Symbiosis (2010) 51:67–73
DOI 10.1007/s13199-010-0077-z
Symbiosis instruction: considerations from the education
workshop at the 6th ISS Congress
S. Patricia Stock & Seth R. Bordenstein &
Joanne Odden & Darby Oldenburg & William Reznikoff &
John H. Werren & Marc-André Selosse
Received: 28 April 2010 / Accepted: 2 June 2010 / Published online: 25 June 2010
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010
Abstract Herein, we summarize presentations on “Symbiosis” instruction given at the Education Workshop held at the
6th International Symbiosis Society Meeting in Madison WI.
We convey our teaching experiences and methods in a variety
of venues. Information on target audiences, course syllabi, and
laboratory skills, utilizing various symbiotic systems are also
presented. We hope this review will contribute to further
adoption of symbiotic interactions in the classroom as well as
the growth of currently developed courses in this field—a
S. P. Stock (*)
Department of Entomology, University of Arizona,
Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
e-mail: spstock@ag.arizona.edu
S. R. Bordenstein
Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University,
Nashville, TN 37235, USA
J. Odden
Metropolitan State College of Denver,
Denver, CO 80217, USA
D. Oldenburg
University of Wisconsin, La Crosse,
La Crosse, WI 54601, USA
W. Reznikoff
Education Department, Marine Biological Laboratory,
7 MBL St.,
Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA
M.-A. Selosse
Centre d‘Ecologie Fonctionelle et Evolutive,
CNRS & Université Montpellier II,
Montpellier, France
J. H. Werren
Department of Biology, University of Rochester,
Rochester, NY 14627, USA
specific mission of this and previous International Symbiosis
Society meetings.
Keywords Education . Outreach . Symbiosis . Electronic
resources . High school . Undergraduate . Science teachers
1 Introduction
Understanding relationships between organisms and the
surrounding environment has become a nascent discipline
in modern biology. Researchers have discovered a whole
spectrum of interactions, between plants, animals and
microbes, ranging from highly integrated obligatory to lose
associations (Margulis 1998). The benefits driving these
interactions are no less diverse than the organisms involved.
In this respect, the term symbiosis (from the Greek: syn
“with”; and biosis “living”) commonly describes close and
often long-term interactions between different biological
species. Moreover, symbiosis has a chameleon-like ability
to blend into an impressive breadth of biology courses at
many levels of education, including high school and college
levels. As a topic it has the capacity to bridge divergent
perspectives of the large field of biology, ranging from
molecular biology to ecology.
Ironically, it remains often in the background of other
major disciplines. For example, when teaching respiration or
photosynthesis in eukaryotes, few teachers acknowledge that
these are indeed bacterial metabolisms, gained by the host cell
through endosymbiosis. Similarly, plant nutrition is often
taught using axenic species (eg. Arabidopsis thaliana), while
the mycorrhizal symbiosis is only recognized as an example
of interaction, of fungal nutrition (Selosse et al. 2004).
We herein summarize presentations given at the Education
Workshop organized during the 6th International Symbiosis
68
Society Congress, in Madison WI last August 2009. We
describe abbreviated versions of our teaching experiences and
methods related to symbiosis instruction in a variety of
venues. We have focused on three topics: 1) courses for high
school education, 2) courses for undergraduate college
curricula and 3) online symbiosis education resources.
Our diverse teaching efforts and tactics are directed to
students and high school teachers with a wide-ranging view
of the biodiversity, ecology and evolution of symbiotic
associations. Our goal in this review is to share with the
scientific community our teaching experiences, and to
promote further development and adoption of symbiotic
interactions in the classroom—a specific mission of this
and previous International Symbiosis Society meetings.
2 Some examples of current symbiosis courses for high
school education
Inquiry, discovery, and modern technology are key pillars
for improving modern science education and teacher
training. Here, we provide information from two workshop
alternatives currently available in the USA, which focus on
the training of high school science teachers and students.
Both courses have a common goal, the promotion of
symbiotic systems in classroom lessons and the consideration of more interactive and engaging themes for science
educational curricula.
2.1 “Discover the Microbes Within! The Wolbachia
Project”: a high school training course
One of the authors (J.H.W.) designed and initiated the
integrative lab series, which was subsequently implemented
and augmented by S.R.B., W. R. and J.H.W. This course
comprises a series of laboratory exercises that utilize the
widespread endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia to provide
a discovery-based experience and to teach the integrative
nature of biology. Through this workshop, high school
teachers and students use an array of tools, resources, and
laboratory experiments to make new discoveries on the
worldwide frequency and genetic diversity of Wolbachia
endosymbionts in insects. The key aspect of this series for
students is that they have the opportunity to make novel
discoveries to science while learning different biological
methods. The lab series has modular laboratory exercises
involving field work, biodiversity and taxonomy, molecular
methods, bioinformatics, and molecular phylogeny. The
modularity of the labs permits the entire series or portions
to be used in the classroom.
Briefly, students collect insects, learn basic identification
methods and taxonomy of the insects they collected, extract
DNA, screen the insects for Wolbachia by polymerase chain
S.P. Stock et al.
reaction, learn basic bioinformatic methods (e.g. BLAST and
NCBI) using sequences from their infected insects, and learn
basic molecular phylogenetic methods by aligning their
sequences and using a basic phylogenetic program. The
series therefore gives students the chance to discover new
insects infected with Wolbachia, and in the process exposes
them to concepts ranging from microbiology to molecular
biology to ecology and evolution.
The exercises provided in this workshop have been
utilized in high school classrooms across the USA. These
exercises are interspersed with brief lectures on relevant
topics (e.g. symbiosis, Wolbachia biology, biotechnology,
DNA sequencing, insect diversity, bioinformatics). The
laboratory exercises, lectures and powerpoint presentations
are available on-line at websites maintained by the Marine
Biological Laboratory (http://discover.mbl.edu) and the
University of Rochester (http://www.rochester.edu/College/
BIO/labs/WerrenLab/WerrenLab-Education%26Outreach.
html). It should be noted that the “Wolbachia Project” can
provide loaner equipment (thermocyclers and microfuges)
and some key supplies (primer sets, control DNAs and
control insects) to participating teachers. Below we list and
briefly describe topics considered in this workshop.
a. Field Exercise (Insect Collecting): Students collect
insects in their local environment, either individually or
in a field course outing. This field portion of the lab
series enhances the students’ ownership of the research
project and appreciation of field methods.
b. Biodiversity and Insect Identification Exercise: Students group their insects into “morphospecies” and take
photo vouchers of their specimens. Using on-line
resources and working together, students determine
the insect order of their collected samples. This lab
provides an appreciation of biological diversity as well
as the understanding of insect anatomy and taxonomy.
c. DNA Extraction Exercise: These lab exercises cell
biology, macromolecular biochemistry, and how to extract
DNA. Students isolate DNA from their macerated insect
samples. This is the first step where the students transition
from naturalists to molecular biologists.
d. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Screening for
Endosymbionts: PCR is used to amplify insect DNA
corresponding to the insect cytochrome oxidase C gene
and Wolbachia DNA corresponding to the 16S rRNA
gene. In addition, they learn about basic cellular
organelles (mitochondria), enzymes (DNA polymerase
and cytochrome oxidase) and principles of DNA structure
(base pairing, denaturation and annealing). In the process,
they also learn about bacterial endosymbiosis.
e. Gel Electrophoresis Exercise: Students analyze their
PCR amplified DNA through agarose gel electrophoresis.
From this portion of the series, they make their first
Symbiosis instruction: considerations from the education workshop at the 6th ISS Congress
discovery—Is Wolbachia DNA present in their DNA
samples and therefore is the insect being studied infected
by Wolbachia? Additionally, they learn about a technology for fractionating DNA according to friction / strand
length and identifying the presence of specific biological
macromolecules by staining.
f. Sequence Analysis and Microbial Diversity Exercise:
Students, through a collaboration with the Marine
Biological Laboratory, determine the sequence of the
amplified 16S Wolbachia DNA (or alternatively are
given a known Wolbachia sequence). Students then
learn how 16S sequences can be used as a tool to
identify bacteria, and the basic features of ribosomes,
ribosomal sequences, etcetera. The sequence generated
by the student also acts as publishable, new research
product that can be uploaded to a website hosted at the
Marine Biological Laboratory for students to show their
teachers, peers, and family.
g. Bioinformatics and Molecular Phylogeny Exercise:
Students examine the relatedness of their Wolbachia
16S DNA sequences to known sequences in the
GenBank database through a similarity search program
called BLAST and a simple phylogenetics program.
This introduces the students to basic bioinformatics
techniques and the concepts of evolution at the
molecular level.
Teacher workshops related to the Wolbachia Project have
been offered at the Marine Biological Laboratory and the
University of Rochester, and also through a number of our
collaborators (Muse of Fire program in Jackson, MS, Bay
Area Biotechnology Education Consortium in Santa Clara,
CA, Loudon County Schools in Virginia, and the Cornell
Institute of Biotechnology in Ithaca, NY). In addition to
teacher workshops, this program funds summer “envisionship” experiences for teacher-student pairs to work for several
weeks in a professional research lab on a project aimed at
studying some aspect of the Wolbachia—insect endosymbiosis. In this way the envisionships break down perceived
disconnects between students and scientists, and the students
have a deeper immersion into an active research lab.
2.2 “Nematode-microbe partnerships”: a teacher-training
course
This course was developed by S.P.S and it is taught at the
University of Arizona, every-other year during the first
summer session. It provides an overview of the diverse ways
bacteria symbiotically interact with nematodes and considers
nematode-bacterium symbioses as biological model systems.
All exercises developed for this course give emphasis to
activities and experimental systems that can be used easily and
inexpensively in the classroom to teach basic biological
69
principles. Students become aware of how ubiquitous
nematodes are and gain an appreciation of the diverse life
styles they have and the habitats they live in. Lectures
highlight the assortment of associations between nematodes
and bacteria, which range from fortuitous to obligatory, and
from beneficial to detrimental for the nematode hosts. A
comparative approach is considered to describe and understand fundamental processes underlying the inter-dependency
of nematodes and bacteria as a model system for other
eukaryote-prokaryote symbioses.
A set of integrated laboratory exercises considers nematodes of various life styles (i.e. free-living, parasitic, terrestrial,
aquatic) and trophic groups (i.e. bacterivores, algivores,
fungivores, predators) to teach various topics including
biodiversity, ecology of trophic cascades, and gain basic skills
on microscopy, molecular methods (i.e. DNA extraction,
PCR, gel electrophoresis), bioinformatics, and molecular
evolution (phylogeny using DNA sequences). Major topics
considered in this course are listed below.
a. Nematode diversity. Students gain basic concepts on
nematode morphology, trophic groups. Lectures and
laboratory exercises focus on both microscopy exercises
and molecular methods for diagnosis and identification of
major nematode groups.
b. Bacteria diversity. In this section, topics such as
bacteria diversity, abundance and classification are
considered. Focus is placed on major groups of
symbiotic bacteria of nematodes and other invertebrates
including insects.
c. Nematode-bacteria symbiotic associations. Lectures
on this topic describe and provide examples of ecto- and
endo-symbiotic relationships between nematodes and
bacteria. Emphasis is placed on the establishment
and maintenance of these associations. Moreover, students
learn the role of bacterivore and plant-parasitic nematodes
in plant health and soil ecology. Laboratory sessions
engage students in various techniques including nematode
isolation from soil and fresh water samples, “insect bating”
methods for isolation of insect parasites, isolation of
nematode endosymbiotic bacteria, and bacteria culturing
methods.
d. Nematode morphology and natural habitats. Through
this section students appreciate how nematodes, like all
other organisms, are adapted to their natural habitats by
relating morphology with the places they live in.
Laboratory exercises focus on a variety of nematode
forms, and through their examination students relate
morphology and function.
e. Movement and feeding strategy. Students observe
various nematode shapes and size and relate these traits
to their movement in different substrates (i.e. agar,
sand, water). They also assess how nematodes adapt
70
and what strategy they use to search for their food
source (i.e. plants, animals, microbes). They also
examine nematode mouth parts and relate mouth
morphology and structures with their feeding habits.
For example, how does the mouth part of an algivore
nematode look like? What are the teeth or claw-like
structures that certain nematodes have for?
f. Reproductive strategies. Students gain appreciation
of the different ways nematodes reproduce and are
introduced to the concept that for certain nematodes
(i.e. filarids), bacterial symbionts play a key role in
their reproductive fitness. Laboratory exercises comprise microscopy examination of various nematode
types and recognition of sexual organs, differentiation between male and female. Students also
conduct a mating exercise considering bisexual
nematodes.
g. Physiological adaptations and the environment. Students gain knowledge on how organism such as
nematodes can adapt to survive under harsh environmental conditions including temperature, moisture, UV
exposure, etc. A series of experiments are designed to
help students learn how nematodes can adapt by
observing morphological changes and behavior in
response to extreme environmental conditions.
3 Symbiosis in the undergraduate college curricula
As mentioned before, the academic separation of biology
into narrow sub-disciplines does not mirror complex
symbioses in which organisms of all sizes interact with
one another. This segregation also hinders the understanding of unified systems. Unfortunately, not many formal
courses exist on this topic for undergraduate education. We
herein summarize examples of one formal undergraduate
course with focus on symbiotic interactions and one
undergraduate research project that also considers a
symbiotic system.
3.1 “Living in Symbiosis”: an undergraduate course
experience
This course was developed and is taught by S.P. S. at the
University of Arizona. It is a 3-credit course and it is taught
every fall semester. This course has gathered undergraduate
students from various academic programs including Veterinary Sciences and Microbiology, Molecular and Cellular
Biology and, Ecology and Evolution (http://cals.arizona.edu/
ento/courses/ento310/index.htm). The course provides an
overview of the diversity of associations that exist between
microbes and eukaryotic hosts. Emphasis is placed on
symbiotic associations with relevance to human medicine,
S.P. Stock et al.
veterinary sciences and agriculture. Major topics covered in
this course are listed below:
a. Symbiosis and the eukaryotic cell. This initial section
introduces students to the various hypotheses that
explain the origin and evolution of the eukaryotic cell.
b. Ecology of symbiotic associations. Students acquire
knowledge on the various symbiotic interactions and
the concept of the symbiotic continuum.
c. Evolution and genetics of symbiotic associations. Key
topics in this section include genetic interactions in
symbiotic systems; gene for gene relationships; genetic
polymorphism and symbiont genomics. Students are also
introduced to topics such as the nature of host resistance,
coevolution and evolution in a symbiont environment.
d. Behavioral symbiosis. Students become familiar with
cleaning and social symbioses. A number of video clips and
documentaries are used to exemplify these interactions.
Subsequent units in this course focus on the «symbionts»
including: viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists, helminths and
plants. Students are first exposed to an introductory lecture on
taxonomy, morphology and diversity of each symbiont group.
Additional lectures focus on the interactions each of these
groups have with other organisms (i.e. vertebrates, invertebrates, plants, etc.) in both aquatic and terrestrial systems.
Topics such as adaptations, coevolution and consideration of
symbionts as models systems are also included.
3.2 Symbiotic models: tools for classroom lessons
and laboratory techniques
The importance of research at the undergraduate level cannot be
over-emphasized. Allowing students to develop good laboratory
techniques, become well-versed in reading and analyzing
scientific literature and develop creative and critical thinking
skills will prepare them for a fruitful future in science. Thus, the
best undergraduate research projects are those that enable
students to gain aptitude and experience with numerous
techniques and a subject that embodies both applied and basic
research. In this respect, we summarize below an undergraduate
assignment that is part of an introductory microbiology course,
“A General Survey of Microbiology” (BAC 101), a freshman
level general microbiology course taught by D.O., at the
University of Wisconsin-La Crosse. This project focuses on
symbiotic interactions between the composting worm, Eisenia
foetida and the bacterium, Verminephribacter eiseniae. Specifically, this project, entitled “Earthworms revisited” is a handson-activity that considers earthworms and their symbionts.
3.2.1 Background on the earthworm-bacteria symbiosis
The composting worm, Eisenia foetida is gaining wide
acceptance as a complex and useful model for scientific
Symbiosis instruction: considerations from the education workshop at the 6th ISS Congress
inquiry. While many will remember a past biology lab in
which an earthworm was dissected, the worm and its biology
has since come into its own as a viable and useful teaching
tool. An important feature of this model system is the newly
discovered symbiosis between the worm and the bacterium,
Verminephribacter eiseniae (Schramm et al. 2003; Pinel et al.
2008). This bacterium colonizes the nephridia (kidney-like
organ) of the worm and is vertically transmitted to new
generations through deposition into the nascent egg capsule
such that newly hatched worms emerge colonized (Davidson
and Stahl 2008). Because of the intricate association of these
worm-associated bacteria and the ease with which it can be
studied in the laboratory, this symbiotic system can be used in
an undergraduate course to not only demonstrate symbiosis
but to allow students a hands-on opportunity to investigate
the symbiotic relationship. Furthermore, since little is known
about the exact role the bacteria play this system lends itself
to independent student investigations regarding the symbiosis
between E. foetida and the recently described V. eiseniae.
3.2.2 The classroom project
Students are presented with the vermicomposting system in a
short lecture and then asked to do some research outside of class
about vermicomposting. For the purpose of this project, students
are required to identify a bacterium from the vermicomposting
system which is maintained at UW-R. Students work in pairs to
come up with a hypothesis and research plan aimed at
identifying this bacterium that is present in the vermicompost
system. The students may choose to isolate microbes associated
with the worms and/or the castings. During the project, the
students also isolate V. eiseniae from the worms and read the
hallmark paper by Pinel et al. (2008). Once bacteria are isolated
and streaked for purity on agar plates, students perform a
battery of biochemical tests to identify the bacteria at the genus
level (and if they are lucky—the species) to which their isolate
belongs. In the future, a molecular diagnostics component will
be added to the project whereby students will have the chance
to sequence 16S rRNA genes of their isolate for more accurate
identification and gain expertise in various molecular biology
techniques, including DNA extraction, PCR, pre-sequencing
treatment methods and sequence editing/analysis.
There are many superior logistical features of E. foetida
system that allow for its simple incorporation into a biology
classroom. The worms are widely available (we obtained
our colony from www.wisconsinredworms.com) and inexpensive while being simple to maintain and breed. Once a
population of worms is established it will quickly degrade
classroom/campus waste products, and the worms and their
waste (castings) are also a valuable product that has a
potential market value. The features of this system can
expand the curriculum to a variety of interdisciplinary
courses such as chemistry and business.
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4 Building a network of online symbiosis education
resources
A current trend in pedagogy is to draw from multiple
resources to design a course, as well as to present some
course material to students via multimedia outlets. Using
multimedia in the classroom has the benefit of breaking up a
lecture and addressing different learning styles. It is clear that,
like any course materials, multimedia should be carefully
considered for the audience and learning objectives. Supplementary resources may also provide educators the opportunity
to rejuvenate course material. In this respect, the internet
provides an excellent venue to share teaching resources. In
teaching symbiosis at the college level, two major challenges
are found: 1) a dearth of symbiosis textbooks currently
published, in particular for the introductory college level
(with little or no symbiosis material presented in many general
biology textbooks) and, 2) no central repository for symbiosis
education resources online.
Writing and publishing a textbook is a major-undertaking
(see below section 5), and the breadth and depth of symbiosis
topics as well as perhaps current low-demand worldwide to
teach devoted general symbiosis courses make this a
challenging component to immediately address. Even with
the best of textbooks, it is generally considered good practice
to incorporate material from multiple sources when preparing
course materials. Hence, a symbiosis education resources
website may be an immediate solution, as well as augment any
current or future textbooks.
We herein discuss MuSER, a website developed by J. O.
at the Metropolitan State College of Denver, (http://sites.
google.com/site/symbiosiseducationresources/). This website focuses on mutualistic teaching resources to introduce
readers to the topic of symbiosis. It was designed to be used
by college faculty teaching the topic of symbiosis and/or
their students, whether symbiosis is taught as a topic within
a broader course, or as a specialty symbiosis course. The
website contains links to other symbiosis websites, course
syllabi, animations and readings. The content of the
MuSER website is divided into three categories:
–
–
–
Website and Animation Links for Selected Mutualisms
and Symbiosis Topics
Selected Readings for College Courses
Symbiosis Course Syllabi
4.1 Website and animation links for selected symbiosis
topics
This section of the website is organized by the following
topics: 1) endosymbiosis theory, 2) introduction to symbiosis, 3) photosynthetic mutualisms, 4) chemosynthetic
mutualisms, 5) luminescent mutualisms, 6) cellulose
72
degrading mutualisms, 7) nutritional mutualisms (such as
insect/bacteria, lichen, and plant/mycorrhizae), 8) shared
mechanisms of mutualism and parasitism, 9) symbiosis
research, and 10) general information to supplementary
readings (including weblinks to endocytosis, microbial
ecology, and element cycles material). The links within
each topic feature animations, content information, and/or
videos.
4.2 Selected readings for college courses
In this section MuSER provides lists of various literature
references for upper division, lower division college
courses and general background reading resources. Nontextbook readings are usually incorporated in college level
courses, especially to supplement and/or expand concepts
considered in primary literature and/or textbooks. Primary
literature is an effective tool in high school courses (Yarden
et al. 2001), however at the college level it is critical that
students have access to the most up-to-date information.
Also, for introductory courses (non-majors or majors)
additional selected readings may be useful. For example,
naturalist readings and/or publications written by scientists
to an introductory science audience, such as The Lives of a
Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher (Thomas 1974), will
provide students background knowledge to understand
more in-depth topics of symbiotic topics.
4.3 Course syllabi
This section includes syllabi from college courses that had
either the theme of symbiosis or were a full course on
symbiosis. Course syllabi are categorized as upper division,
lower division majors, or non-majors.
5 Final remarks
The decision to highlight education at the International
Symbiosis Society Conferences reflects the importance of
the field in the biological sciences. Arguably, symbiosis is
experiencing a new, modern synthesis—one akin to the
modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 20th century that
married evolution and genetics. The modern evolutionary
synthesis however did not take into account symbiosis, which
on one hand adds complexity to understanding a living
organism, but on the other hand is as essential as genetics to
understanding organismal fitness and speciation. Darwin and
the 20th century pioneers of evolutionary biology would have
been astonished to see the role symbiosis has played in
shaping modern day biology. Symbiosis itself is evolving
towards a central position within the reticulated system of
diverse biological disciplines.
S.P. Stock et al.
Teaching this new emphasis on symbiosis is important
and leads to a better integration of the biological sciences.
How can we engage ‘non-symbiologist’ teachers to
integrate symbiosis in their teachings on nutrition,
ecology, evolution, development, etc.? Easily accessible
resources such as protocols, lectures, videos, and equipment. Are key for this purpose As mentioned above,
textbooks have a role to play but they are slowly evolving
(in a punctuated way, from edition to edition) and less
easily accessible. On the other hand, their publication can
be a milestone, creating opportunity for comments or
analytic reports that make light on the supported concept.
For instance, the experience of writing a book on
symbiosis in French (Selosse 2000) produced noticeable
outcomes on the teaching of symbiosis in France. It made
new research and concepts available and allowed a revival
of the teaching of symbiosis.
The French national high-school programs now include
some sections on mycorrhizae, symbiotic origin of some
eukaryotic organelles, and coral symbioses. At the French
national examination that annually recruits biology teachers
for state high-schools (Agrégation des Sciences de la Vie),
the number of questions on symbiosis at the oral part of the
examination raised from 3–4 per year in the 80’s to about
30 per year (out of ca. 150). An obvious (and easier)
alternative to writing a book is, of course, the translation of
existing recent books (e.g. from English, Douglas 2010)—
but the problem is that examples in the book may not be
biogeographically or culturally relevant.
Moreover, illustrations and synthetic drawings are
needed for teachers: They ensure a clear picture. In the
previous example, an illustrated atlas was produced
(Duhoux and Nicole 2004) as well as a film (Gabriel
2007) that made available basic and more or less raw data
for teaching. This added to the potential for including
symbiotic facts in various other topics.
Part of the job of science is to transfer knowledge from
researcher to teachers, especially for knowledge on symbiosis
that is not in textbooks. For this, inviting teachers to join either
general meetings or parts of meetings devoted to teaching is
very appropriate. Involving more university teachers willing
to do some outreach about symbiosis is also important.
Coming back to the example of France, French teachers from
universities and higher sections in high schools were engaged
to join a congress on endosymbiosis in Roscoff, with the help
of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (http://
www.sb-roscoff.fr/ETSymbioses2008/prog.html). Two series
of general review papers in French, rich in illustrations,
issued from this meeting and were published in Biofutur, and
these papers are freely available on the meetings’ web pages,
with the publisher’s authorization (http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/
ETSymbioses2008/index.html; Martin and Selosse 2009;
Selosse et al. 2009).
Symbiosis instruction: considerations from the education workshop at the 6th ISS Congress
Finally, for the International Society on Symbiosis (ISS),
the implication of teachers in ISS meetings has always been
an important task since the Woods Hole meeting in 1997.
The organization of a session on teaching was always
accompanied by a practical observation of living material,
with using microscopes, dissections and pictures, organized
by specialists presenting their own model in a classroom.
This is a place for exchanging experiences and know-how
among teachers and researchers. We hope that the original
and successful programs described in this chapter will
enhance these important efforts.
Acknowledgements We acknowledge the various funding agencies
who have contributed to the creation and maintenance of many of these
teaching resources. The Wolbachia Project was originally funded by a
National Science Foundation grant to J. Werren (EF-0328363) and a
NASA Astrobiology Institute (NNA04CC04A) grant to the Marine
Biology Laboratory in Woods Hole, MA. The Biology Department at
the University of Rochester assisted with teacher workshops. Funding
from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute Precollege Science
Education Program to S. Bordenstein and W. Reznikoff (award #
51006093) provides continued support for workshops and national
expansion of the education program. The nematode-bacterium symbiosis courses for teachers and undergraduates and undergraduate training
in S.P. Stock laboratory, University of Arizona are funded by various
NSF awards including Research Experience for Teachers and Research
Experience for Undergraduates programs (awards # 0924125, 0822631,
0733729, 0724978) and a Research Coordination Network award
(NEMASYM) (NSF-IOS # 0840932) to S.P. Stock. M.-A. Selosse is
funded by the CNRS, the French Orchid Society (SFO) and the Agence
Nationale de la Recherche.
73
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