Available online at www.buu.ac.th/BUUConference
HU-O-007
Burapha University International Conference 2015
“Moving Forward to a Prosperous and Sustainable Community”
Language, semiotics in Thai Airways Advertising
Sushama Kasbekar
Assumption University, Bangkok-10240.Thailand.
Abstract
Tourism is promoted through advertising and media. Language and images are a part of advertisements. This study aims
to study the impact of language and semiotics of Thai Airways advertising. The methodology included a questionnaire to
gauge the impact of language, semiotic and symbolic use in Thai Airways advertising. Respondents opined that Thai
airways advertising evoked positive feelings of “smoothness”, while the effective use of the color violet and the orchid
flower evoked feelings of Thainess. Fifty percent of respondents chose to fly the airlines because of its advertising; while
others opted for it due to various reasons. However, the significant “recall” done by respondents contributes to the
effectiveness of the advertising. The in-flight magazine of Thai airways was appreciated by a majority of respondents as
well.
© 2015 Published by Burapha University.
Keywords: Language, advertising, semiotics
70
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
1.
Introduction
The process of tourism promotion involves tangible and intangible products. Tourism, unlike other
products, is often intangible. These products are complex and difficult to pinpoint. Some tourism products are
however tangible which can be seen and touched. Often however the tourism products cannot be touched,
inspected, smelt or seen before buying. This is because tourism involves a whole series of services which
constitute a total experience: The common tourist is one who decides on a destination, travels there and
partakes of all aspects which his destination has to offer. Here he experiences some products which are
intangible since many cannot be felt or touched-like panoramic views or services offered in hotels or airlines.
The entire tourism experience is multidimensional since it includes products which are intangible or subtle
which constitute the entire experience. Further, services are inseparable from the server which makes the
product even more complex: Airlines and hotels offer services which are inseparable and indivisible from the
server.
Tourism promotion is therefore not simply the sale of a hotel room or the ticket to an attraction; it is more
complex and multi-faceted. Or rather, it is a multi-dimensional activity. Promotion for tourism is also manysided and it includes:
Advertising
•Sales promotion (e.g. travel shows, familiarization trips, specialty items such as bumper stickers);
•Publicity (e.g. non-commercial news releases on festivals);
•Sales literature (e.g. brochures and guide books); and
•Information centers (e.g. Visitor centers)
Promotion in turn comprises:
•Personal selling (for creating desire and conviction, and for closing the sale)
•Public relations
•Publicity and
•Sales promotion activities (e.g. give away, trade shows and store displays)
Advertising is therefore a strong pillar of the entire tourism activity which supports the whole process of
tourism. Advertising activity for tourism includes communication, advertising, publicity, promotion and even
propaganda. There are several multi-channel communication networks at work here: The messages used in
advertising need to be relayed in such a way that they primarily attract the customer. However, this is only the
first step. Persuasion is the inherent second step since giving information about goods and services can only
be the cursory step. Kruti and Alan (2009) say that persuasive advertising is intended to induce people to buy.
The language of persuasion in advertising therefore is an important media literacy skill. Aliede (2002) writes
that most advertisements are persuasive in order to win converts who are lured to patronize the goods,
services or ideas advertised.
Kruti and Alan explain that the persuasive effect of advertising message is governed by not only what is
71
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
said but also by how it is said. The advertiser has to turn the big idea into a real advertisement that will
capture the audience‟s attention and interest. Thus, „key words‟ which fire the consumer‟s imagination should
be used. For optimal effectiveness the message should be short, clear, current, active and conclude with the
identified key words.
This further points to the fact that advertising needs to be intelligible to the audience and also a part of its
general repertoire. If the audience understand the message and identifies with it they are more likely to accept
it: Gold and Gold (1994:77) say that the rhetoric of advertising is at its most persuasive when the images and
symbols it employs are drawn from the shared language of its audience and the advertiser and molded by the
latter to suit the needs of the former. Advertisements need to be clear and sensitive to the gamut of emotions
and experiences of the viewer.
Buyers therefore need to align themselves to the advertisements. They should also persuade him to buy the
product. Kenechukwu et al. (2013) says that: “So then, what is persuasive advertising? The heart of
advertising lies on its ability to sway buyers to buy particular product as well as “force” them to maintain such
patronage.” Thus advertisements need to persuade prospective buyers to make the right choice in their buying
decisions.
Advertising often appeals to the senses. The visual is catered through the written messages and pictorial
displays as well as in architecture and dress. The aural is emphasized by the sounds and silence of the
countryside, the gustatory via food, the tactile by the nostalgic aroma of spring waters.
Regarding the advertisement studied in this paper Thai Airways advertising uses the predominant slogan
“Smooth as silk” to emphasize the intangible connotation of “silkiness”. It is a sensory evocation of words
with a distinct appeal whose impact needs to be examined.
There is a kind of extra sensory language evoked by advertisements. Language creates images. Goddard
says the pairing or juxtaposition of language give rise to “paralanguage”. Writing is a form of image making;
the copywriter chooses to build or clothe the image: Adjectives like “smoothness” and “silkiness” evokes
images in the mind of the reader which coagulate attractively into concrete images. The skill of the advertiser
lies in suggesting these positive images with a judicious use of pictures and images which complement the
words.
Language is teamed with pictures and photographs, color and background. These pictures, photographs
and color are an integral part of the advertisement. They are mostly complimentary to the text and add
meaning to the words used in the advertisement. Goddard says: “Images juxtaposed with language are not
isolated and they are meaningfully paired with the text to give a full and powerful message to the customer.”
(2002).
72
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
In the Thai Airways advertisement the images of two airhostesses doing a traditional “wai” or traditional
greeting with closed palms are adjacent to the image of a Thai Airways aircraft and an orchid flower. These
images change in some advertisements but the orchid flower is a constant along with the color violet which
symbolizes Thai Airways advertising with its distinctive quality. The semiotic emphasis of the advertisement
is therefore an important aspect of the advertisement.
The repetitive nature of the message of Thai Airways advertising with its constant color, Thai imagery and
pictures of its aircraft promote a particular image of the company. This is the unique image created by Thai
Airways advertisements and a study of its impact has been made in this paper.
1.1Language of Advertising
Advertising language has long been of interest to linguistics e.g. Cook, 2001; Goddard, 1998; Hermen,
1999; Myers, 1998; Vertergaard and Schroder, 1993. Specific aspects that have been explored include, but are
by no means limited to, formal aspects e.g. Bruthiaux, 1996; Rush, 1998; stylistics e.g. Gieszinger, 2001;
Grunig, 1990; pragmatics, Schmidt, Shimura, Wang & Jeong, 1995; Tanaka, 1994; text-image relationships‟
Gardner and Luchtenberg, 2000; Kress and van Leeuvan, 1996, O‟Barr, 1994.
Research on the effects of advertising language per se has considered contexts such as psycholinguistics
Harris et.al1986, semiotic; Cleveland, 1986 and symbolic, Leiss, Kline and Jhally, 1986. Most of these studies
concentrate on the impact of these advertisements.
1.2 Slogans
Even a cursory look at advertisements in the marketplace tells us that most advertisements have slogans.
Many brands employ slogans to increase brand image, help in its recognition and also to allow consumers to
differentiate between brands. So, what constitutes a successful slogan? Are slogans linked to brands?
Together with brand name and logo, the slogan represents one of the three key elements of brand identity;
that is, the elements by which the brand communicates with the world around it (Kohli, Suri & Thakor, 2002).
An eye opener was the war between Pizza Hut and Papa John‟s. Pizza Hut ran a challenge to anyone to find a
better pizza than Pizza Hut: it ran a series of advertisements declaring “war” on “skimpy, low-quality pizza”;
giving the challenge to find a better pizza than Pizza Hut. However, Papa John‟s took up this challenge: its
slogan was changed to “Better Ingredients. Better pizza.” They also ran endorsement spots featuring Frank
Corney, a co-founder of Pizza Hut who had now joined Papa John‟s. Papa John‟s advertising was effective
and its market share increased within a year. However, Pizza Hut‟s market share declined. This prodded it to
take Papa John‟s to court for the advertising. The court ruled that the slogan was only marketing gimmickry.
Thus, the case pinpoints the power of slogans; its importance and the central role it plays in advertising
strategy.
73
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
Advertisements are made up of language, images and semiotics. Slogans enhance the product‟s image and
the brand‟s identity. This in turn enhances brand awareness and brand image through recognition, recall and
positive associations for the brand. Therefore, slogans can serve as “hooks” or “handles” in capturing the
meaning of a brand and in relaying what makes the brand special (Dahlen & Rosengren, 2005, Kellar, 1998).
At times, the brand retains its name but changes its logo in keeping market changes in mind. The slogan is in
a unique position to act as a bridge between a brand‟s legacy and its evolving image. It can be changed and
altered as required.
Slogans bring a brand‟s preferred attributes to the fore. The attributes are the brand‟s unique selling
proposition: As in the case of the Thai Airways advertisement, “Silkiness” and “Smoothness” is the unique
selling proposition of the airline. Slogans thus effectively emphasize attributes.
The attribute of “Silkiness” of Thai airways advertising is relatively complex. Many authors have
suggested that complexity in advertising leads to deeper processing and an enhanced memory. Petty,
Cacciopo & Schman (1983) have asserted that as far as slogans go “Keeping it simple” may not necessarily be
better when it comes to making them memorable. In fact several researches have suggested that a complexity
of phrases is more desirable and a use of figurative devices may enhance appreciation (McQuarrie & Mick,
1999).
1.3 Metaphors
Receivers try to expend minimal effort to understand the message. However, they will try to understand
the message to gain more effect by processing it. More processing they feel will lead to more effect. They are
willing to expend more cognitive effort, provided they gain more effect, in the sense of more information but
also in the sense of more pleasure (Tanaka, 1992, Forceville, 1996, 2005, 2009; Van Enschot et al, 2005).
Thus several studies have shown that for messages which demand too little cognitive processing effort,
receivers may opt out and appreciation will decrease.
In the case of Thai Airways advertising the metaphor “Smooth as Silk” could be categorized as reasonably
complex. The connotations of “silk” are many and complex. Juxtaposed with the use of the color violet, the
word “silk” has many suggestions and adds several dimensions. This message may take a longer time to
process since it is multidimensional.
1.4 Semiotics
Advertising is more than words; it is also visual technique, color and semiotics. In many advertisements
photographs and images appear in tandem with words.
Semiotics is related to culture. Language, visual images and music are a part of culture. These signs
change their meaning over a period f time and most strategies of marketing and advertising realize the
74
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
importance of these signs and how a potential client or customer can understand these signs. For advertising
and advertisers the use of images has to be in keeping with the culture and the customers‟ preference if it is to
be of any significance. For example gold can embody royalty and high end customers. The significance of
gold is rarity and its attractive nature.
Semiotics includes the following (Lawes, 2002):
• Visual signs
• Linguistic
• Aural signs
• The Implied communication situation
• Textual structure
• Information structure
• Visual emphasis
• Genre
•Binary opposition and contrast pairs
•Communication codes
Semiotics studies human communication and consumer culture. It can track changing cultural signs. It can
be used for analyzing marketing communications. The advertiser can analyze the thinking of a rival by the
semiotic signs used. It is a useful and relative tool in advertising.
Color has its own importance in advertising. “In a marketplace typically characterized by a cluttered media
environment and an often undifferentiated product market, an important goal of an advertiser would be to
select colors that maximize attention, provide a more realistic and appealing portrayal of the product or
service, and arouse appropriate feelings,” says Wells, et al, 1992. There has also been some research on hue or
the dark and light aspects of color (Bellizzi et al, 1983 and Crowley, 1993).
An effort has been made in this paper to gauge the semiotic connotations of Thai Airways advertising
which play an important role in the advertisement.
II. Findings and Discussion
The Thai Airways Company Limited is the national carrier of the Kingdom of Thailand operating
domestic, regional and intercontinental flights radiating from its home base in Bangkok to key destinations
around the world and within Thailand.
Thai Airways advertising can be seen all around in magazines, newspapers, bill-boards and various other
media. The advertisement normally features two female airhostess smiling and welcoming passengers with
75
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
the traditional Thai attire. The women are dressed in the uniform of Thai Airways Company. They sport violet
colored traditional Thai attire. The backdrop of the advertisement features Thai temples or an interesting
destination in Thailand: It is a distinct view of pagodas or temples, a river or some other view of scenic beauty
within the Kingdom.
The slogans are at times adjusted or attuned, for example, “Smooth as silk between Shanghai and
Bangkok”, or “Smooth as Silk to Sapporo” or “A Journey of Silk”. The orchid flower is frequently visible in
the advertisement. At times it is in the tail of the aircraft. It is always visible in the lapel of the dress of the
airhostesses‟ featured in the advertisement. Thus, the advertisement for the national carrier presents Thai
tradition, culture, attire and manners. It also depicts the color violet with unchanging frequency setting a
semiotic pattern for the advertisement.
To gauge the linguistic, semiotic and visual impact of Thai Airways advertising, a questionnaire was
prepared. This questionnaire was distributed between 2nd and 10th March, 2014 in Bangkok and Bang Saen to
persons in the age group 20 to 65 years of age. Of the 30 questionnaires distributed, 23 were valid ones.
There were eighteen respondents of Thai nationality, two Indian and one each of Chinese, Burmese and
Pakistani nationality. There were 48% male respondents and 52% female respondents. 48% respondents were
in the age group 20-30 years, 32% respondents were in the 30-45 age group and 21% respondents were above
45 years of age.
43.5% respondents had flown Thai Airways one to five times, 13% of the respondents had flown the
airline five to 10 times, 26% of the respondents had flown the airlines 10-25 times and 17% respondents had
flown more than 25 times (Table 1).
Table 1 Frequency of flying Thai Airways by Respondents
Flown Thai Airways One to Five
Times
43.5%
Flown Thai Airways Five to
Ten times
13.5%
Flown Thai Airways Ten to
Twenty-five times
26%
Flown Thai Airways more than
25 times
17%
76
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
Feelings which the slogan “Smooth as Silk evoked: 60.8% opted for the feeling of “smoothness”, 26% for
“beauty”, 17.3% for orchid flower, 17% for “Thainess”, 13% for the color violet, 21.7% for “silkiness”, 4%
for safety, 4% for old and senior air hostesses‟ and one for “perfection”. 83% found the color violet
„pleasing‟ while 17% did not find the color pleasing (Table 2).
Table 2 Attributes for the Slogan of Thai Airways
Slogan: Smooth as Silk
________________________________________________________________________________________
Smoothness
60.8%
Silkiness
21.7%
Beauty
2 6%
Orchid flower
17.3%
“Thainess”
17. 3%
Color Violet
13.04%
Safety
4.3%
Old and senior airhostesses
4.3%
When asked whether they found the use of orchid as a symbol of advertising in the advisement appropriate
83% of respondents found it appropriate while 17% did not. Explanations about the appropriateness ranged
from “symbol of Thainess” and “secondary symbol of Thailand” to “it is one of the most popular flowers in
Thailand adored by those who have seen it”. “Good symbol”, good image, freshness, beauty and smoothness;
natural and colorful; beautiful, wonderful, good meaning, attractive and mysterious were some of the
adjectives used to describe the symbol.
77
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
When asked whether they chosen to fly Thai airways because of its advertising, 52% respondents said that
they did while 48% said that they did not. Those who said “No” opined that they chose to fly Thai Airways
did so because of the nationalism associated with the national carrier, special promotion, convenient timings,
ease of access, flying to destinations where other airlines do not go, air fare reasonableness, scheduling,
convenience and ROP program.
Regarding the content of the airlines in-flight magazine, from those who had read the magazine 70%
respondents found the contents suitable while 30% did not. The latter found the content “too much
advertising, less essence”, “containing a variety of interesting information on attractions of Thailand, shows
the culture and festivals of Thailand”, etc.
One respondent said that “It provides sufficient information as needed at the same time it helps me to
know more about the promotions, updates and other things going on in Thailand”. Thus the emphasis on
Thailand continued.
However, 13% of the respondents had not seen the magazine.
III. Conclusion
All respondents analyzed the advertisement finding it positively appealing. The majority opted for feelings
of “smoothness” that the advertisement evolved. Almost 80 percent of the respondents found the violet color
pleasing. This reiterates that “Colors can be used to generate good feelings and increase the persuasiveness of
advertising” (Tucker, 1987). The orchid flower used in the advertisement evoked feelings of Thainess,
popularity, good image and beauty. It was also seen as an image of Thailand. It may be further relevant to
research color usage in a cultural context. “Thus it may be that color effects operate at both a basic, universal
level and a culture-specific level. The findings of such research should not only help the advertiser select
color(s) for particular cultures or countries, but also help with other decisions like whether and when to vary
or standardize the color(s) used in advertising in different countries” ( Gorn et al, 1997).
Fifty percent of respondents said that they chose to fly Thai Airways because of its advertising while
others said the convenience, special promotion, discount, timings etc. made them choose the airline over
others.
The advertising of Thai Airways through its advertisements and magazine are successful. It may have
prompted only fifty percent of the respondents to travel by this airline due to its advertising, but the
significant “recall” done by all participants makes this an effective advertisement. The concept of “recall” is
well known in advertising. Business dictionary says: “Remembrance of what has been heard, seen or
otherwise experienced, such as that of an advertisement, commercial or demonstration”. Further, the relative
78
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
importance of brand recall will depend on the extent to which the consumer makes product related decisions,
which leads to brand awareness (Keller, 2006). This brand awareness, in turn helps in recalling the
advertisement. Memories of the brand consist of those associations which are related to brand name in the
consumer‟s mind. This brand cognition influences consideration, evaluation and finally purchasing
(Romaniuk and Sharp, 2003).
The choice of the color violet has been significant, pleasing and appropriate; the flower orchid is
associated with Thailand since it is the national flower.
Thus, the advertisement with its symbolic layout, language, color, and slogan are effective. Tourism as a
language and associated references to communication, advertising, publicity and promotion can be
emphasized once more. The linguistic implications of tourism advertising are strong and advertisers need to
further research the language which will appeal to the masses and which has a strong „recall‟ for diverse
customers.
MacCanell‟s (1989:2, 5) statement that there is “a privileged relationship between tourism and semiotics”
since both have implications concerning the other in global socio-cultural arrangements is reiterated.
However, considering the findings of this paper, a semiotic and linguistic approach to the study of advertising
language may well be significant in the future.
REFERENCES
Aliede J. 2002. “Professionalizing advertising in Nigeria: The role of the advertising practioners’ council of Nigeria (apcon)”. Enugu:
New Generation Books.
Bellizzi J., Crowley E.E., Hasty R.W., 1983. The Effects of color in Store Design, Journal of Retailing, 21-43. 1983 (Spring).
Bousch, D. M. 1993. How advertising slogans can prime evaluations of brand extensions. Journal of Psychology and Marketing, 10(1),
67-78.
Bruthiaux P. 1996. “The discourse of classified advertising: Exploring the nature of linguistic simplicity”. 1996. New York: Oxford
University Press.Bruthiaux P. 1996.
Cleveland C.E. 1986. Semiotics: Determining What the Advertising Message Means to the Audience, Advertising and Consumer
Psychology, Vol. 3, Jerry Olsen and Keith Sentis, (eds.), New York: Praeger Publishers, 227-241. 1986.
Cook G.2001. “The Discourse of Advertising”. 2001. London: Routledge.
Crowley A. E. 1993. The Two Dimensional Impact of Color on Shopping. Marketing Letters, 4, 59-69, 1
Dahlen M. & Rosengren, S. 2005. Brands affect slogans affect brands? Competitive interference, brand equity and the brand slogan link.
Journal of Brand Management. 12(3), 151-164.
Forceville, C. 1996. “Pictorial Metaphor in Advertising”. Rout ledge, London and New York.
Forceville, C. 2005. Addressing an audience: time, place and genre in Peter Van Straaten‟s calendar cartoons. Humour 18(3), 247-278.
Forceville, C. 2006. Non-verbal and multimodal metaphor in a cognitive framework: agendas for research. In: Kristiansen, Gitte,
Achard, Michel.
Forceville, C. 2009. Urios-Aparisi, Eduardo (Eds.) “Multimodal Metaphor”. Mouton-de Gruyter, Berlin and New York
Gardener R., Luchtenberg S. 2000. Reference, image in text in German and Australian advertising posters. Journal of Pragmatics, 32,
1807-1821.
Giesenger S. 2001. The history of advertising language: The advertisements in The Times from 1788 to 1996. Frankfurt am Main: Peter
Lang.
Goddard A. 1998. “The Language of Advertising. “ 1998. Rout ledge.
Gold J., Gold M. 1994. Home at last! Building societies home ownership and the imagery of English suburban promotion in the interwar
79
Proceedings of the Burapha University International Conference 2015, 10-12 July 2015, Bangsaen, Chonburi, Thailand
years. In: Gold J. and Ward, S. (Eds.) Place Promotion. The Use of publicity and Marketing to Sell town and regions. Wiley,
Chichester, pp 153-179. 1994.
Gorn, J. Chattopadhyay A., Yi, T., Dahl D.H. 1997 (Oct) Effect of Color as an Executional Cue in Advertising: They‟re in the Shade,
Management Science, Vol. 43, No. 10, pp. 1387-1400. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2634413. 1997 (Oct.)
Grunig B.N. 1990. “Les mots de l:a publicite: L’architecture du slogan” [ The words of advertising: The architecture of the slogan].,
Paris: Presses Du CNRS
Harris R., Ruth J., Sturn E., Klassen M.L., Bechtold J.I., 1986. Language in Advertising: A Psycholingustic Approach, Current Issues
and Research in Advertising, Vol. 9, Nos. 1 and 2, James H. Leigh and Claude R. Martin, Jr., (eds.) Ann Arbor, MI University of
Michigan, 1-26.
Hermeren L. 1999. “English for sale: A study of the language of Advertising”. Lund: Lund University Press.
Kenechukwu S. A., Asemah E.S., Edegoh L.O.N. Behind Advertising: The Language of Persuasion, 3(4), 952. 2013.
Keller L.K. 2006. “Strategic Brand Management Process in Perspective of modern brand management”. Ed. Dr. Franz-Rudolf Esch.
Kohli, C., Suri R.,& Thakor, M.V. 2002. Creating effective logos: Insights from theory and practice. Business Horizons. 45(3), 58-64.
Krutik S., Alan D. 2009. “Advertising and promotions: An imc perspectives”. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company
Limited.
Lawes, R. 2002. Demystifying Semiotics: Some Key Questions Answered. International Journal of Marketing Research. 3rd Quarter, 44;
3, ABI/INFORM Global, 251-264.
Leiss W., Kliene S., Jhally S.1986. “Social Communication in Advertising: Person, Products and Images of Well Being”. Toronto,
Canada: Methuen, Inc.
Levy S.J. 1986. Meanings in Advertising Stimuli. Advertising and Consumer Psychology, Vol. 3, Jerry Olsen and Keith Sentis (eds.),
New York Pager Publishers, 275-283.
MacCannel. 1989. Introduction to special issue on the semiotics of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 16, 1-6.
McQuarrie E.F., Mick D.G. 1999. Visual rhetoric in advertising text: Interpretative, experimental and reader-response analyses. Journal
of Consumer Research. 26(1), 37-54.
Myer G. 1998. “Ad world: Brands, media, audiences”. London: Edward Arnold.
O‟Barr W.M. 1994. “Culture and the ad: Exploring otherness in the world of advertising” .Boulder: West View.
Romaniuk J.,Sharp B. 2003. Brand Salience and Consumer Defection in Subscription markets. Journal of Marketing Management. 19:3,
25-44.
Rush S. 1998. The Noun Phrase in Advertising English. Journal of Pragmatics, 29, 155-171.
Schmidt R., Shimura A., Wang Z., Jeong H.S. 1995. Suggestions to buy: Television commercials from the U.S., Japan, China and Korea.
In J. Neu & S.M. Gass (Eds.), Speech acts across Cultures, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 285-316.
Simpson P. 2001. “Reason” and “tickle” as pragmatic constructs in the discourse of advertising. Journal of Pragmatics, 33, 589-607.
Tanaka K. 1994. “Advertising Language: A Pragmatic Approach to Advertisements in Britain and Japan”. Rout ledge.
Tanaka, K. 1992. The Pun in advertising: a Pragmatic Approach. Lingua 87, 91-102.
Tucker, Ja-Von. Printing: Psychology of Color. Target Marketing, 10(7), 40-49.
Van Enschot, Renske, Hoeken, Hans, Van Mulken, Margot, 2005. Is More Complex Better? Verbo-pictorial figures in Magazine
Advertisements. In: Diehl, Sandra, Terlutter, Ralf, Weinberg, Peter (Eds.), Advertising and Communication, Vol. 1, Saarland
University, Saarbruecken, pp. 92-99.
Vestergaard, K. S. 1993. “The language of Advertising.” Blackwell: Oxford.
Wells W.J., Burnett W.J., Moriarty S. 1992. Advertising Principles and Practice. Prentice-Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
80