia
Tokyo
Japan
Paris
France
Rome
Italy
Medium Income
Madrid
Spain
Singapore
Singapore
Manila
Philippines
Taipei
Taiwan
Kano
Nigeria
Low Income
Bangalore
India
Dacca
Bangladesh
Karachi
Pakistan
Jakarta
Indonesia
Rangoon
Burma
Socio-economic factors
PD
T
1,000
620
700
1,250
580
15
450
25
30
15 40,694
10 4,000
14
700
4.2 12,800 9.12
4.2 4,100 3.23
7.0 4,910 11.60
2.5 18,400 2.18
4.9 7,000 2.88
720
690
400
590
460
35.0
38.0
38.0
30.0
18.0
10.0
0.1
11.0
1.0
4.0
22.0
13.0
23.0
30.0
50.0
13.0
11.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
9.0
18.0
7.0
4.0
4.0
410
440
64
220
70
14
290
29 26,472
27
983
22 1,250
30
200
4.2
3.9
5.0
4.2
4.5
5,000
4,000
807
2,000
3.19
2.44
1.63
2.50
1.00
390
-
21.0
43.0
17.0
8.0
17.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
4.0
45.0
5.0
43.0
25.0
43.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
5.0
4.0
1.0
5.0
3.0
2.0
50
25
340
45
32
24
26
29
24
26
7.0
6.0
5.5
8.0
6.0
320
200
1,890
474
120
2.91
1.31
5.10
6.50
2.60
-
3.0
2.0
0.5
2.0
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.5
3.0
4.0
65.0
40.0
56.0
82.0
80.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
4.0
3.0
0.2
9.0
0.5
0.5
6.0
W= monthly wages in US$
T = annual average temperature, %oC
PD = population density, persons/km2
P/DW = persons /dwelling
generation rate increase is between 3
and 7 %. Table 3 shows some figures
on the generation rates and the
composition of the different classes
of income based on a study done in
Selangor. A comparison between
Table 2 and 3 indicates the state of
Selangor to be in between high
income and middle income group of
countries if the MSW generation is
used as a yard stick to judge economic
status of a state.
POP
Major waste components (% by weight)
Paper Plastic Food Metal Glass
W
1,300
3,750
1,300
700
200
P/DW GNP
Municipal
Waste
MW
POP = total population in millions
GNP=gross national product, US$
WASTE MANAGEMENT TRENDS
To many residents of the world,
generation of waste is considered a
part of life which cannot be changed,
but to some, the generation of waste
is something that will eventually
affect them if not managed properly.
Having all the best waste
management options available is
good but a reflection of the current
generation rates and the disposal
T H E I N G E N I E U R 11
MW = kg/capita/yr
methods are necessary in order to
avoid overspending. This brings in the
concept of BATNEEC (Best Available
Technology, Not Entailing Excessive
Cost) where the technology is suited
to the problem and the situation in
the country. However, there are some
countries or rather counties/states that
do not process their waste in their
own state, bring about the NIMBY
(Not In My Back Yard) syndrome,
which will entail excessive cost in just
cover feature
Table 3: Generation rates and major waste components in the state of Selangor, Malaysia
[4,5]
Generation Rate
kg/capita/
day
Food
Paper
Textile
Rubber / Leather
Wood
Garden Waste
Other Organic
Other (plastic, metal,
etc.)
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
transporting the waste across the
boarder [8]. Table 4 shows the
amount of waste that is collected and
how it is managed in a few countries.
From the table it is good to note that
most of the nations in the world are
providing for the collection of waste
to at lease 80% of that which is
generated.
High
Income
(> RM
3,000)
1.70
Middle Income
(RM 1,500 to
2,999)
Low Income
(< RM 1,500)
0.71
0.80
47.21
12.28
2.38
0.69
0.82
8.64
0.18
27.80
49.38
12.58
2.26
0.73
0.45
5.94
0.27
28.39
Composition
38.81
12.81
2.18
2.17
1.16
11.26
0.59
31.02
As for Malaysia, until the year
2000, land filling of the waste
generated has been the main option.
However, the 144 landfills and open
dumps scattered all over the country
are at a critical level of either at the
end or beyond their lifespan. At the
same time, Malaysia enjoys a high
development rate and combined with
the strict environmental regulations
enforced, land for dumping of waste
is scarce. Over the last five years, the
management trends in major towns
have changed from land filling to
putting great pressure to recycle,
recover and reuse. Kuala Lumpur
has closed two landfills and created
only one landfill, one transfer station
Table 4: Amount of waste collected and the management methods [9 - 18]
Country
United
States
Australia
Japan
France
Italy
Spain
Singapore
Mexico
Peru
Madagascar
Mauritius
Hong Kong
Singapore
Thailand
Municipal Population Municipal Municipal Municipal Municipal
Data
waste
waste
waste
served by
waste
latest
waste
collected municipal collected landfilled incinerated recycled/
year
(%)
(%)
per
waste
(1000
available
composted
capita
collection
tonnes)
(kg)
served
(%)
(kg)
2001
207 957
100.0
722
55.7
14.7
29.7
1999
2000
2001
2002
2001
2002
2002
2001
2002
2003
2002
2002
2000
13 200
52 362
32 174
29 788
26 340
4 402
32 174
1 444
151
351
5 399
4 402
13 972
...
100.0
100.0
100.0
...
...
86.0
100.0
100.0
95.0
100.0
...
...
...
412
540
525
595
...
367
...
...
303
773
...
...
95.0
5.9
43.2
63.8
59.6
3.7
97.6
64.6
100.0
100.0
63.7
3.7
...
0.0
77.0
32.2
8.9
5.6
55.0
0.0
...
0.0
...
...
55.0
0.8
7.3
15.0
24.6
...
21.6
41.3
2.4
...
0.0
...
36.3
41.3
14.3
T H E I N G E N I E U R 12
cover feature
+
CO2
equivalents
per annum
–
Landfill +
Gas recovery +
Power Production
Mix waste
combustion plant +
power production
SRF production cogasification in coal
boiler
SRF and paper
fibre recovery + cogasification in coal
boiler
Landfil
and a Refuse Derived Fuel plant and
an Incineration plant is in the
pipeline. The same could be said
about Penang and Johor Bahru.
However, the management style in
the lesser-populated states is still
dependent on landfills. As for the
central Government, efforts are in the
pipeline for the tabling of a National
Waste bill that will empower the local
authorities to provide better
management and allow for
privatization of the collection and
disposal of the MSW. A master plan
for the nation on waste management
policies and strategies has been
prepared and earmarked for
implementation until 2020 [8].
THE PROBLEM
Waste generation at all points
needs to be managed in a proper
manner. The effects of this waste
either managed or mis-managed
could lead to either the pollution of
water or air. In most cases, water
pollution is contributed by the
improper management of landfills or
just open dumps, which allows
untreated or semi-treated leachate to
flow into waterways causing
tremendous health problems.
The standards and norms for
handling MSW in industrialised
Energy
Recycling
Total
countries have reduced health and
environmental impact substantially.
About four decades ago, highincome countries required open
dumps to be covered daily with soil
to curtail vector access, turning these
dumps into controlled landfills.
However, in the 70s, when it became
apparent that even controlled
landfills could cause major water
pollution, sanitary landfills become
a necessity. This technology
development allowed for the proper
treatment of leachate and also for the
collection of the landfill gasses [6].
As for pollution to the
atmosphere as a result of waste
generation or its management, the
path has been well documented and
researched, for it contributes to many
problems. Figure 1, gives an
indication of the amount of CO2 that
could be emitted or saved by
employing the various technologies
available. It is generally noted that
if waste is just dumped without
recycling the material or the recovery
of energy, then it is a net disaster to
the environment in terms of release
of CO2 and CH4 to the air which are
said to be the main contributors to
the greenhouse effect.
In the case of Japan, it is
estimated that as a result of MSW
management, 38% of the amount of
T H E I N G E N I E U R 13
Figure 1:
Greenhouse gas
emissions of
different waste
management
systems [14]
CO 2 produced could come from
incineration, while landfill generates
3%, collection and transportation
4%, crushing activities 4% and lastly
the handling of plastics generates
51% of the total CO2 generated from
waste management. In another study
done in Japan, the amount of green
house gasses generated from various
waste management methods are
shown on Table 5. As for Malaysia,
the actual amount of gasses
generated from the waste
management of MSW is unknown.
However, data from the World Bank
indicate in Malaysia in 2000 the
amount of CO2 emitted was 123.6
million metric tons and CH4 emitted
was 2.44 million metric tons. This is
emission from all types of fuels.
Generally, it is evident that no
matter what the management
method may be, the effect on the
environment is still unavoidable.
The only way to reduce waste is to
increase recycling and ultimately to
stop the production of waste. This
has to come into effect in terms of
reducing the demand on goods and
also ensuring the production of
goods are full proof with 110%
efficiency. This is something for the
future but for the current market,
waste management has to strike a
balance between the environment
cover feature
Table 5 : Amount of Green House Gases from Waste Management
in 2000 – Japan
Source
Kitchen Garbage
Controlled
Paper / Fiber
Landfill
Wood
Industrial Waste Water
Final Treatment
Plant
Municipal /
Domestic
Commercial
Treatment Plant
Waste Water
Human Waste
Treatment Plant
Emissions
from
Landfill
Emissions
from Waste
Water
Treatment
Emissions
from
Incineration
Municipal Solid Waste
Industrial Solid Waste
GHG s
CH4
CH4
CH4
CH4
CH4
N2O
CH4
N2O
CH4
N2O
CO2
CH4
N2O
CO2
CH4
N2O
Total
and economical returns. Most waste
management methods other then the
conventional landfill, demand high
capital and operational cost. Due to
these projects being not bankable, the
Government funded the waste
management projects in the past.
Fortunately, technology has
progressed and new laws allow for
the trading of CO2 in the open market
making waste management viable
and economically encouraging.
THE OPPORTUNITY
From the previous arguments, it
is evident that the concept of recycle,
reuse and recover is essential in
minimizing the amount of
environmental and economical
Processing
Intermediate
Products
Gg CO2 eq
1,205.5
2,576.4
1,537.7
308.5
231.3
620.9
418.9
360.7
34.0
868.6
12,804.5
11.2
650.1
11,440.2
0.8
1,621.1
34,690.5
damage that could be done if waste
is disposed off indiscriminately.
However, management of waste
requires considerable funds and many
countries do not have the economic
resources for high technology
management. On the other hand
private companies are looking at the
Government for capital expenditure
to reduce the financial burden on the
M aterials
For M arket
Conversion
To E nergy
Incineration
C ompost
M SW
Figure 2:
Pathways for
processing of
municipal solid
waste [14]
Mechanical
Separation
A narobic
D igestion
B iodegradable
Fraction
Secondary
R aw m aterial
G lass, M etals,
A luminium etc
P yrolisis
G asification
Solid
Fuels
Recovered
C ombustion
C o-utilisation
w ith F ossil F uels
T H E I N G E N I E U R 14
600 kWhe
Coal
Coal Combustion
600 kWhe
Landfill
1 tonne
MSW
Without gas utilization
592 kg
CO2
1610 kg
CO2
Net reduction in CO2 = 220-592-1610 = -1982 kg
Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions from electricity production[14]
company. Hence, the financial model
becomes an important tool in making
the final decision on the management
method.
At this point, the concept of
turning waste to wealth becomes
apparent. The need to recover
maximum profits from the
management method employed while
ensuring environmental sustainability
is the main objective. Figure 2 shows
the pathways that are available right
from the processing of the MSW to
the final landfill. It is obvious that at
every level of processing, there is
money to be made if processed in a
Table 6: Amount of energy produced and consumed by Non-renewable
and renewable resources [9 – 18]
Country
Sweden
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Denmark
Canada
Mexico
United
States
China
Japan
Malaysia
Thailand
Australia
New
Zealand
Total Energy Produced (1999)
All
Renewable
NonEnergy
Sources Renewable
Source
Energy
(1000
(%)
Source (%)
Metric
TOE)
34,377
57.1
42.9
99.1
0.9
262,186
10,325
27,171
379,207
230,236
1,711,814
1,138,617
104,092
77,623
40,059
250,436
14,932
92.9
91.6
88.8
92.9
93.1
7.1
8.4
11.2
7.1
6.9
78.9
83.8
95.8
63.3
96.9
59.3
21.1
16.2
4.2
36.7
3.1
40.7
Total Energy Consumed (2001)
All
NonRenewable
Sources Renewable
Energy
(1000
Energy
Source
Metric
Source
(%)
TOE)
(%)
51,054
71.2
28.8
98.4
1.6
235,158
19,476
19,783
248,184
152,273
2,281,414
1,139,369
520,729
51,608
75,542
115,627
T H E I N G E N I E U R 15
18,294
99.5
88.7
85.1
89.8
95.4
0.5
11.3
14.9
10.2
4.6
79.0
96.8
94.6
81.8
94.2
70.4
21.0
3.2
5.4
18.2
5.8
29.6
cover feature
1100 kg CO2
(220 kg fossil and 880
kg biogenic)
MSW
1 tonne
MSW
proper manner. Current technologies
allow for even inert ash material from
the incinerators to be recycled into
road payment materials or for the
manufacturing of tiles. This would
not only save resources but allow for
the extension of landfill lifespan while
ensuring almost zero waste to the
landfill.
Table 6 shows the amount of
energy produced in 1999 and also
the amount of energy consumed in
2001 either by non-renewable
resources or by renewable resources.
Some countries are producing a fair
bit via renewable resources but the
major industrialised countries are
still very much dependent on
depleting fuels as a resource. The
table also goes to show weather
production and demand are
maintained at a margin or there is
too much stand-by power, which is
being generated by not being used.
On the other hand, Figure 3, paints
a different picture of how much CO2
could be saved if energy is recovered
from the waste that is dumped into
the landfill.
cover feature
Table 7: Conversation of MSW to RDF and the amount of recyclables obtained with
improvement in calorific value (CV). [1]
MSW weight Removal % RDF weight RDF (%) CV MSW (kJ/kg) CV RDF (kJ/kg)
Food
59.19
50.00
29.60
49.34
16,373.68
8,079.01
Plastic
12.65
10.00
11.38
18.97
35,028.95
6,646.57
Paper
7.99
10.00
7.19
11.98
14,528.85
1,741.23
Rubber
0.65
10.00
0.59
0.98
21,310.43
207.92
Yard
7.92
10.00
7.13
11.88
13,653.13
1,622.36
Textile
1.36
10.00
1.22
2.04
17,735.08
361.57
Wood
2.32
10.00
2.09
3.48
15,727.25
547.36
Glass
1.56
90.00
0.16
0.26
Aluminum
0.39
90.00
0.04
0.06
Ferrous
2.01
90.00
0.20
0.33
Fine
3.97
90.00
0.40
0.66
10,723.86
70.97
Total
100.00
59.98
100.00
17,532.96
19,277.00
* Note – all calculations based on dry weight
Table 8: Typical expense and income from managing MSW generated - Kuala Lumpur [1]
Collection
Transfer Station
Landfill
Incineration
Refuse Derived
Fuel
Composting
Recycling
Plastic
Metal
Others
Energy from RDF
Composting
Carbon Trading
In Malaysia, as mentioned
earlier, the major cities have
changed from total land filling to
recycling, recovery of energy
through incineration or even
conversion of MSW to Refuse
Derived Fuel (RDF). Table 7 and 8
shows the removal efficiency of the
RDF process and the expenses and
probable income from managing
the waste in an integrated fashion.
These are projection figures for a
commercial RDF plant, which will
commence operation in 2006 for
the area of Kajang, Selangor. This
Estimated Expenses (RM/ton MSW)
90
32
27
100
30
33
Possible Income (RM/ton MSW)
20
18
5
29.5
30
35
20%/ton MSW – with 20% recycled – RM 0.50 / kg
8%/ton MSW – with 75% recycled – RM 0.50 / kg
Estimated
30%/ton MSW – 3,500kcal/kg – RM 0.17/ kW.h
60%/ton MSW – 5% compost – RM 1.00 / kg
1.9 tons CO2/ton MSW – US$ 5 / ton CO 2
is just one option and there are
many more methods of integrating
the management methods to obtain
fruitful income. Malaysia is also
rich in bio resources and
a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y, w h i c h
generate a lot of waste. These
wastes could act as enhancing
materials to better manage the
MSW generated while ensuring not
much methane is emitted into the
atmosphere. This will not only
improve the quality of live in
Malaysia but also ensure
management of all waste material
T H E I N G E N I E U R 16
is handled properly while bringing
economical returns to the investors.
The ideal about RDF production
is that the plant allows for material
recovery, which is an income to the
plant, and then the organics are
shred and either converted to RDF
or fed into composters to generate
biogases which are fed to a fuel cell
to create Hydrogen fuel. The
opportunities are unlimited, with
the integrating of various
technologies and various wastes to
generate the most income.
However, technology has to be
REFERENCES
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4.
5.
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8.
9.
11.
CONCLUSION
12.
Waste generated and managed
in a proper manner is essentially
good for the environment.
However, with the advancement of
technology and in the pursuit of a
modern and more comfortable
lifestyle, many the countries are
endangering the environment to
the point of no return. It has
already been established that in
some countries, the background
level of dioxin in the air is higher
then the allowable cancer risk set
as 1 pica g/Nm3. The way forward
should be not treating the waste
produced but how not to produce
waste in the first place. This would
take a long time to achieve but
some action needs to be taken in
order to stop excess manufacturing
in the name and glory of seeking a
comfortable lifestyle.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
Sivapalan Kathiravale, ‘PhD Thesis in Preparation’, UKM, 2003.
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Cointreau, Sandra, ‘Occupational And Environmental Health Issues
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‘Municipal Waste Arising’, www.un.org/depts/unsd/enviro
Mohd Nasir Hassan, Sivapalan Kathiravale, et. Ai. 2002, ‘Municipal
Solid Waste Characterisation Study of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia’
International Solid Waste Association World Environment Congress
& Exibition 2002, Istanbul Convention & Exhibition Center, Turkey,
July 8-12. 2002
Sivapalan Kathiravale, et. al. 2002, ‘A Material Balance of the
Municipal Solid Waste Generated by the Various Sources in Kuala
Lumpur’ World Engineering Congress 2002, Kuching Sarawak, July
22-25. 2002
Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus, ‘Developing Strategies for MSW
Management R&D in Malaysia and the Repositioning of the Thermal
Treatment Discipline’, 3rd I-CIPEC, Hongzhou, China, October, 2004
Earth Trends Data Tables: Climate and Atmosphere, 2005, World
Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, United Nations
Framework 10. Earth Trends Data Tables: Energy Consumption by
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Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, United Nations
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World Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, United
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International Energy Agency, United Nations Framework
‘Municipal Solid Waste and its Role in Sustainability’ A position
paper prepared by IEA Bioenergy, www.ieabioenergy.com
Sivapalan Kathiravale, Muhd Noor Muhd Yunus 2003, ‘Recoverable
Energy From Malaysian Municipal Solid Waset’ Bulletin Ingenieur,
Malaysia, Vol. 21 Quarter 4/4 Dec 2003 Pg 8 – 12
Blueprint on Waste to Wealth, Malaysian Institute for Nuclear
Technology, in Print
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Burning by Sector, 2005, World Resources Institute, International
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Resources Institute, International Energy Agency, United Nations
Framework BEM
T H E I N G E N I E U R 17
cover feature
developed locally where the ‘knowhow’ will be gained at the same
time. Only by this method will
Malaysia become an exporter of
technology instead of just materials
and products.
Apart form just waste treatment,
landfill mining and recovery of
materials from closed landfills are
options. Most countries evolve
from open dumps that receive all
kinds of waste to sanitary landfills,
which receive waste that has been
recycled, thermally treated, and the
inert only end up in landfills. By
locating a material recovery facility
or a RDF plant on a closed landfill
or open dump, the plant could
operate to recover some of the
materials that have been buried as
fuel.
On the other hand, open
dumps that have been closed could
also be harvested for the landfill
gasses that are emitted to be
converted into electricity. This not
only saves the environment but
also generates electricity. Over a
period of time, these landfills could
also be converted into orchards,
golf courses or even residential
areas in years to come. The
financial opportunities for this is
enormous and waiting to be tapped.
cover feature
Biomass Energy From The
Palm Oil Industry In Malaysia
By Dr. Ma A N and Dato’ Dr. Yusof Basiron, Malaysian Palm Oil Board
O
ver the last 40 years, the
Malaysian palm oil industry
has grown by leaps and
bounds to become the world largest
producer and exporter of palm oil and
its products. In 2004, Malaysia had
about 3.87 million hectares of land
under oil palm cultivation. There were
also 380 palm oil mills processing about
70 million tonnes of fresh fruit bunch
(FFB) to produce 13.98 million tonnes
of crude palm oil (CPO) and 3.66 million
tonnes of palm kernel. There were also
48 active refineries, 40 palm kernel
crushing plants and 17 oleochemical
factories producing various processed
palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernel
cake, oleochemicals and finished palm
products. The total export earnings of
palm oil products, constituting refined
palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm kernel
cake, oleochemicals and finished
products amounted to RM 30.41 billion
(RM3.80=US$ 1).
Traditionally oil palm is grown for
its oils, i.e. palm oil, palm kernel oil
and palm kernel cake as the
commodity products. There are many
co-products like fronds, trunks, empty
fruit bunch (EFB) palm fibre and shell
that have not been fully commercially
exploited. In some cases they are still
being considered as a nuisance to the
industry. Through concerted research
and development efforts by many
research organisations including
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB),
these co-products from palm oil
industry have been found to be good
resources for many applications.
There are now many competitive uses
of these materials. One of them is to
utilise them as fuel for energy
production. In fact, the Malaysian
Government has identified biomass as
the fifth fuel resource to complement
the petroleum, gas, coal and hydro
as energy resources.
Currently more than 80% of the
palm oil produced is used for food
applications like coking oil, frying
oil, margarine, shortening and many
others. The non-edible applications
include soap and candle as well as
oleochemicals production. The
main raw material for major
oleochemicals production is palm
kernel oil.
In recent years, the escalating
petroleum price coupled with the
compelling pressure under the Kyoto
Protocol to reduce carbon dioxide
(green house gas) emission have
forced many countries to look for
alternative and renewable fuels.
Vegetable oils and their esters have
been identified as potential green
fuels for the future. In the Malaysian
context, palm oil and its derivatives
including palm oil methyl esters have
been successfully researched and
evaluated as diesel substitutes. The
potential energy from all these palm
biomass is presented in this paper.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 18
Energy From Fibre, Shell And
Empty Fruit Bunches
Oil palm is a perennial crop. It has
an economic life span of about 25
years. Oil palm is grown for its oils.
Palm oil and palm kernel oil are
extracted from the mesocarp and
kernels of the fruits respectively. In
general, the fresh fruit bunches (FFB)
contains about 20-25% palm oil, 67% palm kernel, 14% fibre, 7% shell
and 23% empty fruit bunch (EFB) (Ma,
2002). Table 1 shows the type and
amount of biomass generated
together with their heat values.
Fibre And Shell
All the palm oil mills in Malaysia
use fibre and shell as the boiler fuel
to produce steam and electricity for
palm oil and kernel production
processes. The fibre and shell alone
can supply more than enough
electricity to meet the energy demand
Biomass
Quantity
(million tones)
Moisture
Content (%)
Oil
Content (%)
Calorific Value (dry)
(kJ/kg)
EFB
Fibre
Shell
POME
16.1
9.8
4.9
49.0
65
35
12
93
5
5
1
1
18,883
19,114
20,156
Note : EFB - Empty fruit bunch
POME - Palm oil mill effluent
of a palm oil mill. It is estimated that
20 kWh (lower kWh for higher
capacity mill) of electrical energy is
required to process one tonne of FFB.
Thus, in 2004 about 1400 million
kWh of electricity was generated and
consumed by the palm oil mills.
Assuming that each mill operates on
the average 393.35 hours per month,
the palm oil mills together will have
a generating capacity of 296 MW.
This constitutes about 2.5 % of the
energy demand of the country. It
must be mentioned here that the palm
oil mills generally have excess fibre
and shell, which are not used and
have to be disposed off separately. In
other words, the palm oil mills still
have excess capacity to produce more
renewable energy.
Assuming that a diesel power
generator consumes 0.34 litre of diesel
for every kWh of electricity output,
the oil palm industry in 2004 is
estimated to have saved the country
about 476 million litres of diesel
which amounted to about RM395
million (price of diesel @ RM0.83 per
litre). The energy requirement for
palm oil mills is mounting as palm
oil production is expected to reach
14 million tones in the year 2005.
Furthermore, the fuel cost could have
been more if fuel oil was used as boiler
fuel to generate steam separately for
the milling processes.
The oil palm industry is indeed
fortunate that the fibre and shell can
be used directly as the boiler fuel
without any further treatment. With
proper control of combustion, black
smoke emission usually associated
with the burning of solid fuel can be
controlled. Another intangible
advantage of using both these
residues as fuel is that it helps to
dispose off these bulky materials
which otherwise would contribute to
environmental pollution. Unless
these materials can be more
beneficially utilised, it is envisaged
that they will remain as boiler fuel
for the foreseeable future. It has
generally been considered that
energy is free in the palm oil mills.
This has undoubtedly contributed
greatly to the success of the palm
oil industry.
Empty Fruit Bunch
Apart from fibre and shell, EFB
are another valuable biomass, which
can be readily converted into energy.
However this material has only been
utilized to a very limited extent. This
is mainly because there is already
enough energy available from fibre
and shell. Also, due to its physical
nature and high moisture content of
65 %, the EFB has to be pre-treated
to reduce its bulkiness and moisture
content to below 50 %, in order to
render it more easily combustible
(Jorgensen, 1985; Chua, 1991).
The EFB has a heat value of
18,883 kJ/kg on dry weight. Thus
the total heat energy obtainable from
the EFB in 2004 would be 106 x 1012
kJ. This is sufficient to generate
about 26.5 million tonnes of steam
(at 65 % boiler efficiency and 2,604
kJ per kg of steam) and 980 million
kWh of electricity saving the country
333 million litres of diesel or RM276
million. The above calculation was
based on standard non-condensing
turbo-alternator working against a
backpressure of 3 bars gauge. More
than double of the energy could be
obtained if condensing turbines
working at a vacuum of 0.25 bar
(absolute) are used for power
generation (Chua, 1991).
T H E I N G E N I E U R 19
The above estimation represents
the total obtainable energy from all
the 380 palm oil mills distributed all
over the country. Thus it can be said
that the energy generated from a
single palm oil mill will not be
significant in volume and it may not
be
viable
for
commercial
consideration or to supply the
electricity to the national grid.
However, the EFB, unlike fibre, can
be easily collected and transported.
The possibility of producing electricity
at a central power generating plant
can be a viable proposition. The
central power plants can be sited at
locations where there are high
concentrations of palm oil mills so
that the EFB and the surplus fibre and
shell from the mills can be transported
at a reasonable distance and cost to
the respective central power plants.
Also since the power plants can be
independent entities, they can be
operated throughout the year. The
energy data analysed for various palm
biomass as shown in Table 2 provides
useful information when they are used
in boiler fuels to generate electricity.
Biogas From POME
Besides the solid residues, palm oil
mills also generate large quantities of
liquid waste in the form of palm oil
mill effluent (POME), which, due to
its high biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD), is required by law to be treated
to acceptable levels before it can be
discharged into watercourses or onto
land. In a conventional palm oil mill,
about 0.7 m3 of POME is generated
for every tonne of FFB processed.
Hence in 2004, about 49 million m3
of POME was generated in this
country. Anaerobic process is adopted
by the palm oil mills to treat their
cover feature
Table 1. Biomass Generated by Palm Oil Mills in 2004
cover feature
Table 2. Energy Database for Palm Biomass
Sample
Empty Fruit
Bunch (EFB)
Fibres
Shell
Palm Kernel
Cake
Nut
Crude Palm
Oil
Kernel Oil
Liquor from
EFB
Palm Oil Mill
Effluent
Trunk
Petiole
Root
Calorific Value
(kJ/kg)
Ash
(%)
Volatile Matter
(%)
Moisture
(%)
Hexane
Extractable
(%)
18,795
4.60
87.04
67.00
11.25
19,055
20,093
6.10
3.00
84.91
83.45
37.00
12.00
7.60
3.26
18,884
3.94
88.54
0.28
9.35
24,545
4.05
84.03
15.46
4.43
39,360
0.91
1.07
1.07
95.84
38,025
0.79
0.02
0.02
95.06
20,748
11.63
78.50
88.75
3.85
16,992
15.20
77.09
93.00
12.55
17,471
15,719
15,548
3.39
3.37
5.92
86.73
85.10
86.30
76.00
71.00
36.00
0.80
0.62
0.20
Source: Chow et al. (2003)
Table 3. Some Properties of Gaseous Fuels
Gross calorific value (kJ/Nm3)
Specific gravity
Ignition Temperature (0C)
Inflammable limits (%)
Combustion air required (m3/m3)
Biogas
19,908 – 25,830
0.847 – 1.002
650 – 750
7.5 – 21
9.6
LPG
100,500
1.5
450 – 500
2 – 10
13.8
Natural gas
3,797
0.584
650 – 750
5 – 15
9.6
All gases evaluated at 15.5oC, atmosphere pressure and saturated with water vapour.
LPG - Liquefied petroleum gas
Source: Quah and Gillies (1981)
Table 4. Potential Energy from Biogas
Year
Palm oil production
(million tonnes)
POME
(million m3)
Biogas
(million m3)
Electricity
(million kWh)
2004
13.98
49
1372
2470
POME. The biogas produced during
the decomposition is a valuable
energy source. It contains about 6070% methane, 30-40% carbon dioxide
and trace amount of hydrogen
sulphide. Its fuel properties are shown
in Table 3 together with other gaseous
fuels.
About 28 m3 of biogas is generated
for every m3 of POME treated. Most
of the biogas is, however, not
recovered. So far only a few palm oil
mills harness the biogas for heat and
electricity generation (Quah et al.,
1982; Gillies and Quah, 1985; Chua,
1991). In a gas engine, it has been
reported that about 1.8 kWh of
electricity could be generated from
one m3 of biogas (Quah et al., 1982).
The potential energy from biogas
generated by POME is shown in
Table 4. Again, as all the palm oil
mills have enough energy from fibre
and shell, there is no outlet for this
surplus energy. Considering the costs
of storage and transportation of the
biogas, perhaps the most viable
proposition is to encourage the setting
T H E I N G E N I E U R 20
up of industries in the vicinity of the
palm oil mills where the biogas energy
can be directly utilized. This can
result in a substantial saving in
energy bills (Chua, 1991).
It was estimated that one cubic
meter of biogas is equivalent to 0.65
litre of diesel for electricity
generation. Hence, the total biogas
energy can substitute 892 million
litres of diesel in 2004. This amounted
to RM740 million. Again the amount
of biogas generated by an individual
palm oil mill is not significant for
Palm Oil Methyl Esters
As Diesel Substitute
Biodiesel has gained much
attention over the recent years due
to the increasing awareness towards
the environment. Biodiesel is
produced from renewable plant
resources and thus does not
contribute to the nett increase of
carbon dioxide. From 1996 to 2004,
the biodiesel production capacity in
the European Union has increased by
a factor of four from 591,000 tonnes
to a total of 2.355 million tonnes
(Bockey, 2002 and Bockey, 2004).
Further utilisation of biodiesel is
anticipated due to the initiative of the
respective authorities to promote
biodiesel and the high cost of
petroleum diesel. For example, by the
end of 2005, at least 2% (about 3.1
million tonnes) of fossil fuels will be
replaced by biofuels (biodiesel,
bioethanol, biogas, biomethanol etc.)
in all European Union (EU) countries.
This minimum target quantities have
been laid down in the EU commission
action plan, by which the proportion
will be increased annually by 0.75%
to reach 5.75% (about 17.5 million
tonnes) in the year 2010 (Schöpe and
Britschkat, 2002; Bockey and Körbitz,
2002; Markolvitz, 2002). Biodiesel
will take up about 10 million tonnes.
This proposal also envisages that by
2020, the proportion of biofuels will
be 20% and obligatory blending of
1% of biofuels will be introduced from
2009 (1.75% from 2010 onwards). The
current trend and legislation will set
a momentum for greater biodiesel
production and consumption
worldwide. Thus, there will be an
upward course and new market
opportunities for biodiesel.
Methyl esters of vegetable oils
have been successfully evaluated as
diesel substitute worldwide (Choo and
Ma, 2000; Choo et al., 1997). For
example, rapeseed methyl esters in
Europe, soybean oil methyl esters in
USA, sunflower oil methyl esters in
both Europe and USA; and palm oil
methyl esters in Malaysia. As the
choice of vegetable oil depends on the
cost of production and reliability of
supply, palm oil would be the
preferred choice. The reason being oil
palm is the highest oil-yielding crop
(4-5 tonnes/hectare/year) among all
the vegetable oils and the cheapest
vegetable oil traded in the world
market.
Malaysia has embarked on an
extensive biodiesel programme since
1982. The biodiesel programme
included development of production
technology to convert palm oil to
palm oil methyl esters (palm diesel),
pilot plant study of palm diesel
production as well as exhaustive
evaluation of palm diesel as diesel
substitute in conventional diesel
engines (both stationary engines and
exhaustive field trials).
Crude palm oil can be readily
converted to their methyl esters. The
MPOB/PETRONAS patented palm
diesel technology (Choo et al., 1992)
has been successfully demonstrated
in a 3,000 tonne per year pilot plant
(Choo et al., 1995; Choo et al., 1997;
Choo and Cheah, 2000). The novel
aspect of this patented process is the
use of solid acid catalysts for the
esterification. The resultant of the
reaction mixture, which is neutral, is
then transesterified in the presence of
an alkaline catalyst. The conventional
washing stage or neutralization step
after the esterification process is
obviated and this is an economic
advantage.
Crude palm oil methyl esters (palm
diesel) have been systematically and
exhaustively evaluated as diesel fuel
substitute from 1983 to 1994 (Choo
et al., 1995; Choo et al., 2002a). These
included laboratory evaluation,
stationary engine testing and field
trials on a large number of vehicles
including taxis, trucks, passenger cars
and buses. All these tests have been
successfully completed. It is worth
mentioning that the tests also covered
field trials with 36 Mercedes Benz
engines from Germany mounted onto
passenger buses running on three
types of fuels namely 100% petroleum
diesel, blends of palm diesel and
T H E I N G E N I E U R 21
petroleum diesel (50:50) and 100%
palm diesel. Each bus has covered
300,000 km, the expected life of the
engines (total mileage covered by the
10 buses on 100% palm diesel is 3.7
million km). Very promising results
have been obtained from the
exhaustive field trial. Fuel
consumption by volume was
comparable to the diesel. Differences
in engine performance are so small
that an operator would not be able to
detect. The exhaust gas was found
to be much cleaner as it contained
comparable NOx, less hydrocarbon,
CO and CO 2 . The very obvious
advantage is the absence of black
smoke and sulphur dioxide from the
exhaust. This is a truly environment
benign fuel substitute.
Palm diesel has very similar fuel
properties as the petroleum diesel
(Table 5). It also has a higher cetane
number (63) than diesel (less than 40)
(Table 6). A higher cetane number
indicates shorter ignition time delay
characteristics and generally, a better
fuel. It can be used directly in
unmodified diesel engines. Obviously
it can be used as diesel improver.
Compared to crude palm oil, palm
diesel has very much improved
viscosity and volatility properties. It
does not contain gummy substances.
However, it has a pour point of 15°C
and this has confined its utilisation
in tropical countries only.
In recent years, palm diesel with
low pour point (without additives) has
been developed to meet seasonal pour
point requirements, for example
spring (-10°C), summer (0°C), autumn
(-10°C) and winter (-20°C). The MPOB
patented technology (Choo et al.,
2002b) has overcomed the pour point
problem of palm diesel. With the
improved pour point, palm diesel can
be utilised in temperate countries.
Besides having good low temperature
flow characteristic, the palm diesel
with low pour point also exhibits
comparable fuel properties as
petroleum diesel (Table 6).
The main benefit derived from
such renewable source of energy is
the reduction of emission of
greenhouse gases (GHG) such as CO2.
The production and consumption of
palm diesel has a closed carbon cycle.
cover feature
commercial exploitation. However,
the economic viability may be
attractive if the palm oil mills can
utilize all the fibre, shell, EFB and
biogas for steam and electricity
generation.
cover feature
Table 5. Fuel Characteristics of Malaysian Diesel, Palm Diesel and Palm Diesel
with Low Pour Point
0.8330
@15.5°C
Palm Oil Methyl
Esters (Palm
Diesel)
0.8700
@ 23.6°C
Palm Diesel
With Low Pour
Point
0.8803
@ 15.5°C
0.10
<0.04
< 0.04
4.0
4.5
4.5
15.0
16.0
-15.0
53
50
NA
45,800
40,135
39,160
98
174
153
0.14
0.02
Malaysian
Diesel
Property
Specific gravity
ASTM D1298
Sulphur content (% wt)
IP 242
Viscosity at 40oC (cSt)
ASTM D445
Pour point (oC)
ASTM D97
Cetane Index
ASTM D976
Gross heat of combustion (KJ/kg)
ASTM D 2382
Flash point (oC)
ASTM D 93
Conradson carbon residue (%wt)
ASTM D 189
0.01
NA: not available
Table 6. Cetane Numbers of Palm Diesel, Petroleum Diesel and their Blends
Blends
CPO methyl esters (%)
100
0
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
70
This closed carbon cycle recycles the
carbon dioxide and therefore, there
is no accumulation of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere. Subsequently, the
palm diesel production, because of its
lower emissions, is in-line with the
Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) of 1997 Kyoto Protocol.
Under the terms of 1997 Kyoto
Protocol (a major international
initiative established to reduce the
threat of global warming), there is
potential financial gain to transact
these GHG benefits to the palm oil
industry under the CDM. This
mechanism allows emission reduction
projects to be implemented and
credits are awarded to the investing
parties. Financial incentives like
attractive carbon credit scheme
Petroleum diesel (%)
0
100
95
90
85
80
70
60
50
30
should further enhance the economic
viability of these renewable fuels.
In 2003, Malaysia consumed 8.91
million tonnes of petroleum diesel
(National Energy Balance, Ministry of
Energy, Water & Communication,
2004). The transport sector alone
consumed 4.941 million tonnes and
generated 19.32 million tonnes of
carbon dioxide. The transport sector
has been identified as one of the chief
contributors to air pollution,
particularly black smoke (due to
diesel) and carbon dioxide. If 10% of
the diesel (0.4941 million tonnes) were
replaced by palm diesel, the industry
will enjoy 1.932 million tonnes of
carbon credit, which amounted to
US$19.32 millions at US$10 per tonne
of carbon dioxide.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 22
Cetane number
ASTM D613
62.4
37.7
39.2
40.3
42.3
44.3
47.4
50.0
52.0
57.1
Palm Oil As Diesel Substitute
Many
researchers
have
investigated the possibility of using
vegetable oils (straight or blended) as
diesel substitute. A good account of
their attempts was reported in the
1983 JAOCS Symposium on
Vegetable Oils as Diesel Fuels
(Klopfenstein and Walker, 1983; Pryde
1983; Strayer et al., 1983). The
symposium revealed that vegetable
oils have good potential as alternative
fuels if the following problems could
be overcome satisfactorily. These
include high viscosity, low volatility,
and the reactivity (polymerisation) of
the unsaturated hydrocarbon chains
if the oil is highly unsaturated. These
will give rise to coking on the
incorporating a heating device to the
diesel engine as has been successfully
demonstrated by Elsbett engine
manufacturer (Yusof Basiron and
Ahmad Hitam, 1992). Other factors
that may have long term effects on
the engine are free fatty acids and
gummy substances, which are found
in the crude vegetable oils. The
incomplete combustion residues may
contribute to undesirable deposits on
the engine components. The gummy
Table 7. Fuel Characteristics of Crude Palm Oil (CPO), Medium Fuel Oil (MFO) and Blends
of Crude Palm Oil /Medium Fuel Oil (CPO / MFO)
Properties
Method
Unit
MFO
CPO
CPO / MFO
(50:50)
D 240
18,350 Min
42,680 Min
3.5 Max
17,064
39,690
0.03
17,692
41,150
1.55
Gross Heat of
Combustion
Sulphur
D 4294
btu/lb
kJ/kg
wt %
Viscosity @ 50o C
D 445
cSt
180 Max
25.6
67.3
Flash Point
D 93
Deg C
66 Min
268
99
Ash
D 482
wt %
0.1 Max
NA
0.012
Pour Point
D 97
Deg C
21 Max
21.0
-6
Carbon Residue
D 4530
wt %
13.0 Max
8.5
7.0
Density @ 15o C
D 1298
kg/L
0.98 Max
0.9140
0.9408
Sediment by
Extraction
D473
wt %
0.10 Max
NA
0.02
Water by Distillation
D 95
vol %
0.5 Max
NA
0.25
NA: Not available
Table 8. Fuel Characteristics of RBD Palm Olein (RBDPOo), Petroleum Diesel and Blends
of RBD Palm Olein /Petroleum Diesel (RBDPOo / Diesel)
Blends
Test Conducted
Density @ 40 °C
(kg/L)
ASTM D1298
Sulfur Content
(% Wt)
IP 242
Viscosity @ 40oC
(cSt)
ASTM D445
Pour Point (oC)
ASTM D97
Gross Heat of
Combustion
(kJ/kg)
ASTM D240
Flash Point (oC)
PM cc ASTM D93
RBD Palm
Olein
(RBDPOo)
RBDPOo /
Diesel
(90:10)
RBDPOo /
Diesel
(70:30)
RBDPOo /
Diesel
(50:50)
RBDPOo /
Diesel
(30:70)
RBDPOo /
Diesel
(10:90)
Diesel
0.9150
0.8940
0.8770
0.8600
0.8435
0.8275
0.8190
0.035
0.035
0.055
0.060
0.080
0.090
0.100
39.2
29.5
14.8
8.6
7.0
3.8
3.7
9
9
12
12
12
15
15
38,975
39,800
40,625
41,450
42,275
43,100
45,000
326
142
110
99
93
90
89
T H E I N G E N I E U R 23
cover feature
injectors, carbon deposits, oil ring
sticking, and thickening and gelling
of the lubricating oil as a result of
contamination with vegetable oil.
It is possible to reduce the
viscosity of the vegetable oil by
cover feature
Table 9. Fuel Characteristics of RBD Palm Oil (RBDPO), Petroleum Diesel and Blends of
RBD Palm Oil/ Diesel (RBDPO/ Diesel)
Blends
RBD
Palm Oil
(RBDPO)
Diesel
RBDPO /
Diesel
(2:98)
RBDPO /
Diesel
(3:97)
RBDPO /
Diesel
(5:95)
RBDPO /
Diesel
(6:94)
RBDPO /
Diesel
(7:93)
0.8479
0.8492
0.8499
0.8502
0.8521
0.8525
0.9151
0.16
0.13
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.12
0.4248
4.895
4.576
4.656
5.010
5.021
40.68
Pour Point (oC)
ASTM D97
9
9
9
9
9
12
24
Gross Heat of
Combustion
(kJ/kg)
ASTM D240
45,050
45,340
45,160
45,095
45,085
45,015
39,260
84.0
84.0
84.0
84.0
85.0
86.0
Test Conducted
Density @ 15°C
(kg/L)
ASTM D1298
Sulfur Content
(% Wt)
IP 242
Viscosity @ 40oC
(cSt)
ASTM D445
Flash Point (oC)
ASTM D93
ASTM D92
substances may cause filter plugging
problem. This will call for more
regular and frequent servicing and
maintenance of the engine.
Various blends of crude palm oil
and palm oil products such as
refined, bleached and deodorised
palm olein with medium fuel oil
(MFO) and petroleum diesel
respectively have been evaluated as
boiler fuel and diesel substitute
(Ahmad Hitam et al., 2001). Crude
palm oil (CPO) and refined, bleached
322.0
and deodorized palm olein (RBDPOo)
were blended with MFO and
petroleum diesel respectively at
various ratio by volume. The
resultant fuel blends, CPO/MFO and
RBDPOo/petroleum diesel exhibit
advantages and fuel characteristics
that are better compared to that when
the individual CPO, RBDPO, RBDPOo,
MFO and petroleum diesel are used
solely as fuel (Tables 7, 8 and 9)
(Yusof Basiron, 2002). Currently,
field trials using MPOB’s in-house
T H E I N G E N I E U R 24
vehicles are being conducted to
evaluate blends of RBDPOo/
petroleum diesel (up to 10% of the
former) as diesel substitute. No
technical problems have been
reported so far.
Conclusion
The progressive escalation of fuel
prices in recent times has led to an
intensified search for viable alternative
sources of energy globally. As
conventional energy resources become
more difficult to obtain, efforts must
be directed towards development of
alternative energy sources.
The palm oil industry is bestowed
with plentiful supply of co-products
that can be readily used as energy
resources with ease. When EFB and
biogas are properly processed using
proven and innovative techniques, a
considerable amount of energy source
can be economically recovered. The
utilization of these co-products from
the palm oil mill if accepted by the
authorities will, to some extent, help
national energy demand in terms of
electricity. Efforts are being made to
encourage palm oil mills to sell this
excess energy in the form of electricity
to National Grid.
Palm diesel has been fully
evaluated as potential diesel substitute
and diesel/cetane improver. Low pour
point palm diesel (-21°C) without any
additives that can meet stringent
winter diesel specification has also
been produced. The palm diesel is an
environmentally benign fuel substitute
in terms of exhaust gas emission.
Blends of CPO/MFO and RBDPOo/
diesel have also been evaluated as
potential fuel for boiler fuels and
diesel engines respectively.
All the above mentioned energy
sources are renewable and their
supply is readily available and
assured. Currently, burning of the
biomass residues is often considered
as a way to disposal of the product
rather than as an energy source. They
should be commercially exploited.
This will make the palm oil industry
more environmentally sustainable.
Ahmad, H., Choo, Y. M., Hasamuddin, W.
H. and Yusof B. (2001). In proceedings of
2001 MPOB International Palm Oil
Congress, 20 – 23 August 2001, Hotel
Istana, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Choo, Y.M., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron
(2002a). Palm Diesel. Paper presented at 2002
Oils and Fats International Congress (OFIC),
7 – 10 October 2002, Putra World Trade
Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Markolvitz, M. (2002). The European
Biodiesel Market. Biodiesel Status Report.
Degussa AG, Niederkassel, Germany.
Bockey, D. (2002). Situation and
Development Potential for the Production
of Biodiesel – An International Study.
Union for Promoting Oilseeds and Protein
Plants.
Choo, Y. M., Cheng, S. F., Yung, C. L., Lau, H.
L. N., Ma, A. N. and Yusof Basiron (2002b).
Low Pour Point Palm Diesel. Malaysian Patent
No. PI 20021157.
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Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala
Lumpur. pp. 119-125.
Quah, S. K., Lim, K. H., Gillies, D., Wood,
B. J. and Kanagaratnam, K. (1982). Sime
Darby POME Treatment and Land
Application System. Proc. of Reg.
Workshop on Palm Oil Mill. Techy. Effl.
Treat. Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. pp. 193-200.
Schöpe, M. and Britschkat, G. (2002).
Macroeconomic Evaluation of Rape
Cultivation for Biodiesel Production in
Germany. Munich. March 2002.
Strayer, R.C., Blake, J.A. and Craig, W.K.
(1983). Canola and High Erucic
Rapeseed Oil as Substitutes for Diesel
Fuel: Preliminary Tests. JAOCS, 60:
1587-1592.
Yusof Basiron and Ahmad Hitam (1992).
Cost Effectiveness of the CPO Fuel in the
Mercedes Elsbett Engine Car. PORIM
Information Series, No. 4, July.
Yusof Basiron (2002). Palm Oil and Palm
Oil Products as Fuel Improver. Malaysian
Patent No. PI 20020396. BEM
cover feature
in lowering escalation of energy
shortages. The production and
application technologies have been
fully demonstrated.
Energy is considered free for palm
oil mills. Fibre and shell together can
supply more than enough energy to
meet the mill’s energy demand. The
electricity generated indirectly from
fibre and shell represents about 2% of
the national electricity demand.
Energy from biogas and empty fruit
bunch has so far been ignored though
they represent a hefty 4% of the
feature
An Innovative, Environment-Friendly
And Cost-Effective Wastewater
Treatment System – UniFED™
By Ir. Vincent H.K. Tan, Executive Director, Kumpulan IKRAM (Sabah) Sdn Bhd,
Principal, Perunding Pertama Consulting Engineers
Clear effluent during decanting phase extracted from the UniFED™ wastewater treatment system.
D
omestic wastewater has been
identified as one of the major
contributors of pollution to
the environment in our country.
Hence, a reliable and efficient
wastewater treatment system is a vital
contributing factor towards the
improvement in environmental
quality in the country.
The wastewater treatment industry
has lagged behind the other sectors
in terms of infrastructure
development. The growth in this
industry is further affected by the
segregation of potable water services
and wastewater services, which are
managed by different authorities. The
Government has recently put both
these two important services under
one single Ministry. This augurs well
towards the eventual integration of
the water and wastewater services in
Malaysia.
For domestic wastewater, the
biological treatment is the heart of
the treatment process. It is in this
stage where the wastewater is exposed
to living organisms that remove
dissolved and non-settleable organic
materials in the wastewater.
The following types of biological
treatment processes are commonly
used in Malaysia.
●
●
●
●
●
Conventional Activated
Sludge (CAS) system
Extended aeration activated
sludge system
Rotating biological
contactor system
Trickling filter system
Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR)
All effluents from wastewater
treatment plants are required to
comply with the standards prescribed
under the Environmental Quality Act
1974. The regulations made under the
Environment Quality Act, 1974 with
respect to effluent discharges of
wastewater treatment systems are the
Environmental Quality (Sewage and
Industrial Effluents) Regulations,
1979. There are two discharge
standards prescribed for compliance
purposes; Standard A for effluent
discharge introduced at upstream of
a water intake, while Standard B for
effluent discharge at downstream of
a water intake. However, the current
T H E I N G E N I E U R 26
practice for wastewater effluent
enforcement has required all
mechanical operated wastewater
treatment plants to meet the Standard
A effluent quality, which governs
content limits of 23 physico-chemical
compositions of the effluent. The
standards, however, do not cover
levels of nutrients in the effluents
(nitrogen and phosphorous) which are
important components to ensure good
environment standards. It is
envisaged that the next update of the
regulation
will
incorporate
requirements in this category, which
has been implemented in most
developed countries.
With the rapid growth of the our
country’s population, particularly in
the urban areas, contributed largely
by migration, more and more mixed
developments are expected in various
populous cities and major towns. The
drastic increase of concentrated
population will incur higher
requirement for wastewater treatment
systems, and it will form a significant
cost center in terms of operation,
maintenance costs and increasingly
expensive land cost.
feature
These requirements have driven
the industry towards research and
development to find more efficient
wastewater treatment systems which
can satisfy more stringent
requirements of effluent discharge
standards as well as low operation
cost and minimum land usage.
One of such system is the UniFED™
system, which was developed in
Australia and has been successfully
adopted in Sabah, Malaysia. The
UniFED™ system is economically and
technically considered as very
affordable and robust, as it has proven
far superior than many other systems
such as CAS system, SBR system,
oxidation ditches etc, due to the
following factors:●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Lower capital and operating costs
All reactions take place in a single
reactor
Simple operations controlled by
PLC (Programme Logic Control)
Minimal level of technical support
required
Accommodate wet and dry
weather cycles.
Small footprint
Biological Nutrient Removal (BNR)
capabilities
Small quantity of sludge
production
Australia has a long and proven
track record with innovative process
design of wastewater treatment plants
for municipal and small industrial
usage. Novel process operation and
strict regulatory controls have meant
that public utilities and infrastructure
designers must strive for more cost
effective and process efficient plants.
A vast country with a small, but
innovative population and the
remoteness of towns and cities, have
meant
that
environmental
technologies have usually been
developed in-country, and with
specific local adaptations.
UniFED™ wastewater treatment
system has been developed in recent
years to provide regional towns and
villages with a higher level of effluent
controls by removing nutrients such
as nitrogen and phosphorus before
they discharge to the interior’s lakes
and river systems. The UniFED™
process was developed from original
work by the New South Wales
Department of Public Works and
Services (DPWS) and its regional
wastewater treatment plant design/
operation programmes of the early
1970s.
Early adaptations to a continuous
feed intermittently aerated process
system in 1965 were derived from the
earlier Passveer oxidation ditch work,
and were followed in the 1970s with
major development work to design
and construct a 950m 3 /day
intermittently aerated and decanted
batch facility at Bathurst, New South
Wales.
This Bathurst Box
configuration comprised a deep
rectangular basin as a single-tank
activated
sludge
treatment
technology.
A second period of increasing
popularity of intermittent systems was
initiated by the growing need for
nutrient removal from domestic and
industrial effluents. During the 1990s,
modified Intermittent Decant
Extended Aeration (IDEA) systems,
designed for BNR, were implemented.
In parallel, other, largely proprietary
designs were implemented around the
country. In addition a novel singletank SBR design was developed at the
same time, largely driven by research
efforts in this area. All systems
demonstrated their ability to achieve
the very stringent effluent
requirements in Australia’s inland and
sensitive coastal waters. Over 120
IDEA type plants were built around
New South Wales and later plants
T H E I N G E N I E U R 27
were commissioned in the Philippines
(2 off), East Malaysia (3 under final
phases), New Zealand (1 off) and the
People’s Republic of China (2 major
retrofits).
The
nitrogen
removal
performance of the IDEA process is
generally very good, but only little
phosphorus removal is achieved.
During the 1990s the awareness of the
importance of nutrients in Australia’s
inland and some coastal waters was
greatly increased by the widespread
occurrences of toxic cyanobacteria
(‘blue-green algae’) blooms. Intensive
efforts were therefore made in this
period to develop and implement new
processes that achieved a high level
of nitrogen and phosphorus removal.
Different
BNR
process
technologies were proposed on the
basis of overseas concepts for both
continuous and intermittent systems.
To continue the use of the IDEA
concept and on the basis of the good
nitrogen removal performance, a bioP IDEA was developed by the NSW
Department of Public Works. The
concept includes a continuously
operated, baffled anaerobic zone at
the inlet of the tank through which
the influent and a recycle flow from
the main tank pass. In this zone the
required anaerobic conditions for
biological phosphorus removal are
achieved and this arrangement also
provides for an effective mixing of
the influent with the reactor content.
A novel approach was been taken
by a team of researchers from the
feature
Cooperative Research Centre for Waste
Management and Pollution Control
Limited and the University of
Queensland to achieve full BNR in a
single tank without any recycles or
baffles. The initial Research and
Development (R&D) project objectives
were to:
●
●
●
optimise existing wastewater
treatment processes to improve
effluent quality,
develop low cost retrofits with
minimal structural and equipment
changes, and
develop a robust and reliable cost
effective process for BNR.
The resulting system, which became
known as UniFED™, has been patented
worldwide.
The unique feature of the UniFED™
process is the introduction of the influent
into the settled sludge blanket during
the settling and decant periods of the
SBR operation. This achieves suitable
conditions for denitrification and
anaerobic phosphate release which is
critical to successful biological
phosphorus removal. It also achieves a
“selector” effect, which helps in
generating a compact, well settling
biomass in the reactor.
While the removal of phosphorus
can be achieved both chemically and
biologically, the biological alternative
has a number of significant advantages
such as considerably lower operating
costs, less sludge production and no
chemical contamination in the sludge.
Total nitrogen removal in wastewater
treatment plants is most commonly and
most economically achieved in a twostep system through nitrification (under
aerobic conditions) and denitrification
(under anoxic conditions). Together with
the required anaerobic conditions for the
biological phosphorus removal process,
at least three separate zones or periods
in intermittent systems are required to
provide the different environmental
conditions. Additionally, the possible
interferences between nitrogen and
phosphorus removal processes often
mean that additional zones or periods
are required, for example for the removal
of nitrate in the recycled activated sludge.
Therefore, BNR process designs can
become quite complex and therefore
high in capital costs.
Table 1 Typical effluent quality for various plants
Parameter
BOD
(mg/L)
SS
(mg/L)
NH4-N (mg/L)
TN
(mg/L)
TP
(mg/L)
Continuous
10
20
2
20
10
SBRs have been utilised
extensively for the removal of Carbon
Oxygen Demand (COD) and in many
cases also nitrogen. In recent years, a
number of phosphorus removal
processes using the SBR principle
have also been developed. However,
many of them require some additional
tankage (or separated zones in the one
tank), often linked with sludge
recycle, to create the most favorable
conditions for the anaerobic phase of
the biological phosphorus removal
process. This eliminates some of the
simplicity and ease of operation
inherent in SBR processes.
One of the most challenging
issues in BNR is the most efficient
use of the available carbon (COD)
source in the influent, particularly
in domestic wastewater with high
nutrient levels. Since COD is required
for both the biological phosphorus
removal and the denitrification, but
is also fast degraded during the
aerobic conditions, the optimal
supply and utilization of the COD is
critically important. This poses a
major challenge in a simple, singletank SBR process as the conditions
(aerobic or anoxic/anaerobic) can
only be changed for the entire tank.
However, the settling and decant
phases provide some opportunity for
some differing conditions in the
supernatant and the sludge blanket.
Additionally, the method of influent
supply provides an added option to
introduce different conditions in
parts of the tank.
UniFED’s™ main feature is the
uniform introduction of the influent
into the bottom of the tank during
the period when the sludge is settling
or compressing. In this way, the
specific conditions required for the
BNR processes can all be achieved in
each cycle in the single-tank
arrangement. This process has a
number of advantages in relation to
a successful BNR operation:
T H E I N G E N I E U R 28
1.
2.
3.
4.
IDEA
5
15
1
7
5
UniFED™
2
13
0.5
5
1
The nitrate/nitrite (NOx) in the
sludge blanket is quickly
denitrified with the incoming
influent or even just utilising the
slowly degradable COD entrapped
in the flocs.
The incoming soluble COD is
primarily available for the
anaerobic phosphate release
phase, which is critically
important for successful biological
phosphorus removal. The
deliberate stratification in the tank
means that a large fraction of the
water in the tank may still contain
some levels of NO x without
interfering with the anaerobic
conditions near the bottom of the
tank.
All of the influent and its COD is
intensively contacted with most
of the biomass in the reactor since
it is concentrated near the bottom
of the tank. This provides a very
strong “selector” effect since the
influent is diluted only minimally
and most of the biomass is
exposed to high COD conditions
in every cycle. This results
generally in very well settling
sludge, leading to an efficient
overall SBR operation.
The overlapping of feed and
settling/decanting period means
that the SBR cycle is used more
efficiently since important
biological reactions are occurring
at all times, thereby eliminating
the “non-productive” periods of
settling and decant.
Table 1 contains a summary of
the performance of all major
parameters for the UniFDE™ SBR
process over an entire study period
in 1998/99. The test plant was
modified to the UniFED™ process and
operation started in mid September
1998. Some minor operational
modifications were undertaken in
October and the results presented in
Bathurst City Council’s sewage treatment plant (NSW, Australia) - site of the original
“Bathurst Box”, IDEA development work, and the first UniFED™ plant.
include all data from October 3, 1998
to April 7, 1999.
UniFED™ has demonstrated the
ability to produce excellent effluent
quality with a very high level of
biological nutrient removal in a
simple, single tank activated sludge
process. The introduction of the feed
distribution system together with a
novel operating strategy allows the
use of the installed hydraulic
capacity for virtually 100% of the
time, eliminating the “nonproductive” periods of settling and
decant since during this time, the
lower part of the reactor is used for
the anoxic and anaerobic processes
to take place. Given that large
volume tanks are used for clarifiers
(in continuous flow systems) or
significant fractions of the cycles in
intermittent processes, this
modification can substantially
increase the overall process capacity
of such systems.
The achieved simplicity of this
SBR process also allows it to be
implemented in a “low-tech” version
– eg: a simple pond (or lagoon)-like
installation. Such alternative low-cost
in situ construction methods allow for
the
UniFED™
single
tank
configuration to have sloped walls
(less concrete needed) or even walls
of a geotechnic fabric in the form of
earthen lagoons (the Quaker’s Hill STP
in Sydney has 2x IDAL lagoons and
was a retrofit to an activated sludge
process system). Other alternatives
include steel framed and lined tanks,
which are already in-place and
transportable UniFED™ units can be
factory fabricated for hotel/
institutions usage, with almost
immediate
installation
and
commissioning at the client’s facility.
These construction techniques
result in a drastic reduction in capital
costs of UniFED™ systems compared
to the traditionally required 4-6 tank
continuous flow BNR processes. Even
in comparison to other intermittent
BNR processes, the UniFED™
implementation allows further
simplification by not having any
additional tanks or separated zones
and no recycles. Therefore, apart from
the possible need for an influent pump
(and for sludge wastage, if not by
gravity), no pumps are required for
the entire operation.
A further process benefit is
UniFED™ flexibility. Apart from the
overall hydraulic retention time, no
other operating parameter is
completely fixed at the time of
construction of the plant. The entire
cycle timing can be adjusted during
the commissioning and optimization
of the process, making it very suitable
for applications with a high degree
of uncertainty at the design stage
(such as industrial situations).
Furthermore, this allows easy
modification of the operation to
account for diurnal fluctuations,
weekly or even seasonal changes in
the wastewater characteristics or
flows.
UniFED™ derived plants are now
used in municipal and industrial
applications, including textiles,
T H E I N G E N I E U R 29
References
1. Keller, J., Watts, S., BattyeSmith, W., Chong, R., 2000,
Full scale demonstration of
biological nutrient removal in
a single tank SBR process: 2nd
International Symposium on
Sequencing Batch Reactor
Technology, 10-12 July,
Narbonne, France.
2. Scientific and Technical Report
No 10 Sequencing Batch
Reactor Technology, 2001, Eds
Peter A Wilderer, Robert J
Irvine and Mervyn C Goronszy,
IWA Publishing, ISBN 1
900222 21 3. BEM
feature
hotels, office buildings, hospitals and
food/beverage sectors and we are
currently looking at refineries,
chemical production and minerals
processing.
UniFED™
will
significantly increase the capacity (or
throughput) relative to the plant
capacity/size in these applications.
Ongoing research/field adaptation
of the UniFED™ is allowing for better
process control and optimization.
Development of the overall system’s
influent distribution and up-dated
process control systems, will allow for
remote site monitoring and on-line
operations of these newer UniFED™
plants.
The UniFED™ process technology
has many design advantages over
conventional systems, including a
single tank without recycle streams,
simple footprint (land-size) and robust
design and operation and enhanced
nitrification/denitrification. UniFED™
plants can also be constructed in
stages to suit a city’s development and
its regulatory programmes.
Other competitive advantages of
UniFED™ include use of a single tank
for biological nitrogen and
phosphorous removal and achieving
a high quality effluent without
chemical dosing. UniFED™ is also able
to offer reduced capital costs (around
20% less land-use and design/
equipment costs) and lower operating
costs than conventional systems.
UniFED™ can be applied to a greenfield site or retrofitted to existing
wastewater treatment plants.
guidelines
CIRCULAR NO. 4/2005
RA
LE
TE
MB
RU
AG
A
JU
M A L AY S I A
BOARD OF ENGINEERS
MALAYSIA
General Advice On
Giving Of Second Opinion
1.
It has been brought to the notice of the Board that it is not uncommon for an engineer to offer to a project owner
unsolicited suggestion or proposal on the design which has been, or is being, carried out by another engineer already
appointed by the owner to be the consulting engineer for the project. Quite commonly, such suggestion or proposal
deals with the choice of engineering system (structural, geotechnical, etc.) or the so-called “value engineering”. The
Board is very concerned with the ethical aspect of this practice and would like to lay down the following guidelines
for registered Engineers.
2.
Regulation 27 of the Registration Of Engineers Act reads as follow:-
“A Registered Engineer shall not—
(a)
(b)
(c)
canvass or solicit professional employment;
offer to make by way of commission or any other payment for the introduction of his professional employment;
or
except as permitted by the Board, advertise in any manner or form in connection with his profession.”
Sub-sections (a) and (b) relate to action by registered Engineer in actively seeking professional employment with
specific potential employers or project owners. The Regulation is unequivocal on this matter. For sub-section (c),
however, the Board has issued its guidelines vide Circular No. 2/2003 entitled “Guidelines On Advertising By Registered
Engineers”. Hence some party may attempt to offer second opinion by taking advantage of sub-section (c) under the
guise of advertising their services.
3.
The Board has no intention to restrict project owners from seeking other views on the design of his project. It is
strictly his prerogative. Nevertheless, when he has already engaged a registered Engineer to provide him with engineering
design and services for the project, then certain procedures must be followed to avoid infringement of the Code of
Professional Conduct of the Act.
4.
Generally, an engineering design covers four aspects, namely, (1) Function, (2) Safety, (3) Cost, and (4) Aesthetics. A
second opinion, which invariably means checking or reviewing another’s work, can relate to any one or all of the four
aspects. It can involve correction, modification or even total replacement of the work of the first designer (the First
Engineer) in all these aspects.
5.
On the aspect of safety, the Board has already issued its guidelines on checking/reviewing vide Circular No. 1/2003
entitled “Guideline For Checking / Reviewing The Work Of Another Engineer”. The Board holds the view that the
guidelines in Circular No. 1/2003 are also applicable to checking / reviewing on any other aspect of the work of the
First Engineer.
6.
The Board hereby advises all concerned that, as long as a registered Engineer has already been engaged for a project,
any other registered Engineer wishing to offer second opinion to the project owner must follow the guidelines in
Circular No. 1/2003.
[BEM-247th Meeting / 19th July 2005]
TAN SRI DATO’ Ir. Hj. ZAINI BIN OMAR
President
Board of Engineers Malaysia
T H E I N G E N I E U R 34
A
AG
RU
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MB
JU
M A L AY S I A
PEMBAHARUAN PERMIT
ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY PRACTICE (ECP)
TAHUN 2006
*SDN BHD (BODY CORPORATE)*
1.
Permit 2005 pertubuhan perbadanan (body corporate) untuk menjalankan amalan kejuruteraan perunding akan
tamat pada 31/12/2005.
2.
Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat untuk meneruskan amalan. Kegagalan
tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat membolehkan tindakan di bawah Seksyen 16(b), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera
1967 (Pindaan 2002) diambil.
3.
Permohonan pembaharuan permit perbadanan syarikat tuan hendaklah dikemukakan ke pejabat Lembaga Jurutera
Malaysia bersama borang-borang berikut:
(i) Borang H1 beserta bayaran pembaharuan tahunan sebanyak RM1,000.00
** Sila sertakan tambahan RM0.50 komisyen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang.
(ii) Borang Akuan Lembaga Pengarah Syarikat Tahun 2006.
(iii) Borang Pemegang Saham Syarikat 2006.
(iv) Borang 49 DAN Annual Return Tahun 2005.
** Salinan hendaklah disahkan oleh Pendaftar Syarikat ATAU Setiausaha Syarikat. Cop pengesahan mestilah
yang asal dan terkini.
4.
Sila kemukakan permohonan tuan sebelum 31/01/2006 kepada:
LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA
Tingkat 17 Ibu Pejabat JKR, Kompleks Kerja Raya Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur.
Tel. No: 03-2696 7095/96/97/98 Fax No: 03-2692 5017
Saya yang menurut perintah,
———————SGD———————
(Ir. Dr. MOHD JOHARI BIN MD ARIF)
Pendaftar,
LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA.
REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS ACT 1967
REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS REGULATIONS 1990
(Regulation 36)
FORM H1
Application For Renewal Of Registration As An Engineering Consultancy Practice
1. Application for renewal of registration year 2006 of :
*
Body Corporate
*
Partnership
*
Sole Proprietorship
2. Name of *sole proprietorship/partnership/body corporate : ………………………………………………...…...……….
3. Registration No. : ……………………………………………....
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Tel. No. : ……………………….……
6. Fax No. : ………………………….… 7. E-mail : …………………………….
8. Details of payment enclosed :
**Money order/bank draft/cheque No. ……………… for the amount of RM …….............…….
…………………….….
………………………..
(Signature)
(Date)
* Tick whichever applicable
** Delete whichever not applicable
T H E I N G E N I E U R 30
✁
4. Address (if there is any change) : …………………………………………………………………………………………….
BORANG AKUAN
LEMBAGA PENGARAH SYARIKAT
TAHUN 2006
PENGARAH II
PENGARAH I
(Borang ini hendaklah diisi oleh semua Pengarah Syarikat)
1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……
2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......
3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:
Jawatan
Nama syarikat
……………………………………….
(Tandatangan)
Jenis Perniagaan
…………………………......…………..
(Seal Jurutera Profesional)
1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……
2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......
3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:
Jawatan
Nama syarikat
……………………………………….
(Tandatangan)
Jenis Perniagaan
…………………………......…………..
(Seal Jurutera Profesional)
(Borang ini boleh difotostat sekiranya pengarah syarikat lebih daripada dua)
PEMEGANG SAHAM SYARIKAT TAHUN 2006
Nama pertubuhan perbadanan : ……………………………………………….........................…………………………
No. pendaftaran di Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia: ……………………………………………..........................…………..
Nama
✁
No. pendaftaran
T H E I N G E N I E U R 31
Jumlah saham yang dipegang
A
AG
RU
RA
LE
TE
MB
JU
M A L AY S I A
PEMBAHARUAN PERMIT
ENGINEERING CONSULTANCY PRACTICE (ECP)
TAHUN 2006
*PEMILIK TUNGGAL (SOLE PROPRIETOR)/
PERKONGSIAN (PARTNERSHIP)*
1.
Permit 2005 syarikat Pemilik Tunggal (Sole Proprietor)/Perkongsian (Partnership) untuk menjalankan amalan
kejuruteraan perunding akan tamat pada 31/12/2005.
2.
Adalah menjadi tanggungjawab tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat untuk meneruskan amalan. Kegagalan
tuan untuk membaharui permit syarikat membolehkan tindakan di bawah Seksyen 16(b), Akta Pendaftaran Jurutera
1967 (Pindaan 2002) diambil.
3.
Permohonan pembaharuan permit syarikat tuan hendaklah dikemukakan ke pejabat Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia
bersama borang-borang berikut:
(i) Borang H1 beserta bayaran pembaharuan tahunan sebanyak RM1,000.00
** Sila sertakan tambahan RM0.50 komisyen bagi cek luar Lembah Kelang.
(ii) Borang Akuan * Prinsipal/Pekongsi Syarikat Tahun 2006.
4.
Sila kemukakan permohonan tuan sebelum 31/01/2006 kepada:
LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA
Tingkat 17 Ibu Pejabat JKR, Kompleks Kerja Raya Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Salahuddin, 50580 Kuala Lumpur.
Tel. No: 03-2696 7095/96/97/98 Fax No: 03-2692 5017
Saya yang menurut perintah,
———————SGD———————
(Ir. Dr. MOHD JOHARI BIN MD ARIF)
Pendaftar,
LEMBAGA JURUTERA MALAYSIA.
REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS ACT 1967
REGISTRATION OF ENGINEERS REGULATIONS 1990
(Regulation 36)
FORM H1
Application For Renewal Of Registration As An Engineering Consultancy Practice
1. Application for renewal of registration year 2006 of :
*
Body Corporate
*
Partnership
*
Sole Proprietorship
2. Name of *sole proprietorship/partnership/body corporate : ………………………………………………...…...……….
3. Registration No. : ……………………………………………....
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Tel. No. : ……………………….……
6. Fax No. : ………………………….… 7. E-mail : …………………………….
8. Details of payment enclosed :
**Money order/bank draft/cheque No. ……………… for the amount of RM …….............…….
…………………….….
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(Signature)
(Date)
* Tick whichever applicable
** Delete whichever not applicable
THE INGENIEUR
32
✁
4. Address (if there is any change) : …………………………………………………………………………………………….
BORANG AKUAN
**PRINSIPAL/PEKONGSI SYARIKAT
TAHUN 2006
*PRINSIPAL/PEKONGSI SYARIKAT I
1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……
2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......
3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:
Jawatan
Nama syarikat
……………………………………….
(Tandatangan)
Jenis Perniagaan
…………………………......…………..
(Seal Jurutera Profesional)
*PEKONGSI SYARIKAT II
1. Nama:……………………………………………………………………….......................................……
2. No. Pendaftaran: ……………….....…....... Cawangan Kejuruteraan: …………………......……......
3. Syarikat-syarikat lain yang tuan ada terlibat:
Nama syarikat
Jenis Perniagaan
✁
Jawatan
……………………………………….
(Tandatangan)
…………………………......…………..
(Seal Jurutera Profesional)
(Borang ini boleh difotostat sekiranya pengarah syarikat lebih daripada dua)
** Potong jika tidak berkenaan
T H E I N G E N I E U R 33
PENDAHULUAN
1.
Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 mula berkuatkuasa pada 15 Ogos,
2005. Peraturan baru ini menggantikan peraturan lama buangan terjadual yang telah dikuatkuasa semenjak
01 Mei, 1989.
2.
Manakala Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa Yang Ditetapkan) (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 pula digubal
untuk mengawalselia dengan lebih berkesan mana-mana kenderaan atau kapal yang digunakan untuk
membawa buangan terjadual. Di bawah perintah ini, tiap-tiap kenderaan atau kapal yang digunakan untuk
membawa buangan terjadual hendaklah memiliki lesen di bawah subseksyen 18(1A) Akta Kualiti Alam
Sekeliling 1974. Perintah ini juga berkuatkuasa pada 15 Ogos, 2005.
3.
Peraturan-peraturan dan perintah di atas digubal bertujuan untuk memantapkan lagi proses kawalselia dan
pengurusan buangan terjadual di Malaysia dengan mengambilkira isu-isu semasa, kekurangan-kekurangan
peraturan lama dan keperluan masa akan datang bagi menjamin negara kita tidak dicemari oleh buangan
toksik dan berbahaya.
PERKARA-PERKARA PENTING
Senarai Buangan Berasaskan Kandungan Bahan Toksik dan Berbahaya
4.
Di dalam Jadual Pertama, Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 (selepas ini
disebut PBT 2005), buangan-buangan disenaraikan berasaskan kandungan bahan toksik dan berbahaya
yang terdapat dalam buangan berkenaan dan tidak lagi terikat kepada punca-punca specifik buangan tersebut
dijana seperti daripada sistem pengolahan effluen atau daripada alat kawalan pencemaran ataupun daripada
aktiviti-aktiviti tertentu. Rasionalnya adalah ketoksidan sesuatu buangan bergantung kepada kandungan
bahan toksik yang terdapat didalamnya tidak kira dari punca mana buangan berkenaan dijana.
5.
Selain daripada itu, bagi mengurus kes-kes pengimportan buangan dengan lebih berkesan, beberapa kategori
baru buangan dimasukkan dalam senarai buangan terjadual 2005. Kategori buangan ini termasuklah buangan
elektrikal dan elektronik, buangan gipsum, dan buangan mengandungi dioksin dan furan.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 35
update
Peraturan-peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling
(Buangan Terjadual) 2005 – P.U.(A) 294/2005;
Dan Perintah Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Pembawa
Yang Ditetapkan) (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 –
P.U.(A) 293/2005
update
Jangka Masa dan Kuantiti Buangan Yang Dibenarkan Disimpan Dalam Premis
6.
Dalam peraturan lama tidak dinyatakan had tempoh dan kuantiti buangan yang dibenarkan untuk distor di
dalam premis. Manakala dalam PBT 2005, jangka masa penstoran buangan hanya di benarkan selama 180
hari atau 20 tan metrik, yang mana lebih dahulu. Peruntukan ini bertujuan mengelakkan risioko kepada
kesihatan manusia dan alam sekitar jika berlaku kebocoran atau pertumpahan.
7.
Selaras dengan had masa penstoran buangan selama 180 hari, PBT 2005 menetapkan supaya tiap-tiap
bekas mengisi buangan ditandakan dengan jelas tarikh buangan dijana, nama, alamat dan nombor telefon
pengeluar buangan. Pelabelan ini juga memudahkan penjejakan identiti pengeluar buangan dan
mengurangkan kejadian-kejadian pelupusan haram buangan.
Penjejakan dan Pemantauan Buangan Secara Elektronik
8.
Berbanding dengan peraturan lama yang menetapkan pengisian Borang Konsainan secara manual, PBT
2005 menyediakan kemudahan kepada pengeluar buangan untuk mengisi maklumat pergerakan buangan
secara elektronik (e-consignment). Prosedur ini memudahkan semua pihak terbabit iaitu pengeluar buangan,
pengangkut buangan, penerima buangan dan Jabatan Alam Sekitar dalam pemantauan pergerakan buangan
secara “on-line”.
Pengurusan Khas Buangan Terjadual
9.
PBT 2005 juga menyediakan kemudahan kepada pihak industri untuk melupus, mengolah atau mengitar
semula buangan dipremis lain setelah buangan tersebut dibuktikan tidak mempunyai ciri-ciri toksik dan
berbahaya.
Keperluan Pekerja Yang Terlatih
10. Pekerja yang terlatih penting bukan sahaja bagi menjamin keselamatan pekerja itu sendiri tetapi juga bagi
membolehkan buangan yang dikendalikan oleh pekerja itu diurus dengan sempurna supaya tidak
memudaratkan orang ramai dan alam sekitar. PBT 2005 menetapkan supaya setiap pekerja yang terbabit
dengan buangan terjadual menghadiri program latihan dalam aspek pengenalan, pengendalian, pelabelan,
pengangkutan dan penstoran buangan terjadual. Latihan juga memberi penekanan kepada keupayaan
bertindakbalas ketika berlaku kecemasan seperti tumpahan buangan terjadual.
PENUTUP
11. Peraturan-Peraturan Kualiti Alam Sekeliling (Buangan Terjadual) 2005 adalah digubal bagi meningkatkan
lagi kawalan terhadap pergerakan, pengeluaran, pengendalian dan pelupusan buangan terjadual di Malaysia.
Walaupun peraturan ini boleh dikatakan sempurna, kejayaan mengurus buangan toksik dan berbahaya
dengan sempurna sangat bergantung kepada komitmen penjana buangan dalam mengamalkan “selfregulations” dan penghayatan yang mendalam dalam aspek tanggungjawab sosial termasuk nilai-nilai
murni sejagat.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 36
Submitted by Yong Kher Shin
1.
OBJECTIVE
c)
The objective of the Master Plan is to reduce injury
rates, work related ill-health and consequent days lost
from work in the industry. It is hoped that the fatality
rate of 26 per 100,000 workers in 2003 can be further
reduced by 30% by the year 2010. Through increased
research and development activities, the causes
underlying accidents at construction site could be
accurately determined and the right strategies applied
during the planning, design and construction phase
of the project to prevent the occurrence of accidents
and fatalities.
d)
e)
f)
2.
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN MALAYSIA
The construction industry in Malaysia is generally
divided into two areas. One area is general
construction, which comprises residential
construction, non-residential construction and civil
engineering construction. The second area is special
trade works, which comprises activities of metal works,
electrical works, plumbing, sewerage and sanity works,
refrigeration and air-conditioning works, painting
works, carpentry, tiling and flooring works and glass
works. The high economic growth rate has brought
increased injuries and fatalities in this industry due
to lack of focus in occupational safety and health.
CIDB in collaboration with the stakeholders is
developing the Construction Industry Master Plan
(CIMP). This Master Plan has identified a number of
policies, one of which is a policy on health and safety
in construction. It is envisaged that the
implementation of this policy in the short to medium
term is expected to reduce the high incidence of
accidents and economic losses to stakeholders thus
indirectly improving productivity, quality and image
of the industry as a whole.
3.
FRAMEWORK FOR THE MASTER PLAN
The framework for the Master Plan for Occupational
Safety & Health in Construction Industry has been
structured as follows:
4.
STRATEGIES ON OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND
HEALTH IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
●
●
●
●
●
●
5.
Stakeholders shall review their own ‘action plan’
once every two years or earlier to gauge whether
they still meet the current requirements.
Improvement on occupational safety and health
performance in the industry has to be based on
rectification of the current weaknesses as well
as the reasons/circumstances leading to their
occurrence.
Action plan on measures to improve
enforcement, training, management, good
practices, promotion, design and work practices
so as to have overall improvement on safety and
health performance in the industry.
Safety and Health to be incorporated into
National Occupational Skilled Standard (NOSS).
ENFORCEMENT & LEGISLATION : Compliance to
legislation and management systems to be
monitored and performance evaluated .
EDUCATION & TRAINING : construction personnel
to be equipped with suitable knowledge and skill
on OSH.
PROMOTIONS : as one of the main pillars of
enhancing OSH in the construction industry.
INCENTIVES : to be introduced
STANDARDS : Necessary standards and
guidelines should be developed and introduced
to the stakeholders.
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R & D) AND
TECHNOLOGY : to be further encouraged
IMPLEMENTATION
Successful implementation of The “Master Plan for
occupational Safety and Health in Construction
Industry” depends very much on the stakeholders’
incorporation of its guidelines and objectives in their
business operations and also use it as part of forward
planning document within their organisations.
STAKEHOLDERS
a)
b)
Stakeholders to enhance the occupational safety,
health and welfare of all persons working at
construction site.
Stakeholders to internalize the Master Plan within
their own organization.
●
●
●
T H E I N G E N I E U R 37
Government Agencies
Trade Associations/Contractors
Professional Bodies
The Professional Bodies to give full commitment
update
Master Plan For Occupational Safety & Health
In Construction Industry: 2005-2010
update
●
●
●
●
6.
a)
vi) Seminars
●
Competency & Skill Training
●
Specialised Training for High Risk Jobs
vii) Training Providers/Individual Trainers
viii) Construction (Design & management) Course
for professionals
The proposed Construction (Design &
management) Regulations to be promulgated
will place duties on all those who can
contribute to health and safety of a
construction project.
Since construction involves teamwork of client,
designs (including architects, engineers and
surveyors) and contractor, all parties or duty
holders must work together towards a better
safety consciousness and contribute
accordingly.
and support to ensure that the guidelines and
standards are effectively implemented.
Professional Bodies shall also encourage their
members to incorporate occupational safety and
health requirements in the planning and design
of a project.
Project Owners
Project owners could insist that only contractors
with good safety and health track record be
selected for the project.
Training Providers
Insurance Companies
Roles of National Council For Occupational
Safety & Health
ACTION PLAN
The following are recommended action plans for
implementation:
c)
Enhancement of Capabilities of Enforcement
Agencies
Safety & Health Promotions
●
●
Review of Existing Regulations
●
Review of Factories & Machinery (Building
Operations and Works of Engineering
Construction (Safety) Regulations 1996
●
Proposed New Construction (Design &
Management) Regulation
●
Revision on the Provisions for Reporting of
Accidents/Incidents and Diseases
●
Circulars on Occupational Safety & Health
Requirements
●
Proposed New Standard for Safety and Health
Management System
●
Statutory declaration by Contractors on
accidents and fatalities
b)
Safety & Health Training & Education
i)
Training for safety & Health Personnel
●
Site Safety Supervisors (SSS)
●
Construction Safety & Health Officer
(CSHO)
●
Career Advancement for Site Safety
Supervisors
●
Safety & Health Committee Members
ii) Senior management’s Training
iii) OSH Competency to be Pre-Requisite for
Registration of Professional Architects,
Engineers and Quantity Surveyors and other
related professionals
iv) Worker’s Training
v) Safety Induction for Construction Personnel
●
Senior Management
●
Professionals/Sub-Professional
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
d)
Promotion through electronic media
Stakeholder role in promoting MS-OSHMS
through ‘DO IT YOURSELF’ programme
Formation of Malaysian Construction Safety
and Health Association – MCSHA
Promoting Safe Work Practices
Development of Standard Safety Signs
Safety promotion by stakeholders
Annual Award
Special Certificate of Achievement for Best
Practice In Occupational Safety & Health
Publication of Safety & Health Prosecutions
Safety & Health On Incentive & Disincentive
To encourage more construction personnel to
undergo training programmes and also encourage
construction-related organisations to play active
role in promoting occupational safety and health
in construction industry.
●
Incentives for Construction Safety & Health
Officer Course and Site Safety Supervisor
Course
●
Incentives by SOCSO
●
Incentives from Insurers for Good Risk
Management
●
Itemisation of safety and health item in
Preliminary
●
Tax-Exemption for PPE, all tools and equipment
related to safety and health used in the
Construction Industry
●
Reduction of fee for Occupational Safety &
Health Management System Certification
●
Incentives for Courses to be Organised by the
Proposed Malaysia Construction Safety and
Health Association
●
Incentives From Employers
T H E I N G E N I E U R 38
Safety & Health Standards
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
f)
Malaysian Standards
Guidelines on MS Construction Occupational
Health and Safety management System (MS
COHSMS)
Guidelines for Safe Construction Works
- Guideline on Prevention of Falls at
Construction Sites
- Guidelines on Working at Confined Area
- Guidelines-Working at Noisy and Dusty Area
Standards for Scaffolding material and jointing
method, workers housing and amenities
Guidelines on Construction (Design &
Management) Regulations (CDM)
Code of Practice on Construction at Highly
Hazardous Workplace
Hand Book on Good Practice – Occupational
Safety and Health at Construction Sites
Department of Standard Malaysia To Accredit
Certification Body For MS COHSMS
Green Lane Approval for Standard Design and
Drawings – Scaffolding, Workers Quarters and
Temporary Sanitary System
Revision to Codes of Practice & Guidelines to
Incorporate latest legislation and technology
Safety & Health R & D And Technology
update
e)
To reduce occupational safety and health hazards
by introduction of mechanization and new method
of construction that will optimise labour utilization
in the industry.
Construction Accident Reporting Mechanism
New Methods For Preventing Fall From Height
Research and Development on Project Safety
and Health
Improving the Signal System for Site Traffic
Management
E-Portal for Construction Occupational Safety
& Health and On-Line Accident Reporting
Personal protective Equipment, Safety tools and
Equipment for Working at Height
Tools and Equipment for Working in Confined
Spaces
Standard Drawings for Temporary Works
Implemented by BEM and PAM
Industrialized Building System (IBS)
Study on the Suitability and Practicability of
Personal Protective Equipment and Safety and
Health Tools and Equipments for use in
Construction Industry in Malaysia.
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
IN DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY 2005
With Compliments from
Nov 29 – Dec 2, 2005
Organised by: Military Academy Malaysia
Supported by: Ministry of Defence, Malaysia
Venue: Marriott Putrajaya, Malaysia
Invitation: All researchers, academics, defence
personnel, defence industry and any interested
parties are welcome to participate.
Theme: “Defence Technology: Evolution,
Achievements and Challenges”.
FIVE-H ASSOCIATES SDN. BHD.
(241573- M)
Mechanical, Electrical, Civil,
Structural Engineers,
Project Managers & Energy Managers
For further information please visit:
http://www.atma.gov.my/ICDT2005/index.html
or contact:
Secretariat ICDT 2005,
Military Academy Malaysia,
Sungei Besi Camp,
57000 Kuala Lumpur,
MALAYSIA.
Email : ICDT2005@atma.gov.my
Tel: (603)-90575345 ext: 2412/2436/2211/2190
Fax: (603)-90574291/90574361
Wisma Zambahari,
No. 3&5, Jalan SS15/8A,
47500 Subang Jaya,
Selangor Darul Ehsan.
Tel: 603-5637 6800 (Hunting),
5632 1729 / 9100, 5634 5152, 5636 0927
Fax: 603-5637 6680
E-Mail: fiveme@streamyx.com,
fivehcs@streamyx.com
Website: www.fiveh.com.my
T H E I N G E N I E U R 39
engineering & law
Instructions And Variations
Part 2
By Ir. Harbans Singh K.S.
VARIATION CLAIMS: NATURE AND TYPES
Having dealt with the instructions, variations and the
nexus between the two, the discussion of this paper will
move on to the contentious area of variation claims; a
matter of extreme concern to practitioners and a malady
afflicting many a contract in its implementation stage. It
is an undeniable fact that the instant topic is very wide in
its ambit and cannot be considered in length within the
limits of this session.
Nevertheless, some important facets of this interesting
domain of claims will be examined, in particular,
considerations pertaining to the nature and types of
variation claims and the main heads or grounds of
contention 42.
Nature and Types
Although there is no universal formula for classifying
variation claims, the contemporary approach is to divide
such claims according to the broad categories as listed
below i.e. classification according to 43:
●
The claimant’s identity e.g. contractor’s claim, subcontractor’s claim, etc.;
●
The ultimate remedy or remedies sought e.g. cost related
claim, time related claims, etc.;
●
The legal basis e.g. ‘contractual’ claim, ‘extracontractual’ claim, ‘ex-gratia’ claim, etc.; and
●
The form/procedural nature of the claim e.g.
‘particularized’ claim, ‘global’ claim, etc.
It should be appreciated that the categories adverted
to above overlap to a certain degree. To this end, a typical
claim is a combination of possibly all of the said categories
e.g. a variation claim can be a contractor’s claim for extra
‘costs’ made on a ‘contractual’ basis in a ‘particularized’
form.
Whilst acknowledging the other categories as adverted
to here above, the following discussion will be confined
mainly to variation claims vis-à-vis their legal basis.
Contractual Claims
The bulk of variation claims encountered in practice 44
are ones going under the label of ‘contractual’ claims.
Synonymous with the term ‘ex-contractu’ claims, the
instant category of claims is one that arises from the
contract itself i.e. the legal basis of the claim proper is
founded in the specific provision(s) or the term(s) of the
contract in question. To ensure the tenability of such a
claim and its successful realization, it is therefore
imperative for the applicable contractual provisions to be
strictly adhered to 45. In furtherance to the foregoing, it is
imperative for a variation claim to satisfy the contractually
stipulated pre-condition i.e. the existence of a valid
variation order 46. On a comparative basis, it is relatively
advantageous to pursue a contractual claim as this
category of claim provides a simpler machinery for the
application, justification, assessment and reimbursement
based on a pre-agreed contractual mechanism or formula.
Extra-Contractual’ Claims
Where it is not possible, to justify or advance a
‘contractual’ claim vis-à-vis variations, resort can be
made to the category of claims going under the umbrella
label of ‘extra-contractual’ claims 47. Also known as ‘ex
contractual’ or ‘common law’ claims, the claims under
the instant category are those that arise apart from the
express provisions of the contract and cover claims under
implied contract, in tort, for ‘quantum meruit’, etc. It is
apparent from the nature of such claims that there are
seldom, if any, procedures enshrined in the particular
contract governing matters such as the notification,
submission, assessment and realization of ‘extracontractual’ claims.
Such requirements would have to be established by
necessary implication from the prevailing principles of
the law. Variation claims that fall under this category
are mainly those involving procedurally invalid
variations, invalid omissions, ‘cardinal changes’, etc. It
also covers the situation where work ordered falls outside
the scope of the contract i.e. work has been undertaken
but it falls outside the purview of an express variation
clause: Sir Lindsay Parkinson & Co. v Commissioner of
Works 48.
42. For a more detailed reference See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S.
‘Engineering and Construction Contracts Management: PostCommencement Practice’ - Chapter 4.
43. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 850.
44. Be these Contractors initiated or initiated by Sub-Contractors,
Suppliers, etc.
45. Both in the substantive and procedural sense.
46. The subject of the preceding discussion.
47. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 858-869.
48. [1949] 2 KB 632.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 40
49
Where it is neither possible to found a ‘contractual’
claim nor ‘extra contractual’ claim, the last resort is to
attempt to pursue an ‘ex-gratia’ claims. Also known as
‘sympathetic’ claims, this species of claims have no legal
basis but are made on mere hardship or moral grounds
and payment is made usually as a matter of grace on a
purely without prejudice and non-admission of liability
basis. As such claims are non-legal in nature, their
contents and procedures are ad-hoc and informal
depending on the particular circumstances of the case.
Accordingly no precise requirements as to their timing,
mode and documentation exist. Hence, each such claim
is essentially dictated by its own particular facts.
The party against whom the claim is made is neither
obliged to entertain nor make payment for such claims.
This is subject to the caveat that should a promise be
nevertheless made to settle to the claimant, the promisor
is bound by such promise or agreement. In the event of a
subsequent default i.e. failure and/or neglect to honour
the promise, the claimant has a legal entitlement to recover
the remedy promised based on the promise or agreement:
Lester Williams v Roffey Brothers & Nicholls
(Contractors) Ltd. 50.
In a typical variation claim scenario, the sequence
usually encountered in practice involves the claimant first
attempting to pursue a ‘contractual’ claim. Should such
a claim fail or be not tenable in law, then resort is
subsequently made to an ‘extra-contractual’ claim
premised normally on quantum meruit 51. In the event
that such a claim also does not meet with any success,
then as a last resort, an ‘ex-gratia’ claim remains the only
option available to the claimant. Practitioners should be
well aware that such claims are more of a rule rather an
exception on the local scene, as seldom if ever ‘contractual’
and/or ‘extra-contractual’ see the light of day in many a
contract.
Common Grounds For Variation Claims
Adverse Physical Conditions
A claim based on the above-mentioned ground is
normally premised on the contention that the physical
conditions actually encountered on site are different or
more adverse than those that could have been reasonably
forseen by the contractor at the time of contracting.
Whether a claim premised on the instant ground can
be successfully pursued depends much on the contractual
provisions governing the party responsible for shouldering
the consequences of encountering the adverse physical
conditions 52 Roger Knowles 53 is of the opinion that ‘which
party is responsible for bad ground conditions should be
made clear by the express terms of the contract. If the
contract is silent on the matter and there is no provision
for remeasurement, the contractor will normally be deemed
to have taken the risk. This is particularly relevant in
lump sum design and construct forms of procurement.’
For adverse ground conditions which are reasonably
foreseeable, two renowned cases can be cited as a good
comparison. The first is Pearce (CJ) & Co. Ltd. v Hereford
Corporation and Others 54 where it was held the existence
of an old sewer could have been ‘reasonably forseen’, so
that even if the contractor had served the necessary notice,
they would not have been entitled to extra payment under
the contract clause of renewing the old sewer, backfilling
the excavation, back heading, etc. However, in Humber
Oil Terminals Trustee Ltd. v Harbour and General Works
(Stevin) Ltd. 55 it was held that the adverse physical
conditions could not have been forseen by an experienced
contractor and hence could give rise to a contractual claim
thereto.
Difference Between Billed And Actual Quantities
A Bill Of Quantities Contract has been lucidly explained
by Keating 56 as:
Variation claims encountered in practice exhibit a
variety of hues in form, content and lastly on the very
ground forming the sub-stratum of the claim. Discounting
the novel basis of founding such claims which have
infiltrated the industry, the common grounds can be listed
as hereunder:
●
Adverse physical conditions;
●
Difference between billed and actual quantities;
●
Tendering errors;
●
Change in Employer’s Requirements;
●
Errors/discrepancies
specifications; and
●
Change in construction methods;
in
For the sake of brevity, the more important aspects as
some of the abovementioned grounds are examined here
below.
drawing/plans
and
…….a contract where the bills of quantities form part of
the contract and describe the work to be carried out for
which a lump sum is payable. The contractor may be,
and usually is, bound by the terms of the contract to carry
out work in excess of that stated in the bills of quantities
if it is necessary to complete the contract, but in a bills of
quantities contract such excess work is extra work. This
49. See Ir. Harbans Singh K.S. ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Post-Commencement Practice’ at P 870-873.
50. [1989] 48 BLR 69.
51. Although the basis may be breach of implied terms, tort, etc.
52. E.g. additional cost and/or time.
53. See ‘100 Contractual Problems and Their Solutions’ at P 157.
54. [1968] 66 LGR 647 quoted by Max Abrahamson in ‘Engineering
Law and The ICE Contracts’.
55. [1992] 59 BLR 1.
56. See ‘Building Contracts’ [4th Edn] at P 64.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 41
engineering & law
Ex-Gratia’ Claims
engineering & law
type of contract has been said to be “obviously unsafe” for
an employer because it can hardly ever be known
beforehand what exact quantities of work may be necessary
to complete; conversely it may save the contractor much
trouble and loss’.
For such contracts, the courts have a tendency to hold
that:
●
All items which are intended to be executed by the
contractor in consideration for the contract price
would have been expressly provided for in the
contract. Hence, any error or inaccuracy in the bills
of quantities is at the risk of the employer in that it
may constitute a ‘variation’: Patman & Fotheringham
Ltd. v Pilditch 57;
●
If the bills of quantities are not prepared in accordance
with the applicable Standard of Measurement e.g. SMM
for building works, CESMM for civil engineering works,
etc., there may be a contractual basis for a ‘variation’:
Bryant & Sons Ltd. v Birmingham Hospital Saturday
Fund 58; and
●
Where the actual quantities of work as executed by
the contractor exceed the quantities shown against the
particular item in the contract bills of quantities this
may constitute a ‘variation’. Accordingly:
(a)
The contractor is bound to carry out works in
excess of those stated in the contract bills if it is
necessary to complete the contract provided that
these works are paid for as ‘extras’ or a ‘variation’:
Patman & Fotheringham Ltd. v Pilditch 59; and
(b)
If such extra over is not within a reasonable limit,
the contract rates may have to be adjusted. For
the purposes of the latter, it is immaterial that
they do not stem from an express exercise of the
variation powers: Mitsui Construction Co. Ltd. v
Attorney General of Hong Kong 60.
Discounting the fact that there may be some possibility
of implying the duty of the contractor to undertake a
certain amount of extra work without the latter being
categorized as a contractual ‘variation’, the courts are
inclined in such contracts especially those based on bills
of quantities to strictly construe the bills of quantities
and conditions of contract, in some instances of providing
a literal interpretation; thereby leaving little room for such
implication as alluded to hereabove.
Tendering Errors
Chow Kok Fong in his authoritative text entitled ‘Law
and Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ at P69 states:
….. a Contractor may commit a tendering error in bills
of quantities contracts in two ways. First, the error may
arise from the computation of the unit rate for a work
item in the bills, so that the result is that he tendered
(for example) $X for a cubic metre of general excavation
instead of $Y which he had intended. Secondly, he could
have correctly stated his price per unit of measurement
but incorrectly extended the price and this error had been
incorporated in the total contract price which he tendered
…..’
Prima facie, in both situations, a contractual claim
may not see a realistic chance of success. In the first of
the two cases, unless the contractor can show fraud or
misrepresentation or common intention of the parties 61,
the risk of such tendering errors rests squarely on the
contractor’s shoulders. The contractor may apply to the
courts for rectification of the contract but as Chow Kok
Fong rightly opines, this may be a mere exercise in
futility 62. As for the second category of claims, it is
submitted that the fate of such claims depends essentially
on the governing conditions of contract. In MV Gleeson
Ltd. v Sleaford UDC 63 the contractor could not recover
anything as the court held that on a true construction of
the particular form of contract (the RIBA Standard Form)
there was no provision for the rectification of such errors
in the bills except where there was an omission of bill
items.
Change in Employer’s Requirements
As a typical contract traverses the full cycle from
inception to ultimate realization and handover, it is a
common occurrence that not only the designers but the
users introduce a number of revisions or changes. There
are a host of reasons for these; ranging from a review of
design to matters such as change of ultimate use to which
the finished work would be put. Furthermore commercial,
technical and political developments may impact on the
initial contract requirements and necessitate a review
and change before the contract can be eventually
discharged.
Most, if not such changes will result in variations to
the contract; the bulk of these contractual in nature whilst
others may fall under the category of ‘extra-contractual’
claims. This is especially so in the so called ‘Package
Deal’ type of contracts 64 where owing to the inherent
nature of such contracts, changes in Employer’s
Requirements seem to be the most prevalent. Such
changes generally result in claims for additional costs
and/or time depending on the areas of impact.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
[1904] ‘Hudson’s Building Contracts’ [4th Edn.] Vol. 2, P 369.
[1938] 1 All ER 503.
[1904] ‘Hudson’s Building Contracts’ [4th Edn.] Vol. 2, P 369
[1986] 33 BLR 1.
See Royston UDC v Royston Builders Ltd [1961] 177 E.G. 589.
See ‘Law and Practice of Construction Contract Claims’ at P69.
[1953] Unreported.
i.e. ‘Turnkey’, Design and Construct, Design and Build Contracts,
etc.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 42
CONCLUSION
Variation claims under this head are usually premised
on the contention that owing to the existence of errors
and/or discrepancies in the contract documents i.e. arising
from defective drawings, specifications, bills of quantities,
etc. the contractor has suffered additional cost and/or time
than originally envisaged under the particular contract.
Whether such claims are contractually tenable depend
much upon matters such as:
Variation claims are said to be a curse afflicting many a
construction contract being implemented in this country.
The story is no different when one looks at the situation
elsewhere in areas where such contracts have been or are
being in the process of practical realization. There are many
reasons attributed for this sad occurrence; a situation where
the only apparent winners are lawyers and claim consultants.
Captains of the industry point their fingers at the current
tight contracting environment where risks on contractors
are high whilst the profits are relatively low. The situation is
further exacerbated by an army of contractors bidding at
cut-throat prices just to stay afloat with subsequent variation
claims being used either to make up for the initial losses or
to pad up the profit margins.
At the end of the day, this may be all part of a game of
‘Russian roulette’; a view buttressed by the fact that unless
such claims are tenable in the first place i.e. initiated through
a valid variation order or instruction of the contract
administrator and premised on sound contractual basis, most
land up generating unnecessary paperwork, strained working
relations and a sheer waste of senior management time on
both sides of the equation. Hence, in the final analysis it is
up to the industry to investigate and regulate itself such that
variation claims are not made simpliciter but only when all
other remedies for retribution have been exhausted.
1. Nature of the Contract
In general, for a contract based on bills of quantities, since
the risk is basically on the employer in terms of correctness
and accuracy, errors arising therefrom may entitle a
contractor to an additional claim. However, this may not
be true for lump sum contracts based on drawings and
specifications and of the ‘Package Deal’ type.
2. Construction of Contract
The contract may be couched in terms which attempt to
transfer the risk of such errors or discrepancies on to the
contractor 65. If such stipulations are held to be valid and
enforceable, then a contractor may, for all intents and
purposes be precluded from seeking any further remedy
for a risk that has been effectively transferred to him.
REFERENCES
Changes in Construction Methods
Variation claims under this head entail three distinct
scenarios, namely:
1. Where a contractor has tendered on the basis of a certain
construction method and this method, though
incorporated into the contract is later varied by the
employer for some specific reason(s). This may, for all
intents and purposes arise consequent to an act of
prevention and presumably for neutral events too; or
2. It may also encompass a situation where the contractor
revises his method of construction post-contract award
and such revision is eventually accepted by the employer
as occasioned in the celebrated case of Simplex Concrete
Piles Ltd. v St. Pancras Borough Council 66; or
3. A more common scenario arises where the contractor is
asked at the tender stage to submit his method statement
and construction programme; which documents then
being incorporated into the subsequent contract
formalized between the parties. Should the method
statement and/or the construction programme be varied
subsequently, such changes may give rise to a
contractual claim for varied work 67.
A rare but seemingly valid claim can also be,
founded in the event the contractor’s method statement
submitted 68 and approved post-contract award materially
departs from the requirements stipulated in the contract.
1 Chow Kok Fong ‘Law and Practice of Construction
Contract Claims’ [2nd Edn], Longman.
2 Ir. Harbans Singh K.S., ‘Engineering and Construction
Contracts Management: Commencement and
Administration’, ‘Engineering and Construction Contracts
Management: Post-Commencement Practice’, LexisNexis/Butterworths.
3 Ir. Harbans Singh K.S., ‘Malaysian Precedents and Forms:
Engineering and Construction Contracts’, Malayan Law
Journal Sdn. Bhd.
4 Joseph T. Bockrath, ‘Contracts and the Legal Environment
for Engineers and Architects’ [5th Edn.], McGraw Hill.
5 J. Murdoch & W. Hughes, ‘Construction Contracts’ [3rd
Edn.] Spon Press.
6 Peter Davison, ‘Evaluating Contract Claims’, Blackwell.
7 Peter R. Hibberd ‘Variations In Construction Contracts’,
Colins Professional and Technical Books.
8 Powell-Smith, Chappel & Simmonds, ‘An Engineering
Contract Dictionary’, IBC.
9 Robinson, Lavers, Tan & Chan, ‘Construction Law in
Singapore and Malaysia’ [2nd Edn.], Butterworths.
10 Roger Knowles, ‘100 Contractual Problems and Their
Solutions’, Blackwell Science. BEM
65. See for example Clause 1.2 PAM 98 Form (With Quantities Edn).
66. [1958] 5 BLR 34.
67. See Yorshire Water Authority v McAlpine & Son [1985] 32 BLR
114.
68. Where none was submitted at the tendering stage; the only
requirement being for the method statement submitted for
approval prior to commencement of work under the contract.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 43
engineering & law
Errors / Discrepancies In Contract Documents
environment
Providing Sludge Dewatering Services
For Multiple-Site Operations Via A
Mobile Dewatering Unit Series 4
By Ruhaidah Md Hassan, Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd and Chua Wee Shiong, Environ Holdings Sdn Bhd
S
ludge is a major by-product
of any sewage treatment
system. The treatment and
disposal of this sludge is a
major consideration in the treatment
process. A typical disposal method is
to send the sludge for landfilling. Reuse of the sludge is also possible, with
applications such as energy recovery
by incineration and conversion to
fertilizers. Whether the sludge is
disposed or re-used, there must be
handling and transportation of the
sludge. As sludge consists primarily
of water and only a small amount of
organic matter, the sludge must be
dewatered so that the resultant sludge
cake will be dry enough for it to be
handled easily and economically.
Being the national sewerage
concessionaire in Malaysia, sludge
management is an important part of
Indah Water Konsortium Sdn Bhd’s
(IWK’s) operations. With over 7,500
public sewage treatment plants (STPs)
and over 350,000 individual septic
tanks under their care, IWK is taking
steps to improve sludge management
to cater for the growing needs of the
country. One solution IWK is
exploring, is to use dewatering
equipment that is easy to operate,
easy to maintain, requires minimum
manpower, and easily transportable
from site to site.
●
●
●
●
Pilot Trials for the Mobile
Dewatering Unit
Environ Holdings Sdn Bhd
(Environ), one of the earliest wastewater
companies in Malaysia, had brought in
a mobile dewatering unit from Italy. The
effort was aimed at conducting pilot
plant trials, to observe the performance
of a mobile dewatering unit in a typical
Malaysian sewage treatment plant. Two
trial runs were conducted to
accommodate visits from various
parties from all over the country.
The details of the trials are given
in Table 1.
For a mobile dewatering
application such as that required by
IWK, the centrifuge decanter was one
of the many choices of mechanical
dewatering equipment for use. The
decanter provides the following
advantages over other means of
mechanical dewatering:
● Clean continuous operation
● Minimal odour problems
● Fast start-up and shutdown
capabilities
The Mobile Dewatering Unit
T H E I N G E N I E U R 44
●
Relatively dry sludge cake
Low capital cost to capacity ratio
Small footprint
Easily mobile
One trained team can serve
several plants, thus reducing the
number of trained personnel
required
In addition to the above, the
decanter also offered the following
features that are unique:
●
●
●
Open scroll, which allows feed to
enter anywhere within the
decanter
Adjustable shuttle feed pipe,
which allows feed location to be
precisely adjusted, even while the
decanter is in operation
Sludge scraper, which prevents
sludge build up in the sludge
discharge chamber and therefore
prevents blocking of the bowl
rotation
These additional features facilitate
ease of operation, as well as reduce
maintenance and downtime; factors
that ensure the long periods of
trouble-free operation for any mobile
equipment system.
environment
Typical cross-section of the Pilot Trial centrifuge decanter
Besides the decanter, the mobile
dewatering unit also came fully
installed with all the equipment and
piping necessary to make it a complete
sludge dewatering system (see Table
1). The only external requirements
needed were
power supply
and
water
supply, which
were
easily
connected to the
unit. Feed was
pumped directly
from the STP’s gravity thickener into
the mobile unit, using the screw pump
provided inside the mobile unit. The
discharged effluent was channeled
back to the STP’s headworks.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
On average, the sludge cake
produced had a dryness of about 18%
to 20% dry solid content. While not
Table1: Details of the Mobile Dewatering Unit
Pilot Trials
Trial Details
Location:
Dates:
Source of sludge:
Feed sludge from gravity thickener
STP at Taman Dagang,
Ampang, Selangor
July and October 2003
Thickened activated sludge
Mobile Unit Details
1 no. centrifuge decanter
1 no. polymer preparation station
1 no. polymer pump
1 no. sludge feed pump
1 no. effluent pump
1 no. screw conveyor
1 no. control panel
All necessary pipes, valves, hoses and fittings
All of the above are fully containerized within a 20
ft container
Decanter Details
Make:
Model:
Hydraulic Capacity:
Main motor:
Internal view of the Pilot Trial Mobile Dewatering Unit
T H E I N G E N I E U R 45
Pieralisi
Baby 2
4.0 m3/hr
7.5 kW
environment
as dry as cake produced from a filter
press, it was more than adequate for
easy handling.
The effluent from the decanter was
found to be clear, indicating a good
solid capture rate within the decanter.
The effluent quality can be adjusted
to obtain a drier sludge cake, if so
desired.
Start-up and shutdown of the unit
were fast and simple. The preliminary
setting up of the unit at site took only
two hours. Water and power supply
were tapped from existing sources.
The feed and discharge connections
were made using hoses supplied with
the unit. Closing down took only
about an hour. Once closed up, the
Table 2: Results of the pilot trials
Parameters
Results
Influent sludge dry solids content, % d.s.
Sludge cake dry solids content, % d.s.
Polymer consumption, kg/tonne dry solids produced
3-4
18-20
3-6
Dewatered sludge
produced from the
Pilot Trial Mobile
Dewatering unit
container was ready to be moved to
the next plant. During the pilot trials,
the unit was moved in and out of the
site using a 10-tonne lorry with a crane
for lifting. No special permits or
allowances were required to transport
the mobile unit from site to site.
CONCLUSION
With the large number of plants
under IWK’s maintenance, the mobile
dewatering unit is a viable option for
their sludge dewatering operations. A
mobile unit will remove the need for
individual dewatering systems for
every STP, thus reducing the problems
associated with operating and
maintaining these equipment, along
with the need for extensive staff
training. The dryness of the sludge
cake produced is satisfactory and
similar results can be expected from
the dewatering of sludge from other
STPs. The mobile sludge dewatering
trials successfully show the possibility
of providing sludge dewatering
services for multiple site operations.
This might be the future trend of
sludge dewatering system particularly
for widely scattered individual septic
tanks and small sewage treatment
plants in rural areas.
REFERENCES
1. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991),
Wastewater Engineering:
Treatment, Disposal and
Reuse, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
2. Sewerage
Services
Department, Ministry of
Housing & Local Government
(2001), Sewerage Services
Report 2001, Sewerage
Services Department.
Dewatered
sludge,
filtrate and
wet sludge
3. Indah Water Konsortium Sdn
Bhd (2004), Indah Water
Konsortium Sdn Bhd Web Site,
Indah Water Konsortium Sdn
Bhd
Dewatered
sludge
Filtrate
Wet sludge
T H E I N G E N I E U R 46
4. Pieralisi Benelux BV (2002),
Centrifugal Extractors – A
Different Perspective, Pieralisi
Benelux BV BEM
By Joy Jacqueline Pereira and Rawshan Ara Begum, Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI),
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
T
he construction industry plays
a pivotal role in helping the
nation to achieve sustainable
development.
Sustainable
development
requires
the
construction industry itself to be
sustainable. There are three elements
related to sustainable construction
and these are the economic, social and
environmental dimensions. The
economic dimension includes aspects
such as wealth generation,
employment, profitability and
competitiveness. The social dimension
covers aspects such as realization of
Government policies aimed to develop
the nation, delivery of buildings and
structures that meet the satisfaction
of their users as well as respect and
fair treatment for all stakeholders. The
environmental dimension relates to
the major impact associated with the
construction industry such as soil
erosion and sedimentation, flash
floods, destruction of vegetation, dust
pollution, depletion of natural
resources and waste generation,
among others. In order to enable the
construction sector to meet the
aspirations of sustainability, economic
and social goals should be met with
minimal environmental impact.
Waste generation is becoming
an increasingly significant
environmental problem associated
with the construction industry,
undermining its sustainability. This is
particularly true in urban areas where
landfills are closing due to lack of
land. In addition, waste management
practices are generally outdated and
good practices are inadequately
documented to allow for industry-
wide dissemination. Currently,
construction waste is considered as
part of solid waste and is disposed of
in dumpsites and landfills, while
wood-based materials are sometimes
illegally burned at the site. The
economic potential of this disposed
material is generally ignored. This is
partly because the characteristics of
construction waste in Malaysia have
not been adequately studied to
evaluate its feasibility as an economic
resource.
This situation served as an impetus
for the Construction Industry
Development Board of Malaysia
(CIDB) to fund a research project on
“Waste Minimization and Recycling
Potential of Construction Materials”,
conducted by the Institute for
Environment and Development
(LESTARI) and Forest Research
Institute Malaysia (FRIM) and several
other collaborators. One research
activity in the Project involved a
T H E I N G E N I E U R 47
survey of CIDB Registered
Contractors, particularly regarding
their level of awareness, attitudes,
behaviour and willingness to pay for
improved construction waste
management (LESTARI 2005).
This article highlights some of the
findings obtained from the survey in
the Klang Valley, specifically in
Kajang, Petaling Jaya, Subang Jaya
and Seri Kembangan. The “purposive
stratified random sampling” method
was used, focusing on three major
groups of contractors registered with
CIDB. These are Group A comprising
G6 and G7 contractors, Group B
comprising G4 and G5 contractors
and Group C for G1, G2 and G3
contractors. The final survey was
based on 130 samples of contractors
i.e. 35 from Group A, 35 from Group
B and 60 from group C. The sample
represents 2% of the total registered
contractors in Selangor. Interviews
were based on a set of questionnaires
feature
Construction Waste
Management: Are Contractors
Unaware Or Just Recalcitrant?
feature
that was pre-tested and modified
before being used in the survey
(Begum et al. 2005).
Waste Management Hierarchy
Construction waste, also referred
to as construction and demolition
waste, is as defined as mineral and
non-mineral matter in variable
composition from construction,
demolition and renovation projects
including excavated natural or fill soil
and rock material generated during
construction. The projects include the
building, renovation and demolition
of residential and non-residential
buildings and other infrastructure
including road construction or repavement. Construction waste is
highly heterogeneous depending on
the type of project and the local
geology, and may contain material
undesirable and environmentally
damaging materials. Examples of
construction waste include ferrous
and non-ferrous metals, soil, rocks,
sand, cement, bricks, concrete, asphalt
and bituminous material, treated and
untreated wood, plaster, plastics,
paper as well as hazardous material
such as paint and lacquers (LESTARI
2005).
Within the framework of life cycle
assessment, the overall aim is to
prevent to the extent possible, and
minimise the generation of waste, as
well as manage those wastes in such
a manner that they do not cause harm
to health and the environment. Thus,
in the context of waste management
for the construction industry, the first
step involves the reduction of waste.
The next step is the recovery of waste
by means of reuse and recycling. If
there are no options left for recovery,
the last step is the disposal of waste
into the landfill.
Minimizing its generation during
the operational process can reduce
waste. Reducing the material in-flow
can also effect waste reduction, and
result in reducing the materials outflow. A simple example would be to
lower the extra material in the bill of
quantity. Material substitution is also
one way to reduce waste. Reuse is
actually closed-loop recycling, where
a product of a system is recycled for
a new use in the same system (Buhe
et al. 1997). Materials in the
construction industry can be
reemployed after refurbishment or in
a lower-grade application. For
example, excavated soil can be used
as backfill, for landscaping or noise
bunding (Goh and Anuar Kasa 2000).
Recycling is an open loop where the
product of a system finds new use in
another system (Buhe et al. 1997).
There are many examples of recycling
in the construction industry. Wood
materials can be recycled into paper
product, ground to make livestock
bedding and used for mushroom
cultivation (Mohamed and Nasri
2000). Concrete can be crushed to
produce secondary aggregates while
metals can be moulded into new
products.
In the Project, material flow is
assessed based on the Life Cycle
Assessment approach (LCA) where the
following definitions apply. The
boundaries are defined at the points
where the materials enter and leave a
construction site. Thus, reuse refers
to closed-loop recycling, where a
product of a site is recycled for a new
use within the same construction site.
Recycling is an open loop where the
product from a site finds new use in
another construction site in its
original form, or is transformed into
a product for a different use, either
within or outside of the construction
industry. Opportunities for waste
minimisation occur both within and
outside of the defined boundaries.
Construction Waste Generators
The survey revealed many
interesting characteristics of
contractors, the primary generators of
construction waste, particularly
regarding their level of awareness
(Begum 2005). All contractors are well
aware of waste collection services,
with a small majority (54%) practising
self disposal while the rest have
arrangements with private waste
collectors. In terms of collection
frequency, only 3% of contractors
practice daily disposal. A third of the
contractors (37%) do not have a
T H E I N G E N I E U R 48
schedule, while 32% have their waste
collected once a week. The other
contractors have collection
frequencies of twice a week (15%),
once a month (5%), and three times
per week (4%), while about 5% have
no knowledge of frequency. Group A
(G6 and G7) contractors generally
engage private waste collectors while
contractors in other categories tend
to practise self disposal. It could be
speculated that incidences of illegal
disposal is more likely to be associated
with the latter group, as private waste
collectors are relatively organised in
their operations and more easily
traceable for legal non-compliance.
About 79% of the contractors
surveyed are aware of source
reduction with respect to the waste
management hierarchy, while 21% are
not aware of the matter. The sources
of information are varied. About 78%
of the contractors obtained their
information from television, followed
by newspapers (70%), Internet (55%),
local authorities (36%), seminar/
conferences/workshops (27%), CIDB
(22%), contractor associations (20%),
private waste contractors (20%), nonGovernment organisations (14%) and
foreign sources (5%). About 87% of
the contractors surveyed are aware of
reuse and recycling with respect to
the waste management hierarchy,
while only 13% are not aware of the
matter. The most common source is
the newspaper, where 80% (Real data
is 80.5%) of the contractors obtained
their information from this source.
This is followed by other sources such
as television (69%), Internet (48%),
seminar/conferences/workshops
(47%), local authorities (31%), CIDB
(26%), contractor associations (21%),
private waste contractors (16%), nonGovernment organisations (15%) and
foreign sources (6%).
It appears that contractors are
relatively less familiar with source
reduction compared to reuse and
recycling. More than half the
contractors surveyed cited the mass
media, particularly television and
newspapers, as the main source of
information regarding waste
management, followed by the
Internet. The next important sources
recycling with respect to the waste
management hierarchy. However,
contractors are relatively less familiar
with source reduction compared to
reuse and recycling. The main source
of information regarding waste
management is the mass media,
particularly
television
and
newspapers. Other important sources
of information are the Internet, local
authorities, technical meetings such
as seminars, conferences and
workshops, CIDB, contractors
association, private waste contractors
and non-Government organisations.
Less than 6% of the contractors
surveyed obtained information on
waste management from foreign
sources.
Group A (G6 and G7) contractors
generally engage private waste
collectors and they are willing to pay
RM88 per tonne for waste collection
and disposal services. Contractors in
other categories tend to practise self
disposal. Group B (G4 and G5) is
willing to pay RM78.25 and Group
C (G1, G2 and G3) RM55.80 per
tonne for waste collection and
disposal services. None of the
contractors surveyed are willing to
pay more than RM200 per tonne for
waste collection and disposal
services. Given the scenario where
waste collection and disposal
services are set to rise because of
closure of dumping sites in the Klang
Valley, it is inevitable that the
construction industry will intensify
efforts on source reduction, reuse and
recycling.
The survey has provided a profile
of contractors in the Klang Valley.
The findings will assist the
formulation of appropriate policy
interventions in addressing the
construction waste problem in
Malaysia and indirectly improving
the quality of construction in the
country.
Conclusions
This article is based on the findings
from the research project entitled
“Waste Minimization and Recycling
Potential of Construction Materials”,
funded by CIDB and conducted by
The majority of contractors
surveyed in the Klang Valley are well
aware of source reduction, reuse and
Acknowledgement
T H E I N G E N I E U R 49
LESTARI and FRIM and several other
collaborators. The contribution of the
research group to this article, in
particular Prof. Chamhuri Siwar and
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Abdul Hamid Jaafar,
is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Begum, R.A. 2005. Economic
Analysis of the Potential of
Construction Waste Minimisation
and Recycling in Malaysia.
(Unpubl. Ph.D Thesis). Submitted
to Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia, Bangi.
Begum, R.A., Siwar, C., Pereira,
J.J. and Jaafar, A.H. 2005.
Awareness, Attitude and
Behavioural Factors: Econometric
Analysis of Waste Management in
the Construction Industry [In
preparation]
Buhe, C., Achard, G., Le Tono, J.F.
and Chevalier, J.L. 1997.
Integration of the Recycling
Process into the Life Cycle
Analysis of Construction
Products. Resources, Conservation
and Recycling, 20, 227-243.
Goh W.L. and Anuar Kasa 2000.
Analisis Sistem Tembok Penahan
Bertetulang Dawai Menggunakan
Tanah Baki Sebagai Bahan
Timbus
Balik.
Prosiding
Kejuruteraan Awam UKM
Kejuruteraan Geoteknik dan
Pengangkutan, 1, 29-35.
LESTARI 2005. Construction
Waste Management (Milestone
Report 4). LESTARI/FRIM Project
on Waste Minimization and
Recycling
Potential
of
Construction Materials. Submitted
to CIDB: July 2005.
Mohamed Neyzam Atan and Nasri
Nasir 2000. Kajian Penggunaan
Abu Terbang Dalam Bancuhan
Konkrit Yang Diisi Dengan Kertas
Suratkhabar Lama. Prosiding
Kejuruteraan Awam dan
Kejuruteraan Struktur Bahan, 1,
199-205. BEM
feature
are local authorities, technical
meetings such as seminars,
conferences and workshops. Less than
30% of the contractors surveyed find
CIDB, contractor association, private
waste contractors and nonGovernment organisations as
important sources of information in
the Klang Valley, while foreign
sources are the least important. It
appears that important stakeholders
in the construction industry,
particularly CIDB and contractor
associations, have had little impact
in increasing awareness regarding
waste management among the
contractors. These organisations can
and should do more to increase their
effectiveness in the arena of
construction waste management.
When asked if they would be
willing to pay for improved
construction waste management
services, specifically for waste
collection and disposal services, 68%
of the contractors surveyed reported
a positive willingness to pay while the
rest were not willing. In terms of
actual values, the average maximum
willingness to pay value of the
contractors in the three groups varies.
Contractors are willing to pay an
average maximum amount of
RM69.88 per tonne for waste
collection and disposal services. The
highest average maximum value they
are willing to pay is RM88 for Group
A (G6 and G7), RM78.25 for Group B
(G4 and G5) and RM55.80 for Group
C (G1, G2 and G3). It was found that
none of the contractors are willing to
pay more than RM200 per tonne for
waste collection and disposal services.
During the survey, the waste
collection and disposal services was
in the region of RM50 per tonne.
These are expected to rise because of
closure of dumping sites in the Klang
Valley. Such a situation makes in
more important for source reduction,
reuse and recycling practices to come
into play.
feature
Laboratory Chemical
Waste Management
By Chang Yit Fong, Jabatan Kimia Malaysia
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation
A
ll laboratory work with chemicals eventually
produces chemical waste, and those who generate
such waste have the obligation to ensure that
the waste is handled, segregated and disposed in ways that
pose minimum potential harm, both short term and long
term, to human health and the environment. In Malaysia,
the control of wastes is governed by the Environmental
Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 1989 requiring all
wastes to be handled properly and as far as possible, be
rendered innocuous prior to disposal and be treated at
prescribed premises or on-site treatment facilities only.
Broadly, a hazardous chemical is a chemical that poses
a danger to human health or the environment if improperly
handled. The hazard inherent in a small quantity of a
chemical from a laboratory is the same as the hazard
inherent in a much larger quantity of the same chemical
from another source eg. from an industrial facility. The
overall potential for harm to human health or the
environment is less from the former because of the smaller
quantity. A large fraction of laboratory waste comprises
small amounts of many kinds of chemicals. A waste
management system needs to be implemented to handle
this low-volume, chemically diverse wastes.
to pack and arrange for their transportation to be treated
at the integrated scheduled waste treatment and disposal
facility at Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, Bukit Nenas, Negeri
Sembilan.
A Waste Management System For
Chemical Laboratories
Managing Unneeded Chemicals
A laboratory worker faced with unneeded chemical
must provide information on the properties of the chemical
to guide in the selection of the method of disposal. The
chemical is considered whether to be reused, recycled, or
recovered for reuse. If it is decided to be a scheduled waste,
it must be properly labelled, classified and segregated to
be eventually disposed in some ecologically prudent
manner. Its route of disposal is to be governed by its
combustible, non combustible, biological or explosive
characteristics. If it is non-hazardous, it can be incinerated,
sent to a municipal landfill or put in the sanitary sewer.
Many common chemicals can be safely and acceptably
disposed down the drain.
The characteristics of many hazardous chemical wastes
can be reduced or completely destroyed by chemical
reaction in the laboratory. If the waste is not destroyed in
the laboratory, it can be either incinerated or buried. Most
laboratories do not have their own waste-disposal facilities
and usually employ contractors from commercial firms
Four elements essential to any laboratory waste
management system are
(1) commitment of laboratory’s high level executive to
good waste management,
(2) a waste management plan
(3) assigned responsibility for the waste management
system, and
(4) practices to reduce the volume of waste generated in
the chemical laboratory.
The support to the implementation of the waste
management plan must be continuous involvement of
personnel at all levels including laboratory managers,
supervisors, personnel and safety and health unit. Written
policies and procedures should be prepared to cover all
phases of waste handling, from generation to ultimate
safe and environmentally acceptable disposal. This plan
should preferably be reviewed at regular intervals. The
T H E I N G E N I E U R 50
Classes of wastes must be properly segregated for
temporary accumulation and storage as well as for
transportation and disposal. These wastes must be
accumulated in proper containers. All wastes must be
properly labelled. The label should contain sufficient
information to assure safe handling and disposal, including
the initial date of accumulation, chemical names of the
principal components and of any minor components that
could be hazardous and indication whether toxic, reactive,
corrosive to skin or metal, inflammable, an inhalation
hazard, or a lachrymator. The physical 3hazardous waste
characteristics generally are as follows:
Identification, Classification, Segegration And
Storage Of Chemical Laboratory Wastes
(i)
The laboratory worker must decide if the material is no
longer needed. It does not become a waste unless a
decision is made to discard it. The typical laboratory
wastes are:
(1) contaminated rags and gloves
(2) expired and/or used chemicals and solvents
(3) chemical spillage
(4) used and/or expired laboratory samples and
(5) empty contaminated /chemical containers.
Laboratory wastes must be segregated by waste
classification at the point of generation. Every effort should
be made to avoid creating wastes which fall into multiple
classifications; such “mixed wastes” may be impossible
to dispose. The general waste classification groups of the
Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd are divided into eight categories.
They are
Type A – Mineral oil waste
eg. lubricating oil, hydraulic oil.
(ii)
Type B – Organic waste containing halogens and/
or sulphur (>1%)
eg. Freon, PVC wastes, chloroform, solvents
containing >1% halogen
(iii) Type C – Waste solvents without halogens and/or
sulphur (<1%)
eg. acetone, alcohols, benzene, turpentine, xylene
(iv) Type H – Organic chemical waste without halogens
and/or sulphur (<1%)
eg. glue, latex, paints, printing ink, soap
(v)
Type K – Waste containing mercury
eg. mercury, vapour lamps, COD fluids, mercury
batteries
(vi) Type T – Pesticides waste
eg. insecticides, fungus and weedkillers, rat poisons
(vii) Type X – Inorganic waste
eg. acids, alkalis, inorganic salts, chromates and
cyanides
(viii) Type Z – Miscellaneous
eg. medicine waste, asbestos wastes, mineral sludge,
batteries
Ignitability – Ignitable waste is capable of causing
or intensifying a fire during routine handling and
has any of the following properties
●
It is a liquid, other than an aqueous solution
containing less than 24% alcohol by volume
and has a flash point less than 60oC (140oF), as
determined by a Pensky-Martens Closed Cup
Tester or Setaflash Closed Cup Tester;
●
It is not a liquid and is capable, under
standard temperature and pressure, of causing
fire through friction, absorption of moisture, or
spontaneous chemical changes, and when
ignited, burns vigorously and persistently that
it creates hazard;
●
It is an ignitable compressed gas;
●
It is an oxidiser
Examples include most organic solvents (acetone,
benzene, ethyl ether, pentane, heptane, petroleum
ether, ethanol, hexane, toluene, ethyl acetate,
methanol and xylene)
(i)
(ii)
Corrosivity – Corrosive waste include highly acidic
or highly alkaline chemicals that are capable of
corroding metal and has either of the following
properties:
●
It has an aqueous component and has a pH less
than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to
12.5, as determined by a pH meter.
●
It has a liquid component and corrodes steel
(SAE 1020) at a rate greater than 6.35mm (0.250
inch) per year at a temperature of 55oC (130oF).
(iii)
Reactivity - A waste exhibits the characteristic of
reactivity if
●
It is normally unstable and readily undergoes
violent change without detonating.
●
It reacts violently with water.
●
It forms potentially explosive mixtures with
water.
●
When mixed with water, it generates toxic gases,
vapours or fumes in a quantity sufficient to
present danger to human health or the
environment.
T H E I N G E N I E U R 51
feature
waste management unit is responsible for setting up,
maintaining, and inspecting waste accumulation sites, for
disposal of waste and for providing advice and training.
Integral to the plan are policies and practices directed
towards reducing the volume of waste generated in the
laboratory such as planning of every experiment with
consideration of waste reduction, reduction of the scale
of experiments, control of accumulation of excess reagents
or chemicals and prevention of the occurrence of orphan
reaction mixtures (those generated by workers who have
departed from the laboratory, leaving unidentified
materials behind).
feature
It is a cyanide or sulphide bearing waste which,
when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and
12.5 can generate generate toxic gases, vapours
or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present
danger to human health or the environment.
It is capable of detonation or explosive reaction
if it is subjected to a strong initiating source or
if heated under confinement
It is readily capable of detonation or explosive
decomposition or reaction at standard
temperature and pressure.
It is a forbidden explosive.
is essential. The term “incompatible chemicals” refers to
chemicals that can react with each other
(i)
violently,
(ii)
with evolution of substantial heat,
(iii) to produce inflammable products, or,
(iv) to produce toxic products. Incompatible chemicals
should not put in the same container; segregation
of their containers, though desirable, is not always
required.
Toxicity – Toxicity is determined by the 3 “Toxicity
Characteristic Leaching Procedure” (TCLP), a
laboratory test that measures the concentration of
the toxic material that could leach into ground water
if improperly managed.
One intent of hazardous waste management is to
encourage the recovery, recycling, or reuse of materials
that would otherwise become wastes. It is carried out to
the extent that chemicals can be recovered, recycled or
reused safely at costs less than costs of disposal as waste
such as recovery of valuable metals (eg. mercury, silver
or noble metals), recovery of solvents of low contaminants
by distillation, exchange of unneeded chemicals or the
use of unneeded chemicals as fuels.
The best approach to chemical waste management is
not to produce waste, to produce less waste or to produce
waste of reduced hazard. Waste minimisation can be
approached by following the guidelines:
(i)
Inventory your chemicals: An inventory will prevent
you from ordering more than what you have.
(ii)
Order what you need: The economy of larger sizes
may be offset by the cost of disposing of your
excess. Borrow small amounts from other
laboratories.
(iii) Use recycled chemicals whenever possible: Have an
on-going secondhand chemical programme for
usable but unwanted chemicals.
●
●
●
●
(iv)
Chemical analysis on the composition and
characteristics of the wastes is more practical and
important for a large-volume industrial waste that is
being generated on a regular basis than it is for the small
volumes of the chemical diverse wastes generated in the
laboratory. Containers of waste chemicals collected from
individual laboratories before being treated or disposed
must often be placed in a temporary storage facility in
or near the laboratory located away from high work
density but close enough to be useful and for proper
surveillance and security to be accorded. Temporary
storage times should be kept as short as possible. The
facility is designed for total containment with as little
as possible release to the environment with good
ventilation and protected from adverse weather.
Segregation of incompatible materials in a storage area
Recovery, Recycling, Reuse And Disposal
Into The Sanitary System
T H E I N G E N I E U R 52
(v)
Substitute with non-hazardous or less hazardous
materials: There are many non-hazardous
substitutes for commonly used chemicals, such as
chromic acid. Other alternatives may be much less
toxic.
Do not mix hazardous and non-hazardous waste:
Non-hazardous waste, when mixed with hazardous
waste, will become hazardous itself and will increase
the volume. Likewise, high concentration waste
should not be mixed with low concentration waste.
Besides wastes sent to Kualiti Alam Sdn Bhd, there
are alkaline, acid and water miscible wastes that can be
treated on-site and rendered innocuous before their
disposal. Organic compounds that are reasonably soluble
in water are suitable for drain disposal. Highly malodorous
substances should not be put down the drain. In general,
a water-soluble material containing a water-insoluble
substance (more that 2% of the mixture) should not be
drain disposed. Mineral acids and alkalis are preferably
neutralised before drain disposal. Some laboratories allow
drain disposal by flushing them down with excess water.
The laboratory drain system can be separated from the
sanitary system with these drains feeding into
neutralisation pits whose effluents then feed into the sewer
systems. Laboratory procedures such as carbon adsorption,
elementary neutralisation, evaporation, filtration and
separation are some of the activities that can assist in
reducing the generation of hazardous wastes in chemical
laboratories. Carbon adsorption binds soluble and gaseous
substances to a surface such as activated carbon without
altering them chemically. It generally produces two wastes
- a treated effluent and a spent residual. Evaporation is
allowed when inorganic waste mixed with water is treated.
Filtration is primarily used to remove undissolved heavy
metals present in suspended solids. Separation includes
those processes that separate solids from liquids and
separate liquids of different densities. Elementary
neutralisation is a process used to adjust the pH of a
substance between 6 and 10.
Safety In Handling Of Laboratory Chemical
Wastes And Emergency Procedures
Exposure to laboratory wastes containing hazardous
and toxic chemicals can pose a serious threat to the health
of the laboratory personnel involved. This can occur by
inhalation of vapour or dust, absorption through the skin
from contaminated clothing, spillage on benches, floors
or apparatus and ingestion from contaminated hands, food
or smoking. Personnel should be made aware of the
potential hazard of the waste, about the limitations of the
personal protective equipment and safety procedures for
handling waste. Personal protective equipment to be used
when handling hazardous and toxic wastes include (i)
impervious gloves (neoprene, nitrile or polythene gloves);
(ii) laboratory coats, aprons or coveralls; (iii) laboratory
safety glasses or goggles or full-face shield; (iv) boots;
and (v) an approved respirator. These personal protective
equipment should be properly stored preferably adjacent
to the work area. Laboratory coats should be removed
before leaving the laboratory and should not be worn in
rooms designated for eating and drinking.
Accidental skin contact with toxic waste materials
should be treated immediately by rinsing the affected parts
in cold running water for at least five minutes, followed
by thorough washing with warm soapy water. If necessary,
the persons should shower and change their clothes and
shoes. In case of eye splash, the may be necessary to force
water into the eye to ensure it is thoroughly irrigated.
Medical advice should be sought. All persons in the
laboratory should be evacuated immediately if there is a
major spill of a toxic waste or if a fire or explosion occurs.
In the event of a spillage, properly equipped and trained
persons should be assigned to adequately contain and
clean up the spill. For a minor spill, confine and contain
the spill by covering with appropriate absorbent material,
sweeping solid material into a dustpan and placing in a
sealed plastic container. Decontaminate the area with soap
and water after cleanup and place residue in a plastic bag
or sealed plastic container to be disposed.
Conclusion
The 2Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastes
from Laboratories would provide information on the proper
techniques of handling chemical laboratory wastes and its
subsequent disposal in such a manner that will not degrade
the environment nor endanger health and safety. Under
Regulation 7(1), 5Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste)
Regulation 2005, a waste generator may apply to the
Director-General, in writing, to exclude the scheduled wastes
generated from a particular facility or process from being
treated, disposed of or recovered at the prescribed premises.
The general requirements for the application are described
in 3Guidelines for the Application of Special Management
of Scheduled Waste which is currently in the drafting stage.
REFERENCES
1. Prudent Practices for Disposal of Chemicals from
Laboratories; National Academy Press :
Washington, 1983
2. Guidelines on the Disposal of Chemical Wastes
From Laboratories, Department of Environment
Malaysia, First Edition, 2000
3. Guidelines for the Application of Special
Management of Scheduled Waste, Department of
Environment, Draft August 2005
4. Hazardous Waste Management Guide, Indiana
University Office of Environmental, Health and
Safety Management, September 2001
5. Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes)
Regulation 2005 BEM
T H E I N G E N I E U R 53
feature
(iv)
feature
The Role Of
A Concessionaire In
Solid Waste Management
By Alam Flora Sdn Bhd
U
p to the mid 1990s, solid waste
management was handled
largely by local authorities,
with overall management and
establishment of disposal sites
overseen by the State Governments.
Local authorities, or LAs had the
power to appoint their own
contractors to operate the solid waste
management business in their area.
As a result the quality of solid
waste management differed widely
between LAs, with wealthier LAs
being able to provide a much better
standard of service. The poorer ones
had to make do with smaller
contractors who were neither able to
meet proper environmental protection
standards nor afford proper waste
management equipment.
This variance in the quality of
service meant that, in some areas,
waste management became a serious
problem to the public’s well being.
Establishment
In 1995, the Government decided
to privatise solid waste management
in Malaysia. The Peninsular was
divided into four Concession Areas –
Northern, comprising Perlis, Kedah,
Penang and Perak; Central,
comprising Selangor and the Federal
Territory of Kuala Lumpur; Eastern,
comprising Pahang, Kelantan and
Trengganu; and Southern, consisting
of Johor, Negeri Sembilan and
Malacca.
Over 80 companies and consortia
bid for the contracts. Alam Flora Sdn
Bhd, a company formed by a
consortium led by the then HICOM
Group of companies, was awarded the
concession for the Central and Eastern
Regions.
Southern
Waste
Management won the Southern
concession and Northern Waste
Series 1
Management won the Northern
concession.
The initial plan was for the three
concession winners to sign the
Concession Agreement, or CA, with
the federal Government in 1997.
However, the Asian Financial Crisis
led to a postponement of the signing,
and the three concessionaires entered
a period of Interim Solid Waste
Management.
Interim Solid
Waste Management
Alam Flora has already taken over
the solid waste management or SWM
from most of the LAs in Selangor,
Pahang and Kuala Lumpur, although
waste management in Kelantan and
Trengganu remains in the hands of
the LAs. When Putrajaya was opened,
it also came under the scope of Alam
Flora operations. In keeping with its
image as the new administrative hub
for the country, the highest standards
of service are applied to all operations
concerning solid waste management.
The scope of services provided by
Alam Flora varies between LAs. The
company provides domestic waste
collection services in most LAs in
Selangor, Pahang and Kuala Lumpur.
In some cases, clearing illegal dumps
also falls under the scope of services
provided.
The interval between services also
varies between LAs as some specify a
three week interval between grass
cutting, and some may specify a six
week interval. Where possible, Alam
Flora is trying to standardise all these
services between LAs.
Taking Over Operations
As part of the Concession
Agreement, Alam Flora was obliged
T H E I N G E N I E U R 54
to take over and absorb both the SWM
workers and equipment from the LAs.
In keeping with the new status of
SWM as a privatised service, all the
absorbed workers were given pay
increments to bring them up to par
with the market wages for workers in
the private sector.
This absorption exercise was not
without its drawbacks, as the
company found itself with a pool of
ageing workers and equipment that
required frequent attention and
servicing.
Through judiciously exercising
smart Human Resource policies,
several HR issues have largely been
overcomed. The overall Alam Flora
workforce, especially at the general
worker level is more efficient and
customer oriented than it was before
the takeover.
The problem of ageing vehicles
however, is a much more difficult
obstacle. With a new compactor
costing over RM250,000, the
company is in a position where it can
only replace vehicles on an absolute
priority basis.
However, Alam Flora has put into
place an efficient maintenance
scheme to prolong the useful lives of
these vehicles so that only those
vehicles that absolutely require
replacing are replaced with new ones.
Replacing ageing equipment is a
priority for the company, as this will
allow for a higher degree of service
to the public.
In order to allow assets such as
vehicles and personnel to be utilised
across the boundaries of LA areas,
Alam Flora operations are organised
into 11 Service Areas (SA), with one
SA covering between one and four
LA areas This allows surplus vehicles
obtained from one LA to be used to
service other LAs in the SA without
Improved Services
4
1
Customer Service
To enable customers to reach
Alam Flora at any time, Alam Flora
has implemented a series of steps to
facilitate customer communication,
including a toll-free-line, SMS service
and e-mail address for customer
service. Alam Flora has established a
dedicated customer service centre,
located at our headquarters, which
supports the toll-free-line, SMS service
and customer e-mail responses. The
benchmark for answering complain
e-mails is half-an-hour on working
days, and the deadline for handling
the complaint on site is 24 hours. This
is a great improvement from the time
prior to Alam Flora’s takeover of SWM
services.
2
Standardised Collection Vehicles
All of Alam Flora’s in house
collection for domestic waste utilises
compactor trucks. These replace the
old system where contractors used
any vehicles they wanted to collect
the domestic waste, whether or not
they were actually suited to the task
at hand. While some of the subcontractors are still using open trucks
to collect waste, especially in
squatter areas where the roads are
too narrow for compactors, by and
large domestic waste is collected
using compactors, which reduce the
incidence of waste spillage and
leachate leakage. The compactor
trucks also reduce the number of trips
needed to service any given area, as
they can carry much more than open
trucks of equivalent size. This
reduces the impact of vehicle
emissions on the environment.
Improved Worker Safety
Alam Flora’s workers are provided
with a complete personal protective
Public Education Programmes
As integrated solid waste
management is impossible without
the support and participation of the
public, Alam Flora has embarked on
a long term education drive to gain
the public’s buy-in. This drive
includes weekly columns in major
dailies, spots on-air with major radio
stations as well as seminars, talks and
forums with the public. The effort has
already borne fruit, as there has been
a gradual shift in the public’s
perception of Alam Flora. The public,
by and large, is confident that they
come first in the company’s books,
and are broadly appreciative of these
efforts to make their environment
cleaner.
7
5
Route Optimisation
With cost effectiveness and
maximum operations efficiency as
driving factors, Alam Flora turned to
its Geographic Information System
(GIS) section to begin the process of
collection route optimisation. Using
portable Global Positioning System
(GPS) equipment, existing collection
routes were mapped and uploaded
into the GIS software. From this raw
data, and with the assistance of
existing road maps, the GIS section
was able to map the best collection
routes available. In many cases, the
company was able to reduce the
number of compactors servicing any
given area, thus ensuring maximum
vehicle utilisation, and minimising
the impact of vehicle exhaust
emissions on the environment. The
surplus vehicles could then be utilised
as reserve for emergency cases, or
even utilised for servicing industrial
customers.
3
6
equipment kit, including safety shoes,
gloves and reflective vest for use
during operations. These items have
helped reduce the number of minor
accidents that occur at any given
time, and has helped the company
reduce losses due to these accidents.
Recycling
Prior to the takeover, there had
been a few unsuccessful attempts to
integrate recycling into the other
aspects of solid waste management.
Alam Flora has initiated a series of
programmes that target various levels
of society from school children to
adults, through our school,
community, office and other
programmes. We have established
community recycling centres at
several popular shopping malls to
enable people to recycle while they
shop. A high priority for us is
educating the next generation, and
our school programmes are very
successful, over 700 schools
participating in the KitS programme
over the past five years.
In addition, the pioneer house-tohouse recycling programme in
Malaysia using colour coded plastic
bags has been implemented in
Putrajaya. Colour coded plastic bags
for different types of recyclables have
been distributed to residents in
Putrajaya, and collection of the
recycled items is handled by a
dedicated team and vehicles.
Worker Morale
Alam Flora introduced a
programme whereby the public
would be able to nominate
outstanding SWM workers for an
award. This programme encouraged
the public to get to know the SWM
workers in their area. While before,
SWM workers were largely ignored,
now they were becoming known to
the members of the community. This
appreciation by the public has raised
worker morale, and reduced the
incidence of absenteeism among the
workforce. This programme, called
the Customer Choice Awards has won
recognition from several prestigious
institutions.
8
T H E I N G E N I E U R 55
Environmental Monitoring
Standards
Alam Flora maintains a dedicated
Environmental
Management
Department, responsible for, among
others,
monitoring
the
environmental impact of the
company’s waste management
facilities, obtaining and maintaining
ISO14000 certification for selected
company activities, and liaison with
the Department of Environment.
Standards of all the waste
disposal facilities managed by Alam
Flora have been upgraded, and new
landfill cells are constructed
utilising proven technology to
ensure that the impact to the
environment is minimised. Strict
monitoring is also enforced on the
company’s vehicles to ensure
environmental impacts are reduced
to a minimum. BEM
feature
the need to purchase extra vehicles
or hire new personnel.
Even with the financial restrictions
that the company finds itself under,
customer service and satisfaction, as
well as efficient service remain
priorities. As such, the company has
embarked on a drive to increase the
efficiency and cost effectiveness of all
its major services.