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March 2015, Vol. 54, No. 3
C O NT E NT S
March 2015
AT E
Written by E
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SPECIAL REPORT
Switching Systems
14
Safeguarding low-level signals
by Tom Lecklider, Senior Technical Editor
Test Interconnect
24
SPECIAL REPORTS
EMC Test
EMC
Piecing together
EMC compliance
SPECIAL REPORT
EMC Test
Switching
Systems
Safeguarding
low-level signals
8
TEST
INTERCONNECT
Cables, connectors augment
test applications
Applying Bayes' Theorem
to clinical trials
.
Piecing together EMC compliance
by Rick Nelson, Executive Editor
C O M M U N I C AT I O N S T E S T
MEDICAL TEST
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26
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On our cover
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Software augments instruments for 5G
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Industry Happenings
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Auto show spans fuel cells to infotainment
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Executive Insight
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EE201503-TOC FINAL.indd 1
March 2015 • EE • 1
2/10/15 9:17 AM
1
EDITORIAL
When electrical
engineering grew up
E
2
.
lectrical engineering might be traced back over 2,600 years to Thales of Miletus,
who noted that rubbing fur on amber would cause an attraction between the two
materials. He doesn’t seem to have described any practical applications for this property, however. The inventers of the “Baghdad Battery” (c. 250 B.C.E.), possibly used
for electroplating, may have been the first electrical engineers, but few archeologists
believe the artifact was, in fact, a battery.
In 1600, William Gilbert picked up on the work of Thales of Miletus and invented
the versorium, an early electrometer. He also coined the word electricus (“of amber”). Over the next two centuries, the work of Stephen Gray, C.F. du Fay, Benjamin
Franklin, Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta, Georg Ohm, Michael Faraday, and others
laid the groundwork for practical applications, the first large-scale one being the
telegraph in the first half of the 19th century.
Samuel Morse was behind one particularly successful implementation of the
telegraph, but he was no electrical engineer. An artist, he became interested in the
instantaneous communication that electricity might enable when, while painting a
portrait of the Marquis de Lafayette in New York, he belatedly learned of the sudden
illness and death of his wife in Connecticut.
Delivering a keynote address at DesignCon in January, Thomas H. Lee, professor
of electrical engineering at Stanford University, placed the birth of electrical engineering near the time of the completion of the first trans-Atlantic telegraph cable.
The effort was driven in part by Cyrus West Field, who had made a fortune turning
around a failing paper mill. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) contributed the mirror
galvanometer, which could detect weak signals at the receiving end.
The first cable, completed in 1858, was not a success. Performance went from
poor to worse due to deterioration of the insulation, exacerbated by the insistence of
Edward Orange Wildman Whitehouse, trained as a medical doctor, that the transmit
voltage be boosted to 1,500 V.
At that point, Lee said, “cable denial” set in, and investors began to think Field
had defrauded them. They could no longer tolerate the tinkerers and dabblers like
Whitehouse and Morse. (According to Lee, Morse had offered the less than helpful
advice that a successful cable would need a small-diameter center conductor—a large
conductor would—for reasons Morse did not make clear—slow down the electricity.) Investors wanted solid, scientific evidence that a new cable would work before
putting up more money.
They got it from participants like Thomson, who realized they even lacked the
vocabulary to describe what had caused the original failure. They formally defined
the volt, ampere, and ohm. Thomson realized that the cable would need to be large to
minimize attenuation, and he estimated the cable could handle five words per minute.
As Lee put it, he calculated—he didn’t guess. The cable was completed in 1886, able
to handle up to eight words per minute, possibly with the help of data-compression
techniques employed by the telegraph operators.
As work on the cables proceeded, Maxwell was publishing his equations (completed
by 1862), and universities started recognizing electrical engineering as a discipline
distinct from physics. In 1882, MIT began offering an EE option within the physics
department, and Technische Universität Darmstadt (TU Darmstadt) established a
chair in electrical engineering. Other institutions followed, leading to the tremendous
accomplishments in the field throughout the 20th century and into this one.
Lee concluded his DesignCon keynote address by asking, “What’s next? The
Internet of Things? Telepathy? Who knows, but history is not over.” Whatever is
next, he advised attendees, “You’re going to be making it.”
Rick Nelson
Executive Editor
Visit my blog: www.evaluationengineering.com/ricks-blog/
2 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-Editorial MECH dB.indd 2
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5
EE INDUSTRY UPDATE
For more on these and other news items, visit http://www.evaluationengineering.com/category/industry-update/
German electronics manufacturers
defy global turbulence in 2014
German electronics manufacturers overcame challenging
international markets to achieve 2.4% year-on-year growth
for the 11 months to November 2014, the German Electrical
and Electronic Manufacturers’ Association reports. Turnover
in the branch is expected to have totaled EUR 171 billion (approximately USD 200 billion) over the year.
“German electronics manufacturers faced a testing export
environment in 2014, and this was reflected in monthly variations. However, the annual performance is encouraging and a
testament to the strength of the sector in Germany,” said Max
Milbredt, electronics market expert at Germany Trade & Invest.
FuelCell Energy touts Dominion
fuel-cell-park performance
6
.
FuelCell Energy, a company that designs, manufactures, operates, and services efficient and reliable fuel cell power plants,
is touting the performance achievements of the 14.9-MW
Dominion fuel cell park in Bridgeport, CT, after one year of
operation. The fuel cell park, owned by Dominion, consists of
five Direct FuelCell power plants, manufactured and installed
by FuelCell Energy, that supply Class I renewable power to the
electric grid under a 15-year energy purchase agreement. Additionally, the heat from the five power plants is recovered and
converted into additional electricity, increasing the efficiency
of the installation.
Growth seen for semiconductor
equipment and materials
SEMI Industry Strategy Symposium (ISS) 2015 convened with
the theme “Riding the Wave of Silicon Magic.” The sold-out
conference of the industry’s C-level executives highlighted
favorable forecasts in the year’s first strategic outlook for the
global microelectronics manufacturing industry. The underlying drivers for growth and the next wave emerging from the
Internet of Things were discussed from several perspectives.
Opening keynoter Scott McGregor, president and CEO of
Broadcom, traced the history of the industry’s more than 50
years of exponential improvements in silicon speed, power, and
design since Moore’s Law in 1965. McGregor sees the next
wave of Silicon Magic as a $15 trillion opportunity that will
provide ubiquitous, nonstop, seamless high-speed connectivity.
Still, McGregor believes three issues challenge the industry’s
growth: patent reform, interoperability, and STEM education.
DHS S&T launches conversation on
homeland security technology
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and
Technology Directorate (S&T) launched a public engagement
strategy, titled the National Conversation on Homeland Security
Technology, to connect partners and the public on research and
development supporting the missions of homeland security.
The National Conversation on Homeland Security Technology is a series of online and in-person discussions creating a
dialogue between the public as well the nation’s first responders,
6 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-IndustryUpdate MECH dB.indd 6
industry representatives, academia, and government officials.
Dialogues will address these topics: responder of the future,
enabling the decision maker, screening at speed, a trusted cyber
future, and resilient communities.
Apple Watch spurs rapid growth of
wireless charging market
Propelled by the arrival of the Apple Watch, the global market
for wireless power and charging in wearable applications is set
to attain a gargantuan 3,000% expansion this year compared to
2014, according to IHS Technology.
Global revenue this year from shipments of wireless power
receivers and transmitters in wearable applications will surge
to more than $480 million, up from just $15 million last year.
By 2019, wireless charging in wearables will generate revenue
exceeding $1 billion.
imec demonstrates 22%-efficient
crystalline silicon n-PERT solar cell
Nanoelectronics research center imec announced that it has
improved its large-area n-type PERT (passivated emitter, rear
totally diffused) crystalline silicon (Si) solar cell on 6-inch
commercially available n-type Cz-Si wafers, now reaching a
top conversion efficiency of 22.02% (calibrated at ISE CalLab).
This is the highest efficiency achieved for this type of twoside-contacted solar cell on an industrial large-area wafer size.
Compared to p-type silicon solar cells, n-type cells do not
suffer from light-induced degradation and feature a higher tolerance to common metal impurities. As a result, n-type silicon
solar cells are considered as promising alternatives to p-type
solar cells for next-generation highly efficient solar cells.
Lux Research cites next industrial
revolution in the making
Just as technologies can be disruptive, the way we make technologies can be disruptive, too. Distributed manufacturing
(DM)—local, small-scale, rapid design and production—comes
from the ability to engineer and make few parts as cheaply as
many, rather than the current model of high-volume, centralized
manufacturing. However, it’s not the answer for every product,
and its impact will depend on economics and the demand for
flexibility, according to Lux Research.
“DM is the web browser of manufacturing, with the potential to do to manufacturing what web browsers did to news,
music, video, software, and other media,” said Mark Bünger,
Lux Research director and the lead author of the report titled,
“Distributed Manufacturing: The Next Industrial Revolution.”
Astronics completes acquisition of
Armstrong Aerospace
Astronics, a provider of advanced technologies for the global
aerospace and defense industries, announced that it completed
the acquisition of Armstrong Aerospace for approximately $52
million in cash on Jan. 14. Astronics previously announced that
it had entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Armstrong
on Dec. 24, 2014.
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SPECIAL REPORT - EMC TEST
Piecing together EMC compliance
by Rick Nelson, Executive Editor
8
.
The run-up to the EMC Symposium, scheduled for March
15-20 in Santa Clara, puts the test-and-measurement industry’s
focus on solving the puzzle of electromagnetic compatibility.
And whether they intend to exhibit at the symposium or not,
test equipment vendors are highlighting products that can assist
in precompliance test, compliance test, debugging, and troubleshooting. Field generators, signal generators, EMI receivers,
amplifiers, oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, and switching
and control platforms are all critical pieces of an effective EMC
strategy. Some firms focus on EMC and offer instruments and
systems dedicated to the topic. Others provide general-purpose
instruments that can be adapted to EMC/EMI test—often with
the help of software options.
AR RF/Microwave Instrumentation is one company focused on
EMC. According to Joe Diesso, senior vice president of marketing,
“As a leader in EMC test equipment, AR offers a wide array of
standard RF/microwave power amplifiers, receivers, and antenna
instruments.” In addition, the company makes custom systems
for use in emissions and immunity testing.
“Products and systems are designed for either precompliance or compliance testing, and when used with AR’s patented
emcware testing software, [testing] becomes much faster and
more efficient,” Diesso said. “More specifically, AR’s MultiStar MultiTone system can significantly reduce test time while
maintaining a high level of test integrity.”
Diesso added, “AR takes pride in the ability to offer a wide
range of products or systems compatible with either the smallest
test lab or largest military or automotive customer. With an eye
on standards development, AR is able to respond quickly to a
wide variety of EMC test applications.”
According to Diesso, “AR products are designed with a long
history in EMC. Each product line is developed to differentiate
AR from the rest of the market.” He cited several examples: the
700-MHz to 6-GHz bandwidths of the company’s wideband
amplifiers, the capability of the FA7000 field analyzer (Figure 1)
to characterize signals, and the speed of the FFT-based DER2018
EMI receiver. “We continue to provide the highest power RF
and microwave solid-state amplifiers in the marketplace and
offer accessories which decrease test time as well as increase
measurement accuracy,” he added.
New EMI
receiver
Mark Terrien, EMC
business manager
at Keysight Technologies, said his
Figure 1. FA7000 field analyzer
company focuses
Courtesy AR RF/Microwave Instrumentation
on both compliance
and precompliance EMI measurement solutions to address emissions testing at every stage of the product development cycle.
For compliance testing, the company offers the new N9038A
MXE EMI receiver (Figure 2), which conducts measurements
8 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-SpecRep-EMC MECH GH.indd 8
in accordance with CISPR 16-1-1 and MIL-STD-461F specifications. “For a complete EMI test solution,” he added, “Keysight
Solutions Partners provide a single point of contact to combine
the MXE with chambers, antennas, software, value-added integration, probes, and more.” In addition, he said, “The Keysight
N/W6141A EMI measurement application on the X-Series
signal analyzers performs precompliance measurements and
diagnostic evaluation of product designs.”
Terrien cited differences
between compliance and
precompliance
testing. “In
EMC compliance testing,”
Figure 2. N9038A MXE EMI receiver
he said, “sucCourtesy of Keysight Technologies
cess depends
on moving products through the test queue quickly and efficiently. Keysight offers the standards-compliant N9038A MXE
EMI receiver to fully test devices up to 44 GHz with outstanding
accuracy of ±0.5 dB at 1 GHz, enabled by an all-digital IF.”
As for precompliance test, he said, “To avoid costly delays that
can result from failed compliance testing, product-development
engineers can find and fix problems before they enter the test
chamber with the N6141A EMI measurement application on
the N9030A PXA, N9020A MXA, or N9010A EXA X-Series
signal analyzers,” or they can use the W6141A measurement
application on the N9000A CXA for a low-cost precompliance
test solution.
Keysight products also address debugging and troubleshooting.
“The Keysight MXE EMI receiver is a diagnostic signal analyzer,
so test engineers can identify the cause of noncompliant emissions
and provide clients with advice on how to improve test results,”
Terrien said. “The Keysight EMI measurement application can
troubleshoot devices that did not pass emissions testing.”
Terrien cited some specific features of the company’s products.
“To streamline EMC measurements,” he said, “the Keysight
MXE EMI receiver offers capabilities designed for easier
identification and evaluation of noncompliant emissions. It has
complete sets of commercial and military resolution bandwidths
and diagnostic detectors including peak, quasi-peak, EMI average, and rms average, and the built-in library contains commercial and military limit lines.” In addition, he said, engineers
can customize their own solutions with the easy-to-use editor.
He said the MXE also features a time-domain scan to reduce
overall measurement time, a built-in disturbance analyzer to
automate click measurements, a strip-chart function to track
and evaluate signal trends vs. time for up to two hours, and an
amplitude probability distribution function to prepare for future
requirements. In addition, the MXE can monitor the spectrum to
make it easier to identify the frequency of peak emissions prior
to final measurement.
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/9/15 1:47 PM
.
AR & MVG Team Up To Provide Turnkey Solutions To Meet All Your Most Demanding EMC Needs
MVG|EMC, a world leader in anechoic and shielded chamber solutions, has joined forces with AR, the RF/microwave Instrumentation
powerhouse. Here is a small sampling of our extensive capabilities:
• Pre-Compliance Compact and Mini Compact EMC Chambers
• MIL-STD Anechoic, Mode-Stirred, and Antenna Measurement Chambers
• High Performance Shielded Rooms and Chamber Upgrades
•RF/Microwave Power Amplifiers to 50,000 Watts
•RF/Microwave Antennas to 50 GHz
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Put the unique power of the AR and MVG to work for you – call 215.723.8181, or visit www.arworld.us/mvg.
Come See Us at IEEE EMC Show
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rf/microwave instrumentation
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www.arworld.us
Other ar divisions: modular rf • receiver systems • ar europe
Copyright © 2015 AR.
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Figure 3. DSA800 Series spectrum analyzer
Courtesy of Rigol Technologies
“In addition to being a fully compliant EMI receiver,” Terrien
said, “the MXE also is a diagnostic signal analyzer, so test engineers can identify the cause of noncompliant emissions. Built on
an upgradeable platform, the MXE offers an upgradeable CPU,
memory, disk drives, and I/O ports as well as the opportunity
to add functionality and measurement applications with simple
license key upgrades allowing EMC test facilities to keep test
assets current and increase instrument longevity.”
10
.
Precompliance, debug, and troubleshooting
Rigol Technologies also addresses EMC test. “We realize that
almost every design has EMC challenges,” said applications engineer Jason Chonko. “Our goal is to help customers overcome
those challenges as quickly and painlessly as possible.” Rigol’s
products are primarily used throughout precompliance, debug, and
troubleshooting, he added.
According to Chonko, “Our main EMC offering is centered
around our spectrum analyzers. The DSA800 family is our most
recent platform. Models in this family are available in 1.5-GHz,
3.2-GHz, and 7.5-GHz max frequency, and all can accommodate
tracking generators and EMC-focused software upgrades.” He
added, “Our spectrum analyzers feature an easy-to-use software
tool, the EMI Test System, that allows users to set up scans, set
limit lines, and ease precompliance data collection.” The analyzers (Figure 3) also feature an optional EMI firmware upgrade
(DSA800-EMI) that enables FCC bandwidth selection, EMI
filtering, and a quasi-peak detector.
In addition, Chonko said, the company offers RF signal sources
like the DSG3000 series, arbitrary waveform generators like the
DG1000Z and DG5000 series, and oscilloscopes that range from
50 MHz to 1 GHz.
Tektronix also provides instruments for EMC test. According
to Matt Maxwell, product manager for spectrum analyzers, the
RSA306 spectrum analyzer with SignalVu-PC, the RSA5100B
spectrum analyzer, and the MDO4000B mixed-domain oscilloscope can all be used in EMI diagnostics applications. MDO4000B
Series product manager Lisa Beiker added, “The MDO4000 series
combines the functionality of a spectrum analyzer with a mixedsignal oscilloscope. This integration enables the unique capability
to time-correlate spectrum analysis with analog and digital signals,
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EE201503-SpecRep-EMC FINAL.indd 10
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so problems can be isolated more precisely
and faster than with conventional tools.”
Maxwell said the spectrum analyzers can
serve in precompliance test, debugging,
and troubleshooting while Beiker said
the MDO4000B can minimize the time it
takes to find sources of interference when
debugging and troubleshooting EMI issues.
Both agree on this point: “We find customers across many segments with similar
problems in consumer wireless, medical,
aerospace, and automotive applications.”
Maxwell noted that the real-time capabilities of the RSA306 and the RSA5100B
have been useful for EMI diagnostics and
troubleshooting, allowing engineers to find
signals that other analyzers and most traditional EMI receivers miss. “This feature on
the RSA306 is particularly interesting because it allows for quick troubleshooting,”
he said. “Because of very fast processing,
the spectrum display updates very quickly.”
He said the real-time spectrum is shown as
a color bitmap representing hundreds or
thousands of FFTs, resulting in a display
that includes infrequently occurring events.
“These are the very kind of events that can
cause headaches when a design is sent to
an EMI compliance lab—tracking down
and fixing issues that can cause testing
failures can be very time-consuming and
expensive. Real-time technology can help
uncover these signals.”
He cited several features of Tektronix
spectrum analyzers, including continuously
variable RBW and span settings as well as
real-time triggers on signal density. “Also,”
he said, “only Tektronix offers displays like
DPX Zero Span, which gives up to a 50,000
waveforms-per-second update on a traditional Zero Span display for more insights.”
He added that the way the RSA5100B and
SignalVu are set up makes it easy to connect different domains and observe signal
behavior over time. “This last feature can
be very helpful as it could, for example, let
you correlate time, frequency, and other
domains with markers that automatically
link across multiple displays,” he added.
Finally, he said, both the RSA306 and
RSA5100B support CISPR +Peak detection, and both can use the MIL-STD filters,
which can be useful in precompliance,
diagnostics, and troubleshooting. In addition, the RSA5100B supports a CIPSR
quasi-peak detector, which can be helpful
in EMI precompliance.
Beiker elaborated on the MDO4000,
whose time-correlation function facilitates
www.evaluationengineering.com
EE201503-SpecRep-EMC FINAL.indd 11
fast and precise EMI troubleshooting. “In
troubleshooting EMI, the engineer needs
to physically locate the problem (such as
transient emission) and then electrically
identify the source of the problem so it can
be fixed,” she said. “The MDO4000 combines an oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer,
logic analyzer, and protocol analyzer in
one box. A single trigger controls all of the
inputs on the MDO4000—the four analog
channel oscilloscope inputs, the 16 logic
channel inputs, and the spectrum analyzer
input. A single acquisition can contain a
seamless time capture of the signal activity
on all of these inputs.”
As a result, engineers can observe activity of all the signals simultaneously on one
time-correlated display (Figure 4). “With
.
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11
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Figure 4. MDO4000 frequency- and time-domain views
Courtesy of Tektronix
12
.
the spectrum analyzer, the user can zero in on the EMI problem,”
Beiker said. “Using the universal trigger and capture of all inputs,
the user can study the time-domain characteristics of the RF signal
as well as surrounding signals on the circuit board to quickly and
more precisely isolate problems. The MDO4000 has the versatility and power to provide a complete system view of coincident
events in your device.”
Generators and amplifiers
losses by increasing the size of the amplifiers.
“We have challenged the traditional assumption
that delivering a higher field strength requires
more power, and we are bringing a game-changing
technology to the market,” said Bryan Sayler,
senior vice president of ETS-Lindgren. “For labs
looking to test in the 1-GHz to 6-GHz range, the
EMField Generator provides a highly efficient
and portable alternative to the traditional amplifier
and antenna configuration.”
The EMField Generator combines amplifiers,
directional couplers, power meters, and an antenna
array into one simplified design.
In related news, Rohde & Schwarz announced
that it has expanded its R&S OSP modular platform for wiring RF test equipment and DUTs
(Figure 5). The company said the modular R&S
OSP gives test engineers in production facilities,
test labs, and R&D departments a range of options
for quickly setting up RF wiring configurations
and controlling them manually or via a computer. A new I/O
module makes it possible to control external equipment via differential lines. It offers 16 differential RS-422 outputs and four
analog output voltages for controlling antenna systems, for instance.
Two new transfer relay modules (DPDT) each have two SMA
or N relays, making it easier to implement cross-wiring between
two RF paths. Also new is a nonterminated octuple changeover
relay (SP8T). In addition, Rohde & Schwarz has complemented the
universal SPDT and SP6T monostable relay modules with bistable
versions. And power sensors in the R&S NRP-Z family now can
be integrated into the R&S OSP, enabling users to set up compact
configurations for power measurements. The company said that
its application-specific modules make the open switch and control
platform suitable for setting up EMC and over-the-air test systems.
Other companies with recent product introductions, as covered in our
January issue, include ETS-Lindgren and Instruments for Industry
(IFI). The latter, a unit of AMETEK Compliance Test Solutions
through AMETEK’s acquisition of IFI parent company Teseq,
recently debuted a dual-mode, solid-state amplifier that combines
continuous and pulse operating modes. The new S31-500-900P
amplifier has been optimized for performing 600-V/m radar pulse Planning for the EMC Symposium
radiated immunity testing in the 0.8-GHz to 3.1-GHz band.1 The At the upcoming EMC Symposium, AR is likely to highlight its
amplifier has a 500-W continuous rating along with the capability line of amplifiers. “One main area of emphasis is the highest power
to deliver more than 900 W in the pulse mode.
RF and microwave solid-state amplifiers on the market,” Diesso
Suitable for labs and many automotive OEMs, the S31-500-900P said. In addition, the company’s MultiStar products, including
supports tests in accordance with specifications set by Ford and the MT06000 MultiTone tester, the FA7000 field analyzer, the
General Motors and followed by other manufacturers. The unit DER2018 FFT-based EMI receiver, and the 200-W solid-state
offers a peak power rating that allows it to generate a 600-V/m test class A 700-MHz to 6-GHz amplifier as well as improvements in
with either high-gain, narrowband antennas or a single wideband emcware will be demonstrated.
antenna. When used with narrowband antennas, the S31-500Terrien at Keysight said, “We’ll have all of our compliance
900P has sufficient power to allow overtesting or provide greater and precompliance products at the symposium, and we will be
coverage of the EUT to reduce testing time.
highlighting our new 3.6-GHz MXE EMI
For its part, ETS-Lindgren unveiled its
receiver model and real-time diagnostic
EMField Generator, which the company
capability available on our precompliance
describes as integrating separate compoinstruments.” And Chonko at Rigol said,
nents into a compact, modular, and efficient
“We will be featuring the DSA875-TG 7.5testing tool. The company noted that for
GHz spectrum analyzer and the DSG3060
decades radiated immunity testing has been
RF signal source.”
performed using bulky RF power ampliReference
fiers, and immunity systems have been
1. Nelson, R., “Vendors target conductinherently inefficient, losing up to half of
ed, radiated immunity,” EE-Evaluation
their power to heat, cable loss, couplers,
Figure 5. OSP open switch and control
Engineering, January 2015, p. 27.
and other hardware components. Until now,
platform modules
engineers have had to compensate for these
Courtesy of Rohde & Schwarz
12 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-SpecRep-EMC MECH GH.indd 12
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2/9/15 1:52 PM
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Safeguarding low-level signals
by Tom Lecklider, Senior Technical Editor
14
.
Accurately measuring very low-level signals requires
more than just good instrumentation. Special care is needed
throughout the measurement system because the very small
size of low-level signals exposes error sources that usually can
be ignored with larger signals.
Differential circuitry often is used with low-level signals
because it minimizes noise pick-up problems. Ideally, external
noise will couple equally to both sides of a differential signal
and can be removed by a circuit’s common-mode rejection.
To ensure equal coupling, the two conductors needed for
each differential signal must be identically routed on a PCB.
Twisted-pair wiring is used between assemblies. Differential
circuitry also avoids the single-ended signal corruption caused
when imperfect PCB layouts allow ground current mixing.
All low-level signals are subject to thermally induced voltage
offsets based on the Seebeck effect. A junction of dissimilar
metals, such as found in reed relays, produces a small voltage
when a temperature gradient exists along the length of the
conductors. The connection between the nickel-iron relay blade
and the associated copper lead wire forms a thermocouple, but
the junction itself isn’t the problem. The Seebeck effect states
that any conductor generates a voltage when a temperature
difference exists along its length. When two different kinds
of conductors are joined, the voltages generated by each don’t
cancel as they could were only one type of metal used.
Nevertheless, compared to electromechanical relays with exposed contacts, reed relays have many advantages. The contacts
are hermetically enclosed in a sealed glass tube so no external
contamination can affect them. On the other hand, the 50:50
nickel-iron alloy often used for the reed blades isn’t a good
conductor and typically is plated in the contact area. According
to a Pickering Electronics technical paper, “Commonly used
materials are ruthenium, rhodium, and iridium…. Tungsten is
often used for high power or high voltage reed switches due
to its high melting point.”1 The type of plating and size of the
contacts govern the quality of the reed switch.
Figure 1. Reed relay cutaway drawing
Courtesy of Pickering Electronics
14 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-SpecRep-Switch MECH dB.indd 14
Reed relays
VTI Instruments’ Tom Sarfi, vice president of Product Management and Support, said, “…the biggest challenge we see with
low-level switching is when an end user is interested not only
in switching low-level signals, but also high levels as well with
the same relay. Customers often think that if a relay is capable
of switching 20 amps, it should also be capable of switching
milliamps. The relays that are best suited for high-level switching are electromechanical, and these relays typically are specified with path resistances when switching a measureable load.
Consistent contacts are made only when switching some level
of load [because] this ensures that arcing occurs to remove any
oxidation that may have been formed on the contacts. “
Sarfi emphasized the benefit of hermetically sealed switches
that avoid this problem. He said, “We have designed two different switch modules (one used on the eCASS Navy program)
that use hermetically sealed relays that are designed for highand low-level switching. Hermetically sealed relays prevent
oxidation from occurring on the contacts, and therefore the
higher load is not required to ensure low path resistance when
switched.”
When reed relays are used in higher current applications up
to about 2 A, self-heating can be a problem. In reference 1, the
author touched on many interrelated factors when discussing carry
current—the current that the reed relay can support through its contacts without long-term damage. “The carry current is determined
primarily by the contact resistance of the relay and the heat sinking
to the environment. As the current increases, the temperature of
the reed blades increases until it reaches a temperature where the
material is no longer ferromagnetic (Curie temperature). Once
that temperature is reached, the relay contacts may open since
the blades no longer respond to the magnetic field.
“The blade temperature is clearly dependent upon the current and
relay path resistance. The normal assumption is that this is a square
law (with current) relationship. In reality, the temperature rise is
significantly more than a square law since the metallic resistance
also increases with temperature, the magnetic field drops with
temperature because of the coil resistance rise, and the mechanical
properties of the blade can change. Consequently, like all relays,
exceeding the rating can result in a kind of thermal runaway.”1
For very low-level signals, reaching the Curie temperature is
not a concern, but thermal offset voltages still can be generated by
heating within the relay structure. Minimizing the power dissipated
in the relay coil is one way to reduce this effect. Power = I2 x R,
so power and the associated temperature rise can be minimized
by maximizing the coil resistance.
For comparison purposes, a general-purpose Littlefuse type
HE3600 500-mA, 200-VDC reed relay has a nominal 5-VDC
coil voltage and draws about 10 mA. This means that the coil
resistance is approximately 500 Ω. In contrast, the resistance of
some Pickering Electronics Series 100 5-V relay coils is 3,300 Ω.
In terms of power, the Littlefuse relay dissipates 25/500 = 50 mW
vs. 25/3,300 = 7.6 mW for the Pickering relay. Figure 1 shows
construction details for a typical Pickering “soft center” reed relay.
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.
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A relay’s symmetrical construction
also can mitigate the generation of thermal offsets. If both blades and connecting wires experience the same but
opposite thermal gradients, the effects
will cancel. A relay can be made with
two identical Form A switches in the
same coil so it can be used differentially
to reduce thermal offsets. The differential connection ensures that thermal
offsets will closely match each other
even though self-heating causes unequal
temperatures across the package. Of
course, a differential relay is needed to
handle many low-level signals that also
are differential.
16
.
Regardless of a reed relay’s design,
some amount of thermal error voltage
still will be generated. A National Instruments technical paper discussed several
approaches to eliminating this error. The
basic idea is to measure a relay’s contact
resistance when a small test current is
passed through the closed contacts. Because the relay is actuated, self-heating
will develop a thermal offset voltage. The
voltage measured across the relay contacts
will include that voltage. A second measurement made with the current source off
will only measure the thermally generated
voltage in series with the closed contacts.
Subtracting the second measurement from
the first allows the relay contact resistance
to be accurately calculated.2
This approach is technically sound but
must be used with some care. Time also
is a factor because a greater temperature
differential is created when the coil is
energized for a long time than when it
is driven by a short pulse. So, to obtain
the greatest accuracy from the two-measurement method, you need to drive the
coil in the same way that the relay will
be used in your application. In addition,
because the relay’s environment affects
heatsinking, the relay’s mounting should
be representative of how it actually will
be used. You also need to provide power
to any nearby external sources of heat.
Product examples
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16 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-SpecRep-Switch MECH dB.indd 16
Thermal effects
Multiplexers specified as having Nx2
channels are intended to be used with
differential signals. Some of these products also list a x1 configuration, typically
with twice as many channels as for the
differential x2 connection. An example
is the National Instruments NI PXI-2503
24-channel relay multiplexer/matrix. This
product uses electromechanical relays and
quotes a differential thermal offset <2 µV
for the x2 configuration. The single-ended
x1 thermal offset is not quoted.
The higher density NI PXI-2530B
reed-relay-based switch module provides
128 single-ended channels or 64 twowire channels (Figure 2). The typical x1
thermal offset voltage is quoted as <50
µV. The differential thermal offset is not
given. Neither the PXI-2503 nor the PXI2530B is specifically recommended for
very low-level signal switching, although
either easily handles general-purpose
signal switching. The reason for comparing them is to highlight the very large
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/6/15 4:42 PM
Figure 2. NI PXI-2530B multiplexer
Courtesy of National Instruments
difference that may exist between single-ended and differential
thermal offsets. You need to understand which specification
applies to your application and what level of thermally induced
voltage can be accommodated without significantly affecting
measurement accuracy.
Keysight Technologies’ Dave Tenney, product manager, GP
instruments, discussed the various switching selections compatible with the company’s 34970A/34972A data acquisition/
switch unit. The Models 34901A and 34902A both are two-wire
multiplexers with a built-in cold junction reference for use with
thermocouples. The 34901A is based on electromechanical
relays, supports up to 1-A loads, and quotes thermal offset <3
µV. The 34902A uses reed relays and has a maximum current
of 50 mA and thermal offset <6 µV. The advantage of the reed
relay version is 250-ch/s switching speed vs. only 60 ch/s for
the 34901A with electromechanical relays.
Because a low-level switch manufacturer has control of both
the actual switching element and the surrounding electrical and
thermal environment, very low thermal offsets can be guaranteed
even for single-ended switches. For example, Pickering Interfaces’ Shaun Fuller, switching product manager, referred to the
Model 40-525A switch matrix that claims <5 µV single-ended
thermal offset, achieved through careful design techniques. He
also mentioned the 40-620 23-channel PXI multiplexer with a
differential thermal offset specification of <1 µV. On the other
hand, suboptimal signal connections and cabling that the user
provides from the source to the switching product’s terminals
can significantly degrade overall performance.
Enhancements and trade-offs
High-density assemblies necessarily place relays close to each
other. Without magnetic shielding, the magnetic field from the
coil of one reed relay can affect the pull-in/drop-out actuation
of adjacent relays. This effect can be minimized by using relays
with integral mu-metal shielding.
Crosstalk from a large signal on one relay to a small signal
on another is a function of relay proximity as well as wiring
layout and impedances. For the Astronics Test Systems Model
1260-43HS VXI switch matrix, crosstalk within any one of the
three 8x24 single-wire matrices is specified <-70 dB at 100
kHz, <-55 dB at 1 MHz. Thermal EMF is listed as <10 µV.
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EE201503-SpecRep-Switch FINAL.indd 17
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18
.
In general, crosstalk (dB) = 20 log10 (voltage ratio). So, 70
dB = a voltage ratio of 3,162:1, or a 1-V, 100-kHz signal on one
channel can produce a voltage of 316 µV on another. It’s clear
that even if the crosstalk specification were -100 dB rather than
-70 dB, you can’t mix volt-level signals and microvolt-level
signals. Depending on how the matrix signals are routed to the
module’s front-panel connectors, it might be possible to reduce
crosstalk for the 1260-43HS by routing all larger signals to
one of the three physically separate matrices and small signals
to one of the other two—for example, just use the upper and
lower sections (Figure 3).
For applications that
need a much higher level
of isolation, Universal
Switching’s Series 70000
and RS70000 coaxial relay assemblies are available in configurations
from 1x2 up to 1x24.
Both series use a machined aluminum housing
to mount the BNC signal
connectors and as part of
the channel-to-channel
shielding. Greatly reducing the relay density and
providing continuously
shielded signal paths
Figure 3. VXI 1260-43HS switch matrix
yield typical isolation as
Courtesy of Astronics Test Systems
high as 160 dB at DC, 140
dB at 10 MHz, and 120 dB at 100 MHz.
In contrast to crosstalk, which is a measure of the isolation
between signal paths, passive intermodulation (PIM) distortion
is proportional to signal path nonlinearity. PIM is caused by
nonlinearities in the signal path that allow mixing products to
form when two or more carrier frequencies are present. The
cable itself, relay contacts, and connectors can all contribute
to a system’s PIM.
Dow-Key Microwave has developed a range of special
low-PIM coaxial switches that is guaranteed to exhibit <-160dBc PIM at 1,870 MHz when tested with +43-dBm carriers
at 1,930 MHz and 1,990 MHz—a typical test requirement. In
comparison, a standard switch’s PIM might be 30 dB higher.
Leakage is another switch-related issue that’s especially
important when dealing with high-impedance signal sources.
Charles Greenberg, senior product marketing manager at Astronics Test Systems, explained that the company developed a
low-level parametric test system that supports two- and fourwire measurements of devices up to 4,000 pins. “The systems
can measure low-level resistance, capacitance, inductance,
and leakage without damaging low-voltage structures on a
device,” he said. “Reed relay switches were selected for their
low leakage and capability to operate over millions of operations. Low-leakage cables to the test head were an important
part of achieving system performance.”
Cytec’s CEO Nick Turner said that the company often bases
designs on low-leakage reed relays, adding that, “Getting down
below 500 femtoamps leakage is almost an art. It requires a lot
of prep and hand assembly work. Circuit board material tends to
18 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-SpecRep-Switch MECH dB.indd 18
charge and discharge so a lot of the signal wiring is done above
the circuit board material. The boards have to be cleaned well,
baked to remove any moisture, and then handled with gloves
to avoid contamination. Relays, connectors, wire, and shielding
are all picked based on isolation specifications. And then there
still is a certain amount of settling time involved before you
can take accurate readings. The only way around settling time,”
he concluded, “is to use a driven guard circuit which greatly
speeds up the measurements but adds another layer of expense
since everything has to be wired to maintain the guard circuit.”
Figure 4 is a simplified schematic of a multipurpose module
Cytec often provides for low-level applications. It can be used
with high-isolation BNC or SHV connectors to achieve <1-pA
leakage and with triax connectors when both a driven guard and
grounded noise shield are needed. Supported configurations
include dual 1x4, 1x8, and 2x4.
Application examples
As Figure 3 shows, in spite of VXI being very much a legacy
technology, its size continues to make it an attractive format
for large switching applications. LXI has proven to be a good
alternative in some situations. Pickering’s Fuller described
an application that involved replacing a customer’s existing
VXI-based low-thermal EMF switch matrix because of slow
switching speed and obsolescence concerns.
Figure 4. Low-level multiplexer simplified schematic
Courtesy of Cytec
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www.keysight.com/ond/triggerchallenge
USA: 800 829 4444
CAN: 877 894 4414
© Keysight Technologies, Inc. 2015
* Refer to Keysight document 5992-0140EN for product specs, and 5989-7885EN for update rate measurements.
** Competitive oscilloscopes are from Tektronix publication 48W-30020-3
EE201503-AD Keysight-49486.indd 19
2/6/15 3:33 PM
19
Sponsored by
SPECIAL REPORT - SWITCHING SYSTEMS
20
.
Fuller said, “LXI was chosen as the most suitable solution
due to its large form factor. Constructing a matrix of this size
(56x33) would both be clumsy and have restricted performance if implemented using small form factor modules such
as PXI. Connecting multiple modules together would require
complex cabling, and besides the obvious cost/size penalties,
the interconnection process would lead to the generation of
unacceptable thermal EMFs—an important parameter for
this requirement. In addition, test program generation using
multiple modules would be more complex when compared to
programming a single entity.”
Electromechanical relays were used in this 2U-high, 19-inch
rack-mount solution because the customer’s application also
involved higher voltages. The design is available as a standard
product, and there also is a reed-relay version that features
faster operating speed.
Universal Switching’s Norton Alderson, vice president of
marketing at the company, described an application recently
addressed for a client that operated a survivability and vulnerability lab. “This facility contracted us to automate the
connectivity and distribution of a large number of vibration
sensors, thermocouples, accelerometers, and strain gages. The
requirement initially called for 160 of these various sensors to
be connected to a nonblocking full fan-out switching system
and specified that the system must be capable of expanding to
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at least 256 inputs. The inputs needed to be differential to help
eliminate noise and ground loops since all the sensors were
physically located in, on, and around the UUT in another room.”
Alderson continued, “The output of the unit was to initially
connect to 192 individual channels of various test equipment
such as numerous data recorders, oscilloscopes, and analyzers.
The test equipment was single-ended coaxial type and located
near the switching system. In addition to being able to connect
a given sensor to multiple destinations (analyzer, recorder,
etc.) at the same time, a few additional requirements were that
the unit must be able to verify a signal path with nonintrusive
signal injection, accept ±10V DC coupled signals, and have
>80 dB of crosstalk isolation (DC - 100 kHz), <0.1 dB of gain
accuracy, >200-kΩ input impedance (differential), SMB signal
connectors, and a 10/100 LXI Ethernet control port.”
He concluded, “We provided a solution based on our modular
System S2562E that can be configured as small as a 32x32 and
as large as a 256x256 in only 5RU of rack space. In addition
to this switch box, we also included our input buffer chassis
and our output buffer chassis for a total of 15RU.”
Also discussing a multichannel system, Cytec’s Turner described a challenging resistance-measurement job. He said, “…
the customer wanted to measure insulation resistance between
any two points on a device with 128 pins. The specification
that made it difficult was the need to measure resistance in
the range of 50 TΩ [1 TΩ = 1,000,000,000,000 Ω]. While
this wouldn’t be too bad for a small system such as an 8x2,
it becomes increasingly difficult as you make the system bigger because all of the relays are in parallel and the resistance
across open relays and to ground divides as the system scales
up. Luckily, we have switch modules that can measure leakage down into the femtoamp range so the system worked well
even as a 128x2 matrix.”
Turner concluded, “The bigger issue… is related to all the
complexities associated with these types of measurements
such as environmental conditions, charge times, and grounds.
Systems like this are extremely sensitive to anything going on
around them that can contribute negatively to the measurement.”
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Made in the U.S.A.
Rare-earth-plated reed relays have been the standard solution
to low-level switching applications for many years. However,
solid-state switching continues to make inroads. Pickering
Interfaces’ Model 40-680 PXI solid-state multiplexer features
virtually unlimited service life, a low thermal offset <2 µV, no
bounce when changing states, and typically 1-nA off-state leakage current. However, because it is a FET-based design, each
of the 160 channels is limited to 20-mA continuous current and
has an on-state resistance between 150 Ω and 350 Ω. Various
configurations are possible from a single 160-to-1 multiplexer
to a 20-bank 8-to-1 multiplexer.
References
1. Mallett, K., “The mystery of reed relays: Understanding
specifications,” Solid State Technology, October 2014.
2. Removing Thermal Offset Errors from Contact, Switch, and
Relay Resistance Measurements Tutorial, National Instruments, White Paper, October 2014.
Visit www.rsleads.com/503ee-007
20 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-SpecRep-Switch FINAL.indd 20
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/9/15 3:46 PM
.
EE201503-AD HOUSE.indd 21
2/10/15 11:15 AM
21
MEDICAL TEST
Applying Bayes’ Theorem
to clinical trials
by Tom Lecklider, Senior Technical Editor
O
22
.
ver the years, many writers have implied that
statistics can provide almost any result that is convenient at the time. Of course, honest practitioners
use statistics in an attempt to quantify the probability that a
certain hypothesis is true or false or to better understand what
the data actually means.
The field of statistics has been developed over more than
200 years by famous mathematicians such as Laplace, Gauss,
and Pascal and more recently Markov, Fisher, and Wiener.
Pastor Thomas Bayes (1702-1761) appears to have had little
influence on mathematics outside of statistics where Bayes’
Theorem has found wide application.
As described in the FDA’s 2010 Guidance… for the Use of
Bayesian Statistics in Medical Device Clinical Trials, “Bayesian statistics is an approach for learning from evidence as it
accumulates. In clinical trials, traditional (frequentist) statistical
methods may use information from previous studies only at the
design stage. Then, at the data analysis stage, the information
from these studies is considered as a complement to, but not
part of, the formal analysis. In contrast, the Bayesian approach
uses Bayes’ Theorem to formally combine prior information
with current information on a quantity of interest. The Bayesian
idea is to consider the prior information and the trial results as
part of a continual data stream, in which inferences are being
updated each time new data becomes available.”1
Bayes’ Theorem
As explained in the FDA’s Guidance document, prior information
about a topic that you wish to investigate in more detail can be
combined with new data using Bayes’ Theorem. Symbolically,
p(A|B) = p(B|A) x p(A)/p(B)
where: p(A|B) = the posterior probability of A occurring
given condition B
p(B|A) = the likelihood probability of condition B
being true when A occurs
p(A) = t h e p r i o r p r o b a b i l i t y o f o u t c o m e A
occurring regardless of condition B
p(B) = the evidence probability of condition B
being true regardless of outcome A
Reference 2 discusses the application of Bayes’ Theorem to
a horse-racing example. In the past, a horse won five out of 12
races, but it had rained heavily before three of the five wins.
One race was lost when it had rained. What is the probability
that the horse will win the next race if it rains?
We want to know p(winning | it has rained). We know the
following:
p(it has rained | winning) = 3/5 = 0.600
p(winning) = 5/12 = 0.417
p(raining before a race) = 4/12 = 0.333
22 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-MedicalTest MECH GH.indd 22
Markov graph of transition probabilities between states A, B, and C7
Courtesy of Skye Bender-deMoll
From Bayes Theorem, p(winning | it has rained) = 0.600 x
0.417/0.333 = 0.75. Taking into account the horse’s preference for a wet track significantly changes its odds of winning
compared to 0.417 when rain is not considered.2
Typically, actual situations are not this simple but instead
involve many variables and dependencies. Also, the discrete
probabilities of the horse-racing example are replaced by
probability density functions (PDFs). Common PDFs, such
as the familiar bell curve of the normal distribution, show
the likelihood that a variable will have a certain value. Often,
researchers need to know that a quantity is larger or smaller
than some limit or that it falls within a certain range, which
requires integrating part of the area under the PDF curve.
Dr. John Kruschke, Department of Psychological and Brain
Sciences, Indiana University, described a learning experiment
in which a person is shown single words and combinations of
two words on a computer screen. The object is to learn which
keys to press in response to seeing a word or combination of
words. The lengths of all the response times (RT) between a
new word or combination appearing and the correct key being
pressed comprise the test data.
All together, there were seven unique words or combinations,
called cues, randomly presented to learners often enough that
each cue repeated many times. There were 64 learners involved
in the study. The objectives were to “…estimate the overall
baseline RT, the deflection away from the baseline due to each
test item, and the deflection away from the baseline due to each
subject.”3
This example is not nearly as large or complex as many
medical trials but still was addressed through the Bayesian
inference using the Gibbs sampling (BUGS) computer program
initially developed by the Medical Research Council Biostatistics Unit in Cambridge, U.K. A great deal of information is
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2/9/15 9:55 AM
contained in the posterior distribution, and Kruschke made it
clear that “…the posterior is a joint probability distribution in
a high-dimensional parameter space…. [Example PDFs are]…
only the marginal distribution[s] of individual parameters, like
pressing a flower between the pages of a heavy book. In other
words, the posterior specifies the credible combinations of all
the parameter values.”3
A joint probability distribution is the probability distribution
of a multidimensional vector—each dimension representing a
separate variable within a study. In general, the overall PDF
cannot be expressed in a closed form and must be integrated
using numerical methods.
Analysis
As discussed in Reference 4,“A major limitation towards more
widespread implementation of Bayesian approaches is that obtaining the posterior distribution often requires the integration
of high-dimensional functions. This can be computationally
very difficult, but several approaches short of direct integration
have been proposed….”
For many studies, each data point is independent. Here, a
data point is the value of a multidimensional vector—the set of
answers that a certain respondent gave to a questionnaire. The
set of responses given by all the respondents often is considered
to be a Markov process, or more particularly a Markov chain
because there is a finite number of discrete states that the vector
assumes. In a Markov chain, the next value only depends on
the current state—neither the preceding states nor their order
is important. The successive states observed when repeatedly
flipping a coin comprise a Markov chain.
Another concept that is key to addressing practical applications of Bayes’ Theorem is Monte Carlo integration. The
Monte Carlo approach can be thought of as a massively parallel
set of random trials that is evaluated to estimate a solution.
Stanislaw Ulam, who developed the technique when working
at Los Alamos in 1946, wrote, “The question was what are
the chances that a Canfield solitaire laid out with 52 cards will
come out successfully? After spending a lot of time trying to
estimate them by pure combinatorial calculations, I wondered
whether a more practical method than ‘abstract thinking’ might
not be to lay it out say one hundred times and simply observe
and count the number of successful plays.”5
Monte Carlo integration approximates an integral
by first decomposing the integrand h(x) into the product
of a separate function f(x) and a probability density p(x)
. If this can be done, then the
second integral is equal to the expected value Ep(x)[f(x)] of
f(x) over the interval [a,b]. For large n, this is approximated
by
where each xi is randomly drawn from the p(x) PDF.
Rather than flipping a single coin and recording successive
outcomes, the Monte Carlo approach to determining that a
coin has equal probability of coming up heads or tails is to
simultaneously flip thousands of identical coins and then
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EE201503-MedicalTest MECH GH.indd 23
compare the number of resulting heads and tails. A Monte
Carlo simulation, on the other hand, would accumulate a
very large number of random-value samples from the interval
[0,1], assigning heads to values >0.5 and tails to those <0.5.
The quantities of each would then be compared to determine
bias.
Reference 6 combines the two ideas: “Markov chain Monte
Carlo (MCMC) is a collection of sampling methods that is
based on following random walks on Markov chains.” Markov
chains for which there is a finite probability of transitioning
from any state to any other are termed ergodic. The PDF
describing the frequency with which the various states of
an ergodic chain occur approaches a stationary distribution
after a sufficiently large number of transitions—the so-called
burn-in time. The transitions from one state to the next form
a multidimensional path—a random walk.
Gibbs sampling performs a special kind of random walk
in which, “…at each iteration, the value along a randomly
selected dimension is updated according to the conditional
distribution.” Bayes’ posterior joint probability distribution
is defined as the product of conditional distributions, and
Gibbs sampling is said to work well in this case.6
Review
The initial design of a medical survey largely influences the
usefulness of the results. Bayes’ Theorem allows results from
a previous study to be combined with the current study, and
it also provides the opportunity to monitor data as the study
progresses. However, correctly analyzing the complex joint
probability distributions characteristic of this approach requires
a statistician trained in the use of Bayes’ Theorem.
As stated in the FDA’s Guidance document, “Different
choices of prior information or different choices of model can
produce different decisions. As a result, in the regulatory setting,
the design of a Bayesian clinical trial involves prespecification
of and agreement on both the prior information and the model.
Since reaching this agreement is often an iterative process, we
recommend you meet with the FDA early to obtain agreement
upon the basic aspects of the Bayesian trial design.
“A change in the prior information or the model at a later
stage of the trial may imperil the scientific validity of the trial
results. For this reason, formal agreement meetings may be
appropriate when using a Bayesian approach.”1
References
1. Guidance for Industry and FDA Staff: Guidance for the
Use of Bayesian Statistics in Medical Device Clinical Trials,
FDA, Feb. 5, 2010.
2. Boone, K., “Bayesian Statistics for Dummies,” 2010.
3. Kruschke, J. K., “Bayesian data analysis,” WIREs Cognitive Science, 2010.
4. Walsh, B., “Markov Chain Monte Carlo and Gibbs Sampling,” Lecture notes for EEB 581, April 2004.
5. Eckhardt, R., “Stan Ulam, John Von Neumann, and the
Monte Carlo Method,” Los Alamos Science Special Issue, 1987.
6. Lebanon, G., “Metropolis-Hastings and Gibbs Sampling,”
November 2006.
7. Skye Bender-deMoll, “Information, Uncertainty, and
Meaning,” May 16, 2001.
March 2015 • EE • 23
2/9/15 9:51 AM
.
23
TEST INTERCONNECT
Cables, connectors augment
test applications
by Rick Nelson, Executive Editor
I
24
.
nterconnect technology has a
key role to play in test-and-measurement applications, whether
you need to make a few connections
on a benchtop or many connections in an automated test system.
Specifications you’ll need to keep in
mind when choosing interconnect
components might include electrical parameters like insertion loss,
passive-intermodulation distortion,
and phase and amplitude stability
as well as the capability to accommodate high-speed digital signals
compliant with standards such as
USB 3.0, Serial ATA, HDMI, DVI
and DVI-1, RJ45 Gigabit Ethernet,
Low-PIM cable assemblies
Courtesy of Pasternack
QSFP, Twinax, and Infiniband.
As for mechanical characteristics, you’ll need to consider factors like di- environments. They come with a six-month
ameter, flexibility, connector type, and the product guarantee.
number of connect/disconnect cycles that
The cables provide 24-dB typical return
can occur without degrading performance. loss and insertion loss as low as 0.27 dB,
making them suitable for applications
RF/microwave connectors
including production test stations, R&D
Gore PHASEFLEX microwave test assem- labs, environmental and thermal test
blies focus on applications up to 110 GHz chambers, RF field testing, and cellular
requiring precise, repeatable measurements infrastructure site testing.
in a flexible cable. At 18 GHz and with the
Times Microwave now offers a swept
cable wrapped around a 75-mm-radius right angle for standard SilverLine benchmandrel, typical phase stability ranges from use test cables in unarmored configura±3 degrees to ±8 degrees, depending on tions. These part numbers begin with SLU,
cable type, and typical amplitude stability SLULL, SLUSF, SLUTT, and SLU75.
is ±0.05 dB.
Swept right angles are a good alternative
The cables can withstand continuous when customers require uncompromised
flexing, wide temperature ranges, and RF performance, are working at frequenfrequent connect/disconnect cycles to an cies above 18 GHz, and are using a less
instrument or device under test. They find common interface series but must still
use in benchtop testing, RF production test, have a 90-degree configuration. The new
and EMC test.
feature is a retrofit to existing hardware,
Mini-Circuits also offers flexible cables allowing virtually every connector in the
for RF/microwave applications. The com- standard product line to become available
pany’s new CBL-NM-75+ series 75-Ω in a right-angle configuration. A new reviprecision test cables feature N-male to sion of the standard SilverLine datasheet
N-male connectors and rugged yet flex- will be the fi rst to indicate swept right
ible cable construction for easy bending angle availability. Prices will be slightly
and connections in tight spaces. Like all higher than straight connectors but less
of the company’s test cables, these new than cube right angles.
75-Ω models are performance-qualified
MegaPhase also offers test cables,
to 20,000 flex cycles to withstand heavy including the BT Series for benchtop testuse and frequent bending common in test ing of CATV, video, IPTV, and broadcast
24 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-TestInterconnect MECH dB.indd 24
products. A selection of 75-Ω connectors complements the cables, which
operate to a maximum frequency of
8 GHz, are designed to survive in
rugged test environments, and provide
stable performance under flexure,
enabling repeatable measurements
between calibrations. The cables are
available in phase-matched sets and
can be color-coded. Specs include a
66% nominal propagation velocity,
1.21-ns/ft time delay, and 15.8-pF/
ft nominal capacitance. Shielding
effectiveness is -110 dB minimum
(cable only), and dielectric withstand
voltage is 3 kV at 60 Hz. The company
recently released an improved BT
Series cable with an insertion loss of
0.316 dB/ft at 8 GHz, 18% lower than
standard versions.
For applications sensitive to passive
intermodulation distortion, Pasternack
Enterprises recently introduced a series
of low PIM cable jumpers with formable
coax. These new assemblies are designed
for low passive-intermodulation (PIM) applications including use in black boxes, test
equipment racks and cabinets, distributed
antenna systems, and lab testing.
Pasternack’s low PIM cables are made
using a tin-filled braid that produces a
hand-formable, solid outer conductor wall.
The cables are available with two different coax diameters sizes including 0.163
inch and 0.276 inch. Connector options
include 7/16 DIN, 4.1/9.5 mini-DIN, Type
N, and SMA.
The connectors’ TriMetal plating, soldered connection point, and precise coaxial cable construction produce reliable
low PIM performance for the life of the
assembly. PIM performance is -160 dBc,
and VSWR is 1.25:1. Between-series configurations can be ordered with SMA, type
N, and 7/16 DIN connector combinations
while in-series cables using 4.1/9.5 Mini
DIN connectors also are available. The
low PIM jumpers operate from DC up to
6 GHz. The assemblies are available for
same-day shipment in 100-cm and 200-cm
lengths; custom lengths are available with
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/9/15 9:58 AM
longer lead times. Each assembly is 100%
RF and PIM tested prior to shipment.
HUBER+SUHNER makes cables and
assemblies for communications, transportation, medical, and industrial applications,
including analog and digital RF test. Examples of the company’s products include
EACON assemblies, which are light, waterproof (IP68), and flexible cables that can be
assembled in the field and serve industrial
and defense applications to 18 GHz.
Mass interconnect
For making multiple contacts, VPC’s VTAC
High Speed Data (HSD) connectors allow
engineers in multiple industries to test devices that communicate at greater speeds
and require higher data rates. The VTAC
HSD insert features a data transfer rate of
12.5+ Gb/s per differential pair. Each VTAC
HSD gold-plated, self-aligning contact has
been tested and verified to 10,000 cycles
without signal degradation. VTAC contacts
work in both the iSeries and 90 Series connector families.
The connectors are scalable and can
be customized to accommodate between
eight and 272 individual contacts. They
are reconfigurable, with VTAC inserts
arranged in a desired location, and they
can be rearranged to fit requirement needs.
They are compatible with multiple HSD
standards including USB 3.0, Serial ATA,
HDMI, DVI and DVI-1, RJ45 Gigabit
Ethernet, QSFP, Twinax, and Infiniband.
MAC Panel recently introduced the
XBEAM performance optical connectors, which reliably join both single-mode
and multimode optical fiber cables in the
vendor’s SCOUT, TITAN, and Series 64
mass-interconnect systems. Since there is
no physical fiber-to-fiber contact, there is
no wear, cracking, or degrading of contact
performance. The vendor’s expanded
beam connection technology eliminates
the need for cleaning. Typical insertion
loss is 1.2-dB single-mode and 0.7-dB
multimode. Typical power-handling
capability is 500 mW.
Connector and cable tools
If you are assembling cables and connectors yourself, you’ll speed up the job
and ensure proper performance of your
assemblies with the appropriate tools.
HUBER+SUHNER, for example, offers
an assembly toolkit to easily connect the
company’s BNC, N, QMA, and TNC connectors to its EACON cables.
And Times Microwave recently introduced its CCT-02 cable cutting tool, which
replaces the older CCT-01 model. It is
suitable for cutting any of the company’s
LMR cables in preparation for connector
termination. The CCT-02 tool provides a
clean, sharp cut without leaving any metal
or plastic residue across the face of the
dielectric, and it allows the cable to retain
its shape without distorting its geometry,
thereby preventing any added return loss,
which may be of particular concern at
higher frequencies.
New features of the CCT-02 tool include a unique safety locking mechanism
to keep the tool positively closed until
needed or when stored in a pouch and
a streamlined design that allows it to fit
more easily into a Times or other type
of tool pouch. The CCT-02 cable cutting
tool has a list price of $48.00 each, the
same as the tool it replaces.
Visit www.rsleads.com/503ee-010
www.evaluationengineering.com
EE201503-TestInterconnect FINAL.indd 25
March 2015 • EE • 25
2/9/15 3:48 PM
.
25
RF/MICROWAVE TEST
Software augments instruments
for 5G research
by Rick Nelson, Executive Editor
A
26
.
s standards develop and evolve,
engineers need flexibility to
keep pace as their designs progress and test-equipment requirements
change. Software has a key role to play
as the standards-development effort
leads from models to physical systems.
The rollout of 5G technology, discussed
in a February article,1 provides a good
example of the complementary role for
test hardware and design and test software. Recently introduced applicable
software products include the SystemVue
5G Baseband Exploration Library from
Keysight Technologies and the NI LabVIEW Communications System Design
Suite from National Instruments.
Sangkyo Shin, a 5G library product
planner and application developer at
Keysight, said the 5G Exploration Library
combines into the SystemVue platform
reference models for 5G waveform development. It includes source code written
in C++ for 5G physical-layer research.
Customers—including communications
system architects, algorithm developers,
and standards researchers—can modify
the source code and maintain full control
of their IP without exposing their own
source code.
The library offers several key features:2
• advanced digital signal processing blocks
for 5G candidate waveform technologies;
• end-to-end physical-layer transmit and
receive simulation models;
• signaling schemes for multiple input
and output (MIMO) channels including
spatial multiplexing, space-time coding,
and multiple detection methods;
• adaptive digital beamforming modeling
examples;
• synchronization, channel estimation,
and MIMO receiver functions;
• reference waveform generation to verify
RF circuit design;
• system-level performance evaluation
and BER/FER testing; and
• MIMO modeling blocks.
Shin, who specializes in wireless communications, digital signal processing,
physical-layer modeling, and simulation, said, “Customers need to explore
different waveforms and compare new
proposed technologies, and those are
time-consuming tasks.” The reference
library saves time and reduces risk. The
library’s usefulness extends from research
through design simulation and prototype
system validation using test-and-measurement instrumentation for signal generation and analysis.
The 5G library connects to Keysight’s
4G library so existing customers can
compare 4G and 5G
technologies and investigate technology
convergence, he said.
Roger Nichols,
Keysight 5G program
manager, added that
the licensing scheme
the company devel-
NI LabVIEW Communications System Design Suite
Courtesy of National Instruments
26 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-RF-Micro MECH dB.indd 26
oped for the 5G Exploration Library
provides customers with source code to
offer them two significant dimensions
of flexibility. “First, we will continue
to update and add to this to allow for an
expanding array of exploration topics,” he
said. “Second, researchers appreciate the
ability to change their environments—this
is critical to expand the horizons of what
they do and to make focused changes in
the capability of the software as they try
out new ideas.”
In addition to commenting on the 5G
Exploration Library, Nichols also cited
Keysight’s vector signal analysis software, to which the company continues
to add new features. “Some recent examples include the addition of broadband
group-delay measurements and impulseresponse measurements for assessment of
broadband channels (channel sounding).”
The company also offers a comprehensive
library of signal-generation software,
which will create standards-compliant
signals when coupled with Keysight’s RF,
microwave, and millimeter-wave signal
sources. “Since there is no 5G standard,
we also have added the capability for
flexible OFDM generation,” he said.
Flexibility in instrumentation is critical,
too, and Nichols cited the smart-mixing
capability of its signal analyzers and
multiplier modules for signal sources.
“These allow frequency extensions to
existing tools for measurements where
customers need them,” he said. “We
can extend our vector signal analysis
capability as far as 1.1 THz.” In addition,
he said, Keysight’s modular high-speed
digitizers/digital-downconverters can
be combined to provide up to 40 phasecoherent channels at a 1.6-GHz sample
rate with 12-bit resolution. He concluded,
“Our 63-GHz digital oscilloscopes can
provide four phase-coherent channels for
measurements and analysis of high-speed
digital as well as radio frequencies. We
have a broad range of test capability that
is well-suited for 5G research and for
development when that stage comes.”
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/9/15 9:31 AM
Flexible hardware and software
National Instruments also is addressing
5G rollout with a flexible hardware and
software approach. Charles Schroeder,
director of product marketing for RF
and wireless communications at NI,
said, “At the core of NI’s 5G solutions
is the LabVIEW reconfigurable I/O
(RIO) architecture, which combines
LabVIEW software with reconfigurable
off-the-shelf hardware.” Systems are
available in two form factors and at
several price points, with the hardware
sharing a consistent architecture that
includes a floating-point processor, an
open industry-standard FPGA, and RF
signal-analysis and generation capability.
“The LabVIEW software and IP ports
connect seamlessly across the different
hardware targets,” he added.
“As 5G solutions, let alone standards,
are still in exploration and research,” he
said, “no one can describe with certainty
how test equipment needs will evolve for
5G. This uncertainty reinforces the need
for a flexible test and measurement instrumentation platform such as PXI that
allows for changing I/O requirements,
higher bandwidths, and new waveform
implementations. In contrast, organizations invested in legacy, vendor-defined
box instruments incur significant capital
costs as they replace fleets of obsoleted
instruments with the arrival of each new
generation of wireless communication.”
Schroeder added that combining a
design environment like LabVIEW and
flexible hardware like the NI-USRP
(Universal Software Radio Peripheral)
or PXI instrumentation can support the
prototyping of the next-generation 5G
systems. Success at the prototyping
stage provides a good indication that
these same platforms will be ready to
test 5G solutions when they arrive. He
added, “The open software architectures
of NI’s RF modules, for instance, allow
the instruments to rapidly evolve with the
emergence of new RF waveforms such as
GFDM [generalized frequency division
multiplexing] and FBMC [fi lter bank
multicarrier].” Further, he explained,
the tight synchronization inherent in the
PXI backplane makes PXI suitable for
testing evolving MIMO standards, and
the modularity of PXI allows engineers
to incrementally add new hardware
capabilities as needs evolve.
www.evaluationengineering.com
EE201503-RF-Micro MECH dB.indd 27
On the software side, NI offers the
LabVIEW Communications System
Design Suite. “From a test perspective,
most traditional test instruments are
designed as single-function measurement devices,” Schroeder said. A unique
feature of the NI platform, he added, is
the open, software-designed nature of
the products. “NI customers can see and
modify any element of the software and
firmware stacks of our RF instruments.
Taking advantage of the openness, customers use the instruments to both measure RF characteristics and prototype
new communications algorithms. This
unprecedented level of openness makes
them equally good for RF test and RF
algorithm design.”
Facilitating collaboration
“NI is working with leading 5G wireless
researchers to provide the fastest path from
design to prototype,” Schroeder said. “NI’s
approach combines LabVIEW system
design software with the software-defined
radio platform to help researchers reduce
the time from theory to results by testing
their designs in a real-world environment.”
He added, “NI customers have identified
four key research areas that will have the
largest impact on progressing 5G: massive
MIMO, new waveforms, dense networks,
and millimeter-wave communications.”
He cited one customer’s collaborative initiative. By using NI’s integrated hardware
and software baseband platform, he said,
Nokia plans to expedite its research and
rapidly demonstrate the viability of highfrequency millimeter wave technology as
an option for 5G radio access.
Schroeder quoted Lauri Oksanen, vice
president of research and technology at
Nokia, as saying, “Our experimental
5G proof-of-concept system will be
implemented using NI’s LabVIEW and
PXI baseband modules, which is the
state-of-the-art experimental system for
rapid prototyping of 5G air interface
available today.”
Other test and measurement companies,
too, recognize the role of software and the
importance of collaboration. According
to Bob Kersey, marketing director for
wireless test solutions at Anritsu, “As the
industry turns its focus to real networks and
devices, the major companies work closely
with leading test equipment manufacturers,
such as Anritsu, to accelerate their time to
market.” He noted that developing the test
capability ahead of early devices is critical
for successful technology rollouts, and
such capabilities played a significant role
in the early start-up of 3G and 4G services.
He added that partnerships may be the only
way to resolve the typical paradoxes that
result when new technologies push the
boundaries of what is possible with current
hardware and software.
“Test equipment continues to play a
central role as 5G grows toward mass
deployment,” Kersey added. “Device
problems that escape into the hands of
potentially millions of users are difficult
and expensive to rectify and in some cases
can cause real business damage. Each new
technology pushes the scope of testing upwards—not only because of the specific
challenges that technology introduces,
but also because the number of potential
interworking scenarios doubles.”
Andreas Roessler, technology manager at Rohde & Schwarz, said Rohde
& Schwarz is involved in several 5G
activities and projects worldwide. “The
Future Forum in China is one example,”
he said, adding that another is “…our
participation in the 5G Innovation Centre
driven by University of Surrey in the
United Kingdom. Rohde & Schwarz also
is a sponsor of the 5G Lab spearheaded
by the Technical University of Dresden
and the well-known industry veteran
Prof. Gerhard Fettweis.” In addition, he
said, “Rohde & Schwarz contributes to
important research projects under the
European Union initiative called Horizon
2020. We further support key customers
with our test and measurement solutions
and testing expertise.”
The work will continue. Nichols at
Keysight said that the fundamental measurement capabilities that customers put
to use today will be needed for research
and further development when systems
start to be designed to early standards.
“What really makes this feasible is the
flexibility we have in our software,”
he concluded.
References
1. Nelson, R., “Test to play key role in
5G rollout,” EE-Evaluation Engineering, February 2015, p. 12.
2. W1906BEL 5G Baseband Exploration Library, Keysight Technologies,
Data Sheet, Oct. 10, 2014.
March 2015 • EE • 27
2/9/15 9:31 AM
.
27
EE PRODUCT PICKS
Scope Enhancements
Enhancements to the R&S oscilloscope portfolio
include new models, applications, and accessories.
Among the enhancements is a high-definition mode
that increases the vertical resolution of the R&S RTO
and R&S RTE digital oscilloscopes to up to 16 bits via
low-pass filtering—a 256-fold improvement over the 8-bit
resolution available in the standard mode.
The company also has added a 200-MHz bandwidth
model to its R&S RTM bench oscilloscope family. The
history and segmented memory option, which expands
the maximum memory depth to 460-Msample per
channel, is available for all bandwidth models. A new
digital voltmeter option enables the R&S RTM to measure values such as AC, DC, peak, and crest factor with
three-digit accuracy regardless of the oscilloscope’s
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Probe-Station Control Software
28
.
Velox 2.0, the latest
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legacy probe-station
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backwards-compatible
with all of the current probe systems. Velox 2.0 simplifies setup and execution of automated measurements
using WaferSync, an exclusive two-way communication
link between Velox and Keysight Technologies’ WaferPro
Express automated on-wafer measurement software. Velox 2.0 can create an environment in which the prober
is the common platform for the test executive, turning
a probe system into the host for the test and measurement instrumentation.
The VeloxPro test automation software option sequences wafer handling, alignment, temperature control, Z-profiling, and stepping as a single automated test
flow. Cascade Microtech,
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USB AWG Board
USB-AO-ARB1 is a new 8-MHz, 16-bit
USB arbitrary waveform output board
featuring flexible ranges and configurable digital I/O lines. BNC connectors
are used for the analog waveform
output and the gate control input. The
USB-AO-ARB1 measures 3.550 x 3.775
inches and ships inside a steel powdercoated enclosure with an anti-skid
bottom.
The OEM USB/104 option size and predrilled mounting holes match the PC/104 form factor (without the
bus connections). This ensures easy installation using
standard standoffs inside most enclosures or systems.
The board also utilizes a high-speed custom function
driver optimized for a maximum data throughput and
28 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-ProductPicks MECH.indd 28
includes a free Windows and Linux (including Mac OS
X)-compatible software package with sample programs
and source code in Visual Basic, Delphi, and Visual C++
for Windows. ACCES I/O, www.rsleads.com/503ee-199
Ethernet DAQ
The new E-1608 Ethernet-based
multifunction data-acquisition
device provides both analog and
digital I/O. It features 250-kS/s
sampling and 16-bit resolution
with eight analog inputs, eight
digital I/O channels, one counter
input, and two analog outputs.
The device is supported in Windows and Android operating systems and will add Linux support in the near
future. An OEM board-only version also is available.
Microsoft Windows software options for the E-1608
include DAQami and TracerDAQ to display and log
data along with comprehensive support for C, C++, C#,
Visual Basic, and Visual Basic .NET. Drivers for DASYLab
and NI LabVIEW also are provided. Android support for
the E-1608 allows users to develop DAQ applications for
tablets and smart phones. Free sample applications are
available for download on Google Play. $499. Measurement Computing, www.rsleads.com/503ee-200
True-DC RF Switch
The UltraCMOS PE42020 is a single-pole double-throw
(SPDT) true DC RF configurable 50-Ω absorptive or open
reflective switch. It handles 30 dBm at 0 Hz and 36 dBm
at 8 GHz. It also has linearity of 62 dBm IIP3, total harmonic distortion of -84 dBc, and a 0.1-dB power compression point of 38 dBm at 8 GHz. The PE42020 features
a 10-μs switching time, a settling time of 35 μs, and an
ESD rating of 1,000 V HBM on all pins. In addition, it can
handle DC or AC peak voltages in the range of +10 V to
-10 V on the RF ports and DC current through RF active
ports of up to 80 mA. Offered in a RoHS-compliant, 20lead 4 mm x 4 mm QFN, the PE42020 is $14 each for 1kquantity orders and $11.35 each for 5k-quantity orders.
Peregrine Semiconductor,
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MOSFET Design Kit
A new silicon carbide (SiC)
MOSFET design kit facilitates
evaluation of the company’s
MOSFET and Schottky diode
performance in a configurable half-bridge circuit. The
kit provides easy access to
critical test points, enabling
simple and accurate measurements including VGS, VDS, and IDS, and is easily
configured to several different buck or boost power
conversion topologies.
The kit features two 80-mΩ, 1,200-V MOSFETs; two
1,200-V, 20-A Schottky diodes in standard TO-247 packages; a half-bridge-configured design board equipped
with isolated gate drives; power supplies; and all of the
other components necessary to assemble the power
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/9/15 9:27 AM
stage. Also included are a gate driver schematic and
layout reference for a TO-247-packaged MOSFET and a
comprehensive user manual and sourcing sheet with
basic block diagrams and specifications. Cree,
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Emergency and Public Warning Test
The MD8475A signaling tester
with SmartStudio Manager
Windows-based control software
now provides multi-operator
support for Commercial Mobile
Alert System (CMAS) Carrier Acceptance Test (CAT) packages.
Separate packages offer 2G, 3G,
and LTE radio technology support. By simulating a realworld network environment, the MD8475A establishes a
simple, cost-efficient, and accurate process for validating UE performance.
The MD8475A is a complete network-in-a-box, simulating the radio access as well as the core network and
server functions, and supports the full range of communications standards. Running the MX847503A
SmartStudio Manager software on a PC with Windows
allows simultaneous execution of multiple test cases
and at-a-glance display of test results. The MD8475A
and SmartStudio Manager combine to provide engineers involved with each carrier’s ecosystem a costeffective platform for CMAS and other application tests.
LTE, LTE-Advanced, W-CDMA/HSPA/HSPA Evolution/DCHSDPA, GSM/EGPRS, CDMA2000 1X/1xEV-DO Rev. A, and
TD-SCDMA/TD-HSPA are supported by the MD8475A.
Anritsu, www.rsleads.com/503ee-203
Signal Conditioner
The new VSC7112
8.5-Gb/s VSC7112 quadchannel signal conditioner
is targeted at signal-integrity challenges related
to blade servers, enterprise storage, and cloud
computing. The VSC7112
repeater is claimed to
deliver increased layout
flexibility and overall lower
systems costs in applications where short PCIe links are not possible.
Based on a production-proven silicon platform with
a failure-in-time rate well below 10 ppm, the VSC7112
delivers input equalization and output pre-emphasis enabling 30-dB loss compensation over a 50-inch channel
with multiple connectors. This ensures sufficient system
margin over and reliable connectivity between PCIe
hosts and peripherals. Independent testing has confirmed the applicability of the VSC7112 in PCIe Gen 3.0
repeater applications. Vitesse Semiconductor,
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IP, TDM, and PSTN Fax Testing
Fax Testing Solutions over IP, TDM, and PSTN networks
accommodate technology communication over a wide
www.evaluationengineering.com
EE201503-ProductPicks FINAL.indd 29
variety of networks. Support for simulation of Fax over
IP in the pass-through mode (using G.711 PCMU and
PCMA) is based on the vendor’s MAPS standard framework for emulating signaling and traffic associated with
IP, TDM, and wireless protocols.
The recently introduced bulk (100s) call Fax Emulator
software is capable of transmitting and receiving faxes
over many T1 E1 timeslots or through two-wire FXO and
FXS lines. The FaxScan application processes two-wire
and four-wire voice-band capture for T.30 frames and
PCAP captures for T.38 packets. Users can extract a fax
TIF image and decode general call-flow indicators for
detail analysis. PacketScan software supports capturing
and decoding of fax (T.38 data) calls over VoIP.
GLInsight also helps in decoding and analysis of prerecorded fax transmissions. GL Communications,
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BERT with ISI Capability
The J-BERT M8020A high-performance BERT now has an adjustable and integrated inter-symbol
interference (ISI) capability. All high-speed digital
receivers are specified
to tolerate a certain
amount of total jitter,
which typically includes
some ISI caused by
channel loss. During receiver characterization and compliance test, engineers need to emulate this loss. Each
pattern-generator channel of the J-BERT M8020A allows
engineers to emulate a certain channel loss.
The J-BERT M8020A accelerates insight into digital
designs. It offers fast and accurate receiver characterization for single- and multilane devices operating at
data rates up to 16-Gb/s and 32-Gb/s. The built-in ISI
functionality is programmable for each pattern-generator channel, simplifying receiver test automation by
eliminating cabling and switching of external traces for
data rates up to 16-Gb/s. Keysight Technologies,
www.rsleads.com/503ee-206
Medical Imaging
The Embedded Radeon HD 7850 GPU with OpenCL
enables cutting-edge application performance for the
Analogic bk3000 ultrasound system. Analogic accessed
the GPU via OpenCL to achieve a 3x improvement in
the amount of information in each ultrasound image
and reduce time from capture to presentation. Going to
a software-based solution using OpenCL helps to lower
the development cost and provides improved long-term
value because the software can be used across product lines and through generation shifts.
The Embedded Radeon HD 7850 is based on the
company’s Graphics Core Next architecture to advance
the visual growth and parallel processing capabilities
of embedded applications. In addition to ultrasound,
other uses include complex parallel applications such
as terrain and weather mapping, facial and gesture
recognition, and biometric and DNA analysis. AMD,
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March 2015 • EE • 29
2/9/15 7:52 AM
.
29
s
ening
p
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Indus
Rick
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NelseoEditor
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Execu
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FL
EE-Ev Sarasota,
30
.
Auto show spans fuel cells
to infotainment
The Automotive Testing Expo held in Novi, MI, last fall
provided an opportunity to investigate the design and test
of an array of components and assemblies, including fuel
tanks, batteries, fuel injectors, electric motors, and CAN FD
buses.1 The New England International Auto Show, held Jan.
15-19 in Boston, offered an opportunity to see how all the
parts come together.
Although test drives were not available, the show provided
an opportunity for Toyota to bring its hydrogen-fuel-cell
powered Mirai to New England. It looks like California will
remain the key proving ground for novel automotive technologies in the United States, as Toyota will begin selling
the Mirai there in the fall. Nevertheless, there is hope that
those of us in the rest of the country will eventually get to
buy one, should we choose to do so. A Toyota spokesperson
said you can expect to see the Mirai in dealerships in other
regions in 2016, when the hydrogen infrastructure expands
from 20 stations to 48 nationwide (still a tiny amount for a
vehicle that gets about 300 miles on one tank). She added
that the company has been working on fuel-cell technology
since 1992 and that the fuel cells have proved to be reliable
in all combinations of extreme temperatures and altitudes.
Meanwhile at the show, Charles A. Myers, president of
the Massachusetts Hydrogen Coalition, seemed more upbeat
about hydrogen infrastructure in the state than the Toyota
spokesperson. He told Megan Turchi of Boston.com2 that
people could expect to see fuel-cell cars on Massachusetts
roads by yearend and that there already is a hydrogen station
in Billerica, MA. (That’s not too convenient for me, but of
course everything in Massachusetts is within the car’s 300mile range, so that at least offers a workaround.)
The Mirai and forthcoming fuel-cell cars from Honda and
Hyundai certainly aren’t for everyone. Turchi2 quotes Don
Delias, a Toyota expert on the Mirai, as saying the cars are
for “trailblazers” and “people who want to lead change. It
is more about the way people think and if they want to be a
part of something new.” He added that the cars are already
on the road in Japan and that Toyota is looking to increase
production.
Mirai also put in an appearance at the DC Auto Show in
January, where Nihar Patel, Toyota’s vice president of North
American business strategy, said, as reported in a press release, “Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles launched between 2015
and 2020 will require a concerted effort and collaboration
between automakers, government regulators, academia and
energy providers.” He called on Congress to reinstate the tax
30 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-IndustryHappenings MECH dB.indd 30
incentives for hydrogen companies that build refueling stations. Patel also noted that with the expiration of the federal
fuel cell credit last year purchasers of zero emission plug-in
electric vehicles receive a $7,500 tax credit, but buyers of
zero-emission fuel-cell electric vehicles receive no credit.
“Consumers and the investment community need a clear signal that government is not choosing winners or losers in the
zero emission vehicle race. These vehicles should be treated
equally to allow the market to decide,” he said.
Toyota had previously announced—at the Consumer
Electronics Show in Las Vegas in January—that it will make
about 5,680 hydrogen-fuel-cell patents available royalty-free,
including ones developed for the Mirai. At the DC Auto
show, Patel cited that decision to release global patents to
competitors as part of Toyota’s efforts to help move from a
hydrocarbon to a hydrogen-based society.
Meanwhile those of us looking for a low- or zero-emission
vehicle on the Boston show floor will have to settle for something like a BMW i3, Chevy Volt, Ford Fusion, MercedesBenz B-Class, or Volkswagen e-Golf.
Also at the show, Ford was touting improvements to
traditional internal combustion engines to boost efficiency.
The company cited its EcoBoost engine technology, which
a spokesperson described as employing direct injection with
turbocharging. The company will soon debut an F-150 pickup
with a 2.7-l EcoBoost engine with a compacted graphite iron
block. In addition to EcoBoost, the new F-150 will feature
a 360-degree camera-and-light system that would let you,
from the driver’s seat, see the shoes of someone standing next
to your vehicle. You might not want to examine shoes, the
spokesperson said, but the feature could be useful at a worksite
or in your driveway where you want to avoid toys and pets.
Another company emphasizing improvements in ICE fuel
efficiency was Mazda, which highlighted its SKYACTIV
technology.
For the most part, manufacturers seemed to count on their
vehicles’ style to attract attention on the show floor. There
were few banners touting horsepower or infotainment features.
Exceptions included Nissan; the company highlighted its NissanConnect technology, which supports voice commands or
touchscreen inputs to handle navigation, entertainment, and
communications tasks—you can update your Facebook page
from your vehicle.
Nissan also highlighted its Safety Shield technology and a
Rogue with object-avoidance technology. And Buick exhibited a vehicle with side radar sensors and forward and rear
www.evaluationengineering.com
2/9/15 4:02 PM
L I T E R AT U R E M A R K E T P L A C E
cameras for collision avoidance. Buick also highlighted its
IntelliLink infotainment system, which enables voice input
for playing music or making hands-free calls.
In addition, Subaru featured its EyeSight crash-prevention
technology, which the company describes as an extra eye on
the road and, if necessary, foot on the brake. Specific features
include adaptive cruise control, lane-departure warning, and
precollision braking and throttle management.
And finally, Volkswagen highlighted its Car-Net, a suite
of security features, maintenance assistance capabilities,
and navigation tools. A feature called Family Guardian lets
you know when your family members have exceeded speed
limits or driven beyond permissible boundaries. It also can
help locate your vehicle should it become stolen or should
you forget where you’ve parked it.
The event was held in the Boston Exhibition and Convention Center in the transportation-challenged Seaport District.
Ironically, show organizers advised attendees to take public
transportation to get there.
References
1. Nelson, R., “Hardware, software support automotive test,”
EE-Evaluation Engineering Online, Jan. 13, 2015.
2. Turchi, M., “Hydrogen-Powered Cars Will Be in Mass. in
the Not So Distant Future,” Boston.com, Jan. 15, 2015.
Web
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INDEX OF ADVERTISERS
Advertiser
REVERSE RECOVERY
TIME TESTERS
Page
AR RF/Microwave Instrumentation ....... www.arworld.us/mvg...........................................9
Avtech Electrosystems Ltd ................... www.avtechpulse.com .......................................31
CertifiGroup........................................... www.CertifiGroup.com .......................................31
Cytec Corp ............................................ www.cytec-ate.com ...........................................17
DCC Corporation ................................... www.dccCorporation.com..................................31
Educated Design & Development. Inc. .. www.ProductSafet.com .....................................31
GL Communications .............................. www.gl.com .......................................................17
HBM, Inc................................................ www.hbm.com/ee2015.....................................IFC
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Hioki USA Corp...................................... www.hiokiusa.com .......................................... IBC
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Keysight Technologies .......................... www.microlease.com/keysight/dmm ................13
Keysight Technologies .......................... www.keysight.com/find/triggerchallenge..........19
Morehouse Instrument Co,.................... www.mhforce.com .............................................25
National Instruments ............................ ni.com/automated-test-platform ...................... BC
Pickering Interfaces Inc. ....................... www.pickeringtest.com/advantage ...................15
Stanford Research Systems ................. www.thinkSRS.com .............................................3
Universal Switching Corp ..................... www.uswi.com ....................................................7
Vibration Test Systems ......................... www.VTS2000.com ............................................20
Virginia Panel Corp. .............................. www.vpc.com/speed .........................................10
W L Gore ............................................... www.gore.com/test............................................11
This index is provided as a service.
The publisher does not assume liability for errors or omissions.
www.evaluationengineering.com
EE201503-IndustryHappenings MECH dB.indd 31
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March 2015 • EE • 31
2/10/15 12:40 PM
.
31
EXECUTIVE INSIGHT
Ethernet industry builds
on innovation
by Rick Nelson, Executive Editor
32
.
This year is shaping up to be an active
one for Ethernet as the industry builds on
innovations that occurred in 2014. The
University of New Hampshire InterOperability Laboratory (UNH-IOL), an independent provider of broad-based testing
and standards conformance services for
the networking industry, stands ready to
support the industry with expanded interoperability testing and support for 40
and 100 Gigabit Ethernet (40G/100G),
according to Jeff Lapak, senior manager,
Ethernet Technologies, at UNH-IOL.
The lab sees considerable interest in
40G technology and is beginning to test
100G products.
Specifically, Lapak said in a recent
phone interview, the lab is focusing on
four areas: 40G/100G Ethernet including 25-Gb/s serial lanes, Power over
Ethernet (PoE), Backplane Ethernet,
and Automotive Ethernet. The activity
is taking place within several of the
UNH-IOL’s consortia and collaborative
testing programs.
The lab in its more than 32,000 squarefoot facility supports both interoperability test as well as compliance test.
Interoperability testing shows what your
equipment will work with today, Lapak
said, while compliance ensures it will
continue to work with other compliant
products in the future.
“Interoperability has been a defining
feature of Ethernet since its start,” said
Lapak, adding that since the lab began
its first testing of Ethernet technology in
1988, “member companies have turned
to us for reliable interoperability results
to build consumer confidence and support their go-to-market strategies.”
“Repeated multivendor testing is no
less important today than when the IEEE
ratified the 40GbE and 100GbE standard in 2010,” added John D’Ambrosia,
chairman of the Ethernet Alliance, in
a statement released by UNH-IOL.
32 • EE • March 2015
EE201503-ExecInsight MECH dB.indd 32
Jeff Lapak
Senior Manager,
Ethernet
Technologies,
University of
New Hampshire
InterOperability
Laboratory
The goal of a UNH-IOL-hosted plugfest,
he said, “…is to demonstrate multivendor interoperability, which will accelerate adoption and broaden the market for
both 40GbE and 100GbE.”
Lapak cited 10G Backplane Ethernet,
or 10Gbase-KR, as a topic of particular
interest, with a focus on channel training
and channel modeling. Over the year
from June 2013 to June 2014, Lapak said,
membership in the UNH-IOL Backplane
Ethernet Consortium nearly tripled.
Also of interest, he said, is PoE, including IEEE 802.3af and 802.11at. PoE
can serve in a variety of applications
areas, including wireless access points,
IP security cameras, IP phones, and
industrial automation equipment. New
PoE standards are in the works, he said,
including a one-pair power-over-dataline implementation and a higher power
four-pair configuration that can serve
cameras with pan and zoom capability.
Automotive Ethernet is another
technology gaining momentum, Lapak
said. UNH-IOL offers a BroadR-Reach
Physical Medium Attachment (PMA)
test station and the Physical Coding
Sublayer (PCS)/PHY Control Test
Tool. Two years ago, the automotive
industry’s OPEN (One-Pair Ether-Net)
Alliance endorsed the UNH-IOL as the
first laboratory to test BroadR-Reach, a
standard that enables 100-Mb/s Ethernet
connectivity in automotive networking
applications. Ethernet increasingly plays
a role in automated driving assistance
and infotainment systems, Lapak said,
although functions such as braking-byEthernet remain in the future.
The UNH-IOL is working closely with
test and measurement manufacturers to
upgrade its test equipment—particularly
for 25-Gb/s Ethernet solutions, Lapak
said, adding that the lab has a special
relationship with the manufacturers.
“Customers want to recreate test setups
we offer,” he said, adding that the lab
provides a neutral third-party environment where instrument makers can
make sure that the measurements from
disparate pieces of equipment align.
“Manufacturers of test equipment gain
a lot by participating,” he said.
In addition to commercial test equipment, he said, the lab offers several
unique capabilities. For bit-level PHY
analysis and verification, for example,
the lab has developed a PCS custom
test tool that enables testing at the
single-bit level to ensure that Ethernet
chips can handle an array of challenging
network conditions—a capability not
available with commercially available
test equipment.
Lapak added that the lab participates
in standards development with a focus
on making sure the standards can be
adequately tested.
Lapak said the lab works with companies at all stages of the product-development cycle. The fee for participation
in UNH-IOL Ethernet consortia ranges
from $15,000 to $24,000, and lab facilities are available to members on a
round-robin basis.
UNH students writing test suites form
the bulk of the lab’s workforce, he said.
Paid an hourly rate, they don’t receive
course credit but do gain valuable experience that prepares them well for future
employment in the industry.
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