The Sport Psychologist, 2012, 26, 359-374
© 2012 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Relationships Between Psychological
Factors, RPE and Time Limit Estimated
by Teleoanticipation
Jérémy B. J. Coquart
University of Rouen
Yancy Dufour
University of Lille
Alain Groslambert
University of Franche-Comté
Régis Matran
Lille Academic Hospital
Murielle Garcin
University of Lille
The purpose was to study the relationships between psychological factors and
perceptually-based values (Ratings of Perceived Exertion: RPE and Estimated
Time Limit: ETL). The researchers obtained the scores of several psychological
factors (anxiety, extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-stability, self-esteem,
motivation, psychological resistance and endurance, desire for success, social
desirability, dynamism, competitiveness, activity control, risk-taking, emotional
control, aggressiveness, sociability, cooperation, acceptance of a judgment, and
leadership) among 23 cyclists. The cyclists performed a graded exercise test in
which the researchers collected RPE and ETL at 150, 200, 250 and 300W. Correlations between RPE/ETL and psychological factors were examined. RPE was
correlated with leadership, psychological resistance and endurance. ETL was
significantly correlated with psychological endurance. These results suggest a link
between psychological factors, effort perception, and the time limits predicted by
teleoanticipation. These relationships varied according to intensity.
Coquart is with the Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of Rouen, Rouen,
France. Dufour and Garcin are with the Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University
of Lille, Ronchin, France. Groslambert is with the Prevention Innovation and Sport Research Dept.,
University of Franche-Comté, Besancon, France. Matran is with Lille Academic Hospital, Dept. of
Functional and Respiratory Explorations, Lille, France.
359
360 Coquart et al.
Effort perception, defined as the intensity of subjective effort, stress, or discomfort felt during physical activity, is used for clinical, pedagogical and athletic
applications (Robertson & Noble, 1997), to predict some physiological variables
or even to regulate exercise intensities (Robertson, 2004). The most frequently
used tool in measuring effort perception is Borg’s (1970) Ratings of Perceived
Exertion (RPE) scale (Watt & Grove, 1993). The concurrent validity of this scale
has been shown through numerous physiological variables (e.g., heart rate, ventilation, breathing frequency, oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide excretion and metabolic
acidosis; Noble & Robertson, 1996). However, other nonphysiological factors must
be integrated to explain the variance of RPE (Morgan, 1973). It was reported that
situational, sociological and psychological factors could mediate RPE (Robertson
& Noble, 1997). Extraversion, anxiety, neuroticism and depression were considered
among the psychological factors that influenced effort perception (Morgan, 1973,
1994). Moreover, in his conceptual model, Rejeski (1981) considers the role of
exercise intensity on the contribution of factors that shape RPE (physiological,
psychological, sociological and situational factors). Indeed, when exercise intensity is high, effort perception is principally determined by physiological signals,
whereas, when exercise intensity is low, nonphysiological factors make a major
contribution to the determination of effort perception, and thus the perceptuallybased values (Hall, Ekkekakis & Petruzzello, 2005). A recent study by Hall et al.
(2005) confirmed that the relationships between psychological factors and RPE
changes according to exercise intensity were lower at higher exercise intensities.
Indeed, in their experimentation, extraversion (p < .01; r = -.44), behavioral activation (p < .05; r = -.32), and self-efficacy (p < .01; r = -.52) were significantly and
negatively correlated to RPE at lower (below the ventilatory threshold) but not
at higher intensities (above the ventilatory threshold), whereas neuroticism was
unrelated to RPE (whatever the exercise intensity) and behavioral inhibition was
positively related to RPE across all exercise intensities (p < .05 ; range between
r = .35 and r = .65).
Using the concept of teleoanticipation (Ulmer, 1996), Noakes, Snow and
Febbraio (2004) suggested that, at exercise onset, a central programmer estimates
the time to volitional exhaustion (or time limit, Tlim) that can safely be performed
without causing absolute whole body energy depletion. Then, this subjective prediction of the Tlim is associated with the maximal RPE that can be tolerated (Noakes
et al., 2004). During exercise, it was proposed that the brain provides RPE which
increases according to the subjective prediction of the Tlim until the attainment of
the corresponding tolerated maximal RPE. Noakes et al. (2004) proposed a scalar
linear relationship between RPE and exercise duration during a constant power test
at 70% maximal oxygen uptake in both carbohydrate-depleted and carbohydratereplete conditions. Consequently, Noakes et al. (2004) propose that the brain
increases RPE proportionally to the percentage of time remaining to complete the
exercise. To verify this hypothesis, Eston, Faulkner, St Clair Gibson, Noakes and
Parfitt (2007) compared RPE during an exhaustive constant power test at 75%
maximal oxygen uptake between a fatigued condition (the constant power test was
preceded by an exhaustive graded exercise test) and a nonfatigued condition (only
the constant power test was performed). The results confirmed the Noakes et al.
(2004) hypothesis because, the RPE increase rate under both conditions did not
differ significantly when the exercise duration was expressed as a relative time to
exhaustion (i.e., % Tlim); conversely, the Tlim was significantly lower during the
Effects of Psychological Factors on RPE/ETL 361
fatigued condition. Therefore, one can conclude that the brain uses scalar rather
than absolute time to set RPE (Eston et al., 2007; Noakes et al., 2004).
Recently, Garcin, Vandewalle and Monod (1999) proposed associating the
RPE scale with a second scale based on subjective estimation of exhaustion time
(Estimated Time Limit scale, ETL), to have further information on the psychological load (intensity and duration) of exercise. These scales are complementary tools
because the RPE scale is concerned with the current status of the participant (how
hard he/she feels the exercise currently is) whereas the ETL scale deals with a subjective prediction of how long the current exercise level can be maintained (Garcin
et al., 2006). In other words, the RPE scale measures the degree of heaviness and
strain experienced during exercise, while the ETL scale allows a subjective estimation of the Tlim that can be maintained at a given intensity and at a given instant.
Consequently, the ETL scale may be used to quantify the predicted Tlim from the
teleoanticipation (i.e., the duration of exercise that may be performed before the
participant stops the exercise).
Just as some psychological factors influence RPE (Morgan, 1973, 1994), ETL,
which may represent the predicted time limit from the teleoanticipation, could also
be affected by psychological factors. To our knowledge, only one study has already
attempted to examine the relationships between psychological factors and RPE/
ETL scales (Garcin et al., 2006). This study revealed that ETL was only linked
by neuroticism or even agreeableness. However, this study was only performed at
the intensity corresponding to the lactate concentration threshold, whereas Hall et
al. (2005) suggested that the relationships between psychological factors and the
perceptually-based values changed with the exercise intensity. As a consequence,
the main purpose of the current study was to examine the relationships between
psychological factors and the perceptually-based values (RPE and ETL), at different
intensities, during a graded exercise test (GXT). In accordance with the results of
Hall et al. (2005), we hypothesized that there would be a correlation between the
psychological factors and RPE and ETL, but only during lower intensities in GXT.
Methods
Participants
Twenty-three French male competitive cyclists of different physical ability levels
(among these 23 cyclists, 5 were competitors at a local level, 12 at a regional level,
and 6 at the semiprofessional level) volunteered to take part in this study (Tables 1
and 2). The MAP were respectively equal to: 340 ± 30W, 346 ± 21W and 350 ± 25W
(these values were not significantly different between the groups). Only competitive cyclists were recruited because this population is able to precisely determine
the RPE and ETL during GXT. Moreover, to facilitate perceptual anchoring, all
participants were experienced (9.1 ± 4.7 yr) and well-trained (10.9 ± 3.5 hr.wk-1)
in cycling. None of the cyclists reported respiratory or cardiac disease, or were
known to be suffering from any chronic illness. None were taking medication. All
were nonsmokers and presented normal electrocardiograph, hemoglobin concentration and spirometric values at rest. Before the test, the participants filled out a
written consent form concerning the purposes and procedures of the experiment.
This present study was approved by the consultative committee for participants’
protection in clinical research of Lille, France.
Table 1 Anthropometric Characteristics and Maximal Aerobic
Power Measured During the Incremental Test
Age (yr)
Body mass (kg)
Height (cm)
Body fat (%)
Maximal aerobic power (W)
Mean
SD
22.8
70.1
178
12.2
346
± 5.1
± 5.6
±6
± 1.8
± 25
Values are means ± SD (SD).
Table 2 Scores on the Psychological Factors Obtained
Before the Incremental Test
State anxiety
Trait anxiety
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-stability
Overall self-esteem
Social self-esteem
Family self-esteem
Professional self-esteem
Intrinsic motivation to know
Intrinsic motivation to accomplish things
Intrinsic motivation to experience
stimulation
Extrinsic motivation by an identified
regulation
Extrinsic motivation by introjected
regulation
Extrinsic motivation by external regulation
Absence of motivation
Psychological resistance
Psychological endurance
Desire for success
Social desirability
Dynamism
Competitiveness
Activity control
Risk-taking
Emotional control
Aggressiveness
Sociability
Cooperation
Acceptance of a judgment
Leadership
Values are means ± SD (SD).
362
Mean
SD
Range
(observed)
Range
(possible)
43.7
40.0
14.0
9.5
21.6
6.8
7.1
6.8
18.6
20.4
24.1
10.5
7.5
3.0
4.5
3.8
1.7
1.9
1.4
5.9
3.9
2.9
27–66
29–55
6–19
2–19
9–25
1–8
1–8
3–8
7–26
10–28
19–28
20–80
20–80
0–24
0–24
0–26
0–8
0–8
0–8
4–28
4–28
4–28
16.7
3.6
8–23
4–28
21.7
14.0
5.7
5.1
6.1
3.9
4.7
4.1
4.9
5.1
4.4
5.0
4.6
4.8
5.3
4.6
4.7
3.7
4.7
2.3
1.8
1.6
2.4
2.2
2.1
2.8
2.3
2.5
2.2
1.5
2.4
2.1
2.3
2.2
12–28
8–24
4–12
2–8
3–9
0–7
0–8
0–7
0–10
1–10
0–9
0–9
2–7
0–8
2–9
2–9
0–9
4–28
4–28
4–28
0–10
0–9
0–10
0–10
0–10
0–10
0–10
0–10
0–9
0–10
0–10
0–8
0–10
0–10
Effects of Psychological Factors on RPE/ETL 363
Materials
The perceptually-based values were expressed with two valid and reliable scales:
The Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) scale of Borg (1970) and the Estimated
Time Limit scale (ETL; Garcin et al., 1999). The RPE scale consists of fifteen
numerical ratings (between 6 and 20) associated with verbal cues, from “7 = very
very light” to “19 = very very hard”. The cyclist was asked, “How hard do you
feel this exercise is?”
The ETL scale is comprised of twenty numerical ratings (between 1 and 20)
from “1 = more than 16 hours” to 20 = less than 2 min. This scale is designed as
a function of the logarithm of the estimated Tlim (ETL = 21–2n, with n = log2 ×
Tlim, where Tlim is expressed in min). A base 2 logarithm was chosen to allow
a large range of Tlim. However, to facilitate the use of the ETL scale, Garcin
et al. (1999) used a simplified version. For example: ETL equal to 13 and 11
correspond to 15 and 30 min instead of 16 and 32 min, respectively. Similarly,
ETL equal to or lower than 9 are expressed in multiples of 1 hr. The cyclist was
asked, “How long would you be able to perform an exercise at this intensity until
exhaustion?”
Anxiety was assessed with Spielberger’s state-trait inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsuch & Lushene, 1970). This inventory measures state anxiety and trait
anxiety using a 40-question survey with 4 possible responses to each question.
The STAI is often used to examine the influence of anxiety on perceptually-based
values (Garcin et al., 2006; Morgan, 1973).
Extraversion-introversion and neuroticism-stability, which are two pervasive,
independent dimensions of personality, were evaluated with the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). This is an inventory consisting of
57 “Yes/No” questions about one’s feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Some authors
(Hall et al., 2005; Morgan, 1973) have already tested the influence of extraversionintroversion and neuroticism-stability on RPE using EPI.
Motivation was evaluated by the sports motivation scale (Brière, Vallerand,
Blais & Pelletier, 1995). This scale is based on the tenets of the self-determination
theory and is composed of 28 questions divided into seven categories, assessing three
types of intrinsic motivation (intrinsic motivation to know, to accomplish things, and
to experience stimulation), three types of extrinsic motivation (external, introjected,
and identified regulation), and the absence of motivation. The sports motivation scale
was used because it is specifically designed for athletes, and because motivation is
a psychological factor linked to performance (Le Scanff, 2003).
The adult form (for participants over 17 years of age) of the personality questionnaire for athletes (Thill, 1983) was used to determine psychological resistance,
psychological endurance, competitiveness and leadership. A participant with a high
psychological resistance score is an athlete who resists high pressure, psychological
and that imposed by the environment, the bad luck, criticism and stress. A high psychological endurance score may be found in a persistent, determined and obstinate
participant. An athlete with a high score on the competitiveness scale is a participant
with a high capacity to surpass himself. A high leadership score corresponds to
great persuasive ability and a great ability to command. The personality questionnaire used for athletes (Thill, 1983) was written in French. This questionnaire is
composed of 340 “True/False” items. The questions deal with specific situations
364 Coquart et al.
that the athletes regularly encounter. Similar to the sports motivation scale, this
questionnaire is formulated purely for athletes. Moreover, the French version of
this questionnaire was used because some authors (Thill, 1983; Thill & Brenot,
1985) have already attested to its validity.
Height, body mass, and skinfold thickness were measured for each cyclist
with a wall stadiometer (model 220, Seca, Hamburg, Germany), a calibrated scale
(TBF 543, Tanita, Tokyo, Japan) and a skinfold caliper (HSK-B1, Body Care,
Warwickshire, United Kingdom), respectively.
Respiratory gas analysis was carried out via a breath-by-breath system using an
open-circuit metabolic card (Ergocard, Medisoft, Sorinnes, Belgium). This system
was calibrated just before the test, in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines,
using a 3 L syringe (Calibration pump, Medisoft, Sorinnes, Belgium) for volume
calibration, and using ambient air and a gas of known oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentrations (16% and 4%, respectively) for gas calibration. The software used
was Exp’air (Medisoft, Sorinnes, Belgium).
Heart rate was recorded with a 12-lead electrocardiogram (Medcard, Medisoft,
Sorinnes, Belgium) linked to the respiratory gas analysis system.
Lactate concentration was determined at the end of each exercise by means of
the ABL800Flex (Radiometer Medical, Copenhagen, Denmark).
The exercise test was carried out on an electromagnetically braked cycle
ergometer (Ergoselect, Medisoft, Sorinnes, Belgium) which maintained the power
output by adjusting the resistance according to variations in pedal rate.
Procedures
About 1 month before the test, the instructions for both perceptually-based scales
were read by the participants and they were each provided with a copy. Moreover,
the cyclists were familiarized with the RPE and ETL scales using the memory
anchoring procedure (Robertson, 2004). During this procedure, the cyclist was
asked to think of a time when he reached an effort perception that was equal to
verbal cues at the bottom and top of both scales (Robertson, 2004). Then, during
his training sessions before the study, the cyclist was asked to estimate RPE
and ETL using the memory anchoring procedure on a continuum set between
the high and low anchor effort levels on both scales. Furthermore, instructions
on the scales were read again by the participants before the test (i.e., definition
of RPE and ETL, explanation of the nature and use of the scales, opportunity
for participants to ask questions about the scales), to help them to link their full
exercise stimulus range with their full perceptual response range. These precautions were taken because some authors have suggested that a lack of information
on RPE and ETL scales may lead to a slight but not significant overestimation of
perceptually-based values during GXT (Skinner, Hutsler, Bergsteinova & Buskirk,
1973; Coquart et al., 2009). Moreover, other authors have suggested reading the
instructions on the scales (Gearhart, Becque, Hutchins & Palm, 2004), and performing a memory or exercise anchoring procedure (Robertson, 2004) before each
test.
The cyclists were informed they should maintain their normal diet during the
last two days preceding the test, refrain from alcohol consumption 24 hr before the
Effects of Psychological Factors on RPE/ETL 365
test, and caffeine consumption on the test day. These precautions were performed
to avoid a possible influence of these factors on RPE and ETL (Hadjicharalambous
et al., 2006; Lecoultre & Schutz, 2009; Lima-Silva et al., in press). Similarly, the
cyclists were asked to avoid strenuous physical activity during the two days before
the test and not to exercise on the test day. They were also informed that a urine
sample could be collected to determine if performance-enhancing drugs had been
taken. No urine analysis was completed, but this warning was intended to avoid
the possibility of doped cyclists participating in the study.
On the morning of the tests, the cyclists’ cardiovascular health was evaluated
with a 12-lead electrocardiogram. Anthropometric data, including height, body
mass and percentage of body fat were also measured. Then, all cyclists individually
filled out the psychological questionnaires (for about 1.5 hr).
Before the test, an identical standardized meal of approximately 3027 kJ (74.4%
carbohydrate, 22.6% protein, 3.0% fat) was consumed by each participant, between
11:30 a.m. and 12:30 p.m., within the laboratory and only water was drunk. This
meal included pasta, turkey, yogurt and apple. A digestion period of at least 2 hr
was then respected.
Just before GXT on a cycle ergometer, the seat and handlebar heights were
adjusted by each cyclist. GXT was preceded by a 3 min resting period (on the cycle
ergometer) followed by an 8 min warm-up at 100W, then a 5 min passive recovery
period. At the end of the warm-up period (during the last 30 s of the warm-up
period), overall RPE and ETL were checked so that the participants would have a
reference for the perceptually-based values. During GXT, the initial power output
was set at 150W for 4 min then increased by 50W every 4 min, until the power
output reached 300W. The duration of 4 min was chosen so that the participant
could integrate the different signals shaping the perceptually-based values. Once
the power output reached 300W, an increment of 25W was administered every 2
min until volitional exhaustion (i.e., participant failed to maintain a pedalling rate
above 70 rpm), to more accurately determine MAP and limit the exercise duration. The cyclists were instructed to develop the highest possible level of power.
RPE and ETL were collected during the last 30 s of the first 4 stages and at the
end of the test (for RPE). The presentation order of the RPE and ETL scales was
counterbalanced among the participants. During GXT, the respiratory variables
(i.e., oxygen uptake and respiratory exchange ratio) and heart rate were recorded
to check the exhaustion at MAP. A blood lactate concentration was determined
immediately at the GXT end, with the same objective. Blood sampling took 15–20
s The primary criterion used to define the exhaustion was a plateau phenomenon
in oxygen uptake (oxygen uptake increase < 2.1 mL.kg-1.min-1 between the last
and penultimate stages). If this criterion was not noted, exhaustion was verified
by at least 3 of the 4 following criteria: 1) a respiratory exchange ratio ≥ 1.1; 2)
reaching a heart rate within ± 10 bpm of the age-predicted maximum (220—age);
3) blood lactate concentration after test cessation > 8 mmol.L-1; and 4) RPE ≥ 18
at test cessation.
The cyclists were not verbally encouraged until after they had entirely completed the first 4 stages of GXT. The temperature of the air-conditioned room was
always maintained between 20 and 24 °C. The tests were conducted at the same
time of day and were carried out under medical supervision.
366 Coquart et al.
Statistical Analysis
Individual linear regressions between the perceptually-based values (i.e., RPE
and ETL) and exercise intensity (expressed as a percentage of maximal aerobic
power, MAP) were calculated from the perceptually-based values obtained at
150, 200, 250 and 300W. From these regressions, RPE and ETL at 25, 50, 75 and
100% MAP were computed, to avoid the differing physical ability levels of the
­participants being a confusing variable in the research. The correlations between
these perceptually-based values and the scores obtained for the different psychological factors were examined with the Bravais-Pearson test and quantified by Pearson
correlation coefficients.
Statistical analysis was performed using Statistica software (version 6.0, Statsoft, Tulsa, USA). P values < .05 were considered statistically significant.
Results
The mean power output at 25, 50, 75 and 100% MAP corresponded to 86 ± 6W,
173 ± 12W, 259 ± 18W and 345 ± 25W, respectively.
The Pearson correlation coefficients between the psychological factors and
the perceptually-based values during the different workloads are presented in
Tables 3 and 4.
The results of the Bravais-Pearson test showed a significant correlation between
psychological resistance and RPE at 25, 50 and 75% MAP (p < .05, r ≤ -.51, Table
3). Similarly, psychological endurance was significantly correlated with RPE from
25% MAP up to 50% MAP (p < .05, r ≤ -.51, Table 3). A significant correlation
was also found between leadership and RPE at 25 and 50% MAP (p < .05, r ≤
-.48, Table 3).
The results showed a significant correlation between psychological endurance
and ETL, but only from 75% MAP (p < .05, r ≤ -.46, Table 4).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between psychological factors and perceptually-based values (RPE and ETL), at different intensities
during GXT while cycling.
Our results showed no significant relationship between anxiety and RPE/
ETL (Tables 3 and 4), whereas Morgan (1973, 1994) found higher RPE in anxious
participants. This lack of similarity may be linked to differences in the anxiety
scores of the recruited participants. Indeed, in Morgan’s study (1973), RPE were
compared between high anxiety participants and low anxiety participants, whereas
in the current study, the scores on the STAI were homogenous. Consequently, the
greater heterogeneity in anxiety scores in the Morgan study (1973) most likely
led to a significant correlation between anxiety scores and the perceptually-based
values. Moreover, some authors have reported that the anxious participants had
lower physical fitness than the subjects who were less anxious (Morgan, Roberts
& Feinerman, 1971). Therefore, to avoid a possible influence of the fitness level
on anxiety, we suggested expressing the exercise intensity in terms of percentage
Effects of Psychological Factors on RPE/ETL 367
Table 3 Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between the Ratings of
Perceived Exertion and Several Psychological Factors According to
the Exercise Intensity
Ratings of Perceived Exertion
(Borg, 1970)
State anxiety
Trait anxiety
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-stability
Overall self-esteem
Social self-esteem
Family self-esteem
Professionnal self-esteem
Intrinsic motivation to know
Intrinsic motivation to accomplish things
Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation
Extrinsic motivation by an identified regulation
Extrinsic motivation by introjected regulation
Extrinsic motivation by external regulation
Absence of motivation
Psychological resistance
Psychological endurance
Desire for success
Social desirability
Dynamism
Competitiveness
Activity control
Risk-taking
Emotional control
Aggressiveness
Sociability
Cooperation
Acceptance of a judgment
Leadership
25%
MAP
-.03
-.05
-.01
-.17
.03
.04
.07
-.12
.14
.13
-.25
-.26
-.29
-.39
.35
-.51 *
-.59 *
-.10
.14
-.24
-.16
-.01
.15
-.06
-.32
.28
-.16
-.27
-.48 *
50%
MAP
.04
-.06
-.02
-.20
.09
.03
.21
-.15
.19
.20
-.12
-.30
-.30
-.40
.27
-.57 *
-.59 *
-.09
.06
-.22
-.19
-.04
.12
-.10
-.25
.29
-.23
-.27
-.50 *
75%
MAP
.16
-.07
-.04
-.19
.19
.01
.41
-.16
.22
.26
.17
-.28
-.22
-.29
.04
-.51 *
-.39
-.04
-.13
-.11
-.20
-.11
.01
-.15
-.03
.21
-.30
-.19
-.38
100%
MAP
.21
-.04
-.03
-.09
.20
-.02
.43 *
-.09
.16
.21
.40
-.14
-.03
-.04
-.22
-.20
-.01
.03
-.27
.06
-.12
-.12
-.10
-.13
.20
.03
-.23
-.02
-.07
MAP: Maximal aerobic power, * Significant correlation between the perceptually-based values and
the psychological factors.
of maximal aerobic power, as opposed to Morgan’s studies where power was
expressed in watts.
However, it has already been stated that highly anxious participants may reduce
their state of anxiety during high exercise intensities, and inversely the exercise
may increase the state of anxiety in low anxiety participants (O’Sullivan, 1984).
Consequently, the interaction of psychological state and trait may influence the
perceptually-based values, and provide an additional interpretation of the results
368 Coquart et al.
Table 4 Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between the Estimated
Time Limit and Several Psychological Factors According to the
Exercise Intensity
Estimated Time Limit (Garcin
et al., 1999)
State anxiety
Trait anxiety
Extraversion-introversion
Neuroticism-stability
Overall self-esteem
Social self-esteem
Familyself-esteem
Professionnal self-esteem
Intrinsic motivation to know
Intrinsic motivation to accomplish things
Intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation
Extrinsic motivation by an identified regulation
Extrinsic motivation by introjected regulation
Extrinsic motivation by external regulation
Absence of motivation
Psychological resistance
Psychological endurance
Desire for success
Social desirability
Dynamism
Competitiveness
Activity control
Risk-taking
Emotional control
Aggressiveness
Sociability
Cooperation
Acceptance of a judgment
Leadership
25%
MAP
-.04
-.04
-.05
-.36
.28
.31
.25
.28
-.26
-.08
.35
.15
.04
-.01
.04
.34
-.08
.17
.45 *
.04
-.08
.02
-.24
.37
-.13
.08
.16
.30
.26
50%
MAP
.14
.05
-.14
-.40
.27
.24
.36
.30
-.12
.08
.29
.23
-.06
-.13
.14
.09
-.31
-.02
.31
-.05
-.14
-.04
-.35
.22
-.09
.10
.08
.25
.34
75%
MAP
.29
.13
-.20
-.34
.17
.10
.38
.25
.07
.24
.14
.24
-.15
-.22
.20
-.20
-.46 *
-.22
.06
-.13
-.16
-.11
-.36
-.01
-.02
.09
-.04
.12
.32
100%
MAP
.34
.17
-.20
-.24
.08
-.01
.33
.17
.19
.31
.02
.21
-.19
-.25
.20
-.37
-.49 *
-.32
-.11
-.16
-.15
-.13
-.31
-.16
.03
.07
-.11
.01
.26
MAP: Maximal aerobic power, * Significant correlation between the perceptually-based values and
the psychological factors.
(O’Sullivan, 1984). In other words, participants may characteristically function
in one way (trait-dependent), but under certain circumstances (e.g., during a high
exercise intensity), may change the way they characteristically function, thereby
becoming state-dependant (O’Sullivan, 1984). This may be an explication of
the lack of significant correlations between the anxiety (state and trait) and the
perceptually-based values.
Effects of Psychological Factors on RPE/ETL 369
The lack of a significant link compared with Morgan’s studies (1973, 1994) may
be explained by the difference in the population studied. In the current study, all the
participants were experienced and well-trained cyclists, to facilitate the assessment
of their effort perception and feelings of fatigue with the perceptually-based values
(Pandolf, 1983). Conversely, the participants in Morgan’s studies (1973, 1994) were
not experienced or well-trained. Consequently, the higher physical ability level
and greater sporting experience, among the cyclists in the current study, probably
produced lower anxiety and hence a lack of significant correlation.
Based on the experiments carried out by Morgan (1973, 1994), several authors
proposed that extraversion was inversely related to RPE (O’Sullivan, 1984; Pandolf, 1983; Robertson & Noble, 1997). According to these authors, this effect may
be linked with a higher pain tolerance in the extraverted participants. However,
other studies did not indicate a link between extraversion and the perceptuallybased values (Garcin et al., 2006). Similarly, Hall et al. (2005) showed that the
negative correlation between the extraversion and the RPE was significant only
when the exercise intensity was lower than or equal to the ventilatory threshold
(p < .05; Pearson product–moment correlation coefficients between -.32 and
-.51). According to these authors, the difference in results with Morgan’s works
(1973, 1994) may be explained by the active or retrospective RPE measures.
Indeed, in Morgan’s studies, RPE were given immediately following each workload (i.e., during the recovery period: retrospective RPE measure). Inversely, in
the current study and other studies (Hall et al., 2005; Garcin et al., 2006), RPE
were measured when the participants were still exercising (i.e., during the effort
period: active RPE measure). These methodological differences may explain the
difference in results.
The present study suggests thus that RPE measured during exercise is not
related to extraversion.
Similarly to anxiety, the lack of significant correlation between extraversion
and RPE/ETL may be explained by the population studied. The participants in
Morgan’s studies (1973, 1994) were most likely less experienced and not as well
trained as the cyclists in the current study, limiting the possible effect of extraversion on RPE and ETL. Moreover, similarly to anxiety, the participants in the current study perhaps had close extraversion scores, whereas the participants in the
Morgan study had more heterogeneous scores, producing a significant correlation.
The link between neuroticism and RPE/ETL is a controversial topic. Based on
Morgan’s studies (1973, 1994), some authors suggested that neurotic participants
presented higher RPE than nonneurotic participants (O’Sullivan, 1984; Watt &
Grove, 1993), whereas more recent experiments found no significant effect (Garcin
et al., 2006; Hall et al., 2005).
Garcin et al. (2006) showed that ETL was significantly correlated to the degree
of neuroticism at the ventilatory threshold. This result was not confirmed in the
current study at different intensities (i.e., 25, 50, 75 and 100% MAP). In the study
by Garcin et al. (2006), although the participants had different athletic backgrounds
(i.e., runners, sprinters or handball players), all were tested while running. ETL may
have been influenced by neuroticism in the handball players, because they have
little experience of the exercise mode used during the test. Inversely, in the current
study, the participants were all cyclists who performed GXT on a cycle ergometer,
thus no significant correlation between neuroticism and ETL was noticed.
370 Coquart et al.
Motivation for exercise can be expected to link with RPE (Pandolf, 1983).
Nevertheless, when the tests are performed in a laboratory, this link may be reduced
(Borg, 1977). To decrease the variance in RPE from motivation, the recruitment
of trained participants is recommended (Pandolf, 1983). Therefore, the lack of
a significant relationship between motivation and the perceptually-based values
is probably linked to the fact that the current study was performed with trained
cyclists in a laboratory.
Although psychological resistance, which may be defined as the capacity to
resist undesirable events, criticism and stress (Thill, 1983), does not seem to correlate with ETL; the results suggested that RPE was significantly lower in cyclists
with a high psychological resistance, especially at light intensities. This result
confirms the hypothesis proposed by Hall et al. (2005), which supposes that some
psychological factors directly influence RPE, but only during weaker workloads.
In accordance with these studies, when the internal signals (e.g., coming from
cardiovascular and respiratory systems) were strong (because the exercise intensity
was high), the link between certain psychological factors such as the psychological
resistance and RPE could restricted.
Cyclists with high psychological resistance are probably able to continue
physical tasks over a longer time period than cyclists with a weak psychological
resistance. If this is confirmed, high psychological resistance could decrease the
sensations of stress and discomfort which shape effort perception.
Because RPE is correlated to psychological resistance, the prescription of
exercise intensity according to the RPE scale, as is sometimes proposed in training or rehabilitation programs, may be inadequate for participants with a high
psychological resistance, since they develop higher exercise intensity than the
control participants. This higher exercise intensity is not necessarily influenced
from a psychological point of view, but it may produce a physiological overload,
which must be taken into account in the scheduling of training programs, to avoid
a possible physiological overtraining state.
This study shows that the cyclists with high psychological endurance (i.e.,
persistent, strong-minded, and stubborn) produced lower RPE when the exercise
intensity was lower than 50% MAP, and rated lower for ETL toward the end of
the exercise (i.e., from 75% MAP), compared with cyclists with lower psychological endurance. Thus, cyclists with high psychological endurance would perceive
lower exercise intensity as light and feel that they could endure more when the
exercise intensity was high. This means that high psychological endurance would
decrease the effort perception at light intensity, and would increase the estimated
exhaustion time at high intensity. The fact that ETL was lower at moderate to high
exercise intensities may be explained by the specificity of training programs and
competitions that require road cycling. Indeed, according to Faria, Parker and
Faria (2005), in well-trained competitive cyclists, the competitions are performed
at approximately more than 50% of maximal oxygen uptake during 75% of the
competition time. Therefore, the cyclists are accustomed to performing moderate
to high exercise intensities for a long time. Consequently, it may be supposed that,
the more a cyclist carries out long training sessions at high exercise intensity, the
greater is his psychological endurance, and the lower the ETL.
Social desirability is often defined as a tendency for participants to provide
responses that they believe to be consistent with social norms and expectations
Effects of Psychological Factors on RPE/ETL 371
(Adams et al., 2005). The present study is the first to have examined the relationship between social desirability and RPE/ETL; it is thus impossible to compare
our results. However, Hardy, Hall and Prestholdt (1989) have already suggested
that team mate presence influenced the RPE. In their study, RPE were lower during
an exercise on a cycle ergometer at low intensities (i.e., 25–50% maximal oxygen
uptake) when a team mate was present (Hardy et al., 1989). Inversely, Sylva, Byrd
and Mangum (1990) did not find a significant effect of team mate presence on RPE
in high level athletes. As suggested by Hardy et al. (1989), this influence could
be reduced in trained athletes). Complementary studies must thus be performed
to know the relationship between social desirability, team mate presence and the
perceptually-based values.
The cyclists who had high leadership scores rated lower for RPE than the
cyclists with low scores, but only at low intensities (less than 50% MAP). According to Rejeski (1981), when physiological signals are strong, the link between the
nonphysiological factors and RPE may be restricted. In this case, it can be hypothesized that, above 75% MAP, exercise intensity produces a strong reaction of the
cardio-respiratory and muscular systems, indicated by strong physiological signals
such as high heart rate and ventilation levels which the cyclist could not ignore.
Consequently, when the exercise intensity is high (above 75% MAP for leadership),
the psychological traits probably explain less than 33% of the variance in RPE, as
proposed by Morgan (1973). Inversely, when the exercise intensity is very low, the
psychological traits make a strong contribution to the perceptually-based values.
Nevertheless, leadership does not seem related to ETL.
To our knowledge, no one has performed an experiment to study the relationship between competitiveness and RPE/ETL, probably because a valid English
translation of the personality questionnaire for athletes does not exist. The present
study suggests that competitiveness does not correlate to the perceptually-based
values in the male competitive cyclists during GXT in their athletic domain. Nevertheless, this result must be confirmed by further studies with different populations
and various exercise modalities. It would be interesting to develop a valid English
translation of the Thill personality questionnaire (1983) because this questionnaire
is especially adapted to athletes.
Morgan (1973) recommended the use of a test with random workloads, rather
than GXT, to measure the perceptually-based values. However, GXT was used in the
current study because it is very often executed in clinical and sporting settings, and
it permits the assessment of the physical fitness. Nevertheless, GXT might inflate
correlations due to the biased effect of knowing that the workload is increased
(Morgan, 1973). Consequently, the lack of significant correlations between some
psychological factors (e.g., motivation) and the perceptually-based values (i.e., RPE
and ETL) may be linked to GXT, used in the current study. To avoid this effect,
it would be preferable to use a test with randomized workloads where the main
purpose is not to assess physical fitness, but to measure RPE and ETL.
The present study demonstrated that some psychological factors such as
leadership, psychological resistance and endurance are linked to RPE and/or
ETL in trained athletes during GXT in cycling. Based on the concept of teleoanticipation (Ulmer, 1996), authors suggest that the brain calculates (before and
continuously during exercise) the metabolic cost required to entirely complete a
given exercise (St Clair Gibson, Lambert, Lambert, Hampson & Noakes, 2001).
372 Coquart et al.
According to this estimation, the brain computes how this will be influenced by
the prevailing environmental conditions and the current physical state. However,
this overall estimation, which can be evaluated by the RPE scale, is also influenced
by past exercises (Ulmer, 1996). The participants in the current study were all
well-experienced in cycling. Therefore, they should determine RPE and ETL with
only a slight impact of the psychological states and/or traits. However, the results
show that, even with experienced cyclists, the psychological states and/or traits
are correlated to the perceptually-based values. However, this link was more or
less significant according to the imposed exercise intensity and the psychological
variable which was studied.
The present study indicates that a link exists between the perceptually-based
values and some psychological factors. This result must be considered when a
training program based on RPE or ETL is proposed. Indeed, to prescribe the same
adapted exercise intensity (e.g., 70% maximal oxygen uptake) from RPE or ETL
values in two cyclists who have the same maximal oxygen uptake, it is necessary to
perform a prior GXT to precisely determine the RPE or ETL value corresponding
to the required exercise intensity, because these cyclists do not necessarily have
the same psychological states or traits.
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