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Basic Circuit Laws
Units
1
1Nm = 1Ws
2
SI Prefixes
3
Independent Sources
Ideal voltage source
Ideal current source
Ideal assumption: no resistive element in source
Realistic assumption:
Voltage source has an internal series
Current source has an
resistor
internal parallel resistor
R
The internal resistor of an ideal voltage source is zero !
The internal resistor of an ideal current source is infinity !
R
4

R=
A
Ohm’s Law
v(t ) = R ⋅ i(t ) Ohm's Law
v(t )
R=
[] Resistance
i(t )
1 i(t )
G= =
[S] Conductance
R v(t )
[Siemens]
{ [-1 , mho,  ]}
Instantaneous Power
2
v
(
t
)
p(t ) = v(t ) ⋅ i(t ) = R ⋅ i(t )2 =
= G ⋅ v(t )2
R
Note: - p(t) is a parabolic (non-linear) function that is always positive.
- p(t) is no indicator for the direction of power flow.
5
Examples:
p = v⋅i >0
v = R⋅i
Box absorbes power (resistor)
p = -v ⋅ i > 0
v = -R ⋅ i
Box provides power (source)
p = -v ⋅ i > 0
v = -R ⋅ i
Box provides power (source)
p = -v ⋅ (-i) > 0
- v = R ⋅ (-i), v = R ⋅ i
Box absorbes power (resistor)
6
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
s
R1
i2
is - i1 - i2 = 0
R2
-is + i1 + i2 = 0
is = i1 + i2
- The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero.
- The algebraic sum of currents leaving a node is zero.
- The algebraic sum of currents entering a node equals the sum of
currents leaving the node.
N
In general:
åi
n
=0
n=0
The algebraic sum of all currents at any node in a circuit equals zero.
Example: For the above circuit, find the equivalent resistance.
7
Example - continued
Note: vs = v1 = v2
vs vs
is = i1 + i2 = +
R1 R2
is
1
1
1
= + =
vs R1 R2 Req
i2
s
R1
R2
R1 ⋅ R2
or Req =
= R1  R2
R1 + R2
is
= G1 + G2 = Geq
vs
In general:
n
1
1
=å
Req
j =1 R j
n
Geq = å G j
j =1
8
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
-v0 + v1 + v2 = 0
or v0 - v1 - v2 = 0
N
In general:
åv
n
=0
n=0
The algebraic sum of all voltages around any
closed loop in a circuit equals zero.
Example: Find the equivalent resistance.
v0 - v1 - v2 = v0 - R1 ⋅ i - R2 ⋅ i = 0  v0 = ( R1 + R2 ) ⋅ i
v0
= R1 + R2 = Req
i
In general:
n
Req = å R j
j =1
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Voltage Divider
R1
v1 =
vs
R1 + R2
R2
v2 =
vs
R1 + R2
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ïï
ý
ïï
ïï
ïþ
R1 + R2
v1 + v2 =
vs = vs
R1 + R2
Current Divider
R1 + R2
i1 + i2 =
is = is
R1 + R2
ü
ï
ï
ï
ï
ï
ý
ï
G2
1 R2
R1 R2
R1
i2 =
is =
is =
is =
is ï
ï
Gtot
1 R1 +1 R2
1 + R1 R2
R1 + R2 ï
ï
þ
G1
1 R1
R2 R1
R2
i1 =
is =
is =
is =
is
Gtot
1 R1 +1 R2
R2 R1 +1
R1 + R2
10
Superposition
The principle of superposition states that whenever a linear system is
driven by more than one independent source, the total response can be
found by summing the individual responses to each independent
source.
When applying this principle, short-circuit a voltage source, and open
a current source.
Example: Find the voltage across the 3 resistor.
Example: Find the voltage
+
across the 3
v resistor.
3
-
Step 1: Deactivate current source (voltage divider)
3  (2 + 4)
Example: Find the voltage
v3vs = 120V
+ resistor.
6 + 3  (2 + 4)
across thev3
3vs
-
= 120V
2
= 30V
6 + 2
11
Step 2: Deactivate voltage source (current divider)
1
i3''
2 + (3  6)
=
1
12A
4  [ 2 + (3  6)]
+
v3cs
-
=
i2''
i3''
=-
1
3
1
1
+
3 6
4  [ 2 + (3  6)]
2 + (3  6)
=
4  [ 2 + 2]
2+2
2
=
4
 i3'' = 6A
=-
2
2
2
= -  i2'' = - i3'' = -4A
2 +1
3
3
v3cs = 3 ⋅ i2'' = 3 ⋅ (-4A) = -12V
Step 3: Superposition
v3 = v3vs + v3cs = 30V -12V=18V
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Mesh-Current Analysis
R = Resistance matrix
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Example: Find the matrix system of this circuit using mesh analysis.
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Node-Voltage Analysis
G = Conductance matrix
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Example: Find the matrix system of this circuit using node analysis.
1
2
3
4
é1 2 +1 1
ù é v1 ù é6Aù
0
0
-1 1
ê
ú ê ú ê ú
ê -1 1 1 1 +1 1.2 +1 4
ú êv2 ú ê 0 ú
-1 1.2
-1 4
ê
ú⋅ê ú = ê ú
ê 0
ú êv ú ê 0 ú
-1 12
1 1.2 +1 8 +1 12
0
ê
ú ê 3ú ê ú
ê 0
0
1 4 +1 3 +1 6úúû êêëv4 úûú êêë 0 úúû
-1 4
êë
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Nodal Versus Mesh Analysis
 Given a network to be analyzed, how do we know which method is better or
more efficient? The choice of the better method is dictated by two factors.
 Networks that contain many series-connected elements, voltage sources, or
supermeshes are more suitable for mesh analysis.
 Networks with parallel-connected elements, current sources, or supernodes are
more suitable for nodal analysis.
 Also, a circuit with fewer nodes than meshes is better analyzed using nodal
analysis, while a circuit with fewer meshes than nodes is better analyzed using
mesh analysis.
 The key is to select the method that results in the smaller number of equations.
 If node voltages are required, it may be expedient to apply nodal analysis.
 If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to use mesh analysis.
 Mesh analysis is the only method to use in analyzing transistor circuits, but
mesh analysis cannot easily be used to solve op amp circuits.
 For non-planar networks, nodal analysis is the only option, because mesh
analysis only applies to planar networks.
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Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh
and a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
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Norton Equivalent Circuit
Norton’s’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN and
a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current at the terminals and
RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.
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Example: Find the Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance.
Solution: Node equation
v1 - 25V
v
+ 1 - 3A = 0
5
20
 v1 = vab = 32V=VTh
Node equation for v2
v2 - 25V
v
v
+ 2 - 3A+ 2 = 0
5
20
4
 v2 = 16V
isc =
16V
= 4A
4
VTh 32V
RTh =
=
 RTh = 8
isc
4A
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Source Transformations
vs = R ⋅ is
vs
is =
R
Maximum Power Transfer
2
æ
ö
V
÷÷ R
Th
pL = is2 RL = ççç
çè RTh + RL ÷÷ø L
pmax
VTh2
=
4 RTh
Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance
equals the Thevenin (Norton) resistance.
21
Example: Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the
following circuit. Find the maximum power.
.
Solution:
RTh = 2 + 3 + (6  12) = 5 +
6 ⋅12
 = 9
6 +12
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Example - cont’d
Mesh equation:
-12V +18 ⋅ i1 -12 ⋅ i2 = 0 , i2 = -2A  i1 = 2 3A
KVL around the outer loop:
-12V + 6 ⋅ i1 + 3 ⋅ i2 + 2 ⋅ (0) + VTh = 0  VTh = 22V
Maximum Power:
pmax
2
VTh
(22V) 2


=13.44 W
4 RTh
4  9
23
Example: Determine the value of RL that will draw the maximum
power from the rest of the circuit. Calculate the maximum power.
Note: In order to find the Thevenin resistance of circuits with
dependent sources, we need to excite the circuit at its terminals.
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Example - cont’d
We need to find RTh and VTh. To find RTh, we consider the circuit in Fig.
(a).
Fig. (a)
Fig. (b)
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Example: Is the 6V source absorbing
power and, if so, how much?
Solution:
1.) 40V 5 = 8A
2.) 5  20 = 4 , 4⋅ 8A = 32V
i
3.) (6 + 4 +10) = 20 ,
4.) 20  30 = 12 , 12⋅1.6A = 19.2V
4⋅ 8A = 32V 20 = 1.6A
19.2V - 6V
= 0.825A , p6V = v6V ⋅ i = 6V ⋅ 0.825A = 4.95W
i=
16
Note: Source transformation in this way for independent sources only26!
Delta-to-Wye (-to-T) Equivalent Circuits
A  circuit viewed as a  circuit.
A Y circuit viewed as a T circuit.
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Transformation  <> Y
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Capacitor
C
[F 
s

q
v
]
A typical capacitor
A capacitor with applied
voltage v.
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KCL =>
The equivalent capacitance of n parallel-connected capacitors is
the sum of the individual capacitances.
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KVL =>
The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
capacitances.
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Inductor
L

i
Figure 6.21 Typical form of an inductor.
[ H   s]
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The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the
sum of the individual inductances.
KVL =>
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The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of
the sum of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.
KCL =>
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Important characteristics of the basic elements
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