International Journal
on
New Trends in Education
and
Their Implications
(IJONTE)
July 2016
Volume: 7
Issue: 3
ISSN 1309-6249
http://ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Contact Addresses
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü Teknik
Okullar Ankara/Türkiye
E. Mail: ijonte2010@gmail.com
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre
Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: ijonte2010@gmail.com Phone: +905422322167
Abstracting & Indexing
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications (IJONTE) is currently indexed,
abstracted and listed starting with the first issue in:
i
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
ii
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Sponsors
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey
Associate Editors
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beyhan Zabun, Gazi University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University- Turkey
Dr. Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC
Dr. Ufuk Tanyeri, Ankara University, Turkey
Dr. Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC
Assistant Editor
PhDc. Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC
Editorial Board
Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax- Tunisia
Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur- Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ali Murat Sunbul, Selcuk University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University- TRNC
Prof. Dr. Ali Simsek, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University- Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University- Greece
Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University- Poland
Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute- Latvia
Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico- USA
Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge- United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada- USA
Prof. Dr. Coskun Bayrak, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University- Canada
Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Erol Yildiz, Alpen-Adria University- Austria
Prof. Dr. Esmahan Agaoglu, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University- South America
Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information"- Kazakhstan
Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen- Netherlands
Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabasi, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland- Finland
Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Hacettepe University- Turkey
iii
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University- United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Jozef Gašparík, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava- Slovakia
Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University- Japan
Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology- India
Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti- Romania
Prof. Dr. Manuel Alberto M. Ferreira, Lisbon University Institute- Portugal
Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University- Canada
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karsli, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University- Taiwan
Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University- United Arab Emirates
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abolgasem Artemimi, Zawia Engineering College- Libya
Prof. Dr. Mufit Komleksiz, Cyprus International University- TRNC
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Cakir, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Nedim Gurses, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University- China
Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University- India
Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign- USA
Prof. Dr. Roberta E. (Bobby) Harreveld, Queensland University- Australia
Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains- Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University- India
Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute- Latvia
Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University- Georgia
Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University- Germany
Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow- United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics- Lithuania
Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University- China
Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpinar, Bogaziçi University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel- Israel
Prof. Dr. Yuksel Kavak, Hacettepe University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University- Belgium
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago- USA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus- Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University- Lithuania
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney- Australia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ozgen Korkmaz, Mevlana University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv- Bulgaria
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente- Netherlands
Assoc. Prof. Dr. S. Raja, ASL Pauls College of Engineering and Technology- India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University- India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth- United Kingdom
Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center- Ukrania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University- Romania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Charles University- Czech Republic
Dr. Carmencita L. Castolo, Polytechnic University- Philippines
iv
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University- Jordan
Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside- United Kingdom
Dr. Ufuk Tanyeri, Ankara University, Turkey
v
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249
Dear IJONTE Readers,
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications- IJONTE appears on your screen now
as Volume 7, Number 3. In this issue it publishes 10 articles. And this time, 21 authors from 2 different
countries are placed. These are Turkey and Kazakhstan.
Our journal has been published for over five years. It has been followed by many people and a lot of articles
have been sent to be published. 472 articles have been sent to referees for forthcoming issues. They will be
published according to the order and the results. Articles are sent to referees without names and addresses of
the authors. The articles who get positive responses will be published and the authors will be informed. The
articles who are not accepted to be published will be returned to their authors.
We wish you success and easiness in your studies.
Cordially,
st
1 July, 2016
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki KAYA, Gazi University, Ankara- TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Anadolu University, Eskisehir- TURKEY
vi
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Contents ISSN 1309-6249
FROM EDITORS………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………..……………....vi
CONTENTS……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………….vii
ARTICLES
01. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN TURKEY AND THE WORLD: NEW TRENDS AND PROBLEMS…………01
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELİŞLİ- TURKEY, PhDc. Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA- KAZAKHISTAN,
Dr. Malik Zh SULTANBEK- KAZAKHSTAN, PhDc. Akkanzhe USSENOVA – KAZAKHSTAN
02. THE EFFECT OF INFORMAL LEARNING ON TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
A CASE STUDY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11
Rabia VEZNE, Prof. Dr. İlhan GÜNBAYI- TURKEY
03. MOBILE LITERACY REQUIREMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING………………………………………..23
Ilker VATANSEVER, Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgun OZDAMAR KESKIN- TURKEY
04. A REVIEW ON THE PROGRAM EVALUATION STRATEGIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION……………………………….33
Prof. Dr. Salih UŞUN- TURKEY
05. EFFECT OF UNIVERSITY’S WEB PAGES TO STUDENTS IN PREFERENCE PERIOD…………………………………………46
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa COŞAR- TURKEY
06. FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING PURPOSES…………………….52
Prof. Dr. İbrahim AKMAN, Assist. Prof. Dr. Çiğdem TURHAN- TURKEY
07. THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT-CONTENT INTERACTION ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
IN DISTANCE-LEARNING COURSES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….60
Dr. Neslihan Fatma ER, Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ER- TURKEY
08. PRESERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS' ORIENTATIONS TOWARDS TEACHING SCIENCE
TO MIDDLE SCHOOLERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ- TURKEY
09. THE VIEWS OF SCIENCE TEACHER CANDIDATES REGARDING THE COLLECTION,
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE BATTERIES………………………………………………………………………………………..79
Prof. Dr. Ayhan YILMAZ, PhDc. Zeynep AKSAN, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇELİKLER- TURKEY
10. ARTVIN CITIZENS’ REASONING ABOUT A LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE: CERATTEPE……………………………88
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ- TURKEY
vii
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal
on
New Trends in Education
and
Their Implications
(IJONTE)
July 2016
Volume: 7
Issue: 3
ISSN 1309-6249
http://ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Contact Addresses
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi Üniversitesi, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Bölümü Teknik
Okullar Ankara/Türkiye
E. Mail: ijonte2010@gmail.com
Prof. Dr. Uğur Demiray, Anadolu Üniversitesi, İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, Yunusemre
Kampüsü, 26470 Eskişehir/Türkiye
E. Mail: ijonte2010@gmail.com Phone: +905422322167
Abstracting & Indexing
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications (IJONTE) is currently indexed,
abstracted and listed starting with the first issue in:
i
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
ii
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Sponsors
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey
Associate Editors
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Beyhan Zabun, Gazi University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ilknur Istifci, Anadolu University- Turkey
Dr. Nazan Dogruer, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC
Dr. Ufuk Tanyeri, Ankara University, Turkey
Dr. Ramadan Eyyam, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC
Assistant Editor
PhDc. Ipek Menevis, Eastern Mediterranean University- TRNC
Editorial Board
Prof. Dr. Ali H. Raddaoui, University of Sfax- Tunisia
Prof. Dr. Abdul Hakim Juri, University of Kuala Lumpur- Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Ali Murat Sunbul, Selcuk University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Ahmet Pehlivan, Cyprus International University- TRNC
Prof. Dr. Ali Simsek, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Antoinette J. Muntjewerff, Amsterdam University- Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Antonis Lionarakis, Hellenic Open University- Greece
Prof. Dr. Augustyn Bańka, Nicolaus Copernicus University- Poland
Prof. Dr. Boriss Misnevs, Transport and Telecommunication Institute- Latvia
Prof. Dr. Charlotte Nirmalani (Lani) Gunawardena, University of New Mexico- USA
Prof. Dr. Christine Howe, University of Cambridge- United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Cevat Celep, Kocaeli University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Cleborne D. Maddux, University of Nevada- USA
Prof. Dr. Coskun Bayrak, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Danièle Moore, Simon Fraser University- Canada
Prof. Dr. Emine Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Erol Yildiz, Alpen-Adria University- Austria
Prof. Dr. Esmahan Agaoglu, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Francis Glasgow, Guyana University- South America
Prof. Dr. Gonca Telli Yamamoto, Okan University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Gul Nurgalieva, Joint-stock company,"National Center of Information"- Kazakhstan
Prof. Dr. Harold Bekkering, University of Nijmegen- Netherlands
Prof. Dr. H. Ferhan Odabasi, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Heli Ruokamo, University of Lapland- Finland
Prof. Dr. I. Hakki Mirici, Hacettepe University- Turkey
iii
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Prof. Dr. Jim Flood, Open University- United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Jozef Gašparík, Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava- Slovakia
Prof. Dr. Kiyoshi Nakabayashi, Kumamoto University- Japan
Prof. Dr. K. M. Gupta, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology- India
Prof. Dr. Liliana Ezechil, University of Piteşti- Romania
Prof. Dr. Manuel Alberto M. Ferreira, Lisbon University Institute- Portugal
Prof. Dr. Marie J. Myers, Queen's University- Canada
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu Karsli, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Mehmet Kesim, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Meral Aksu, Middle East Technical University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Min Jou, National Taiwan Normal University- Taiwan
Prof. Dr. Modafar Ati, Abu Dhabi University- United Arab Emirates
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abolgasem Artemimi, Zawia Engineering College- Libya
Prof. Dr. Mufit Komleksiz, Cyprus International University- TRNC
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Cakir, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Nedim Gurses, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Paul Kawachi, Bejing Normal University- China
Prof. Dr. Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University- India
Prof. Dr. Richard C. Hunter, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign- USA
Prof. Dr. Roberta E. (Bobby) Harreveld, Queensland University- Australia
Prof. Dr. Rozhan M. Idrus, School of Distance Education, University Sains- Malaysia
Prof. Dr. Santosh Panda, Indira Gandhi National Open University- India
Prof. Dr. Selahattin Gelbal, Hacettepe University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Sharif H. Guseynov, Transport and Telecommunication Institute- Latvia
Prof. Dr. Tamar Lominadze, Georgian Technical University- Georgia
Prof. Dr. Tanja Betz, Goethe University- Germany
Prof. Dr. Tony Townsend, University of Glasgow- United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Ugur Demiray, Anadolu University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Valentina Dagiene, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics- Lithuania
Prof. Dr. Xibin Han, Tsinghua University- China
Prof. Dr. Yavuz Akpinar, Bogaziçi University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Yoav Yair,The Open University of Israel- Israel
Prof. Dr. Yuksel Kavak, Hacettepe University- Turkey
Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaya, Gazi University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Carlos Machado, Vrije University- Belgium
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Danny Bernard Martin, University of Ilinois at Chicago- USA
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Demetrios G. Sampson, University of Piraeus- Greece
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Irfan Yurdabakan, Dokuz Eykul University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Natalija Lepkova, Vilnius Gediminas Technical University- Lithuania
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Nigel Bagnall, The University of Sydney- Australia
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ozgen Korkmaz, Mevlana University- Turkey
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rositsa Doneva, Paisii Hilendarski University of Plovdiv- Bulgaria
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Piet Kommers, University of Twente- Netherlands
Assoc. Prof. Dr. S. Raja, ASL Pauls College of Engineering and Technology- India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Shivakumar Deene, Karnataka State Open University- India
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Steve Wheeler, University of Plymouth- United Kingdom
Assist. Prof. Dr. Katherine Sinitsa, International Research and Training Center- Ukrania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Roxana Criu, Cuza University- Romania
Assist. Prof. Dr. Zdena Lustigova, Charles University- Czech Republic
Dr. Carmencita L. Castolo, Polytechnic University- Philippines
iv
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 ISSN 1309-6249
Dr. Hisham Mobaideen, Mu'tah University- Jordan
Dr. Simon Stobart, University of Teesside- United Kingdom
Dr. Ufuk Tanyeri, Ankara University, Turkey
v
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 From Editors ISSN 1309-6249
Dear IJONTE Readers,
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications- IJONTE appears on your screen now
as Volume 7, Number 3. In this issue it publishes 10 articles. And this time, 21 authors from 2 different
countries are placed. These are Turkey and Kazakhstan.
Our journal has been published for over five years. It has been followed by many people and a lot of articles
have been sent to be published. 472 articles have been sent to referees for forthcoming issues. They will be
published according to the order and the results. Articles are sent to referees without names and addresses of
the authors. The articles who get positive responses will be published and the authors will be informed. The
articles who are not accepted to be published will be returned to their authors.
We wish you success and easiness in your studies.
Cordially,
st
1 July, 2016
Editors
Prof. Dr. Zeki KAYA, Gazi University, Ankara- TURKEY
Prof. Dr. Ugur DEMIRAY, Anadolu University, Eskisehir- TURKEY
vi
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Contents ISSN 1309-6249
FROM EDITORS………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………..……………....vi
CONTENTS……………………………………………………….………………………………………………………………………………………….vii
ARTICLES
01. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN TURKEY AND THE WORLD: NEW TRENDS AND PROBLEMS…………01
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELİŞLİ- TURKEY, PhDc. Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA- KAZAKHISTAN,
Dr. Malik Zh SULTANBEK- KAZAKHSTAN, PhDc. Akkanzhe USSENOVA – KAZAKHSTAN
02. THE EFFECT OF INFORMAL LEARNING ON TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
A CASE STUDY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..11
Rabia VEZNE, Prof. Dr. İlhan GÜNBAYI- TURKEY
03. MOBILE LITERACY REQUIREMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING………………………………………..23
Ilker VATANSEVER, Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgun OZDAMAR KESKIN- TURKEY
04. A REVIEW ON THE PROGRAM EVALUATION STRATEGIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION……………………………….33
Prof. Dr. Salih UŞUN- TURKEY
05. EFFECT OF UNIVERSITY’S WEB PAGES TO STUDENTS IN PREFERENCE PERIOD…………………………………………46
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa COŞAR- TURKEY
06. FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING PURPOSES…………………….52
Prof. Dr. İbrahim AKMAN, Assist. Prof. Dr. Çiğdem TURHAN- TURKEY
07. THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT-CONTENT INTERACTION ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
IN DISTANCE-LEARNING COURSES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….60
Dr. Neslihan Fatma ER, Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ER- TURKEY
08. PRESERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS' ORIENTATIONS TOWARDS TEACHING SCIENCE
TO MIDDLE SCHOOLERS……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….69
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ- TURKEY
09. THE VIEWS OF SCIENCE TEACHER CANDIDATES REGARDING THE COLLECTION,
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE BATTERIES………………………………………………………………………………………..79
Prof. Dr. Ayhan YILMAZ, PhDc. Zeynep AKSAN, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇELİKLER- TURKEY
10. ARTVIN CITIZENS’ REASONING ABOUT A LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE: CERATTEPE……………………………88
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ, Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ- TURKEY
vii
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN TURKEY AND THE WORLD:
NEW TRENDS AND PROBLEMS
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELİŞLİ
Gazi University
Gazi Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Ankara- TURKEY
PhDc. Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA
L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Philology Faculty
Astana- KAZAKHISTAN
Dr. Malik Zh SULTANBEK
International Kazakh-Turkish Unıversity
Turkishtan- KAZAKHSTAN
PhDc. Akkanzhe USSENOVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University
Almaty- KAZAKHSTAN
ABSTRACT
This study aims to analyze the development and problems of vocational education systems in the globalizing
world. It also investigates the implications of educational development on vocational education. As it suggests
the development and problems of vocational education both in Turkey and within international context, it is a
descriptive study which is designed through qualitative research method. To collect data, literature related to
vocational education was examined.
The results of the study indicate that the implementations with regard to vocational education are schoolbased vocational education and instruction, dual apprenticeship system and informal implementations.
Keywords: Education, Vocational Education, Models in Vocational Education.
INTRODUCTION
The role of qualified workforce which requires individuals to have knowledge, skills and competencies is crucial
as they are the key elements for the industrialization and development of countries. Vocational and technical
education is a kind of training which systematically supports individuals with the necessary knowledge, skills
and competencies for the occupational areas needed in every aspect of social life. Accordingly, vocational and
technical education has to provide individuals with the skills, abilities and competencies necessary for their
occupations in accordance with the targets of economy and the demands of business world (MEB, 2012; 11).
Vocational education and training (VET) can play a central role in preparing young people for work, developing
the skills of adults and responding to the labor-market needs of the economy. Despite this role, VET has been
oddly neglected and marginalized in policy discussions, often overshadowed by the increasing emphasis on
1
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
general academic education and the role of schools in preparing students for university education(OECD; 2010,
9).
Vocational education, which provides individuals with the knowledge, skills and competencies and improving
their abilities in a variety of ways, puts forward its function and qualitative power according to country’s
economic situation. Therefore, the reason of vocational education is labor market, and its main goal is to meet
the demands of business world and workforce for it. This aim is not against the political stance of vocational
education; on the contrary, a common purpose supported by public. In this sense, vocational and technical
education is a process to educate individuals for the necessary knowledge, skills and behaviors for a certain
kind of profession and to enable individuals to be financially and socially powerful in social life. It intends to
prepare them for industry, agriculture, commerce and other service areas; to develop them by in-service
training and to set out principles for formal, non-formal and apprenticeship education (T.C. Hitit University,
2012;11).
Knowledge, skill and competency-based education is gaining importance day by day. To provide education in
accordance with the demands of labor market, to empower the relations between education and
employment, to implement active workforce policies effectively, to increase the employment of workforce by
solving unemployment problems are among the priority issues for industrial countries (MEB, 2012; 11).
In today’s world, through rapid technological change and globalization process, vocational and technical
education is considered crucial. These developments directly effect the labor market and cause changes in it,
and requires workforce to be educated within a systematic plan. Thus, there is a strong relationship between
education policies and building new knowledge, skill and competency. This requires a qualified vocational and
technical education organized in accordance with the changing and developing environment (MEB, 2012; 11).
The need of workforce in Turkish Industry is an important subject for Turkish economy which tries to gain an
international competitive capacity. Outward-oriented economic policy requires workforce to increase the level
of quality and performance. This can only be achieved by supporting economic development and accelerating.
Vocational and technical high schools, which are key elements in vocational education system, are educational
institutions which educate employees for different professional fields and prepare students for higher
education institutions (Yörük et al, 2002; 301).
Traditionally, vocational and technical education has been one of the most important matters all over the
world (Şencan; 2008). The number one reason for this is that unemployment rates increased in 2008 in many
countries. These rates have increased in many industrial and developing countries. Vocational and technical
education has been regarded as important for the youth to have new opportunities. Considering the
percentages of young people (18-24) who are unemployed and lack of education in EU countries, it has a
range from 4% (Holland) to 20% (Greece and Italy) . This rate is over 20% in Latin American countries and 25%
in African countries (Eichhorst, 2012).
In Turkey, there have been many studies and reports about the development, revision and reconstruction of
vocational and technical education. However, the views and suggestions from these studies haven’t been as
effective as expected. Therefore, many young people are still unemployed. On the other hand, companies
have difficulty in finding qualified employee. The reason is that unemployed young people are the ones who
graduate from general high schools and don’t have an area of profession. Another reason is that individuals
who graduate from vocational high schools are not well-educated (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 1-2).
.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the development and problems of vocational education systems in the
globalizing world and suggest new models within the context. It also investigates the reflections of
developments in the educational world on vocational education.
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METHODOLOGY
This study suggests the development and problems of vocational education both in Turkey and within
international context; therefore, it is a descriptive study which is designed through qualitative method. The
data were collected through analyzing the national and international reports and articles related to vocational
education.
FINDINGS
This section discusses the current situation of vocational education in Turkey and the world, problems and new
models suggested for vocational education. The models for vocational education can be categorized as follows;
Vocational Education Models in Developed and Developing Countries
There are a great number of implications within vocational education throughout the world (Eichhorst, 2012).
1. School-based Implications
Described as “Full-time Vocational and Technical Education Model”, this model is based on a-8-10-year
compulsory primary education. After this period is completed, some students are directed to professional life
and some others who have succeeded to some extend are directed to study at higher education institutions.
Meanwhile, this education is quite expensive and requires the school equipment to be renewed regularly.
Vocational education provides students with the knowledge and skills required for their occupations. This
model is commonly used by most of the developed countries (which focus on full-time vocational and
technical education) such as:
 Northern Europe Countries: Spain, Portuguese, Greece, Belgium, Sweden, France and Italy.
 Middle East and Northern Africa Countries (MENA): Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan, Algeria, Israel, Israel, Syria,
Turkey Russia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania Slovenia and Serbia.
 Central Southern Africa Countries: Madagascar, Mali, Senegal.
2. Dual Apprenticeship System (School-based and Workplace-based; Dual System)
In this system, students have theoretical training at school and hands-on training at workplace. Countries such
as Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Austria focus on apprenticeship model. Similarly, the USA, Holland and
England use both models together.
3. Informal Based Implications
Informal vocational education causes informal employment in many developing countries, which is a big
problem. In many countries such as India and Africa, vocational education or instruction is based on so-called
traditional or informal apprenticeship system. This system is also called clandestine apprenticeship. This
system is usually used in the countries with a low level of labor market and economy (ex: Sub-Sahara
countries, Southern and Northern Africa, and Middle-East countries.).
The models that are used by certain countries can be classified as follows:
Vocational Educational Model in Germany
Vocational education is a keystone in German economy. All the investments in this field is considered as
investments for the future and applied according to view. After the First World War, trade unions began to be
interested in vocational education and introduced apprenticeship law in 1969, then reformed in 2005.
Secondary education structure in Germany is given Table 1 (http://www.tesk.org.tr/tr/proje/yurutulen
/ekspertiz/almanya.html).
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Table 1: Secondary Education Structure in Germany
School Types in General Secondary Education (Gymnasiale Obrestufe):
Gymnasium/ Berufliches Gymnasium/ Fachgymnasium/ Gesamtschule
Vocational Education
Berufsfachschule (Full-time vocational school)
Fachoberschule (Full-time vocational school)
Barufsoberschule (Full-time vocational school)
Duales system (Dual System: Part-time Full-time vocational school and
part-time on-the-job instruction)
16 – 18/ 19 years
15/16 – 18 years
16 – 18 years
18 – 19 years
15/16 – 18/19 years
In German dual system, general education graduates study at vocational training programs for 2-3 years
following full-time compulsory education. This system is called dual system as the students have training both
at workplace and vocational schools (berufsschule) at the same time. The reason why German education
system is powerful in EU countries is its strong cooperation and collaboration between school and
employment. With its intrabusiness training and 1-2 days of theoretical training at school, dual system
provides the students with experience and employment opportunities for their future careers. In Germany,
general education diplomas or vocational school diplomas are at the same level of importance. The basis of
the system goes back to the guilds which provided vocational training in the middle age. With its Vocational
Education Law legislated in 1969, dual vocational system took its present form. In addition to learning about
the professional field, the students gain experience. Dual vocational education has been approved in every
part of the economy since 2007 and it serves for 346 jobs. The duration for dual vocational education is usually
between 2,5 and 4 years (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 4).
Table 2: German Dual Vocational Education System (Özdemir, 2012).
Compulsory
Education (9 years)
On-the-job (practical) education
+
Theoretical education at school
Full-time Vocational
Schools
Education-Business World Cooperation
Private Sector
Public Sector
In Germany, firms are rented to be used by vocational education system, which has been really successful. The
rent and payment procedure of these firms in cooperation with the institutional conditions of German
vocational education system have been simply modelled. These implications on dual vocational education
system, which use schools and physical environment effectively, is common and successful in Germany (Binici
and Arı, 2004; 387-388).
The executive institutions that run the process of German vocational education system are Federal Ministry of
Education and Research, Federal Institution of Education and Instruction and Chambers of Commerce and
Industry. Chambers of Commerce and Industry are represented by Federal Institution of Education and
Instruction. In dual system, schools are funded by the state and municipalities; firms by themselves. Vocational
Education Commissions and Testing Commissions within the scope of chambers are responsible for (Özdemir,
2012):
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The accreditation of business for apprenticeship
Supervision of the education in terms of content and duration.
Offering consultancy service for firms and apprentices.
Testing, Evaluating and the certification of apprentices.
Keeping the records of contracts.
Mentoring apprentices for career
Firms in dual system take their own decisions on how many students they will accept, which professional field
they will provide hands-on training for and how much to spend on these. The following are the responsibilities
of these firms (Özdemir, 2012):
1. Preparing an educational plan in accordance with education directive for dual system.
2. Providing students with practical training for a certain occupational area during 3-4 days a week by means
of signing an apprenticeship contract.
3. Providing environment and educators for practical training.
4. Paying an amount of salary to students.
The main purpose of dual vocational education system is to provide students with the extensive knowledge
and skills for their future careers in accordance with the changing needs of the business world. Many
graduates from different secondary schools (Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gymnasium, Gesamtschule or a
vocational school) reconvene in dual system. To take part in the system, no other prerequisites are needed
(Altay and Üstün, 2011; 4).
Vocational Education Model in Finland
Primary education in Finland is for 7-16-year of children and lasts 9 years. The second half of secondary
education provides the students with the general education. This period ends with abitur exam. Primary
vocational education is provided by specialized vocational institutions in almost every field with apprenticeship
education. It usually takes 2 or 3 years for the students to complete. This proficiency level enables students to
study at any higher education institutions. Higher education system in Finland includes two parallel sectors:
universities and polytechnic schools. Universities are the institutions which provides students with scientific
research abilities whereas polytechnic schools are for business life and these polytechnics serve high skills
which are determined by themselves. These schools provide higher vocational education in multiple fields for
the students who succeeds in abitur exam. If a student has a degree in a two-year vocational program, he or
she can only study in the same field. It usually takes 3.5-4.5 years to graduate (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 15-16).
Vocational Education Model in the USA
th
The 20 century in the USA resulted in institutional change and this provided technical institutions and public
schools with intermediate staff. Federal government provided financial support to this education but it
resulted in the deceleration of the system. Secondary and Post-secondary education plans should be made
different institutions, which is on debate. To encumber the same responsibilities to two different institutions is
harder for the operation of the system. This procedure has been supported by authorities for the last 20 years.
However, it hasn’t been successful within that period. Rather than certain vocational arrangements from the
developments in 1990s, the focus of secondary schools is more on general abilities. It is under consideration
that federal authorities should run the vocational education system (Binici and Arı, 2004; 388).
Vocational Education Model in South Asia
Many countries apart from EU countries also have successful vocational education models. Findings from
vocational education studies in the countries such as Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and China show that
they do not implement only a single type of education. These countries have realized that non-taxation of
vocational education expenses and encouraging the special training is useful. In addition, the institutions in
these countries have the right to choose their own students and staff and free to select which course to teach.
Employers have joined in many activities related to vocational education. These activities include education
policies and the results of these are compared with alternative interventions in human resources field. There
st
have been many studies on the methods of skill acquisition since the early years of 21 century. These studies
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are based on the new trends and acquisition of collaborative study habits. However, the acquisition of these
habits are difficult. By means of skill improvement and collaborative study habit formation, poverty level
reduce whereas growth rates increase (Binici, Arı, 2004; 388-389).
Kazakhstan Vocational Education Model
In Kazakhstan, VET has three main functions: i) qualification: to provide the population with the skills needed
to foster economic prosperity and social stability; ii) employment: to help the population to find a job suited to
their preferences and responsive to societal needs; and iii) integration: to help individuals to insert successfully
in the society. Students wishing to enter VET institutions in Kazakhstan may do so either at upper secondary
level (currently after 9th grade) or after upper secondary schooling (currently after 11 th grade) (OECD 2013).
Overall, upper-secondary and post-secondary VET are provided at the same institutions in Kazakhstan. Until
2012, two main types of institutions provided VET: colleges and vocational lyceums. Both types of institutions
enable students to obtain a professional diploma in more than 180 professions and 15 fields. The colleges of
technical path and professional lyceums, formerly known as Technikums, tended to focus on training
specialists mainly for industry, building, transport and agriculture. Colleges tended to train specialists outside
the industrial sphere, for example for primary teachers or health professions, but also in the field of art,
theatre or dance. Since 2012, these types of VET institutions have been called colleges. The Law on Education
now stipulates in Article 1, Paragraph 35, and that3: “College” refers to an educational institution
implementing educational programs of technical and vocational education, whether at upper secondary or
postsecondary educational levels (OECD, 2013).
In some, we can device general education track of higher secondary education there are also two types of
vocational tracks: Initial Vocational Education, Secondary Vocational Education. Initial Vocational Education in
Kazakhstan is provided by the country’s (initial) training schools and lycees, while Secondary Vocational
Education is provided by colleges. Below we will take a look at the various institutions that provide basic and
advanced vocational education and the type of programs they institute(http://referatikz.ru).
Training Schools (Initial Vocational Education Track)
Training schools in Kazakhstan are designed to train students in a trade or skilled profession of some type.
These programs, which are entirely vocational in nature, can span anywhere from one to three years,
depending on the type of trade or profession on which the student is focusing his/her study. Graduates of
training schools can go on to further their studies at either a vocational college or university, or enter the
world of employment in the same or related trade. Training school education is provided for students free of
cost, although students may be required to purchase special equipment, textbooks and other
materials(http://referatikz.ru).
Lycees (Initial Vocational Education Track)
The lycees in Kazakhstan are also set up to offer students an initial or basic program of vocational education
and to prepare them for a variety of skilled professions. However, lycees differ from training schools in that
they also offer basic academic education along with specific vocational program instruction. All of the
programs in the country’s lycees span three academic years, often referred to as grades 1012(http://referatikz.ru).
Colleges (Secondary Vocational Education Track)
Secondary or Advanced Vocational Education is provided by Kazakhstan’s colleges, with programs that also
include general academic education. Depending on the field of study, the program length at the country’s
colleges can span anywhere from three to four years—Grades 10-12 or Grades 10-13. Accelerated programs
exist for students who have already completed both general secondary education and initial vocational
training in the same field. Graduates may go on to the university to continue their education or they can opt to
begin working in their chosen field of study. After the 1999 Budget Law was passed, colleges became stateowned and self-financed. [xiii] This was done in part to ensure more of the country’s students continued their
education past the compulsory age of 15(http://referatikz.ru).
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The curriculum for both initial and secondary vocational education is established by the Ministry of Education,
with little choice left up to the individual schools. Textbooks are sold in bookstores throughout the country and
are purchased by the students themselves (http://referatikz.ru).
Vocational Education Model in Turkey
In Turkey, Professional Competency Board carries out the research done by the competency boards in
European countries. Furthermore, within the project for the development of vocational training (MEGEP), 42
occupational fields were determined and a modular vocational training programs were designed for 194
majors. In accordance with the law 3308, these programs were classified according to İSCED 97 and the majors
were named similar to the program names in Europe. Vocational training institutions started the
implementation of these modular program in 2005-2006 academic year. These institutions implement
apprenticeship training. Previously named apprenticeship training center, these institutions provide education
for 110 major fields in accordance with the law 3308. There are 378 Vocational Training Centers (MEM) whose
aims are to prepare the individuals (who are 14-18 years old and who don’t have formal education) for their
profession, provide the apprentices and masters with social security, experience and work discipline (Altay and
Üstün, 2011; 21).
Vocational high schools have been providing modular training since 2006-2007. Education programs and
coursebooks for these 4.500 modules were prepared and opened to internet access. In addition to this, these
programs and books were burned onto CDs and sent to schools (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 21).
The preparation of the action plan for the Certificate of Vocational and Technical Education Strategy, which
was developed for 2013-2017, was based on flexibility in policy making. It was aimed to build a flexible
structure among the all the types of schools or institutions for internal and external transfers (MEB, 2012;14).
Figure 1: Student Orientation and Vocational Education Process
The matriculation of students for vocational high schools depends on the school type, fields and majors.
Transfers of the students between programs and school types can only be done under some certain
conditions. Vocational and technical secondary education consists of vocational and technical high schools
which apply various programs (MEB, 2012; 30)..
CONCLUSION
In many countries, there are various implications in vocational education in terms of countries’ level of
development and industrial substructure. According to the findings of the study, the following results were
found:
1. Described as “Full-time Vocational and Technical Education”, School-Based Vocational and Technical
Education Model is based on a-8-10-year compulsory primary education.
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2. Dual apprentices system consists of informal-based applications which combine school and education with a
business-based approach. In this system, students have theoretical training on certain days of the week at
school and practical training at workplace during the rest of the week.
3. Informal-based implications are related to the role of informal vocational education. In addition to this,
informal employment in many developing countries is a big problem.
When the models analyzed, Germany and the USA, which have a good quality of vocational education,
implement dual system; Central Europe and former Soviet Republics apply school-based system and the other
countries, which have a higher level of unemployment and non-taxation economy, adopt informal-based
implications.
Despite the fact that Turkey and Kazakhstan pay attention to vocational and technical education, student
orientation level to vocational secondary schools has decreased because of negative policies. Successful
students tend towards general secondary schools.
In some professions, technology is not followed appropriately and old materials or equipment are used to
educate students. The educations in vocational and technical institutions which train teacher candidates are
still full of uncertainties.
In the physical substructures of vocational and technical schools, their educational programs and teacher
qualifications were not determined. While they apply modular programs, the structure of vocational education
system is not designed in accordance with these programs.
Within the scope of the relationship between EU and Turkey, not an adequate corporation has been achieved
and no transition has been achieved in accordance with the union criteria within vocational education.
There is not a strong connection between school-based vocational education institutions and sector, which
prevents sector from training individuals required for the labor force.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Yücel GELİŞLİ is currently the director of the Department of Educational Sciences at Gazi
Education Faculty at Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in
Department of Curriculum and Instruction from Gazi Education Faculty of Gazi University,
Master’s degree in Curriculum Development from the Social Sciences Institute of Balıkesir
University, and PhD’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction (Social and Historical
Foundations of Education) from the Social Sciences Institute of Ankara University.
He worked as a teacher in primary and secondary education institutions in Ministry of National Education
between the years of 1987 – 1993. He continued his career as a research assistant in Vocational Education
Faculty of Gazi University in 1993. He became an assistant professor in 2001 and an associate professor in 2006.
In 2011, he has become a professor in the department of Curriculum and Instruction in Education Sciences of
Gazi Faculty of Education in Gazi University. His main research interests area are Curriculum Development,
Teacher Training System and Turkish History of Education.
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELIŞLI
Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: gelisli@gazi.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA, PhD Student, Gazi University, Education Sciences Institute and
academic staff in Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages, Philology
Faculty L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Her academic interest areas are
learning languages, curriculum and history of Education.
PhDc. Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA
L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Philology Faculty
Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages
Astana- KAZAKHISTAN
E .Mail: aishalyaz@mail.ru
Malik Zhupanbekuly SULTANBEK, PhD. He holds a PhD degree Educatıonal Administration
from in Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. He is working (academic staff) at the
department of Education Sciences of Yasavi University. His research interests are
professional and pedagogical development periods (1991-2011) of primary school
teachers training system in the Kazakhstan and teacher training.
Dr. Malik Zhupanbekuly SULTANBEK
International Kazakh-Turkish University
Named By H.A.Yasavi
Turkishtan- KAZAKHSTAN
E. Mail: malik_sultanbek@mail.ru
Akkenzhe USSENOVA, PhD student, Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. Her
academic interest areas are the development of social success fullness of future primary
school teachers.
PhDc. Akkenzhe USSENOVA
Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University
Shakarim street 13/63
Almaty- KAZAKHSTAN
E. Mail: akkenzhe_08@mail.ru
REFERENCES
Altay,F., Üstün, N.(2011). Mesleki Eğitim Sistemi, Konya Ticaret Odası, Etüd-Araştırma Servisi Araştırma
Raporu, Konya.
Binici, H., Arı, N.(2004).Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimde Arayışlar, GÜ, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24(3), 383-396.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
Eichhorst,W., Rodríguez-Planas, N.,Schmidl, R., Zimmermann,K.(2012). A Roadmap to Vocational Education
and Training Systems Around the World; Bonn.
MEB.(2012), Meslekî Ve Teknik Eğitim; Strateji Belgesi Ve Eylem Plani (Taslak) ;2013-2017.
OECD.(2010, 9) Learning for Jobs, Synthesis Report of the OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,
OECD Publications.
OECD.(2014). OECD Revıews Of Vocatıonal Education And Training: A Skills Beyond School Review of
Kazakhstan. Report of the OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publications.
Özsoy.(2007).Türkiye’de Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimin İktisadi Kalkınmadaki Yeri ve Önemi, 2007: 128).
Özdemir, E.(2012). Alman Mesleki Eğitim Sisteminde Özel Sektörün Rolü Ve Ülkemiz Mesleki Eğitim Ve Oda
Sistemi İçin Çikarimlar.
http://www.tobb.org.tr/Avrupa BirligiDairesi/Dokumanlar/Faaliyetler/MeslekiEgitim/Almanya.pdf. Retreived:
29.02. 16.
T.C. Hitit Üniversitesi.(2012). İstihdam Odaklı Mesleki Eğitim İçin Sektörel Talep Araştırması (Çorum İli
Uygulaması), T.C. Kalkınma Bakanlığı ve Orta Karadeniz Kalkınma Ajansı.
Yörük,S., Dikici, A.,Uysal,A.(2002). Bilgi Toplumu Ve Türkiye’de Mesleki Eğitim, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Dergisi Fırat University Journal of Social Science Cilt: 12, Sayı: 2, Sayfa: 299-312.
http://www.tesk.org.tr/tr/proje/yurutulen /ekspertiz/almanya.html.
http://referatikz.ru/load/aza_sha_referattar/aralas/the_education_system_in_kazakhstan/9-1-0-2530.
Education System in Kazakhstan.
The
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
THE EFFECT OF INFORMAL LEARNING ON TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
A CASE STUDY
Rabia VEZNE
Akdeniz University
International Relations Office
Antalya- TURKEY
Prof. Dr. İlhan GÜNBAYI
Akdeniz University
Faculty of Education
Antalya- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this research was to analyze the opinions of teachers working in High Schools on informal learning
regarding if they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal learning activities took
place, and if this learning had a contribution to their professional development. The research was a qualitative
study with a multiple holistic case study design. Data were collected from interviews using semi-structured
interview forms. At the end of the research, conclusions were classified under three main themes. The first
main theme was that there were some informal learning activities which the teachers were engaged in. The
second main theme was that most of the informal learning happened through talking and sharing resources
and ideas with others. Especially teacher candidates experienced informal learning through observations of
the practices of senior colleagues. The final theme indicated that the informal learning in school environment
had a positive effect on teachers’ professional development.
Keywords: Informal Learning, Professional Development, Trainee Teacher, Senior Teacher.
INTRODUCTION
As the world is changing radiply, the needs of students who are growing with technology in a technology and
information era are changing as well. Teachers have to work hard in order to cope with the educational needs
of a changing and growing student body. Therefore, they have to continue professional development from
formal, non-formal and informal channels.
Learning can be classified as formal, non-formal and informal learning. Formal learning can be defined as
learning occurring within organized and structured contexts such as formal education and training. Non-formal
learning occurs in an institutional context; but it does not include the formalities of grades, degrees, or
certificates. Whereas, informal learning is different from these two types of learning. Informal learning is
experiential and accidental learning (Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004). Informal learning happens in one’s life
cycle continuously. It is any learning that occurs outside the formal curricula of schools or other educational
programs.
Conversations, reading, watching TV, observing the world, observing colleague or friends, listening to stories,
reflecting on a day’s events, or stimulated by general interest can be counted as informal learnings. It also
comprises visiting to museums or to scientific and other fairs and exhibits, listening to radio broadcasting or
watching TV programmes on educational or scientific themes, reading texts on sciences, education, technology
in journals and magazines, participating in scientific contests, attending lectures and conferences (Dib, 1988).
Livingstone (2001) defines informal learning as any learning activity which occurs outside the curricula of
educational institutions, or the courses or workshops offered by educational or social agencies. In other words,
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the form of learning is informal when it is done without sustained reference to an intentionally-organized body
of knowledge in more incidental and spontaneous learning situations.
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines informal learning as daily,
work-related, family or leisure activities. It is not managed by any institution or curricula; rather, it is directed
by individuals and their activities. In other words, informal learning is not directed by any organized or
structured objectives, time or learning support (OECD, 2005).
The informal learnings gained at school environment can also help teachers’ in their professional
development. Professional development is defined as “the body of systematic activities to prepare teachers
for their job, including initial training, induction courses, in-service training, and continuous professional
development within school settings” (OECD, 2010: 19). Professional development is the essential requirement
behind knowledge, skills, competence, and learning in the profession (Seferioğlu, 2004). Teachers need
continuous support in order to have the necessary skills to meet the needs of different student groups in a
rapidly changing world.
The OECD carried out their Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) in order to help countries
develop a high-quality teaching profession by better understanding who teachers are and how they work.
There are 9 different professional development activities defined in this survey: (1) Informal dialogue to
improve teaching, (2) Courses and workshops, (3) Reading professional literature, (4) Education conferences
and seminars, (5) Professional development network, (6) Individual and collaborative research, (7) Mentoring
and peer observation, (8) Observation visits to other schools, (9) Qualification programmes.
According to the TALIS survey, with the participation of more than 100,000 teachers and principals from 34
countries, the type of professional development most often mentioned was “Informal dialogue to improve
teaching”, with 93% of teachers on average reporting this activity during the survey period. After “Informal
dialogue to improve teaching”, the most frequently reported activities were “attending Courses and
workshops” (81%) and “Reading professional literature” (78%). The least common types of professional
development was “Observation visits to other schools” (28%) and “Qualification programmes” (25%).
Informal learning activities have a positive effect on new arrivals, since they learn from senior teachers
through observing senior teachers and chatting with them in school environment. Some of the teachers
interviewed reported sharing issues openly with seniors. Nawab (2012), states that the most common form of
informal learning in this school is observation of seniors at the time of induction.
Bull & Buechler (1997) and Desimone (2009) state that the qualities needed for effective professional
development include being individualized and school-based, using coaching and other follow up procedures,
engaging in collaboration, and embedding practices into the daily lives of teachers (Nishimura, 2014). We can
deduce that informal learning types such as; dialogue with colleagues and observing colleagues can be used
for the Professional development of teachers.
In his paper with the title “Transforming Professional Development to Professional Learning”, Steward (2014),
states that learning for teachers in a professional community with other colleagues is more effective. In other
words, it is more effective if professional learning activities take place within a working environment, are
informed by data, and are centred on student work. Steward’s findings also supports that learning from
colleagues which is a kind of informal learning is an effective way of professional development.
Giust (2013) suggests teacher teams and e-learning as a way of informal learning for schools. He states that
although there are several potential options for administrators to eliminate barriers to informal and incidental
learning in the school setting, teacher teams and e-learning are two low-cost suggestions applicable for any
school.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Lohman’s study (2006) found that teachers engaged in three types of informal learning activities. First one is
knowledge exchanging, in which teachers shared and reflected on others’ practice and experiences. Second
one is experimenting, in which teachers actively experimented with new ideas and techniques. Last one is
environmental scanning, in which teachers independently scanned and gathered information from sources
outside the school.
Harbison’s (2008) study explores teachers’ work-based informal professional learning. She suggests to
including informal learning as an important path for Professional growth and re-valuating professional
development systems. She adds that Professional growth is necessary for continual and consistent
implementation of educational reforms and to better respond to the needs of ever changing society.
Shapir (2003), explores teachers’ informal learning experiences in his research. Interview and survey results of
this study indicate that many teachers believe they do engage in valuable informal learning experiences.
Particularly important experiences include past non-teaching jobs, learning from one’s past teachers, and
familial relationships. Teachers’ perceived learning focuses primarily on pedagogical skills and knowledge.
Hoekstra’s (2007) study describes how experienced secondary school teachers learn at work in an informal
environment. The main conlusion of the study is that in an informal learning environment, teachers learn
through engagement in daily workplace activities.
Smaller (2005) found that there is a stark contrast to conventional notions of policy-driven, top-down teachers’
professional development in his study. He suggests that new initiatives must include a much more
sophisticated understanding of the complexities of teacher formal and informal learning, teacher knowledge
and teacher professional self-identity.
According to the key findings of “Scottish Teachers for a New Era” Project, new teachers learnt informally from
colleagues, peers and pupils. An important element in their learning was the level of support they received
from the head teacher and their colleagues. The school could be seen as a workplace learning environment
with various factors impacting on how expansive or restrictive it was to learn in.
The aim of this research is to analyse the opinions of the teachers working in High Schools on informal learning
regarding if they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal learning activities took
place, and if this learning had a contribution to their professional development. To achieve this aim, the
answers to these questions were sought:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What do teachers understand from informal learning?
Does informal learning happen at school environment? If Yes, which informal activities takes place at
school environment?
What is the contribution of the informal learning to teachers’ professional development?
What do teachers think the informal learning is like?
METHODS
Sampling
This study was conducted in Göynük Science High School from January 1st, 2016 to January 31st 2016. One
principal, 3 vice-principals and 23 teachers are working in Göynük Science High School during the 2015/2016
academic year. A non-probability sample technique based on the purposive sampling method was used
because ‘the sample derives from the researcher targeting a particular group, in the full knowledge that it does
not represent the wider population, it simply represent itself. This is frequently the case in small scale
research, for example, as with one or two schools, two or three groups of students, or a particular group of
teachers, where no attempt to generalize is desired; this is frequently the case for qualitative researches such
as action ethnographic or case (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007).
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Tablo 1: Participant status and accompanying data collection
Code
Working Year
Study-field
Interview
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
15+
0-1
0-1
15+
0-1
10-15
15+
15+
Turkish
Physical Education
Biology
History
Biology
Biology
English
Physical Education
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
As seen in Table 1, the informants in this study were teachers. Face-to-face interviews were done with 8
teaching staff members from Göynük Science High School, two of them were trainee teachers and one teacher
had only one year of experience. The participants were volunteers, and there were no restrictions on the ages
and seniority of teachers.
METHOD
The method of this research is qualitative study. The research is a case study with a holistic single case. Data
were collected via face-to-face interviews by using semi-structured interview forms. According to Yıldırım and
Şimşek (2000:19), qualitative study is a study which uses a process to present perceptions and events in a
holistic and realistic way in their natural environment. Data collection methods such as observation, interviews
and document analyses are used in qualitative study. The case study present results by observing them in their
real context which determines the reasons and results. In qualitative research design, the case study method
allows investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events such as individual
life cycles, small group behaviour, organizational and managerial processes, school performance, and
interpersonal relations in real contexts (Cohen et al, 2007; Yin, 2012).
Data Collection
In order to analyse the opinions of the teachers working in the High School on informal learning regarding if
they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal learning activities took place, and if this
learning had a contribution to their professional development, semi-structured individual interviews were
used because this would provide an in-depth exploration of the topic. It would also allow the flexibility, for
example, to change the order of questions, simplify the questions, and to probe the interviews (Cohen et al,
2007). Data were collected from January 1st 2016 to January 31st 2016. Face-to-face interviews were used and
informants' experiences, thoughts and feelings were recorded in a taped diary.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began with repeated readings of interview transcripts from conversations with and teachers. The
purpose was to determine the essence of the phenomenon and structures of opinions of the teachers on
informal learning at school environment. During data analysis, the data were organized categorically and
chronologically, reviewed repeatedly and continually coded. Interview transcripts were regularly reviewed. In
addition, the data analysis process was aided by the use of a qualitative data analysis computer program called
NVIVO 10. These kinds of computer programmes do not actually perform the analysis but facilitate and assist
it. That is to say, NVIVO 10 does not perform the analysis but only supports the researcher doing the analysis
by organizing data and recodes, nodes etc. (Kelle, 1995; Cohen et al, 2007).
Ethical Considerations
Participants were briefed about the aims of the research, kept informed at all stages and offered anonymity. A
consent form was signed between researcher and each participant about the use of the data in terms of how
its analysis would be reported and disseminated. Care was also taken not to impose the researcher’s beliefs on
others since researcher’s beliefs were secondary, and it was the participants thinking which was required.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Interview Process and Mapping
The purpose of this study was to analyse the opinions of the teachers who were working in a High School on
informal learning at school environment. Thus the mapping of interview questions was carried out on four
levels. Firstly, the teachers were asked what they understand from informal learning, secondly if they had any
informal learning in school environment and which informal learning activities took place, thirdly if this
learning had a contribution to their professional development, and finally what they thought of informal
learning and why.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and Reliability In order to ensure the reliability and validity of the study, some steps were followed: (i)
data were collected from various sources such as interviews (individual) and documents in terms of
triangulation (ii) data were used as direct quotations from the interviews without making any comments on
them, (iii) a purposive sampling method based on voluntarism was used in order to get the opinions and
experiences of teachers on informal learning in Göynük Science High School (iv) data were coded by two
independent researchers and Cohen's kappa coefficient was calculated to determine inter-rater reliability of
themes coded -0.714 substantial agreement- for inner reliability (Landis & Koach, 1977) and (v) records of
interviews, documents and participant observations were kept for outer reliability.
FINDINGS
In this study, the opinions of the teachers working in a Science High School on informal learning were tried to
present. The opinions of teachers were classified according to their understanding of informal learning, the
ways of informal learning, and its contribution to thier professional development. During the research process,
participants were offered anonymity.
1. What teachers understand from informal learning
Teachers were asked about what they understood from informal learning. The data can be seen in Table 2.
Tablo 2: Understanding of informal learning
A
B
1. Family, Environment,
Outside of School
2. Without Program
√
3. Without rule
4. Spontaneous
√
C
D
E
F
√
√
√
G
√
√
H
f
%
√
√
4
3
1
1
50,00
37,50
12,50
12,50
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of the understanding of informal learning in Table 2, 50% of
teachers stated that informal learning happened at family, environment, and out of school. The opinions of the
participants are as follows:
Lifelong learning, different environments such as; family, community, media, outside of school. (D1,1)
Learning at school, family, street outside of school environment without an age limit. It does not include a
specific age range.(E1,1)
Learning occurs out of educational institutions. (F1,1)
Informal learning happens everywhere, such as at school, environment, home as long as life goes on. (H1,1)
37,5% of teachers stated that informal learning was the learning that did not have a program. The opinions of
the participants are as follows:
It is a learning type which does not have a program or an aim, in other words, without a terminal behaviour.
(A1,3)
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Learning situations which happen by chance without a plan or a program. (B1,3)
We can define it as learning which happend out of school by chance without a plan or a program. (H1,3)
12,5% of teachers stated that informal learning was the learning that did not have a rule and that is
spontaneous. The opinions of the participants are as follows:
I think it includes all the incidents that we can come across during the life and happens anywhere outside of
school without any rules. (C1,2)
Spontaneous instant learning. (G1,4)
When the opinions of the teachers on the understanding of informal learning were analyzed generally,
teachers stated that it was the learning which happened outside of school without a program. Accordingly, it
was understood that teachers thought that informal learning was a learning which did not have rules. It was
understood that teachers mostly knew what informal learning was, and they could easily list the features of
informal learning.
2. Informal Learning Activities at School Environment
Teachers were asked about which informal learning activities took place at school environment. The data can
be seen in Table 3.
Tablo 3: Informal learning activities
1. Talking and chatting
2. Searching on the net
3. Article, magazine, documentary
4. Observation
5. Observing colleagues
6. Television and radio
A
√
√
√
B
√
√
C
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
D
E
√
F
√
√
√
G
√
H
√
√
√
√
f
%
8
6
2
2
2
2
87,50
75,00
25,00
25,00
25,00
25,00
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of their informal learning activities in Table 3, 87,50% of
teachers stated that talking and chatting was the main informal learning activity at school environment. The
opinions of the participants are as follows:
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,3)
Generally during chatting and searching on the net (B2,3)
It starts at mother’s womb and continues till death. While chatting with friends, searching on the net, or
observing nearing or from books. (C2,3)
More or less while talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, partly searching on the net, but
not from television or radio. (D2,3)
Especially on visual platform. While chatting, searching on the net, like articles, magazines, documentary
channels (F2,3)
It happens while watching foreign tv series, films or talking with a foreigner. I am an English teacher, so
wherever English is used, informal learning is naturally happens and reinforces. (G2,3)
As long as life goes on, infromla learning happens at everywhere like school, environment, home. We can give
example such as chatting at teachers’ room or on the net. (H2,3)
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
75,00% of teachers stated that searching on the net was the main informal learning activity at school
environment. The opinions of the participants are as follows:
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,2)
Generally during chatting and searching on the net (B2,2)
While chatting with friends, searching on the net, or observing nearing or from books. (C2,2)
More or less while talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, partly searching on the net, but
not from television or radio. (D2,2)
Especially on visual platform. While chatting, searching on the net, like articles, magazines, documentary
channels (F2,2)
As long as life goes on, informal learning happens at everywhere like school, environment, home. We can give
example such as chatting at teachers’ room or on the net. (H2,2)
25,00% of teachers stated that observing, reading article, magazine, documentary, observing colleagues,
watching television and listening to the radio were other informal learning activities at school environment.
The opinions of the participants are as follows:
While chatting with friends, searching on the net, or observing nearing or from books. (C2,1)
More or less while talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, partly searching on the net, but
not from television or radio (D2,1)
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,4)
Especially on visual platform. While chatting, searching on the net, like articles, magazines, documentary
channels (F2,4)
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,5)
If we want to give an example to show its contribution to our profession, I cna say that I update my knowledge
by watching different types of teaching methods on the net, and I can use different teaching methods for
different student groups. Moreover, observing also contribtes to our way of teaching. (H2,5)
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,6)
It happens while watching foreign TV series, films or talking with a foreigner. I am an English teacher, so
wherever English is used, informal learning is naturally happens and reinforces. (G2,6)
When we interpret the opinions of the teachers on informal learning activities at school environment
generally, teachers stated that they talked with their colleagues and searched on internet. This shows that
teachers prefered listening than reading to learn something. Moreover, the results showed that teachers were
internet-friendly and used technology to learn new things. One of the trainee teacher stated that observation
was one type of the informal activity in school environment. Also experineced teachers found observing
colleagues as a good way of informal learning which improved professional development.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
3. Contribution of Informal Learning to Professional Development
Teachers were asked about the contribution of informal learning to their professional development. The data
can be seen in Table 4.
Tablo 4: The contribution of informal learning to teachers’ professional development
1.Positive
2.Improving professional
knowledge
A
B
√
√
C
D
E
F
G
H
f
√
√
√
√
√
7
√
2
√
%
87,50
25,00
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of the contribution of informal learning to teachers’
professional development in Table 4, 87,50% of teachers stated informal learning had a positive effect on their
professional development. The opinions of the participants are as follows:
It is slow and positive since it develops in its natural period (A3,2)
It has positive contribution since boks do not contain every single rule (B3,2)
During my school life, I mostly learnt how to reach knowedge, rather than knowledge itself, so I can guide
myself for the subject that I want to learn. In other words, informal learning is as effective as formal learning in
my life and professional development. (D3,2)
It is very useful not only for our study field but especially for general knowledgeı (E3,2)
It has quite positive contribution (F3,2)
Of course it has a positive contribution since it is a reinforcement (F3,2)
If we want to give an example to show its contribution to our profession, I can say that I update my knowledge
by watching different types of teaching methods on the net, and I can use different teaching methods for
different student groups. Moreover, observing also contributes to our way of teaching. (G3,2)
25% of teachers stated that informal learning improved their professional knowledge The opinions of the
participants are as follows:
It increases my Professional knowledge and makes my profession more meaningful (C3,1)
If we want to give an example to show its contribution to our profession, I cna say that I update my knowledge
by watching different types of teaching methods on the net, and I can use different teaching methods for
different student groups. Moreover, observing also contribtes to our way of teaching. (H3,1)
When the opinions of the teachers on the contribution of informal learning to their professional development
were analysed generally, teachers stated that it had a positive effect on their professional development.
However, only two teachers, one of them was a trainee teacher, stated that it improved their professsional
development.
4. Metaphors for Informal Learning
Metaphors formulated by the 8 participants can be categorized under four themes as in Table 5: nature, place,
animal, and things. Two of the participants formulated nature metaphors in defining the informal learning. C
described the informal learning as a plant: “It is like a plant. The more we give the necessary minerals,
fertilizers, and nutrition to plants, the better fruits we can get”. Similarly, D used a water drop metaphor for
describing the informal learning: “It is like a water drop since it buils up over time with patience and
determination”.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Tablo 5: Metaphors for informal learning
1 Things
2 Animal
3 Nature
4 Place
A
B
√
√
C
D
E
F
G
H
√
√
√
√
√
√
f
%
3
2
2
1
37,50
25,00
25,00
12,50
One participant formulated place metaphor in defining informal learning. E described informal learning as a
place: “It is like a library. Each teacher and student are like a book about a specific subject”. Two other
participants used animal metaphors for informal learning. Participant F used a fish metaphor and she thought
informal learning was like a fish bone: “In my opinion, formal learning was like a backbone of a fish, and
informal learning was like the fish bones which forms the basis of the backbone”. H described informal
learning as a bee: “It is like a bee. A bee collects pollens to form the honey and makes it more delicious. Good
things happen as long as people collect knowledge from everywhere.” On the other hand, three participant
formulated thing metaphors in defining the informal learning. A described informal learning as a butter: “In my
opinion, it is like an extra butter put on rice, and it is like a flavour given to learning process from outside”. B
formulated a thing metaphor and she defined informal learn as a recycle bin: “It was like recycle bin, because it
changes each passing day and circulates”. Finally, G defined informal learning as a candle: “When a child
reaches out a candle flame, he/she gets hurt. It has an effective result, so it is an exact learning”.
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of metaphors defined by teachers in Table 5, the informal
learning was perceived as a fruitful, effective, interesting and generally positive phenomenon.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study was done to understand and analyse the opinions of the teachers working in a Science High School
on informal learning regarding if they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal
learning activities took place, and if this learning had a contribution to their professional development.
Accordingly, data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews.
Teachers defined informal learning as the learning which happened outside of school without a program and
rules. According to them informal learning took place at family and social community spontaneously. When
teachers opinions are generally interpreted, it could be said that their definitions are compatible with
Livingstones (2001) definition: “the form of learning is informal when it is done without sustained reference to
an intentionally-organized body of knowledge in more incidental and spontaneous learning situations” and
OECD’s (2005) definition: “informal learning is not directed by any organized or structured objectives, time or
learning support”. It was understood that teachers mostly knew what informal learning was, and they could
easily list the features of informal learning.
The informal learning activities at school environment were talking and chatting with the colleagues, searching
on internet, observing, reading article, magazine, documentary, observing colleagues, and watching television
and listening to the radio. When informal learning activities at school environment are interpreted generally, it
can be said that these are compatible with the findings of Nawab’s (2012) study called “The Informal Learning
Approaches of Teachers in a Secondary School in Pakistan”. According to this study, it is stated that the most
common form of informal learning in this school is observation of seniors at the time of induction.
When the opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings to their professional development are
interpreted generally, it can be said that these are compatible with Nishimura’s (2014) study called “Effective
Professional Development of Teachers: A Guide to Actualizing Inclusive Schooling”. According to this study, it is
stated that informal learning types such as; dialogue with colleagues and observing colleagues can be used for
the professional development of teachers. The opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings to
their professional development are also compatible with Steward’s (2014) study called “Transforming
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Professional Development to Professional Learning”. According to this study, it is stated that learning from
colleagues which is a kind of informal learning is an effective way of professional development. Another study
which is compatible with the opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings to their professional
development is Giust’s (2013) study called “Increasing informal learning opportunities for teachers in the
school setting”. According to this study, it is stated that although there are several potential options for
administrators to eliminate barriers to informal and incidental learning in the school setting, teacher teams
and e-learning are two low-cost suggestions applicable for any school. The key findings of “Scottish Teachers
for a New Era” Project is also compatible with the opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings
to their professional development. According to the key findings, new teachers learnt informally from
colleagues, peers and pupils.
Informal learning activities at school environment have great contribution to teachers’ professional
development. Especially observing colleagues and talking with them is very effective on trainee teachers’
professional development. For that reason, teachers should get benefit of informal learning at school
environment and this should be supported by school administration.
According to the findings of this study, the following ideas are suggested by the researcher:
Teachers should be informed more about the importance of informal learning at school environment and
different informal learning activities and they should be encouraged to observe their colleagues, share their
experiences and talk about their study field.
Teachers should also be encouraged to use social media and internet for their professional development. They
should understand the importance of networking with their colleagues from different countries and join
learning communities and networks.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
She completed his BA studies on English Language Teaching in Middle East Technical
University, MA on Educational Administration and Supervision in Kırıkkale University. She is
doing PhD. on Adult Education in Ankara University in Turkey. She has been working as an
EU Projects Advisor since 2009 and she has been working at Akdeniz University,
International Relations Office as an EU Projects Advisor since 2013. She is scholarly
interested in vocational education and EU project.
Rabia VEZNE
Akdeniz University
International Relations Office
Dumlupinar Bulvari
Antalya - TURKEY
E. Mail: rabiavezne@akdeniz.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
He completed his BA studies on English Language Teaching, MA on Educational
Administration and Supervision, PhD. on Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning
and Economy in Hacettepe University in Turkey and Post Doctorate Study on Qualitative
Research Methods in Sheffield Hallam University in the UK. He has been working as a
Professor Doctor at Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education, Educational Sciences
Department since 2003. He is scholarly interested in qualitative research methods,
organizational communication, organizational culture and climate, motivation at work, job
stressors and school leadership, vocational education and training linked to employment issues and national
development particularly in Turkey but also in Central/Western Asia and Europe.
Prof. Dr. Ilhan GUNBAYI
Akdeniz University
Faculty of Education
Educational Sciences Department
Antalya- TURKEY
E. Mail: igunbayi@akdeniz.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
MOBILE LITERACY REQUIREMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING
Ilker VATANSEVER
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgun OZDAMAR KESKIN
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Today we create and update information faster, and access this information more easily, than ever before.
Modern society, therefore, is in need of people who are eager to progress and whose lifelong learning skills
are high. Mobile technologies, which have become an indispensible part of our lives, have great potential to
support lifelong learning. However, there are numerous mobile operating systems in existence, including
Android, iOS and Windows OS, and all of these operating systems offer a different user experience. For an
efficient mobile experience, users need to acquire technical control of the device and to understand its
limitations at both the hardware and software levels. In addition, there are crucial skills that are needed, such
as the ability to access required information, to search for apps, and to assess their reliability and suitability.
The concept of mobile literacy covers all of these skills. This study will discuss current levels of mobile literacy
in the context of lifelong learning.
Keywords: Globalization, Lifelong Learning, Mobile Literacy, Mobile Technology, Mobile Applications.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals, society and technology are in a process of evolution in which each directly affects the other, and
must evolve together in a way that will allow them to be able to respond and adapt to new requirements.
Individuals (who make up societies) are affected by technological advancements sociologically and even
physiologically. The recent discoveries about neuroplasticity make the essence of the intellect more visible, its
steps and boundaries easier to mark. They tell us that the tools man has used to support or extend his nervous
system – all those technologies that through history have influenced how we find, store, and interpret
information, how we direct our attention and engage our senses, how we remember and how we forget –
have shaped the physical structure and workings of the human mind. Their use has strengthened some neural
circuits while leaving others to fade away. (Carr, 2010). Technological products, which are increasingly
equipped with more advanced features and which provide users with new possibilities, also shape our
relationship with information. In addition to the consumption of these technologies, the industry conditions
and production regimes that allow for their production have also deeply affected both the individual and wider
society. According to Womack, Jones and Roos (1990), how we make things dictates not only how we work but
what we buy, how we think, and the way we live. Our changing lifestyles have been shaping all individual and
social dynamics, including the literacy requirement, which is the subject of this study.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
It can be said that the most important factors that allowed for the rapid development of high technology
products during the past century were changes in our regimes of production and consumption. Making
modern technological products requires organization, automation and build-up, which are far beyond the
capabilities of a craftsman or a small atelier. The foundation of techniques and organizations, which made the
production of high technology products possible, started to be laid out at the beginning of the twentieth
century. In line with changing market conditions, and beginning in the 1970s, the Fordist production type –
which emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, and in which industrial production to a great extent
was performed as mass production, administrative tasks and hand-power-dependent tasks were determined
by Taylorist differentiation, the division of labor and job descriptions were strictly followed, and in which
product standardization resulted in efficiency increases, increased demand accelerating this standardization
(Eraydın, 1992) – gave way to the Flexible System of Manufacturing and Accumulation (Post-Fordism), a
manufacturing and accumulation regime in which production is performed in a flexible model to meet the
demands of consumption, flexible specialization is attained in manpower and mechanization, and information
and communication technologies are widely used in production (Sakli, 2013). The organization and
automatization experiences that Fordism brought about have facilitated the implementation of creative and
visionary ventures.
According to the OECD (1999) Over recent years, the environment in which companies operate has changed
considerably. Firms are faced with a need to achieve greater economic efficiency, and to adapt more quickly to
changing product market conditions. Many commentators have claimed that these pressures are being
reflected in changes in work organization, towards what are often called “new”, “innovative”, “highperformance” or “flexible” workplaces. Flexible manufacturing has brought along the need for creative
employees who have flexible specialties. According to Cox (1980) this change in production regimes has caused
technological development and innovation to be concentrated in center countries, while production processes
have shifted to peripheral countries which provide cheap labor. In addition, flexible and innovative production
regimes have increased center countries’ need for qualified workers and expanded the workforce market to
global dimensions. This rapid transformation experienced by the workforce and by capital has accelerated the
phenomenon of globalization, which is as old as human history, much faster than ever before. In addition, it
has reshaped the educational needs of both the individual and society. This change has caused traditional
learning habits to be questioned with regards to whether they are responding to our needs in the twenty-first
century. Today, when information is increasing exponentially, and is updated and distributed constantly, the
ability to use the information technologies that provide these possibilities has become something that directly
affects an individual’s learning potential. Within this context, the purpose of this study is to draw attention to
the importance in our era of skills in using the mobile technologies that are increasingly gaining strength and
becoming widespread.
Globalization and Learning
Globalization is an ancient phenomenon, which started when people settled in different parts of world,
searching a better life. Nowadays, relations between continents and countries are much more dynamic
because people, business and material and information flows are moving faster and international relationships
of all sorts are closer than ever. All that progress is pretty much related to increased use of new technologies
in all economic, social and cultural areas (Bran, 2015). Both a reason and a result of the process of
globalization gaining momentum is an increasing migrant population. According to the Migration Policy
Institute (MPI) (2013) the total worldwide migrant population has increased twofold during the past 55 years.
In addition to these migration movements, a brain-drain within the countries in need of qualified labor has
been increasingly intensifying. According to the OECD (2013), the rate of highly educated migrants in OECD
countries is continuing to rise. The number of migrants who are university graduates or equivalent in OECD
countries has increased much faster than expectations in the past decade (+70%); it reached 27.3 million as of
2010/2011.
Migration takes place not only on an international scale but also on a national scale. According to World Bank
(2014) data, rural-urban migration movements that began at the dawn of industrial society have been
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
continuing even in the 2000s. While populations living in rural areas are continuing to decrease, cities have
been becoming ever more populous. Increasing migrant numbers have also led to the problem of increased
levels of social exclusion. Migration is one of the greatest reasons for social exclusion, because the “inability to
join the social life” constitutes the foundation of social exclusion. Being deprived of one of the fields which
allow for joining the social life constitutes a process that brings about deprivation from other fields as well. For
example, exclusion from the economic field can lead to exclusion from social, political or cultural processes too
(Tartanoğlu, 2010). While exclusion from the social and economic fields can increase poverty and crime rates,
it can also be said that exclusion from political and cultural processes poses a threat to social structure and
democracy.
According to Fryer (1997) the need for a change of culture is presented as necessary for a number of reasons,
including widening inequalities, increasing poverty and increasing social exclusion and disaffection. In the new
culture, lifelong learning will enable competing values to be reviewed, their relevance for society today and
tomorrow to be assessed and newly emerging values can be transmitted. In addition, Fryer (1997) has
mentioned that lifelong learning can change people’s lives, even transform them and that promise needs to be
encapsulated in a learning culture for all. Preventing people from becoming excluded from the economic field
is possible through personal and professional training, which is compatible with employers’ innovation and
growth targets. In a report published by the European Union in 2010 it was mentioned that innovation and
growth, as well as knowledge, skills and abilities that foster individuals’ skills and creativity, could be attained
by a lifelong updating that starts from an early age, i.e. by lifelong learning.
Lifelong Learning and Information Literacy
While the post-Fordist period that began in the 1970s gave birth to new educational needs, it has also been a
period in which new technologies have been developed in response to those needs. These were the years that
saw the foundation of companies such as Apple and Microsoft, which attained great commercial success, and
this period has been called the period of small companies generating high technology. According to Kline,
Dyer-Witheford and De Peuter (2003) , The new digital production processes and changing technology put
small firms that could rapidly adapt to new market conditions in an advantageous position. This period is also
called the era of dynamic and individual-scale ventures, constituted by digital craftsmanship, a mass of small
entrepreneurs and high technology production processes. This period, in which communication technologies
have rapidly advanced as well, has also made the concept of the information society a current issue. According
to Balan (2013) the information society is a new stage of humanity, in which information is intensely used at
every stage of human existence and human activities; this has serious social and economic consequences, and
provides a high quality standard of living.
Technological advancements have brought along new multimedia possibilities and information technology
applications. Information and communication technologies gaining new meanings increase competition,
provide new perspectives from which to develop business organizations, and create new professions. In
addition, progress is made in such fields as social work, healthcare and environmental management, and new
communication channels are opened between the state and its citizens. Information technologies overcome
problems of location and age and allow for all segments of a society to have access to a wide range of
educational and cultural possibilities. However, in order to benefit from these possibilities it is necessary to
have certain skills and competencies.
The foremost feature that individuals within an information society should possess is information literacy.
Information literacy is also the most important skill that the individual will need in order to fulfill the process of
lifelong learning. Lifelong learning is the development of knowledge and competences that will enable each
citizen to adapt to the knowledge-based society and actively participate in all spheres of social and economic
life, taking more control of his or her future (European Society of Association Executives, 2007).
In today’s information society, the most important learning outcome for all students is their ability to function
as independent lifelong learners. The essential enabler to reach that goal is information literacy.Information
literacy refers to the abilities to know when there is a need for information, and to be able toidentify, locate
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand. In a world in whichinformation is
expanding at an exponential rate, and the technology, which provides access to much of that information is
rapidly changing, such abilities are fundamental to lifelong learning, So on the one hand,information literacy
abilities both enhance student performance in formal learning settings and allow students tolearn
independent of such offerings. On the other hand, information literacy is a solution without a problem or
audience, if people do not understand their need for lifelong learning (Tamilchelvi and Senthilnathan, 2013).
Table 1: Relationship between Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning (Thamilchelvi, 2013 as cited in
Horton, 2005)
Inter-relationships
Both improve
Differences
Self-motivated
Set of personal choices and options
Information literacy is a set of
skills
Self-directed
Quality and utility of education and
training
Lifelong learning is a good habit
Self-empowering
Prospects of finding and keeping a job
Self-actuating
Effective
contexts
participation
in
social
Mobile Literacy
Parallel to developments in media literacy and information technologies, the concept of information literacy –
defined for the first time by Paul Zurkowski in 1974 as the ability to recognize, access, evaluate and effectively
use information – has begun to be discussed within new concepts such as digital literacy and computer
literacy. Finally, the mobile technologies which have developed and become widespread in recent years, which
have their own operating systems and which provide new user experiences, have placed the concept of mobile
literacy onto the agenda. Although the debate around which devices are mobile or not is evaluated differently
in different contexts, according to ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning) mobile learning or “mLearning” is the
use of handheld computing devices to provide access to learning content and information resources (Haag,
2011).
Mobile phones, which entered our lives in the ‘90s, have evolved into “smartphones” that are fully functional
computers with powerful and efficient processors, modern operating systems and user friendly interfaces
(Wang et al., 2014). Modern smartphones provide the opportunity to access wireless internet connections or
services provided by GSM operators, to determine locations through GPS systems, to take high quality photos
or shoot videos through both front and rear cameras, to record voices, and to access and arrange different
types of file types such as MS Office file formats, PDF or e-pub. Besides this, mobile devices provide other
advantages, such as access to content in the HTML5 format through advanced web browsers, the ability to
play multimedia content such as mp3, wav, mp4, the ability to use data matrix connections and mobile
signature technologies, and the provision of web access over protocols such as http and ftp.
With millions of available applications, mobile devices have many advanced features that other information
technologies can or cannot provide, spanning from education to social media and from banking services to
games. The fact that smartphones are increasingly becoming widespread and decreasing the need for other
information technology devices makes these devices and the ability to use these devices more important than
ever. According to data from Statista (2016) the market share of smart devices that can connect to the internet
(PC, Notebook, Tablet, Smartphone) has been changing every year. This data envisions that each year until
2019 smartphones will increase their market share and that the market share of other devices will decline.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
Figure 1: Information Technology Devices Market Shares
The fact that mobile devices are reachable ubiquitously, opens up new learning possibilities for their users.
However, the benefits to be derived from these possibilities are directly proportional to the individual’s ability
to use mobile devices. Mobile literacy is separate from concepts of computer literacy or digital literacy. It can
be said that in line with the general mood of our modern era, having access to a piece of information or
educational content that we need at any time and from any place has created a new technology and learning
culture.
In addition to access to information, our capacity to produce and share information has also gained a new
dimension thanks to mobile technologies. Visual materials shot by smartphones that have a high resolution,
and the ability to share these instantly on social media, have led to an increase in social movement. Societies
which cannot fight against social, economic and political exclusion through democratic methods have
witnessed events in which accumulated opposition energy mobilized as a result of this rapid increase in
organization and news-gathering possibilities. One of the most recent examples of this is the social movements
referred to as the Arab Spring which took place in North Africa and the Middle East. The rapid spread of
multimedia materials in social media have turned each individual into a reporter and even afforded nonprofessional individuals the opportunity to provide news materials to mainstream media outlets. In an
interview in 2011 with Castell about the Arab Spring, he mentioned that Al Jazeera has collected the
information disseminated on the Internet by the people using them as sources and organized groups on
Facebook, then retransmitting free news on mobile phones. Thus was born a new system of mass
communication built like a mix between an interactive television, Internet, radio and mobile communication
systems. The communication of the future is already used by the revolutions of the present. […] Obviously
communication technologies did not give birth to the insurgency. The rebellion was born from the poverty and
social exclusion that afflict much of the population in this fake democracy (Gjergji, 2013). This underlines the
fact that mobile technologies are not just learning tools which offer opportunities for preventing social
exclusion but also are instruments to fight it directly.
According to Walsh (2012) mobile information literacy embraces the portable nature of mobile devices and
thus “search no longer happens in fixed, controlled environments, but in random, messy, uncontrolled ones,
from crowded public transport on the way to work, to the loneliness of Mount Everest.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 2 lists the differences between information search using mobile devices and information search using
fixed devices such as desktop computers.
Table 2: Differences between Mobile Information Search and Fixed Information Search
Fixed Information Search
Mobile Information Search
Where?
Largely in “set” places. At a desktop
computer (with little variation in
software); at a fixed workplace;
within a library.
Anywhere. Any mobile device (phone, games console,
e-book reader – massive variety of devices)
What?
Anything and everything.
Normally quick information, often context- or
location-specific.
How?
Range of established tools to access Often narrow apps and individual specialist sites
and manage wide range of rather than open web.
information
sources.
Standard
search engines.
Time
spent?
Varies. Often slow, long access.
People spending long periods
searching for, organising and
extracting information, especially
for academic use.
Quick / fast only. Shorter searches. Little pondering
and extracting information. Favour short chunks of
information. Convenience of device.
According to Librarian (2011) mobile literacy is the collection of skills required to reach useful information and
to produce information by means of mobile devices in the mobile-connected world. Parry (2011) states that
the teaching of mobile literacy is a fundamental skill on par with teaching basic literacy. For him, practicing
“the skill of quick information access and credibility detection” via mobile devices is not a one-time exercise to
be conducted within the walls of a classroom. It is a skill necessary for current and future generations if they
are to become lifelong learners. Being beyond the skills necessary to reach the desired information only within
the context of informal learning processes, mobile literacy is also necessary to benefit from the formal
educational possibilities that mobile technologies provide.
In order to teach and learn with mobile devices, educators and students need to acquire technical control of
the device and understand its limitations at both the hardware and software levels. For the educator,
knowledge of how to search for suitable apps and assess their suitability is also required. In a society where
having some control over the authoring of apps to adapt them to one’s use is encouraged, being able to code
or re-code apps would be an advantage (Ng et al., 2015). In Figure 2 mobile devices’ functions used in
educational processes are classified with respect to skill levels.
Basic skills such as the ability to make phone calls using a smartphone, to use SMS, MMS or other instant
messaging services (Whatsapp, Viber, Skype etc.), and to send and receive e-mail, can be considered within the
framework of communication skills. The ability to produce media such as photographs, video, voice recordings,
or to take notes using smartphones, are within the scope of content generation. Social media skills refer to the
ability to access social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Periscope, Snapchat etc.) via mobile
applications or browsers. The ability to access educational content, which is considered an advanced skill,
means being able to access web pages and applications that were prepared specifically for educational
purposes in both a formal and an informal context. In addition to technical competency, this task often (other
than cases stipulated by formal educational institutions) requires awareness of the need for education, and an
understanding that this need can be met by mobile technologies. Likewise, the skill of being able to access
useful information is a multidimensional concept. The ability to use search engines, skill in determining how
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
one can reach the required information (wikis, scientific studies, forums, or social media?), and whether the
information obtained is reliable, valid and useful, are all within the scope of skill in accessing useful
information. Application development skills, which are defined as very advanced skills, are within the scope of
computer programming and are not directly related to learning; these are far from being attainable by
everybody. However, it is important to determine that skill in accessing educational content and useful
information is beyond the level of basic skills.
Figure 2:Mobile literacy levels (Nielsen, 2015 as cited in Ion, 2015)
Widespread formal educational possibilities for the development of mobile literacy skills within society are
virtually non-existent, and individuals have been developing the skills they need via their own efforts. The fact
that individuals, who do not encounter with any problems while using social media through mobile devices,
have problems while reaching out for information and learning, is related to the fact that the need to develop
these skills has not been adopted, and education about this matter has not been provided.
Ng (2012), argued that the purposeful use of technology by young people in informal settings is not
characterised by exploring educational technologies but rather consists of social networking where there is
value and purpose in keeping in touch with friends and family, making more friends and finding out about the
world through their social network. He therefore argued that it is the role of educators to teach young learners
about learning with technology and to raise awareness about the types and flexibility of available applications
that could be used for learning. Educators therefore challenged to help students reverse unfavourable habits
that they may have developed in their informal development of digital literacy, for example their
underdeveloped web-based search and assess skills and the use of digital content ethically for academic
purposes.
Effective use of mobile technologies has made accessing information and educational content easier than ever,
and brought the related problems of time and space to a minimum. The fact that mobile technologies are
accessible by all segments of society has also made these technologies a very powerful instrument for lifelong
learning.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Developments both in society and in technology have been transforming the individual, as well as the
individual’s social, economic and personal needs. The need for education is one of these needs. New social and
economic realities have also resulted in a need for a new educational culture. In order to be a part of an
information society and an information economy, individuals should have the possibility to constantly update
their knowledge and skills; in other words they need to be lifelong learners. The first characteristic needed for
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
this is to be aware of the need for knowledge, learning and education, to know one’s own mind, and therefore
to have the necessary motivation. Determining the need for information, the ability to assess the validity,
applicability and reliability of information reached, and using this information in line with ethical rules, require
intellectual accumulation and perception beyond mere technical skills. In addition to this, skill in effective use
of up-to-date technologies, which have become indispensible for accessing information, learning, and
education, is needed. Here the emphasis on up-to-date technology is especially important. For example, the
“ability to use the library very effectively” is no longer enough on its own.
Effective participation in social and economic life also requires to keep up-to-date. Mobile technologies
provide a platform via which all of the contextual, positional, just-in-time, social and gamificated learning
approaches can be realized. They also present new and developed possibilities for both instructors and
learners in the fields of education and learning. Gaining the skills and perspectives necessary to benefit from
these possibilities will make it easier for the individual to join social and economic life. Although these
technologies are produced for their end users, within the context of their usage for lifelong learning,
enhancing the awareness in society and developing individuals’ mobile literacy skills are the duty of educators.
IJONTE’s Note: This study is presented as an oral presentation at International Congress on Education,
Distance Education and Educational Technology- ICDET- Turkey.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
İlker VATANSEVER is Educational Technologist currently working at Anadolu University,
Open Education Faculty, Learning Technologies Research & Development Department and
graduate student at Department of Distance Education, Anadolu University. His major
research interests are cognitive science, life-long learning, learning analytics, learning
materials and open and distance learning.
İlker VATANSEVER
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir-TURKEY
E. Mail: ilkervatansever@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr. Nilgun OZDAMAR KESKIN received her Ph.D. from the Department of Computer
Education and Instructional Technologies of the Graduate School of Educational Sciences
of Anadolu University in the year 2011. She was a visiting scholar at University of Central
Florida from 2009 to 2010. She got a best paper award at m-Learn Conference 2011 in
China. Her research interests include online learning, mobile learning, open and distance
education, MOOCs.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgün ÖZDAMAR KESKİN
Open Education Faculty
Anadolu University
Eskisehir-Turkey
E. Mail: nozdamar@anadolu.edu.tr
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249
A REVIEW ON THE PROGRAM EVALUATION STRATEGIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Prof. Dr. Salih UŞUN
Mugla Sıtkı Kocman University
Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Mugla ‐ TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to review the program evaluation strategies in point of suitabilities to distance
education . In the study, it was used of literature review technique to gather data. Firstly ,relevant and
previous studies in the literature on the program evaluation strategies in distance education were searched
and in detailed reviewed. Then, thirteen evaluation strategies that were frequently used to collect data for
educational program evaluations were described and reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance
education. In conclusion, it was determined that the objectives‐oriented strategy and systems ‐based
evaluation strategies were highly suited to distance education programs. But, traditional, expertise‐oriented,
humanistic and academic evaluation strategies were not suited to distance education programs. The
conclusions obtained in this study may be useful in the exploration of further research areas in the field of
program evaluation in distance education. In future , qualitative and / or quantitative researches should be
realized on the suitabilities of the strategies of the objectives‐oriented and systems ‐based evaluation for
distance education programs.
Keywords: Distance education, program evaluation, strategy.
INTRODUCTION
Program evaluation is defined as “a process used to determine whether the design and delivery of a program
were effective and whether the proposed outcomes were met” (Caffarella, 2002, 225). While program
evaluation first focuses around this definition, important considerations often include how much the program
costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there
are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and
useful (Shackman,2012).
Distance learning is a method of conveying education and instructions, generally on an individual basis, to the
students who are not physically available in a usual setting such as a classroom. Distance learning is rapidly
becoming an alternative to traditional classrooms. Students can benefit from the flexibility that comes with
distance learning, and for students who don't have the time or money to attend traditional schools, distance
learning can provide a path to higher education(Rao and Krishnan ,2015).
Distance education is a form of education in which there is normally a separation between teacher and learner
and thus one in which other means the printed and written materials, the broadcasting(radio and television),
computer and communication technologies and academic consultancy (Usun, 2006). Distance
education or distance learning is the education of students who are not physically present at a school. Distance
education is designed to give people options. It makes learning attainable for people from all walks of life. A
great alternative to traditional, campus‐based classes, distance education allows students to study on a more
flexible basis. Geber (2000) provides a contemporary definition of distance education as any formal approach
to learning in which the majority of the instruction occurs while educator and learner are at a distance from
each other.
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Evaluation is one of the critical steps in the process of performance improvement. Evaluation feeds evidence‐
based information back to the next cycle of performance improvement. However, organizations often neglect
to conduct comprehensive evaluations on their programs due to environmental barriers or the lack of
practitioners’ evaluation expertise (Chyung ,2015). Generally, evaluation is used to determine the degree to
which program objectives are met through the procedures used by the program. The evaluation determines
whether or not the outcomes or results predicted by the program occurred and if their occurrence was due to
the project. It is essential that evaluation and feedback be part of all distance learning programs. Evaluation in
distance education must be carefully balanced between a traditional view that allows for program
justification/development and a new view that has the potential for empowering. Also, evaluation in distance
education is undertaken to guide decision‐makers program leaders, program coordinators with an overall
objective to improve service delivery and client satisfaction. Evaluation commonly aims to determine the
relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of a distance education program or project.
Program evaluation is a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and utilizing information to answer basic
questions about projects, policies and programmes. Methodologies included cross sectional surveys and
review of literature to gather data. Evaluation in open and distance learning is undertaken to guide decision‐
makers programme leaders, programme coordinators with an overall objective to improve service delivery and
client satisfaction (Miriam and Offat, 2015). Program evaluation is about carefully collecting information on a
program or some aspects of a program in order to make necessary decisions. The process can include different
types of evaluation, such as needs assessment, accreditation, and cost effectiveness, formative and summative
evaluations. Pradhan (2006) described some of the components of a program evaluation activity . Distance
and open learning programs are designed for learners. They should be learner centred and should be
continually evaluated to improve the quality of the graduate. Programs must be evaluated to decide if the
programs are actually useful to the learners and whether they are achieving their stated objectives. Keegan
(1996) recommended that the evaluation of any distance education program should focus on four aspects: (a)
the quantity of the learning (i.e.,enrollment, new learner markets, and course‐completion rates), (b) the
quality of the learning (i.e., effectiveness of courses or program to enable desired learner outcomes), (c) the
status of the learning (i.e., transferability of coursework and employer recognition of degrees and certificates),
and (d) the relative cost of the learning (i.e., institutional cost effectiveness and cost benefits).
Distance education is a discipline that offers solutions to some important education problems. Distance
education, contribute to the solution to the problems such as; inequality of opportunities, lifelong education,
the implementation of a series of individual and social goals that can contribute to and benefit from
educational technology and self‐learning. In distance education, methods of measurement and assessment
must be consistent with the objectives and contents of teaching.( Kaya and Tan 2015).A series of studies
(Zawacki‐Richter (2009) ; Zawacki‐Richter, Bäcker and Vogt (2009) ; Zawacki‐Richter and von Prümmer (2010) ;
Zawacki‐Richter and Anderson (2011); Zawacki‐Richter and Anderson (2014) were conducted by Zawacki‐
Richter to explore the distance education(DE) research domain ( Bozkurt et al.,2015).In his study, Zawacki‐
Richter (2009, cited in Bozkurt et al.,2015) developed a categorization of research areas in DE and identified
the most important and the most neglected research areas in DE. Having conducted an extensive literature
review and a Delphi study with expert responses from editorial board members from the major DE journals
from September‐December 2008, Zawacki‐Richter identified 15 research areas which were organized into 3
broad categories. The participants of the study were 19 voluntary experts with an average of 27 years of
professional experience in DE who had made significant contributions to DE literature. Based on the experts’
responses, Zawacki‐Richter grouped the 15 research areas into three categories. In the second round of the
Delphi study, each category was prioritized by the expert as three levels. Macro level; distance education
system and theories ; meso level: management, organization and technology and micro level: teaching and
learning in distance education. We see that there is no any research level and area on the program evaluation
and/ or evaluation model or strategy in distance education.
According to current literature, some of the studies (Gunawardena,Lowe and Carabajal, 2000; Alhawiti,2014 )
on the evaluation model of distance education and learning programs focus on on‐line programs and
courses . Davie’s (1995) study focus on computer mediated communication, Osika and Camin’s (2005) study
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focus on Internet –Based distance learning programs and Khow’s(2014) study focus on e‐learning.The other
evaluation models on the distance education and learning programs are the followings (Usun,2016):
*Kaufman’s(1981) Organizational Needs Model
*Simonson,Smaldino and Zvacek’s (2002) AEIOU(Accountability, Effectiveness , Impact,
Organizational
Context, Unanticipated Outcomes) Model
*Forster and Washington’s(2000) Interactive Video Technology Model
*Compora’s(2003) Administrative Operational Model .
Worthen et al. (1997) identified six evaluation strategies (objectives‐oriented, management‐oriented,
consumer‐oriented, expertise‐oriented, adversary‐oriented and participant‐oriented) that are frequently used,
either singly or in some combination, to collect data for educational program evaluations. Rovai (2003) ,in his
study titled “A practical framework for evaluating online distance education programs” reviwed these
strategies in point of suitabilites and utilities to distance education.
As above seen, in current literature although there are some studies on the program evaluation models in
distance education, but there are only a few study on the program evaluation strategies in distance
education. So, current study can contribute to related literature on the program evaluation strategies in
distance education.
The aim of this study is to review the program evaluation strategies in point of suitabilities to distance
education.
METHODS
In the study, it was used literature review method to gather data. This study provided a descriptive review
on the the program evaluation strategies in distance education. Firstly,relevant and previous studies in the
literature on the program evaluation strategies in distance education were searched and rigorously
reviewed. Then, thirteen evaluation strategies that were frequently used to collect data for educational
program evaluations were described and reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance education.
A Review of Program Evaluation Strategies in Point of Suitabilities to Distance Education
Usun (2016) in his Turkish book titled “Eğitimde Program Değerlendirme: Süreçler,Yaklaşımlar ve Modeller”
(Program Evaluation in Education:Processes, Strategies and Models) ” identified thirteen evaluation strategies
that are frequently used to collect data for educational program evaluations. In this section, these strategies
are ,shortly,described and reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance education:
Objectives-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The objectives‐oriented evaluation strategy focuses on specifying the goals and objectives of a given program
attained. Ralph Tyler, who conceptualized the objectives‐oriented approach to evaluation in 1932, is
recognized as being the pioneer of this approach (Stufflebeam & Shinklefield, 1985). According to Worthen
and Sanders (1987,63), Tyler's early approach to evaluation was logical, scientifically acceptable, and readily
usable by educational evaluators.
Objectives‐oriented approach is highly suited to distance education programs that have highly defined
objectives, and the purpose of the evaluation is to determine if, and to what extent, these objectives have
been met (Rovai, 2003). According to Guba and Lincoln (1981), there were problems associated with the
objectives‐oriented approach. Critics of this evaluation approach claimed that the selection of appropriate
objectives to evaluate was problematic, as not all objectives could be evaluated and the process by which
objectives were selected was open to bias (Stufflebeam & Shinklefield, 1985).
Major weaknesses often cited regarding this strategy include the difficulty of evaluators of distance education
to operate in a program environment with ill‐defined objectives, to identify unintended program outcomes,
and to measure learning. Grades, often used to operationalize learning, can have little relationship to what
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249
students have learned as students may already know the material when they enroll, or their grades may be
more related to class participation, or work turned in late, than to learning (Rovai, 2003). Furthermore, grades
may not be a reliable measure of learning, and using grades as a measure of distance learning can be
problematic .
Systems -based Evaluation Strategy
A systems‐based strategy of evaluation is based on efficiently‐ determining which are the most effective
programs. It focuses on the organization, determining whether appropriate resources are devoted to goal
activities (and to nongoal activities, such as staff training or maintenance of the system) . The systems
approach to program evaluation is highly compatible with strategic planning, which has the goal of
strengthening the management decision‐making process by having it recognize and address key internal and
external factors that affect the organization. Moore and Kearsley (1996, 5) suggested that a systems approach
is very helpful to understanding distance education and that ‘‘the systems model provides a tool that not only
helps us recognize many of the issues that separate distance education from conventional education, but also
helps us distinguish good distance education from bad.’’ Consequently, it is important to evaluate distance
education programs by how they work as a whole rather than by evaluating individual components without
regard to overall program effectiveness (Rovai, 2003).
According to Worthen et al., (1997), potential weaknesses of the systems based (management oriented)
approach may occur from evaluators giving partiality to top management, from evaluators’ occasionalinability
to respond to questions, from costly evaluation processes, and from the assumption that important decisions
can be clearly identified in advance. The other weakness of this strategy is that it tends to reinforce the status
quo of management rather than balancing the interests of management with those of other internal and
external stakeholders. If management does not value distance education, evaluation results will likely reflect
this bias (Rovai, 2003).
Collaborative Evaluation Strategy
Collaborative evaluation is a proactive evaluation strategy that enables program staff to engage in continuous
program improvement. A collaborative program evaluation can employ a variety of approaches, but focuses on
building a relationship between the evaluation team and program staff with the goal of building the capacity of
program staff to use evaluation results and promote program improvement (O’Sullivan, 2012). The process of
a collaborative evaluation occurs in three general phases: (1) getting underway, (2) full engagement, and (3)
wrapping up. While the phases appear linear, they are, in fact, dynamic and iterative as implemented
throughout the evaluation process.
The collaborative program evaluation strategy allows the evaluation team and program staff to stand
shoulder‐to‐shoulder in determining how to improve program implementation and effectiveness, thereby
increasing the probability of improved student outcomes. In this type of evaluation, evaluators apply
appropriate data collection and methods of analysis to determine whether the program is having the desired
impact and provides recommendations for program improvements. While a collaborative program evaluation
requires an ongoing commitment by all parties, it also produces high value to stakeholders and greatly
increases the likelihood that educational programs will meet their intended goals and objectives (Usun ,2016).
A possible weakness to the participant‐oriented approach is that each stakeholder is likely to have different
criteria regarding program value and effectiveness (Rovai, 2003). One of the best way to ensure objectivity in
the measurement of quality of outcomes in a distance education program is the exploration of the
stakeholders views. Cost, time and resistance to multiple evaluation sources are important limitations in the
search for objective parameters.
Participant-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The participant‐oriented evaluation strategy stresses firsthand experiences with program activities and
emphasizes the importance of the participants in the process. As defined by Royse, Thyer, Padgett, and Logan
(2006,93), participative evaluation “centers on enlisting the cooperation of the least powerful stakeholders in
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the evaluation from start to finish”.Stakeholders define the evaluation approach and determine the evaluation
parameters.
The participant‐oriented evaluation strategy allows for the evaluator to engage with the stakeholder as a
partner in solving the problems. One advantage to this approach is that it uses the technique of progressive
focusing to data gather and analyse for prospective studies. Participant‐oriented strategy is suited to
distance education programs .But, the participant‐oriented evaluation (including empowerment) strategy is
not without disadvantages. A possible weakness to the participant‐oriented strategy is that each stakeholder is
likely to have different criteria regarding program value and effectiveness. If the evaluator attempts to find
common ground and to satisfy all stakeholders, the evaluation is likely to become ineffective, and those
designing and conducting evaluations may focus on answering questions that are not relevant, but to which
everyone agrees.
Adversary-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The adversary‐oriented evaluation strategy utilizes a judicial process in examining a program. According to
Levine (1982, 149), the adversarial approach operates with the assumption that the truth emerges from a
hard, but fair, fight in which opposing sides present supporting evidence. One advantage to this strategy is
that it illuminates both positive and negative view points. Additionally, the strategy is open to participation by
stakeholders and decisions place greater assurance in the conclusion of the trial. This evaluation strategy is not
commonly adopted because of it’s determination of guilt. Worthen et al (1997) stated, “Evaluation should
aspire to improve programs, not determine their guilt or innocence.”
The adversary‐oriented strategy attempts to reduce bias by attempting to assure fairness by incorporating
both positive and negative views into the evaluation itself. Several models have been used for adversary
evaluations, to include structured public debates, such as town hall meetings, and the use of opposing
evaluators that debate the issues. The idea of using this model is not so much to win a verdict as it is for all
stakeholders and evaluators to acquire a beter appreciation of the issues involved and to gain insights into
other points of view (Worthen et al.,1997). For distance education, this strategy can be helpful if students and
faculty members are identified who support and oppose the distance education program and are provided the
opportunity to present their points of view to the evaluators.
One advantage to this evaluation strategy in distance education is that it illuminates both positive and
negative view points. Additionally, the approach is open to participation by stakeholders and decisions place
greater assurance in the conclusion of the trial. But, this evaluation approach is not commonly adopted
because of it’s determination of guilt. The other weakness of this strategy is that it can be used only in
summative evaluations and it required compact effort and takes a long time.
Qualitative Evaluation Strategy
Qualitative evaluations use qualitative and naturalistic methods, sometimes alone, but often in combination
with quantitative data. The data for qualitative evaluation typically comes from fieldwork. The evaluator
spends time in the setting under study—a program, organization, or community where change efforts can be
observed, people interviewed, and documents analyzed. Qualitative methods include three kinds of data
collection: in‐depth, open‐ended interviews; direct observation; and written documents (Denzin & Lincoln,
1998; Greene, 1994).Permit evaluator to study selected issues, cases or events in depth and detail.
Qualitative methods are considered useful tools to evaluate the effectiveness of distance education programs
(Beck & Kacirek, 2011). Qualitative research method uses a naturalistic approach to understand phenomena in
context‐specific settings, such as real world setting [where] the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2002).Because of the qualitative program evaluation strategies are as if
describe the story of program, these aproaches can be used as effectively in program evaluation of distance
education.
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Expertise-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The expertise‐oriented evaluation strategy is the oldest and most widely used evaluation approach to judge a
program, activity, or institution (Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1997). Evaluators utilizing this strategy draw
on a panel of experts to judge a program and make recommendations based on their perceptions. But in this
strategy , educational criteria of expertise evaluator is not clearly be defined. The expertise‐oriented strategy
to evaluation, widely used by accrediting agencies, depends primarily upon professional expertise to judge an
educational program(Usun ,2016).
This strategy has a potential weakness in the evaluation of distance education programs,so, that is likely to
have different criteria regarding value and effectiveness of distance education program. An other weakness is
the limited reliability of expert testimony. Different experts may not make the same judgments and
recommendations regarding the program (Rovai, 2003).In the eyes of critics, the overall limitation to the
expertise‐oriented evaluation strategy is the central role of the expert judge. Critics suggest that the use of
expert judges permits evaluators to make judgments that are personally biased, inherently conservative,
potentially incestuous, and are not based upon program objectives of distance education .
Consumer-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The consumer‐oriented evaluation strategy is commonly used by government agencies and consumer
advocates who compile information to evaluate a product’s effectiveness. According to Stufflebeam et al.,
(2000), a consumer‐oriented evaluation requires a highly credible and competent expert with sufficient
resources to conduct a thorough evaluation. Scriven (1991) was a pioneer in applying the consumer‐oriented
approach to program evaluation and was responsible for distinguishing between the formative and summative
roles of evaluation. The primary purpose of formative evaluation is to improve the quality of the program
being developed so it will be possible to achieve the objectives for which it was designed (Beyer, 1995).
Summative evaluation is conducted to provide decision‐makers or potential customers with judgments about
the worth or merit of a program in relation to important criteria (Brown & Gerhardt, 2002).
The central theme of this strategy is the development of information on products for use by consumers (i.e.,
students). Such an approach has particular appeal for distance education programs because of the increasing
competition among such programs. Limitations on the use of this model in a distance education context arise
as the result of individual student differences. What appeals to one student may not appeal to another (Rovai,
2003).
One advantage to this strategy is that it attracts attention the greatness and eventual cases of the program
impacts and so sensitizes the program evaluators .In this strategy,in order to appoint the basic characteristics
of the potential considerations, the evaluator of distance education have to take help from the other
professional experts ,such as education psychologists .
Constructivist (Postmodern) Evaluation Strategy
Constructivist evaluation is that form of evaluation based on the propositions (basic assumptions) undergirding
the constructivist paradigm. Evaluation in constructivist settings is goal‐free.A constructivist strategy to
knowledge construction and learning can be well supported in distance education settings through a variety of
technologies. Fourth Generation Evaluation (FGE) is Guba and Lincoln’s (1989) response to what they believe
to be the inadequacies of previous evaluation methodologies. Guba and Lincoln’s (1989) specific complaints
include previous evaluation generations’ political bias toward whoever sponsored the evaluation; inability to
acknowledge pluralism in participants’ perspectives; and over‐reliance and emphasis on ‘qualitative analysis of
a quasi‐scientific nature’.The basic process of FGE includes (1) identifying stakeholders; (2) examining
stakeholders’ claims, issues and concerns about the construct; and (3) seeking consensus among stakeholders
via discussion, negotiation, and interchange.
One of the weaknesses and criticisms of the constructivist strategy is its inability to evaluate learning.
Therefore, distance education courses require clear and specific structure in order to be successful. Structure,
however, does not necessarily suggest an objectivist approach to instructional design. Constructivist
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evaluation is a difficult strategy to adopt. It is highly labor intensive. It is ever‐recursive and requires frequent
recapitulations. If is often adversarial and confrontational. It is a diffuse process impossible to specify in detail
(in design form); hence, its personnel and resource commitments can at best be “guesstimated.” It requires
the evaluator to play multiple roles which at times may appear to be in conflict. It denies the possibility of
reliable generalizations and of determining solutions “that work” everywhere (Guba and Lincoln ,1989).So, it
can be said that constructivist evaluation is a difficult strategy to adopt, is not suited to distance education
programs.
Traditional Evaluation Strategy
Patton (1997, 7) refered that ,with the application of scientific methods to program evaluations, traditional
evaluation (TE) was born. Traditional evaluation is characterized by its emphasis on scientific methods.
Reliability and validity of the collected data are key, while the main criterion for a quality evaluation is
methodological rigor. TE requires the evaluator to be objective and neutral and to be outcome‐focused. This
leads to a preoccupation with experimental methods, numbers (as opposed to words), statistical tools, and an
emphasis on summative evaluations (aimed to determine whether or not to continue a particular program)
rather than formative ones (aimed at program improvement).
Stake (1973) argued for storytelling as a means of conveying the “holistic impression, the mood, even the
mystery of the experience”.In essence, the debate hinges on legitimacy: whereas TE draws legitimacy from
scientific rigor, responsive evaluation draws legitimacy from endorsements by a majority of important
stakeholders. Although Stake took pains to suggest that responsive evaluation should supplement traditional
evaluation, rather than replacing it, it is easy to see the conflicting orientations of the two approaches. Thus,
the seeds were sown for the debates discussed in subsequent sections of this paper. This early offshoot of TE
would be a precursor to what has since been referred to as the “paradigm wars” (Caracelli, 2000.) Although TE
is still widely used today, it is not the only available strategy to program evaluation in distance education .
Competing strategies have since been developed, mostly in response to one of TE’s most serious drawbacks –
the fact that many TE reports are not used or even read (Patton, 1997). A weakness of this strategy is that it
requires highly administral control , and also there are important problems concerned with objectivity and
methodology.
Pragmatic Evaluation Strategy
These strategy essentially ignores the paradigm debate and show no hesitation to mix strategies in ways that
loyalists to either paradigm would never do out of fear of compromising their findings. One might even
speculate that these pragmatic approaches are appearing because of the persistence of the paradigm war – its
abstract debates have not addressed the questions and problems that evaluators in the “real world” wrestle
with, and may have led to the advent of “mixed‐method approaches” . For example, Johnson, McDaniel, and
Willeke (2000) argue that assessments of portfolios can satisfy psychometric demands of reliability. Datta
(2001,405) concurs: “as the ends draw apart, the widening middle ground is getting filled with new approaches
to unify us, such as realistic evaluation”. Although a treatise of realistic evaluation falls beyond the scope of
this paper, it is a noteworthy contribution worthy of further examination. Thus far, there are no articles
reporting on an application of this philosophy to program evaluation. Time will tell whether or not emergent
realism will catch on in the field.In spite of the continued paradigm war, which tends to polarize the field
between two alternatives (objectivist or constructivist assumptions; quantitative or qualitative methods;
summative or formative purpose; etc.), the literature shows an increase in popularity of pragmatic strategies
(Bengston & Fan, 1999; Pratt et al., 2000).Pragmatic strategies act as a conciliator between different and
dual alternatives, so, it can be said that pragmatic strategies are suited to distance education programs.
Humanistic Evaluation Strategy
Lee Cronbach quoted Ornstein (1988) two conflicting strategies in curriculum evaluation suggests that the two
front ends are on a continuum. These strategies are: scientific and humanistic strategy is applying standard
tests to evaluation of scientific approach indicators and in fact, this approach goes back approach is the ruling
on education. Data obtained via a human strategy to significantly differ significance of scientific evaluation. In
this strategy , often qualitative methods such as observation, interviews and data are use. In fact, this strategy
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represents both quantitative and qualitative approaches in the field of evaluation. The most common way is
that the curriculum as a sequence of courses or a program of what is thought to occur in the classroom.
Assessment based on technical evaluation of this strategy is based on the belief that better results can be
evaluated to determine the payments. In the second method, curriculum, not as a program but as what
actually happens to students is viewed. The evaluation strategy is based on this strategy is more human
approach. Humanistic strategy in the last three decades it has grown to feature which is trying to gain a more
complete picture of the curriculum (Usun ,2016).
The advantages of this strategy are that it use often qualitative methods such as observation, interviews .
In fact, this strategy represents both quantitative and qualitative strategies in the field of evaluation and it is
based to process.The weakness of this strategy is that it applies standard tests to evaluation of scientific
approach indicators. So, humanistic approach is not suited to evaluate of distance education programs.
Academic Evaluation Strategy
The academic strategy attempts to analyze and synthesize major positions, trends, and concepts of curriculum.
It tends to be grounded on historical and philosophical curriculum developments and to a lesser extent on
social conditions. This strategy is concerned with comprehensive domains of schooling, including the study of
educa on. It is usually scholas c and theore cal, hence, also referred to as ―tradi onal, encyclopedic,
synoptic, intellectual, or knowledge‐oriented approach‖ (Ornstein & Hunkins 1993:6). This strategy has
partially returned in recent times – Emphasis is placed on understanding how knowledge is constructed,
deconstructed and reconstructed. Also, this strategy was very concerned with presenting a broad variety
foundational issues related to the topic, such as historical, philosophical , social and political (Usun ,2016).
The academic strategy is a more focused on the structure on knowledge and organization of subject matter
into subjects. The training and development of the mind is what is most important. Observable actions are not
as significant in this strategy. When people adopt this strategy they believe in training the mind like a muscle.
A strong muscle can be used in many different ways just as a strong mind can be used in many different
occupations in life. The weaknesses of this strategy is that it is not practical ,usually theoretical ,
encyclopedic, synoptic and intellectual ,so, is not suited to distance education programs.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
It is essential that evaluation and evaluation strategies should be part of all distance education programs. In
current and related literature there are only a few study on the program evaluation strategies in distance
education. In this study, Usun’s(2016) thirteen evaluation strategies that are frequently used to collect data
for educational program evaluations were reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance education;
The objectives‐oriented evaluation strategy focuses on specifying the goals and objectives of a given program
attained. This strategy is highly suited to distance education programs that have highly defined objectives,
and the purpose of the evaluation is to determine if, and to what extent, these objectives have been met.
Major weaknesses often cited regarding this strategy include the difficulty of evaluators of distance education
to operate in a program environment with ill‐defined objectives, to identify unintended program outcomes,
and to measure learning. Systems ‐based evaluation strategy is very helpful to understanding distance
education and that ‘‘the systems model provides a tool that not only helps us recognize many of the issues
that separate distance education from conventional education, but also helps us distinguish good distance
education from bad.’’ Consequently, it is important to evaluate distance education programs by how they
work as a whole rather than by evaluating individual components without regard to overall program
effectiveness. Potential weakness of the systems based (management oriented) strategy may occur from
evaluators giving partiality to top management, from evaluators’ occasionalinability to respond to questions,
from costly evaluation processes, and from the assumption that important decisions can be clearly identified in
advance .
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249
In spite of the continued paradigm war, which tends to polarize the field between two alternatives (objectivist
or constructivist assumptions; quantitative or qualitative methods; summative or formative purpose; etc.), the
literature shows an increase in popularity of pragmatic strategies. Pragmatic evaluation strategies act as a
conciliator between different and dual alternatives, so, it can be said that pragmatic approaches are suited
to distance education programs. Qualitative methods are considered useful tools to evaluate the effectiveness
of distance education programs .Qualitative research method uses a naturalistic approach to understand
phenomena in context‐specific settings, such as real world setting [where] the researcher does not attempt to
manipulate the phenomenon of interest .Because of the qualitative program evaluation strategies are as if
describe the story of program, these aproaches can be used as effectively in program evaluation of distance
education. The central theme of the consumer‐oriented evaluation strategy is the development of
information on products for use by consumers (i.e., students). Such an approach has particular appeal for
distance education programs because of the increasing competition among such programs. Limitations on the
use of this model in a distance education context arise as the result of individual student differences. In this
strategy,in order to appoint the basic characteristics of the potential considerations, the evaluator of distance
education have to take help from the other professional experts ,such as education psychologists . The
collaborative and participant‐oriented evaluation strategies allow for the evaluator to engage with the
stakeholder as a partner in solving the problems. The advantages to these strategies are that they use the
technique of progressive focusing to data gather and analyse for prospective
studies. The possible
weaknesses of these strategies are that each stakeholder is likely to have different criteria regarding program
value and effectiveness . The adversary‐oriented evaluation strategy utilizes a judicial process in examining a
program. For distance education, this strategy can be helpful if students and faculty members are identified
who support and oppose the distance education program and are provided the opportunity to present their
points of view to the evaluators. One advantage to this evaluation strategy in distance education is that it
illuminates both positive and negative view points. The weakness of this strategy is that it can be used only in
summative evaluations and it required compact effort and takes a long time.
Traditional, expertise‐oriented,humanistic and academic evaluation strategies have potential weaknesses in
the evaluation of distance education programs. Although traditional evaluation (TE) is still widely used today,
it is not the only available strategy to program evaluation in distance education . Competing strategies have
since been developed, mostly in response to one of TE’s most serious drawbacks – the fact that many TE
reports are not used or even read . A weakness of this strategy is that it requires highly administral control ,
and also there are important problems concerned with objectivity and methodology. The expertise‐oriented
evaluation strategy i strategy has a potential weakness in the evaluation of distance education programs, so,
that is likely to have different criteria regarding value and effectiveness of distance education program. An
other weakness is the limited reliability of expert testimony. Different experts may not make the same
judgments and recommendations regarding the program. Humanistic strategy in the last three decades it has
grown to feature which is trying to gain a more complete picture of the curriculum. The advantages of this
strategy are that it use often qualitative methods such as observation, interviews . In fact, this strategy
represents both quantitative and qualitative strategies in the field of evaluation and it is based to process.
The weakness of this strategy is that it applies standard tests to evaluation of scientific approach indicators.
The academic strategy is a more focused on the structure on knowledge and organization of subject matter
into subjects. The training and development of the mind is what is most important. Observable actions are not
as significant in this strategy. When people adopt this strategy they believe in training the mind like a muscle.
A strong muscle can be used in many different ways just as a strong mind can be used in many different
occupations in life. The weaknesses of this strategy is that it is not practical ,usually theoretical ,
encyclopedic, synoptic and intellectual ,so, is not suited to distance education programs.
By understanding the similarities and differences between the strategies above mentioned it is hoped that
program evaluators of distance education can be more effective in their application of multiple evaluation
strategies .
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249
Recommendations
In this study, it was determined that the objectives‐oriented and systems ‐based evaluation strategies
were highly suited to distance education programs. But, traditional, expertise‐oriented, humanistic and
academic evaluation strategies have potential weaknesses in the evaluation of distance education programs .
As above (in section of Introduction) mentioned , in current literature although there are some studies on
the program evaluation models in distance education, but there are only a few study on the program
evaluation strategies in distance education. The findings obtained in this study may be useful in the
exploration of potential research areas and identification of neglected areas in the field of distance education.
We think that the conclusions of our study is a set of new questions that can be used as ideas for further
research. So , in future , qualitative and / or quantitative researches should be realized on the suitabilities
and effectivenesses of the strategies of the objectives‐oriented and systems ‐based evaluation for distance
education programs.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR
Salih USUN, Ph.D. is professor in Department of Education Sciences , Faculty of
Education, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Unıversity . He received his PhD degree from Ankara
University, Educational Technology programme. His research interests are educational
and instructional technology, individual instruction technologies, distance education,
computer assisted instruction, program development and evaluation. He is a member of
various national and international referee committes, syposiums, congress and other
scientific assembles. He has many books,papers and articles on the subjects of
educational and instructional technology, distance education,computer assisted instruction and program
development and evaluation.
Prof. Dr. Salih USUN
Education Sciences Department
Faculty of Education
Mugla Sıtkı Kocman University
Mugla‐ TURKEY
E. Mail: susun@mu.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
EFFECT OF UNIVERSITY’S WEB PAGES TO STUDENTS IN PREFERENCE PERIOD
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa COŞAR
Hitit University
Çorum- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Preferences of students taking university entrance preparation is known to affect multiple factors. Among the
most important ones; want to see the city and university student education, family orientation, tutoring and
guidance teachers redirects, close to the joint decision of friends, standings and finally the university may be
able to introduce themselves criteria. The decisions of the students to increasing the number of universities in
preferred period since the 2000's has captured quite. In this case, students and parents have been making
universities are researching gather broad information about them. Web pages of universities that are highly
effective in influencing the availability of this information gathering phase and preferences is of utmost
importance.
In this study, students who choose the University of Hitit, were tried to be determined the level of receiving
information from the web page. First, during the preference period, the web page's clicked reports was taken.
Then, some information collected with survey the students. This information has been interpreted and
evaluated with the help of statistical analysis. This study as a decision support system can help students and
universities.
Keywords: Web design, High education, Preference, Google analytics, Decision support system.
INSTRUCTION
Today, individuals from many sources the decision phase is fast, secure and free can collect information. The
development of the technology along with the most used among these resources is the internet. University
candidates who started using the internet especially at an early age, it is believed that they use the internet
during the preference period in an active way. In this process, institutions, determining how they affect these
environments when making decisions about the future of this candidates, this environment should make it
more convenient and investments should be made in this direction. Determining the level of these effects may
help students make the right choices. As a result, they can increase their success at the university.
In 2015, a total of 1,239,800 students, including transition without examination, made preference (url_1).
3673 student has earned Hittite University. As the school year 2015-2016 begins in Turkey, the numbers of the
university, which reached 193 (Url_2), It is known that they have serious competition about filling their quota.
This competition is a rational, research-based, and requires you to create your promotional strategies right. In
addition, this strategy should not be forgotten when determining the factors of the quality of university
education, academic and physical infrastructure facilities, housing, social facilities, where the University is
located, the count will be correct. Universities, needs accurate data and sound analysis about the candidates
to introduce yourself correctly.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
Universities, especially in recent years attaches great importance to promotional activities. In this context;
 The promotion of participation between provinces and even international education fairs.
 at the beginning of the preference period, written and oral ads,
 in most environments, such as transport vehicles, banners and publish
 Promotional activities for high schools.
These events require quite large resources, such as, time, money and human resources. However, institutions
out of pop-ups on your web pages although it does not replace them very effective and low cost promotional
tool.
In this study, during the preference period, winning university new students make a decision in order to
determine which of the promotional tools that are just how impressed they have been made.
PREFERENCE PROCESS
Each year, the months of June and July are very important months for the university to the candidates.
Because thousands of students are about to make decisions about their professional lives. Therefore, each
student collects information from as many sources as possible.
The increase in the number of universities that does not matter whether private or state university, are
brought advertising and competition. These efforts are beneficial to the students. At the same time, is
messing with their heads too. In 2015, the number of universities in Turkey, research and teaching continuing
activities, is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Number of Universities and the State-Private Status
University
Count
State
109
Private
76
Private Vocational School
8
Total
193
As seen in Table 1, in total, there are 193 universities in Turkey (url_2). The majority of them has been
established in recent years. Their names, which they were in town, they are better known areas and facilities
are not known exactly. A process with so many unknowns, makes it difficult to be managed by students and
their parents. Many parents wants to study their students at a university where is near their living, but it is
believed that the students did not attach much importance to it.
Preferability factors effect of a University can be listed as follows:
 The instructor team,
 Teaching and research activities,
 Physical infrastructure,
 International activities,
 Socio-cultural contributions offered to students,
 The structure of the city and region,
 The preferred percentage.
METHODOLOGY
In this study, in the 2015-2016 academic year, first-year students of Hitit University Engineering Faculty,
carried out a survey in order to reveal what the factors in choosing this University. The survey consists of 15
questions. The first section of the questionnaire is individual questions. There are questions about the process
of preference in the second section.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
A total of 211 students participated in this survey. According to students' gender and department the
distribution are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: According to students' gender and department
Gender
Departments
Woman
Food Engineering
37
Chemical Engineering
23
Mechanical Engineering
19
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
6
Total
85
Man
11
16
69
30
126
Student Number
48
39
88
36
211
After the application of the survey, University web page visitors clicked on the preference of the period in the
date range taken from Google Analytics reports to gather information on the spatial has been studied. Assume
that this is of clicks performed by the students. The collected data are digitized in a computer environment,
and then statistical analysis has been interpreted and evaluated with the help of.
FINDINGS
Reports of the web page visitors
The clicks information of the Hitit University's web page were taken from Google Analytics (GA, 2015). Which
city and how many clicks it is seen that from this report. An example of the report shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Cities are making the most clicks to the web page
Visitor information from Google Analytics and from the Registrar's office (OIDB, 2015) with a list of students
who according to the city preferred are summarized in figure 2.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
According to the City, Web Page
Number of Visitors
1
ÇORUM
15.901
2
ANKARA
5.427
3
İSTANBUL
3.234
4
SAMSUN
1.483
5
KAYSERİ
880
6
İZMİR
605
7
ADANA
494
8
AMASYA
436
9
KONYA
379
10 BURSA
369
11 ANTALYA
278
12 DİYARBAKIR
273
13 ORDU
259
14 TOKAT
246
15 MERSİN
243
According to the City, The Number of
those Who Prefer to Hitit University
1
ÇORUM
1105
2
ANKARA
481
3
SAMSUN
219
4
İSTANBUL
196
5
AMASYA
125
6
TOKAT
88
7
YOZGAT
74
8
KAYSERİ
63
9
ORDU
62
10 KONYA
60
11 KOCAELİ
52
12 KIRIKKALE
47
13 ADANA
43
14 BURSA
39
15 GAZİANTEP
33
Figure2: Web page visitors and who prefer to Hitit University
As shown in Figure 2, 2015 preference during the period, in the first part a list of the cities where most of the
visitors to web page is located. In the second part, new students were determined to live in what city. Then
two information were compared. As a result, the visitor data of the web page and preferred to be
approximately 75% of it has been seen that by are overlapping. In the first part, it does not seem in the
preferred of the cities written in red. In contrast, although the number of visitors from the cities written in red,
there has been a lot the number of students who preferred.
Student Opinions
2014-2015 academic year University students who are studying in the Faculty of Engineering accepted the
Hittite prefer of the questions that were prepared to determine trends made over the results from the
application of a questionnaire are given in the following table.
Table 3: Where were you heard the name of University firstly?
Reference
Number
Preferred guide
100
Internet
41
The University promotional materials
7
Written and visual media
3
Preferred robots
9
Courses
16
School teachers
3
Friends
21
Friends at University
17
Graduating from Hitit
12
Educations fairs
5
Other ………………………………….
18
Total
252
Rate
39.68
16.27
2.78
1.19
3.57
6.35
1.19
8.33
6.75
4.76
1.98
7.14
100
According to the table above, the majority of students, university's name said that firstly they heard from
preferred guide and internet. Although the number of students who said that heard from the internet are not
very high, it is seen that the second highest number.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 4: Decision time to University
Decision Time
During my high school education
Before taking the exam
After the results of the examination were announced
During the preference period
Total
Number
5
19
47
136
207
Rate
2.42
9.18
22.71
65.70
100
According to Table 4, 65% of students say that the university decided to give preference period. Therefore, it
can be said that students have decided quickly in less time. In the elections of research resources, while this
decision is thought to be in the same direction. In line with this, it can be concluded that the internet can come
to the forefront.
Table 5: Which sources have been used to gather information about University?
Reference
Number
Visited the University
10
Received information by phones
29
Received information from course guidance service
33
Received information from school guidance service
9
Searched on Internet
112
Received information from the University web page
61
I received information from educational fairs
17
any where
29
Other ……..………………………………….
13
Total
313
Rate
3.19
9.27
10.54
2.88
35.78
19.49
5.43
9.27
4.15
100
As seen in Table 5, the largest number of students in gathering information source is the Internet. It is
observed that 36% of students prefer the internet. On the other hand about 20% the proportion of students
were told the information from the web page. When considered as a common source of the two technologies.
It reveals that more than half of the students chose this method.
CONCLUSION
According to the information that is collected from the students has an important place, it is observed that the
preferred phase of web pages. The vast majority of students are using internet for search. In addition, the web
page according to the report, 75% effective was observed. According to this result, it is believed that the
University should give more importance to web pages.
Research, performed on different faculties and departments, different results can be obtained. Thus, both
students and University administrators support information can be provided.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR
Dr. Mustafa COŞAR is an assistant professor at Computer Engineering Department of
Engineering Faculty, University of Hitit, Çorum, Turkey. He got his master degree in
Computer Education and Instructional Technology in Education on (Distance Education)
from Gazi University, Institution of Educational Sciences. And he got his PhD in Computer
Education and Instructional Technology from Gazi University. He has published a few
research papers in Journals and also presented more than 29 research papers in various
National and International Conference/Seminar/Workshops.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa COŞAR
Hitit University
Computer Engineering Department of Engineering Faculty
19030 Çorum- TURKEY
URL: http://web.hitit.edu.tr/mustafacosar
E. Mail: mustafacosar@hitit.edu.tr
REFERENCES
GA., (2015), Google Analytics, 2015 Clicked on a Web Page Report.
OIDB, (2015), Hitit Üniversitesini Kazanan Öğrenci Profili, Hitit Üniversitesi Öğrenci İşleri Daire Başkanlığı,
Url_1: http://www.osym.gov.tr/belge/1-20574/2014-osys-basvuran-aday-sayisi-adaylarin-basvuru-bilgil-.html
Url_2: https://istatistik.yok.gov.tr/
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING PURPOSES
Prof. Dr. İbrahim AKMAN
Atılım University
Department of Computer Engineering
Ankara- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Çiğdem TURHAN
Atılım University
Department of Computer Engineering
Ankara- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this study, adoption of Social Media for learning and teaching purposes (SL/T) has been analyzed based on a
conceptual research model. Factors included in this study have been categorized under two empirical factors,
namely, socio-demographic and utilitarian. A survey approach has been adopted for this purpose and the least
square regression techniques is used to investigate the relationships among the variables included in the
research model. The test results indicate that, except perceived awareness (PAW), all the remaining factors
have significant effect on the actual usage of SL/T.
Keywords: Social media, learning, teaching, socio-demographic, utilitarian, regression.
INTRODUCTION
Social media has made a significant impact on different aspects of society over the past few decades especially
in the way people communicate and share information. Through video sharing sites, wikis, forums, etc., social
networking sites (SNS) provide an active, free and open platform for teaching and learning to any interested
user regardless of their socio-demographic characteristics such as age or gender (Huang, Hood, & Yoo, 2013;
Osatuyi, 2013). Furthermore, this platform provides the perfect medium for personalized informal learning in
the domains that the user is interested in, and increases the motivation to continue the learning process.(Bull
et al., 2008).
Yet, differences exist on SNS utilization in terms of users’ sociodemographic attributes as well as their attitudes
and behaviour towards social media platforms. For example, even though no major differences exist between
different genders in the Internet usage, women prefer to use social media more whereas men prefer to use
other Internet sources in larger numbers (Kim, Sin, & Tsai, 2014). Furthermore, in their study, Malesky and
Peters (2012) show that significant disagreement exists between the faculty and students of higher-education
instututions regarding their interaction on SNSs, largely dependent on their beliefs and attitudes.
Even though there have been numerous research on the usage of social media, there have been only a few
studies on the acceptance of social media tools in teaching and learning (Echeng & Usoro, 2014). In his
research, Tess (2013) concludes that most of the previous studies have concentrated on the effectiveness of
social media, but that there should be more empirical studies on this domain. In consequence, this study aims
to empirically investigate the adoption of social media for learning and teaching from different sociodemographic viewpoints and perceptions. Age, gender and position constitute the socio-demographic
perspectives, whereas the perceived ease of use, usefulness, social pressure and awareness are included in the
utilitarian empirical category.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
The results of the study can provide feedback to the SNS providers in developing new social media platforms
and to educators in incorporating social media into their formal learning environments The remainder of the
paper is organized as follows. The next section explains the hypotheses development in terms of the sociodemographic and utilitarian categories followed by the research method. Then, the descriptive and test
results are explained followed by the conclusion.
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
The present study was performed among academics and students from higher education institutions to
investigate the impact of decision (independent) variables regarding the adoption of social media for learning
and teaching purposes (SL/T). The decision variables are grouped under two empirical categories namely,
socio-demographic and utilitarian (Figure 1). The empirical group, socio-demographic, contains gender, age
and position, whereas perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived social pressure and perceived
awareness constitute the utilitarian group. The justification of the factors in the analysis and their
corresponding hypotheses are provided below.
Socio-demographic
gender
age
H1
position
Actual SL/T usage
Utilitarian
PEU
H2
PU
PSP
PAW
Figure 1: Research Model
Socio-demographic
The role of the Internet has been increasing in the daily life of many people around the globe and the studies
on the Internet widely use individuals’ socio-demographic characteristics in explaining the nature of usage. For
example, in an earlier study, Taylor, Zhu, Dekkers and Marshall (2003) reported that Internet usage pattern
may have different dispersions for different gender groups. According to Kalmus, Realo and Siibak (2011) age,
experience, education level are the significant predictors of adoption of social media. On the other hand, the
nature of Internet has changed drastically with the rising popularity of social media especially during the last
decade. This phenomena has attracted the attention of higher education institutions. More specifically, Calisir,
Atahan and Saracoglu (2013) pointed that differences may be significantly explained by the demographic
characteristics for the adoption of Social Network Sites (SNS). This means demographic characteristics should
be taken into account, as the nature and consequences of SNS usage could be potentially different for
different demographic groups. However, the SNS trend is a relatively new one and little research has been
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
reported on its acceptance and use in education . Furthermore, available literature generally recognizes the
obstacles and challenges for using SL/T (Elases et al., 2016) but does not pay much attention on the sociodemographic differences in higher education. Therefore we propose the following hypotheses.
H11: Socio-demographic factor gender does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
H12: Socio-demographic factor age does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
H13: Socio-demographic factor position does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
Utilitarian
The measures perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have been extensively used in research related
to acceptance of technoloy (Davis, 1989; Malhotra, Heine, & Grover, 2001). With regard to the ease of use and
usefulness technology dimensions, more autonomous users seem to find the social networking platform more
difficult to use (Lane & Coleman, 2012). According to Lane and Coleman (2012) one’s personal traits are
related to one’s perceptions of technology usefulness and ease of use, and ultimately how intensely the SN
platforms are used. This also seems to be logical for the usage os SN platforms for teaching and learning
purposes. Therefore we propose following hypotheses.
H21: The utilitarian factor Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T
(AU)
H22: The utilitarian factor Perceived Usefullness (PU) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
Available empirical research has shown that awareness goes along with attitude and “positive attitude towards
ICT is widely recognized as a necessary condition for the effective implementation” (Lane & Coleman, 2012;
Woodrow, 1990). In their study, Michaelidou, Siamagka, and Christodoulides (2011) also support this view by
stating that awareness is the most prominent reason for adopting SNS, which justifies the increased
importance of awareness as a reason for using SNS for educational purposes. According to previous empirical
studies, SNS use behaviour tend to be motivated by various aspects of factors including social ones (Chin,
Evans, Choo, & Tan, 2015). Mazman and Usluel (2009) studied individuals’ usage purposes of social networks
with a focus on the possible differences between genders and reported subjective norms to be one of the
social factors having significant indirect influence on adoption of SNS. Furthermore, according to Theory of
Reasoned Action, humans are rational enough for their attitudes and subjective norm (i.e. social pressure)
affect their behavioral intention, which in turn results with a high correlation to actual behavior (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975). This implies, influence of subjective norm on usage of SNS is worth investigating. Against this
backdrop, the below hypotheses are proposed.
H23: The utilitarian factor Perceived Social Pressure (PSP) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T
(AU)
H24: The utilitarian factor Perceived Awareness (PAW) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T
(AU)
RESEARCH METHOD
This study uses a systematic analysis to investigate the impact of socio-demographic and utilitarian factors on
adoption of SL/T. A survey approach was adopted for this purpose and the data was obtained by means of a
questionnaire corresponding to the proposed hypotheses in the research model. A group of academics and
students were interviewed to finalize the questionnaire. The questionnaire contains 12 items (Table 1). Eight
of these items were grouped under 4 constructs. Each one of the four single items and four constructs reflects
a discrete variable. Table 1 gives these variables along with their definitions. All of the factors in the utilitarian
empirical group were measured by a 5 point Likert-type scale (Table 1). The sample was limited to groups of
academics and students from universities since these groups are believed to have higher concern on the issues
of usage of social media for educational purposes. A total of 142 completed survey questionnaires were
obtained.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 1: Summary of Research Questions and Constructs/Variables
Construct/
Item
Variable
Gender
What is your gender? (Male, female)
Age
What is your age (years)? (21- 30, 31-40, 41-50, >50, 61 or more)
Position
What is your position at the university? (academic, student)
Do you think that it is easy for you to use SNS for your learning/teaching activities?
Perceived Ease
Do you think that you never face problems in using SNS for your learning/teaching
of Use (PEU)
activities?
Do you think that using SL/T improves your work?
Perceived
Usefulness (PU) Do you think that using SL/T meets your requirements?
Do you think most people who are important to you expect you to use SNS for your
Perceived Social learning/teaching activities?
Pressure (PSP)
Do you think most people who are important to you use SNS for their learning/teaching
activities?
Perceived
Do you think you are familiar with using social media for learning/teaching?
AWareness
Do you think you are familiar with using social media?
(PAW)
Actual
Usage
Do you currently use SNS for learning/teaching purposes?
(AU)
The independent variables were categorized into two empirical factors: (i) socio-demographic (gender, age,
position); and (ii) utilitarian (Perceived Ease of Use (PEU), Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Social Pressure
(PSP), Perceived Awareness (PAW)). Fig. 1 demonstrates the model for research.
Least square regression technique was utilized to predict and explain the relationships between the dependent
and independent variables.
Descriptive Results
Table 2: Profile of Respondents
Variable-description
Academics (N=57)
N
Percent. Mean
Gender
100.0
0.056
1=male
44 77.1
2=female
13 22.9
Age
100.0
0.127
1= <31
6
10.5
2= 31-40
19 33.3
3= 41-50
21 36.9
4= >50
11 19.3
Actual use of SL/T
100.0
0.187
1=str. disagree
16 18.1
2=disagree
12 21.1
3=average
12 21.1
4=agree
10 17.5
5=str. agree
7
12.2
SD
0.423
0.957
1.410
Students (N=85)
N
Percent.
100.0
55
64.7
30
35.3
100.0
74
87.1
7
8.2
3
3.5
1
1.2
100.0
10
11.8
14
16.5
20
23.5
19
22.3
22
25.9
Mean
0.052
SD
0.481
0.625
0.068
0.145
1.341
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
The number of male respondents appears to be slightly more (69.8%) in this study. Almost half (49.5%) of the
male respondents were observed to be below 31 years of age and those between 31-40 and 41-50 years of age
constitute 20.2% and 19.2% respectively. For female respondents these percentages were observed to be 72.1,
14.0, and 11.6. The distribution of gender shows similar nature for academics and students. However, as
expected, the dispersion of age is diverse for academics and students. Interestingly, a close inspection of data
showed that female usage of social media sites for educational purposes is more than the males. The
percentage of males using SL/T more than average is 32.3%, whereas this percentage is higher for females
(54.8%) and chi-square test results showed that this distribution is significant (Chi-Square = 9.535; DF = 4; PValue = 0.049) in terms of gender. However, chi-square test results do not show a significant relationship (ChiSquare = 4.870; DF = 4; P-Value = 0.301) for the dispersion of academics’ and students’ SL/T usage.
Test Results
The proposed hypotheses were tested using the linear least square regression modeling approach and the
results are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Test Results
Emp. Factor
Hyp.
Test results
Coeff.
p-val
H11
0.495
0.048*
AU
AU
H12
H13
-0.368
0.039
0.002*
0.000*
AU
AU
AU
AU
H21
H22
H23
H24
0.145
0.244
0.144
0.074
0.010*
0.000*
0.007*
0.096
Indep.
var/const.
Dep..
Var.
Gender
AU
Age
Position
*
Socio_Demographics
Utilitarian
PEU
PU
PSP
PAW
* indicate statistically significant at 5%.
Socio-Demographic: The tests results for this empirical category are as follows:
 Interestingly, the regression results (Table 3) reveal significance for the variable “gender” (coeff= 0.495, pvalue=0.048) and hence H11 is rejected. This means, there is significant difference between males and
females regarding the actual usage of social media sites for learning and teaching purposes in higher
education. Considering positive coefficient for the variable gender, this interestingly means, females
intend to use SNS more for educational purposes in higher education.
 As expected, examining p-values in Table 3 shows that the significance for the variable “age” is of similar
nature to gender (coeff= -0.368, p-value=0.002). In other words, there is significant age diversity for
“Actual Usage” of social media towards teaching and learning, and therefore H12 is rejected. This means
different age groups have different views regarding the adoption of social media for educational
purposes. It is important to note here that the younger respondents have more tendencies to use SL/T
since the coefficient was observed to be negative.
 Surprisingly, inspection of Table 3 shows rejection of H13 because we observe strong significance for the
variable “position” (coeff= 0.039, p-value=0.000). In other words, academics and students have different
attitudes towards using SNS for learning and teaching. This can also be interpreted as, based on the
positive coefficient found for “position”, students show more tendency to adopt social media for learning
and teaching purposes in higher education institutions.
Utilitarian: The tests results for utilitarian empirical category are given below.
 Interestingly, the regression results (Table 3) reveal significance for the variable “PEU” (coeff=0.145, pvalue=0.010) and hence H21 is rejected. This means, there is significant difference in perceptions of users
towards easiness regarding the actual usage of social media sites for learning and teaching purposes in
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249



higher education. Considering the positive coefficient for the variable PEU, this interestingly means that
the respondents, who find it easier, intend to use SNS more for educational purposes in higher education
institutions.
As expected, examining p-values in Table 3 shows that the significance for the variable “PU” is of similar
nature to PEU (coeff=0.244, p-value=0.000). In other words, there is significant diversity among the
respondents who find usage of SNS to be useful or not useful for teaching and learning purposes, and
therefore H22 is rejected. This can also be interpreted as perception of usefulness regarding SL/T has
significant influence on its usage. It is important to note here that the respondents, who find using SNS
easier show more intention for its adoption for educational purposes in higher education institutions since
the coefficient was observed to be positive.
Surprisingly, inspection of Table 3 also shows rejection of H23 because we observe strong significance for
the variable “PSP” (coeff=0.144, p-value=0.007). Therefore we reject H23. In other words, perceived social
pressure has significant positive influence on using SNS for learning and teaching. The more respondents
feel social pressure the more tendency they show for using SL/T. This can also be interpreted as, based on
positive coefficient found for “position”, academicians and students perception about others’ views has
significant importance regarding the adoption of social media for learning and teaching purposes in higher
education institutions.
The only utilitarian variable, which does not have a significant impact on the adoption of social media sites
for learning and teaching purposes in higher education institutions is “PAW” (coeff=0.074, p-value=0.096).
This means test results supports the corresponding hypothesis and therefore we accept H24. In other
words, the level of awareness regarding the usage of SNS for educational purposes does not influence its
adoption.
CONCLUSION
This study uses a systematic analysis to investigate the impact of socio-demographic and utilitarian factors on
the adoption of SL/T. The analyses show that all the socio-demographic factors (i.e. gender, age and position)
considered in the analysis were found to have significant influence on the users behavior in adopting social
media sites for learning and teaching purposes in higher education institutions. Test results also indicate that
except for perceived awareness, all the remaining factors (i.e. perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and
perceived social pressure) in the utilitarian category were found to have significant influence on the adoption
of SNS for learning and teaching purposes in higher education institutions.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Ibrahim AKMAN has graduated from Dept. of Mathematics, METU in 1976. Later, he
received his Master’s degree (METU-Dept. of Statistics) in 1981 and Ph.D degree
(Lancaster University-Operations Research) in 1983 with NATO scholarship. After working
in the Dept. of Computer Engineering, METU during 1986-2002, Prof. Akman has joined
Dept. of Computer Engineering, Atilim University. Presently, he is serving as the chairman
of the department. Prof. Akman has authored over 90 publications in
national/international journals, conferences, as well as a number of text books.
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim AKMAN
Atilim University
Department of Computer Engineering
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: ibrahim.akman@atilim.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
Çigdem TURHAN, is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Software Engineering, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey. She has a Ph.D degree in
Computer Engineering from the Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. She is
the author of a number text books in the area of programming. Her research interests
include natural language processing, machine translation, semantic web technologies and
engineering education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Cigdem TURHAN
Department of Software Engineering
Atilim University
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: cigdem.turhan@atilim.edu.tr
REFERENCES
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Kalmus, V. Realo, A. & Siibak, A. (2011). Motives for internet use and their relationships with personality traits
and socio-demographic factors. Trames, 15(65/60), 4, 385–403.
Kim K-S, Sin S-CJ, & Tsai T-I (2014). Individual differences in social media use for information seeking. The
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 40, 171–178.
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Lane, M. & Coleman, P. (2012). Technology ease of use through social networking media.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT-CONTENT INTERACTION
ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN DISTANCE-LEARNING COURSES
Dr. Neslihan Fatma ER
İstanbul Kültür University
UZEMER
Istanbul- Turkey
neslihanfatmaer@gmail.com
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ER
Turkish Air Force Academy
Department of Foreign Languages
Istanbul- TURKEY
m.er@hho.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
Information technology is a widely used tool to facilitate teaching and learning activities in tertiary education.
Distance learning courses designed and delivered via information technologies present opportunities to
students with difficulties in enrolling and attending courses in higher education. Students enrolled in these
courses are expected to participate in the technology supported learning environments and interact with the
content presented through distance education technologies. This study is designed to elaborate on the factors
that have effect on student success in two undergraduate courses taught through distance education
technologies. Participants of this study are 124 freshman students. The aim of this study is to investigate the
effects of student-content interaction on academic performance via a detailed analysis of data retrieved from
the distance learning environment. This study will also shed light on the relationship between gender
differences and success levels in distance education courses with respect to participation performance.
Keywords: Distance learning, academic performance, student-content interaction.
INTRODUCTION
Though for centuries learning and teaching activities have been carried out in face-to-face format, beginning
from the second half of the 20th century peoples’ needs changed and the demands of the new era entailed
flexibility and diversity in educational practices. By the help of educational technologies, educators ensured
flexible and diverse instructional designs and the number of educators using internet and multimedia contents
increased to a great extent (Menchaca & Bekele, 2008). In the new era, educators in traditional universities
presented distance education programs to those who are hardly able to attend regular programs. However, as
the teaching has been practiced in the presence of both the teacher and students for centuries, distance
education programs are considered as something odd. Advocates of traditional education programs claimed
that a person can only acquire and assimilate knowledge by human to human interaction and discussion
(Garrison, 1993). Hence, educators practicing distance education have tried to increase the quality of the
teaching materials and systems in order to prove the effectiveness of those programs.
Moore & Kearsley (2005) states that success of distance education programs depends on the extent to which
the learners are provided with appropriate structure and the appropriate quantity and quality of interaction
between instructor and learner. Furthermore, structure and interaction are the two most critical factors in the
success of distance learning and they are much more important than the learners’ characteristics and course
delivery format (Stein et al., 2005). Noting those facts, educators’ main concern has been overcoming so called
distance defect via more interactive instructional designs created through well use of computer and web
technology. Those educators’ efforts ended in well structured distance education programs using qualitatively
excellent teaching materials.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
Since distance learners, facing a new learning environment that entails self-management of learning,
independent learning skills and the ability to engage in activities, sufficient amount of learning interactions and
support are essential in distance education (McLoughlin & Marshall,2000:1). Researchers reported that high
quality and levels of interaction are closely linked with academic achievement (Jung et al., 2002; Picciano,
2002). Since it is of vital importance in distance education, educators tried to figure out the nature of
interaction and Moore (1989) identified three-dimensions of interaction as either learner to content, learner
to instructor, or learner to learner. Moore (1989) also states that the learner’s intellectual interaction with
content leads to changes in the learner’s understanding, perspective and the cognitive structure of the
learner’s mind. Learner-content interaction is directly related to the time spent with course content including
textbooks, PowerPoint, web pages, and discussion forums (Su, Bonk, Magjuka, Liu, & Lee, 2005). The quality of
distance learning programs basically depends on the level of interactivity (Dzakiria, 2005). Vrasida (2000) notes
that all education is based on learner-content interaction which is the most important form of interaction.
Furthermore, Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2005) consider interaction as central to the educational experience
and they claim it should be primary focus in the study of learning outcomes in online classes. The focal point of
this study will be learner to content interaction and its effects on academic achievement in a distance
education program carried out in tertiary education.
DISTANCE LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND SYSTEM INFRASTRUCTURE
In the selected higher education institution, undergraduate and graduate programs are carried out on a
platform called Computer Aided Training & Educational Services (CATS) which is a kind of Learning
Management System (LMS). CATS, being a part of SAKAI open source project, has been developed in that
institution in accordance with the institutional needs. CATS is already used by 994 instructors and 12,612
students so that average number of entries per month is 155,000 and the average number of unique user
entry to the system is 9500 per month.
CATS, as a technology based learning platform, including a number of tools employing educational technology
in line with contemporary learning approaches supports distance education practices of the institution. CATS
tools can be grouped under three main headings which are Content Management, Collaboration and
Assessment. The tools and their functions are as follows:
Content Management
SYLLABUS: It is for posting a summary outline and/or requirements for the course.
Figure 1: Main Page of the Course
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
RESOURCES: It is for posting all digital course documents in any file format, or sharing some related URLs,
independent of time and place.
Figure 2: Resouces of the Course Arranged in Weeks
DROPBOX: It enables the instructor and students sharing specific documents, so students can take documents
from the instructor based on their needs. Since students can upload files via this tool, instructors can also use
this tool for monitoring student progress.
LESSONS: It enables the instructor to create learning scenarios by developing content modules for desired
periods or even for the whole course.
WIKI: It enables the instructor and students to create the web page contents of the course via collaborative
creation.
WEBPAGE: Web pages that could be a resource for the course can be accessed directly from the platform via
this tool.
EXTERNAL TOOLS: It provides to run the external learning tools improved in Information Management
Standards (IMS), on the course website.
Collaboration
CALENDAR: All activities of the course can be planned via this tool.
MESSAGES: It allows all participants of the course to communicate.
FORUM: All participants of the course are enabled to discuss various topics under the opened titles. This tool
creates a cooperative learning environment.
APPOINTMENT: For the face to face interaction with the instructor, students are able to get an appointment
via this tool.
ANNOUNCEMENTS: This tool is used for posting current and time-critical information.
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Figure 3: Chat Room Tool Screenshot
CHAT ROOM: It is instant messaging tool for real time conversation in written form.
VIRTUAL CLASSROOM: It is a tool which gives an opportunity to the participants to meet in the same virtual
environment, sharing documents,
whiteboard and desktop. Virtual classroom is Adobe Connect
Videoconferencing service integrated with CATS.
Assessment
GRADEBOOK: The grades of the all tests and quizzes taken on the system are stored automatically in this
module. It also allows the instructor to key in the grades manually, so the final grade of each student can be
calculated with different weights of each grade.
TESTS & QUIZZES: Online tests and surveys with different types of questions and scenarios can be created via
this tool.
ASSIGNMENT: This tool is used for the creation, forwarding and evaluation of online assignments.
Figure 4: Tests and Quizzes Tool Screenshot
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
PLAGIARISM REPORTING: CATS platform has an integration with Turnitin plagiarism reporting services, so the
uploaded assignments are scanned through different scientific databases and detailed plagiarism report is
constructed to contribute to the evaluation of the assignment.
SITE STATISTICS: Records of each activity of the users of all courses are kept via this tool on CATS platform.
Using the above mentioned components, online courses are carried out via digital documents. Resources in
pdf file format including audio and/or video content, prepared by using Adobe Presenter program and
documents in any file format are uploaded to the resources of the course in the CATS. Also URL of some
related web pages can be uploaded as a resource. All the resources are organized in folders named by the
belonging week number, according to the syllabus released on the site. Student can access to the content
week by week. Student can contact with their instructors directly via messages or e-mail tools. Instructors are
present in the Chat Room for real-time conversations according to the timetable on the home page of the
course. Additionally students can get an appointment via Appointments tool for the face to face meetings with
the instructor. Participating the Virtual Classes are held twice per week according to the program announced
from the homepage of the course. The midterm exam is taken online and it is prepared by the instructor on
the CATS. For that purpose, question pools are constructed as a first step and the exam is created from the
pools belonging to the each chapter randomly.
Participants
The subjects participated in this study were 66 male and 59 female students enrolled in distance education
courses in a four year higher education institution. They were all freshman students from the departments of
economics, business administration, international trade, law, architecture, civil engineering, industrial
engineering, computer engineering and electronics engineering, taking two compulsory distance education
courses.
Data Collection And Analysis
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of student-content interaction on academic
performance via a detailed analysis of data retrieved from the distance learning environment. This study also
aimed at discovering the relationship between gender differences and success levels in distance education
courses with respect to participation performance. Data of the research is derived from CATS platform. The
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the purpose of data entry, manipulation, and
analysis. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to describe the study sample.
Assessment of the normality of the data is done via Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Comparison
of means was done using t-test. The level of significance selected for this study was p< 0.05 level.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The research hypotheses of this study and the findings related to these hypotheses are as follows. The first
research hypothesis of this study is stated as, “There is a correlation between learner-content interaction and
students’ achievement levels”. Findings related to this hypothesis are presented below.
Table 1: Interaction and Achievement Mean Scores of the Group
Mean
Std. Deviation
Interaction
17.4080
8.94796
Achievement
81.5600
15.86760
N
125
125
The total number of participants of the study is 125. Interaction and achievement mean scores of the whole
group are presented in Table 1. The normality of the data was assessed by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and ShapiroWilk tests. The results of those tests are presented in Table 2.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 2: Results of by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-WilkTests
Kolmogorov-Smirnov(a)
Statistic
df
Sig.
Interaction
.214
125
.000
Achievement
.173
125
.000
** a LillieforsSignificanceCorrection
Statistic
.775
.899
Shapiro-Wilk
df
125
125
Sig.
.000
.000
First of all, using SPSS normality of the data was checked by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests.
According to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (p-value: 0,000) and Shapiro-Wilk (p-value: 0,000) test results, neither
the interaction data nor the achievement data is normally distributed. Since the data was not normally
distributed, in order to find out the correlation coefficient between learner-content interaction and students’
achievement levels Spearman correlation coefficient was calculated. Correlation coefficents between the two
variables are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Correlation Coefficents Between the Variables Interaction and Achievement
Interaction
Spearman's rho
Interaction
Correlation Coefficient
1,000
Sig. (2-tailed)
.
N
125
Achievement
Correlation Coefficient
.250(**)
Sig. (2-tailed)
.005
N
125
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Achievement
.250(**)
.005
125
1.000
.
125
Analyzing the Spearman correlation coefficients, it is found that there is a positive and statistically significant
relationship (p-value: 0,005) between the learner-content interaction and students’ achievement levels. But
this relationship is weak (Spearman correlation coefficient: 0,25)
The second research hypothesis of this study is stated as, “There is a no statistically significant difference
between male and female students in their learner-content interaction and achievement levels”. Findings
related to this hypothesis are as follows. Means of learner-content interaction and achievement levels for both
female and male students are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Means of Learner-Content İnteraction and Achievement Levels for Both Genders
Gender
Interaction
Achievement
N
Female
Male
Female
Male
59
66
59
66
Mean
17.1695
17.6212
83.5593
79.7727
Std. Deviation
8.73588
9.19492
14.62316
16.81190
Std. Error Mean
1.13731
1.13182
1.90377
2.06940
According to Table 4, male and female students’ learner-content interaction rates (the former: 17.16 and the
latter: 17.62) are almost the same. Comparing the achievement means of the male and female students, it is
also found that there is no great difference between the two groups.
In order to find out whether there is a statistically significant difference between the interaction and
achievement means of the male and female students, t-test applied. T-test results, presented in Table 5,
showed that for both variables i.e. interaction and achievement there is no statistically significant difference
(Achievement p-value: 0.18; interaction p-value: 0.77) between the two groups.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 5: T-test Results for Interaction and Achievement
Levene's
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F
Achievement Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances not
assumed
Interaction
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances not
assumed
.854
.774
Sig.
t-test for Equality of Means
t
Sig.
(2tailed)
df
Mean
Std. Error
Difference Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
.357 1.336
123
.184
3.78659
2.83398
-1.82310
9.39629
1.347
122.915
.181
3.78659
2.81190
-1.77943
9.35262
.381 -.281
123
.779
-.45172
1.60916
-3.63696
2.73352
-.282
122.531
.779
-.45172
1.60452
-3.62790
2.72446
Interaction is an essential element in education and it is of the seven principles of good practice in schools
(Chickering & Gamson,1987). Pointing out the importance of learner-content interaction, Tuovinen (2000)
asserts the critical importance of learner-content interaction and states that it leads to student learning. The
findings of this study also shows that there is a positive and statistically significant relationship between the
learner-content interaction and achievement means of the students. Though the relationship is statistically
significant, it is also found that this relationship is weak. The mean score of learner-content interaction for the
whole group is quite low. The importance of interaction in distance education is evident. But in order to realize
the acknowledged effect of interaction on learning, the number of interactions should be sufficient enough to
create the expected effect on learning. It is mostly probable that the participants of this study having spent 12
years in traditional teacher centered and controlled classrooms lacked the motives to engage in self-learning
activities through interacting with the content presented via distance learning system. Traditional learners’
transition into becoming active learners in distance education programs is not an easy task (Saw et.al., 1999).
Another finding of this study is there is no statistically significant difference between the interaction and
achievement means of the male and female students. The similarity of interaction rates of both male and
female students points out the fact that both group of students are equally affected by the teacher-centered
education and their concept of learning is almost identically-the interaction mean scores of both male and
female students is 17- shaped by their previous learning experience.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Educators and students of the new age faced a new challenge of fulfilling the 21st century demands.
Overcoming this challenge basically depends on creating student-centered learning environments. Distance
learning settings are quite much more student-centered learning environments entailing students’ selfpropelled actions to acquire knowledge. It is a real challenge for graduates of conventional forms of education
to adapt the distance learning programs heavily based on learner to content, learner to instructor, or learner
to learner interaction. After spending years in teacher-centered classrooms and being exposed to one way teacher to learner- interaction, it is difficult for traditional learners to become active distance learners. Thus,
instructional designers and curriculum developers, employing the latest technologies to increase the
interactivity of the delivery systems, are supposed to take learner characteristics and needs into consideration
and the teachers are to assume new roles in order to increase the effectiveness of distance learning
environments. Both in traditional classrooms and distance learning settings, student learning depends
primarily on what the students do rather than what the teacher does. As the findings of this study also point
66
Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
out learner-content interaction has positive effect on achievement and the success of distance education is
determined by the structure and the quantity and quality of interaction between instructor and learner.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Neslihan F. ER is a lecturer at Istanbul Kultur University, Turkey. She earned her MS degree
in Nuclear Energy Applications from Istanbul Technical University in 1995. She also has MS
degree in Information Technology and she earned this degree from Kadir Has University in
2010. She received her PhD degree in Applied Mathematics from Istanbul Kultur University
in 2015. She actively took part in instructional design efforts in distance education. She has
been working as a coordinator for Istanbul Kultur University Distance Education Center
(UZEMER) since 2011. She also has experience in teaching and she been teaching at high
schools and higher education institutions for 25 years. Her research interests are applied
mathematics, curriculum design and distance education.
Dr. Neslihan F. ER
Istanbul Kultur University
İstanbul-TURKEY
E. Mail: neslihanfatmaer@gmail.com
Mustafa ER is the Chair of Department of Foreign Languages and an instructional designer
at Turkish Air Force Academy, İstanbul, Turkey. He has been working for promotion of
foreign language learning and teaching in Turkish Air Force for almost 25 years. With more
than 25 years of teaching experience, he is primarily interested in curriculum design and
evaluation in English Language Teaching (ELT) programs. His research interests are
curriculum development, active learning, distance education and teaching English as a
foreign language.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ER
TurAF Colonel Turkish Air Force Academy
İstanbul - TURKEY
E. Mail: m.er@hho.edu.tr
REFERENCES
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perspectives, Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, Vol.6 (2) 1-14.
Garrison, D. R. (1993). Quality and access in distance education; Theoretical consideration. In Keegan D. (Ed.),
TheoreticalUnderpinnings of Education at a Distance, London: Routledge, 9–21.
Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: Interation is
not enough. American Journal of Distance Learning, 19, 133-148.
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Jung, I., Choi, S., Lim, C., & Leem, J. (2002). Effects of different types of interaction on learning achievement,
satisfaction and participation in Web-based instruction. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 39,
153–162. doi:10.1080/14703290252934603.
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environment. In A. Herrmann and M.M. Kulski (Eds), Flexible Futures inTertiary Teaching. Proceedings of the
9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 2-4 February2000, Perth: Curtain University of Technology.
Menchaca, M. P., & Bekele, T. A. (2008). Learner and instructor identified success factors in distance
education. Distance Education, 29 (3), 231–252.
Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1-7.
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance Education: A Systems view, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Picciano, A. G. (2002). Beyond student perceptions: Issues of interaction, presence, and performance in an
online course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 6, 21–40. Retrieved from
http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/jaln_main
Saw, K.G., Awang, M. N., Idrus, R. M., Atan, H., Azli, N.A., Jaafar, I, Rahman, Z. A. and Latiff, Z. A. (1999).
Educational Transition of East Malaysian Distance Learners, Open Learning, pp.24-36
Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Calvin, J., Overtoom, C., & Wheaton, J. E. (2005). Bridging the transactional
distance gap in onlinelearning environments. American Journal of Distance Education, 19 (2), 105–118.
Su, B., Bonk, C. J., Magjuka, R. J., Liu, Z., & Lee, S.-h. (2005). The importance of interaction in web-based
education: A program-level case study of online MBA courses. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 4, 1-19.
Tuovinen, J. E. (2000). Multimedia distance education interactions. Education Media International, 37(1), 1624.
Vrasidas, C. (2000). Constructivism versus objectivism: Implications for interaction, course design, and
evaluation in distance education. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 6, 339-362.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
PRESERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS' ORIENTATIONS TOWARDS TEACHING SCIENCE
TO MIDDLE SCHOOLERS
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore the orientations preservice science teachers (PST) hold in preparing
to teach science to middle schoolers and how their beliefs were reflected in their CoRes. As the framework to
evaluate PSTs' orientations, Magnusson, Krajcik, and Borko's (1999) nine orientations were utilized. Eleven
senior preservice science teachers (PST) were selected to participate in the study using a convenience
sampling method. Each preservice science teachers prepared six CoRes on different science topics. The result
indicated that most of the CoRes were designed around didactic-based orientation and any of PSTs prepared
the CoRes based on conceptual change and activity-driven instructional approaches. Moreover, the study
provide evidence that PSTs hold multiple orientations. Results from this study suggest that, among other
factors presented in the literature such as early experience, PSTs orientation may be affected by the objectives
in the curriculum as well.
Keywords: Science teaching orientation, pedagogical content knowledge, content representations,
instructional approaches.
INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
One of the earliest study about science teaching methods was written exactly one century ago by John Dewey.
In 1916, Dewey published a paper in which he described the methods in science teaching. He pointed out that
method means a way to a result, a means to an end, a path to a goal. Method, therefore, varies with the end
to be reached (Dewey, 1916). In Turkey, there have been three major curriculum reforms in science education
since last two decades (in 2000, 2004, and 2013). The perspective of teaching science based on behaviorist
approach turned into learning science based on constructivist approaches starting from 2000 curriculum
reform. Although, there are some similarities between these two philosophies, they differ in important aspects
such as methods they propose to teach students in classroom settings. The proponents of behaviorist learning
theory advocates that students are passive learners while the opponents, mainly constructivist, claim the
opposite. In other words, the supporters of constructivist learning theory view students as active learners who
build their learning based on their past experience in which they construct meaning. It is apparent that
behaviorism and constructivism’s path to teach students in classroom settings differ from each other
apparently as supported by Dewey.
Shifting educational philosophy from behaviorist to constructivist approaches is relatively easy when
compared to practice of that specific approach. In fact, teachers’ orientations toward teaching science play a
key role in implementations. It is apparent that the classroom practice based on constructivist approach is
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
virtually impossible without teachers’ orientations toward teaching science shift from behaviorist to
constructivist. Borko and Putnam (1996) defended that knowledge and beliefs [orientation] lead teachers’
instructional practices from beginning to the end in diverse ways such as, decision of learning objectives, the
use of textbooks and other resources, assessment of learning, and the content of assignments. Orientations
toward teaching science refer to “teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about the purposes and goals for teaching
science at a particular grade level” (Magnusson, Krajcik, & Borko, 1999, p. 97). Orientations toward teaching
science is an important component of pedagogical content knowledge [PCK] (Magnusson et al., 1999) and
plays a key role in reforms to be successful. As a result, science education literature seeks for research to
explore teachers’ orientations toward teaching science and change or combine their orientations in coherence
with the goals of curriculum reforms (Abell, 2007; Nargund-Joshi, Rogers, & Akerson, 2011).
Magnusson et al. (1999) critically analyzed the science education literature and identified nine different
orientations to science teaching: process, academic rigor (Lantz & Kass, 1987), didactic, conceptual change
(Roth, Anderson, & Smith, 1987), activity-driven (Anderson, & Smith, 1987), discovery (Karplus & Thier, 1967),
project-based science (Ruopp, Gal, Drayton, & Pfister, 1993; Marx et al., 1994), inquiry (Tamir, 1983), and
guided inquiry (Magnusson & Palinesar, 1995). Table 1 indicates nine orientations with the goal of teaching
science and the characteristics of instruction for each orientation. Magnusson and colleagues alerted that
some teaching strategies, such as the use of investigations, may be the specific to more than one science
teaching orientation. They clarified that in such moments what distinguishes a teacher’s orientation to
teaching science is the purpose of employing it not the use of it. Magnusson et al. (1999) provided the
following example for such situations teachers with a discovery, conceptual change, or guided inquiry
orientation night [sic] each choose to have students investigate series and parallel circuits, but their planning
and enactment of teaching relative to that goal would differ. The teacher with a “discovery” orientation …
would expect his students to discover that there are different types of circuits and he would supply the
appropriate name for the different types as students discovered them. The purpose of the instructional activity
would be for students to discover what they can about electrical phenomena through pursuing their own
questions. In contrast, the teacher with a “conceptual change” orientation might begin by having her students
talk about their ideas about electricity to have them become aware of their own ideas and differences
between their ideas and others, and to give her some sense of some of the misconceptions they have about
electricity. … She would expect the students to compare the explanations of one another to identify
differences among them, and she might provide the view of scientists for them compare as well with their own
explanations. The hope is that students would be persuaded by the greater explanatory power of the scientific
view to adopt that view following opportunities to test out and apply their understanding of it (pp. 97-102).
Some researchers preferred other term referring to orientation. For example, Trigwell, Prosser, and Taylor
(1994) selected the term approaches to teaching science. They identified five different orientations in teaching
science: information transmission (a teacher-focused strategy with the intention of transmitting information to
students), conceptual acquisition (a teacher-focused strategy with the intention that students acquire the
concepts of the discipline), conceptual acquisition (a teacher-student interaction strategy with the intention
that students acquire the concepts of the discipline), conceptual development (a student-focused strategy
aimed at students developing their conception), and conceptual change (a student-focused strategy aimed at
students changing their conceptions). In her PhD studies, Friedrichsen (2002) studied different science
teaching orientations and suggested that orientation could be classified under two main categories namely
teacher-centered orientations, and orientations based on reform efforts and associated curriculum projects.
Considering, possibly comparing, traditional and current reform efforts, Friedrichsen subdivided orientations
based on reform efforts and associated curriculum projects into two. She situated process, activity-driven, and
discovery orientation as based on the reform efforts of the 1960s; and conceptual change, project based
science, inquiry, and guided inquiry orientation as based on contemporary reform efforts and curriculum
projects. Some other researchers preferred to simplify these classification. For example, Käpylä, Heikkinen,
and Asunta (2009) assigned science teaching orientations into two as constructivist teaching orientation
(student-centered teaching methods) and conceptual teaching orientation (teacher-centered methods).
METHOD
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
The purpose of this study was to explore the orientations preservice science teachers hold in teaching science
to middle schoolers and how their beliefs were reflected in their CoRes. Through critically analyzing PSTs'
content of CoRes, this study gave the researchers an opportunity to uncover their orientations.
To date various methods have been introduced to measure individuals’ science teaching orientations. We
preferred to use Magnusson et al.’s (1999) nine orientations to explore participants’ orientations. Friedrichsen,
Driel, and Abell (2011) identified several critiques of using nine orientations described by Magnusson et al. in
different studies. They criticized that although having a week empirical basis, some researchers assigned
individuals to one of these nine orientations. They further mentioned that any individual may have more than
one orientation depending on the topic or the grade level. During the study, we have taken those critiques into
consideration. Besides, as a researchers we further suggest that if previous research has described the context
and individuals’ orientations in that context, then we believe that it is worth reporting. Having multiple
orientation depending on the topic or the grade level does not mean that a teacher could not perform
teaching practice based on one of these nine orientations in particular setting. In fact, human behavior is
influenced by the setting and activities can best be understood in the setting in which they occur (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 1993). Therefore, our aim was twofold: exploring participants’ orientation in particular setting, and
exploring participants’ pool of orientations in multiple context. There are other studies which reported the
prevailing orientation of individuals although some features of other orientations was occasionally observed
(e.g. Friedrichsen et al., 2008; Schwarz and Gwekwerere, 2007). The evidence presented thus far supports the
idea that orientations are not mutually exclusive.
Eleven students studying in teacher education program in elementary science were recruited for this study
using a convenience sampling method. All of the participants were senior preservice science teachers (PST).
Just over half the sample (58%) was female. For the purpose of exploring participants' orientations, subjects
were asked to prepare content representations (CoRe). CoRe originally developed by Loughran, Mulhall, and
Berry (2008) to represent conceptualizations of teachers' collective PCK around a specific science topic
including "the key content ideas, known alternative conceptions, insightful ways of testing for understanding,
known areas of confusion, and ways of framing ideas to support student learning" (p. 1305). CoRe was
introduced to the participants at the beginning of the study. Each preservice science teachers prepared six
CoRes on a specific science topic. Data analysis were based on how preservice science teachers plan their
teaching on specific topics. The way they plan teaching science was used as an indicator for their orientation in
that topic.
More specifically, this study seeks to address the following research questions:
 What are the preservice science teachers' orientations around specific science topics?
 Do preservice science teachers' orientations differ depending on the topic?
Table 1: The Goals and the Nature of Instruction Associated with Different Orientations to Teaching Science
ORIENTATION
GOAL OF TEACHING CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTION
SCIENCE
Process
Help students develop Teacher introduces students to the thinking processes
the “science process employed by scientists to acquire new knowledge.
skills.”
(e.g.,
SAPA Students engage in activities to develop thinking process
[Science:
A
Process and integrated thinking skills.
Approach]).
Academic Rigor
Represent a particular Students are challenged with difficult problems and
body of knowledge (e.g., activities. Laboratory work and demonstrations are used
chemistry).
to verify science concepts by demonstrating the
relationship
between particular concepts and
phenomena.
Didactic
Transmit the facts of The teacher presents information, generally through
science.
lecture or discussion, and questions directed to students
are to hold them accountable for knowing the facts
produced by science.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
Conceptual
Change
Activity-driven
Discovery
Project-based
science
Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Facilitate
the
development of scientific
knowledge
by
confronting students with
contexts to explain that
challenge their naive
conceptions.
Have students be active
with materials; “handson” experiences
Provide opportunities for
students on their own to
discover targeted science
concepts
Involve
students
in
investigating solutions to
authentic problems.
Represent
inquiry.
science
as
Students are pressed for their views about the world and
consider the adequacy of alternative explanations. The
teacher facilitates discussion and debate necessary to
establish valid knowledge claims.
Students participate in “hands-on” activities used for
verification or discovery. The chosen activities may not be
conceptually coherent if teachers do not understand the
purpose of particular activities and as a consequence
omit or inappropriately modify critical aspects of them.
Student-centered. Students explore the natural world
following their own interests and discover patterns of
how the world works during their explorations.
Project-centered. Teacher and student activity centers
around a “driving” question that organizes concepts and
principles and drives activities within a topic of study.
Through investigation, students develop a series of
artifacts (products) that reflect their emerging
understandings.
Investigation-centered. The teacher supports students in
defining and investigating problems, drawing conclusions,
and assessing the validity of knowledge from their
conclusions.
Learning community-centered. The teacher and students
participate in defining and investigating problems,
determining patterns, inventing and testing explanations,
and evaluating the utility and validity of their data and
the adequacy of their conclusions. The teacher scaffolds
students’ efforts to use the material arid intellectual tools
of science, toward their independent use of them.
Constitute a community
of
learners
whose
members
share
responsibility
for
understanding
the
physical
world,
particularly with respect
to using the tools of
science.
Note: Adapted from Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., and Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of
pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching.
FINDINGS
During the analysis of CoRe, two authors studied independently to evaluate participants' orientations toward
science teaching. Then, they come together and discussed the dominant orientation of teacher candidates in
each particular CoRe. The analysis indicated that there were only small discrepancies in interpretations and
they were resolved by negotiation and researchers reached an agreement.
Table 2 presents the results obtained from the analysis of PSTs' CoRe. This table is quite revealing in several
ways. First, from the table, it can be seen that by far the greatest percent of total classifiable CoRe (37%) were
designed around didactic-based orientation (23 out of 63). Moreover, what is interesting in this table is that
nobody could prepare the CoRes based on conceptual change and activity-driven instructional approaches.
Similarly, only three CoRes were organized based on process approach. Another interesting finding was that
the researcher neither individually nor as a group could decide three CoRes to be compatible with any of these
nine orientations.
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In Table 3 we have tabulated each PSTs' CoRes based on topics. It is apparent from this table that all PSTs hold
multiple orientation. In fact, some preservice teacher designed lesson in the same topic based on different
orientations. For example, PST 1 prepared three lesson plan about the different objective of the topic
absorption of light. In the first CoRe, his dominant orientation was guided inquiry while the leading orientation
in the second CoRe was academic rigor. The third CoRe of PST 1, however, was based on Project-based
science. Alike, PST 2 prepared 6 CoRes during the course of the study. Her fourth and fifth CoRes were about
density. Her science teaching orientations in fourth and fifth CoRes were academic rigor and didactic
respectively.
Another interesting finding was that all PSTs prepared her/his CoRes based on didactic science teaching at
least one time. Indeed, 5 of 11 PSTs' (PST2, PST3, PST6, PST7 and PST8) orientations in their 3 CoRes (out of 6)
were represented the characteristics of didactic teaching in which they focused on transmitting the facts of
science through lecture or discussion.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study aimed to investigate preservice science teachers’ orientations through CoRes prepared on different
science topics. For in-depth exploration, each preservice science teachers were asked to prepare six CoRes. A
thorough analysis of CoRes yielded important results for the research on science teaching orientation. First, it
was found that a variety of orientations were identified from PSTs’ CoRes. They were didactic, academic rigor,
inquiry, guided inquiry, discovery, process, project-based. Two orientations, activity-driven and conceptual
change, were not identified during data analysis. Among them didactic approach to science teaching was the
one most preferred by PSTs. Actually each PST preferred didactic orientation at least one of their six CoRes.
The second result found to be important was that each PST was inclined to show a mix of orientations on
either same or different topics. This means that PSTs can have multiple orientations as research showed
(Nielsen, 2011). This result may be related to the fact that participants of this study prepared CoRes based on
objectives in the national science curriculum. Objectives in the curriculum are quite different in terms of
cognitive domain. On the one hand, some objectives were related to define science concepts; on the other
hand some of them refer to the discovery of science concepts. That is based on the objectives, PSTs shape
their orientation. To exemplify, one of the objective was “students can define the sound”. For this objective,
didactic orientation was used. However, when another objective “students can test the brightness of the lamp
in parallel and series circuits” was investigated, it was noticed that academic rigor orientation was dominant.
That is we believe that objectives that students should gain at the end of the lessons may serve as an indicator
of PSTs’ orientation toward science teaching. Therefore it is not unusual to come up with multiple orientations
for each PSTs. For a more valid interpretation of this; future studies in which participants were interviewed
around this result, should be conducted.
Table 2: Number of CoRe Prepared Based on Specific Science Topic
Instructional Approach
Number of CoRe
Specific Science Topic
Process
1
Weather events
1
Electrical circuits
1
Chemical and physical change
Academic Rigor
1
Resistivity
2
Parallel and series circuits
1
Sound propagation
1
Refraction of light
1
Thermal conductivity
1
Changes of phase
1
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
1
Velocity
1
Density
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1
Absorption of light
1
Conductors and insulators
1
Resistivity
1
Rocks and minerals
1
Fossils
1
Power plants
4
Sound
1
Thermal insulation
2
The resultant force
1
Models of the atom
1
Excretory system
1
Weather events
2
Electrical circuits
1
The reflection of light
1
Skeletal System
1
Density
1
Cell
1
Circulatory system
1
Types of teeth
Conceptual Change
0
Activity-driven
0
Discovery
1
Simple Machines
1
Properties of matter
1
Five senses
1
Nutrition
Project-based science
1
Erosion and landslides
1
Simple Machines
1
Expansion and contraction
1
Models of the atom
1
Absorption of light
Inquiry
1
Energy transformation
1
Shadow formation
2
The reflection of light
1
Force and motion
1
Blood Function and Composition
1
Respiratory system
1
The effects of smoking and alcohol on the body
1
Digestive System
Guided Inquiry
1
Electrical Conductivity
1
Lenses
1
Organ transplant
1
Earthquake
1
Seasons
2
Sound Propagation
1
Absorption of light
Unclear
3
Note: The data on Table 2 belong to 11 PSTs and each prepared 6 CoRes.
Didactic
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Table 3: Each Preservice Science Teachers’ Orientation on Different Science Topic
Participants
Science Teaching Orientation
Specific Science Topic
PST 1
PST 2
PST 3
PST 4
PST 5
PST 6
PST 7
PST 8
PST 9
Guided Inquiry
Academic rigor
Project-based science
Discovery
Didactic
Inquiry
Didactic
Process
Inquiry
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Didactic
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Didactic
Didactic
Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Inquiry
Didactic
Project-based science
Academic rigor
Didactic
Process
Discovery
Project-based science
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Inquiry
Inquiry
Didactic
Project-based science
Discovery
Inquiry
Didactic
Didactic
Didactic
Didactic
Project-based science
Didactic
Process
Academic Rigor
Academic Rigor
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Guided Inquiry
Didactic
Didactic
Academic rigor
Academic rigor
Didactic
Absorption of light
Absorption of light
Absorption of light
Nutrition
Types of teeth
The effects of smoking and alcohol on the body
Skeletal System
Chemical and physical change
Respiratory system
Density
Density
Cell
Parallel and series circuits
Electrical circuits
The reflection of light
Sound
The reflection of light
Sound Propagation
Force and motion
The resultant force
Models of the atom
Velocity
Models of the atom
Weather events
Properties of matter
Expansion and contraction
Changes of phase
Sound
Shadow formation
The reflection of light
Thermal insulation
Simple Machines
Simple Machines
Energy transformation
Electrical circuits
Power plants
Conductors and insulators
Resistivity
Erosion and landslides
Fossils
Electrical circuits
Resistivity
Thermal conductivity
Parallel and series circuits
Circulatory system
Electrical Conductivity
Sound
Excretory system
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
Refraction of light
Sound
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PST 10
PST 11
Discovery
Guided Inquiry
Unclear
Guided Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Didactic
Guided Inquiry
Inquiry
Unclear
Didactic
Didactic
Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Academic rigor
Unclear
Five senses
Earthquake
Lenses
Sound Propagation
The resultant force
Seasons
Blood Function and Composition
Weather events
Rocks and minerals
Digestive System
Organ transplant
Sound propagation
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Nurcan CANSIZ is currently working in Artvin Coruh University as an Assist. Prof. Dr. in
Elementary Science Teacher Education Program. She got her B.S degree in elementary
science education program from Middle East Technical University. She completed PhD
requirements of the elementary education program in Middle East Technical University in
2014. Her research interests include socioscientific issues in science education, teachers’
beliefs and inclusive education in science education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: nurcansiz7911@gmail.com
Mustafa CANSIZ completed his undergraduate education in Elementary Science Education
Program at Middle East Technical University. He finished Elementary Education PhD.
Program at the same university. Currently, he is an Assist. Prof. Dr. in Elementary Science
Teacher Education Program in Artvin Coruh University. His area of interests includes
teacher education, history of science instruction, inclusive science classrooms,
epistemology of science, and attitudes toward science.
Asist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: mustafacansiz@gmail.com
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
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THE VIEWS OF SCIENCE TEACHER CANDIDATES REGARDING THE COLLECTION,
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE BATTERIES
Prof. Dr. Ayhan YILMAZ
Hacettepe University
Faculty of Education
Deparment of Science and Mathematics Education
Ankara- TURKEY
PhDc. Zeynep AKSAN
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇELİKLER
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to investigate the views of science teacher candidates regarding the collection,
recycling and disposal of waste batteries. The study was conducted with a total of 92 fourth-year science
teacher candidates attending the education faculty of a public university in Turkey. Study data were collected
using five open-ended questions regarding the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries, and
analyzed using the descriptive analysis method. It was determined that 57 of the teacher candidates
participating to the study did not have any views or knowledge regarding the institutions and organizations in
Turkey responsible for the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries. In addition, 79 of the teacher
candidates described that current activities in Turkey for the collection of batteries are inadequate, while 85 of
the teacher candidates noted that public service announcements through the visual and printed media, as well
as posters and informative programs, regarding batteries might help increase people’s level of awareness on
this subject. Another noteworthy result of this study was that all of the participating teacher candidates
expressed the importance of raising environmentally-conscious individuals by including the subject of waste
battery management into educational programs/curricula at all levels of education.
Keywords: Science teacher candidate, waste batteries, recycle.
INTRODUCTION
The environmental problems caused by human disregard towards nature, the widely-held belief that nature is
only a resource and living space for human use, and increasing population and industrialisation are disrupting
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
natural ecological balances. In parallel to the developments in technology engendered by industrialisation,
various portable devices intended for personal have become popular, and are now widely used in both homes
and workplaces. These devices use portable batteries or cells as energy source.
Batteries are considered as hazardous wastes whose improper disposal leads to significant problems.
Hazardous waste is a collective term referring to materials in solid, liquid, gas or sludge form that are
dangerous for human health and the environment (Suk, 2008). As batteries are widely used, the problem
caused by waste batteries, a hazardous waste, is also very significant (Yavuz, Vaizoğlu & Güler, 2013).
Since they are disposed in very large numbers and contained toxic materials, waste batteries pose an
important threat to human health and the environment (Bernandes et al., 2004; Kierkegaard, 2007). Since
batteries contain toxic metals such as lead, mercury (Bartolozzi, 1990) and cadmium, as well as reusable
metals such as nickel, recycling processes for batteries must take into account these different metals
(Nogueira, 2007).
Batteries can be divided into two groups as rechargeable and non-rechargeable batteries. In Turkey, there are
currently no facilities which can recycle the precious metals (such as nickel and cobalt) extracted from
rechargeable batteries (NiCd, NiMh and Li-ion). For this reason, these batteries can be sent abroad under the
supervision of the Portable Batteries Manufacturers and Importers (TAP) Association for recycling. The
recycling of non-rechargeable batteries, on the other hand, is not economical, which is why they are disposed
by the TAP Association by being stored in solid waste storage areas built aboveground or underground
according to mono-storage principles (i.e. one type of waste stored in one particular area) (TAP, 2014).
Ensuring the disposal of used batteries in a way that would result in minimal harm for human health and the
environment is essential for preserving the environment. This requires individuals efforts as well as public
regulations (Yavuz, Vaizoğlu & Güler, 2013).
Since science teacher candidates will actively take part as teachers in the education system in the future,
ensuring that these teacher candidates are knowledgeable regarding the collection, recycling and disposal of
waste batteries is of vital important for a sustainable future. In this context, we believe that the present study
will help reflect in the detail the different opinions of science teacher candidates regarding the recycling and
disposal of waste batteries, and thus contribute and provide further depth to the literature on this subject.
METHODS
The study was conducted with 92 fourth-year science teacher candidates attending the Education Faculty of a
public university in Turkey. The study was performed using a scanning model, and the opinions of the teacher
candidates regarding the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries were recorded using an
assessment tool with five open-ended questions. The study data were analysed using the descriptive analysis
method. The names of the teacher candidates were kept confidential by using codes such as “F1, F2…Fn.”
Direct citations of the answers given by the teacher candidates are provided in the Results section of the
study.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“Write down the institutions and organisations in Turkey responsible for the collection, recycling and disposal
of waste batteries.”
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 1
Answers
No idea
Collection of Waste Batteries
The Municipality
TAP
Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning
ÇEVKO
Ministry of National Education
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs
Ministry of Health
Recycling and Disposal of Waste Batteries
TAP
Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning
TEMA
Yeşilay
Answer Frequency (f)
57
8
7
5
4
4
3
2
10
3
2
1
The Table above indicates that 57 of the teacher candidates had no opinion about the institutions and
organisations in Turkey responsible for collecting, recycling and disposing waste batteries. According to the
study results, some of the teacher candidates believed that the municipality, TAP and the Ministry of
Environment and Urban Planning are responsible for the collection of waste batteries. In addition, some of the
students believed that the ÇEVKO foundation is responsible for collecting waste batteries, which was
interesting observation. Some the teacher candidates described that the recycling and disposal of waste
batteries is the TAP association’s responsibility. Another interesting observation in this study was that some of
the teacher candidates thought that the Yeşilay and TEMA associations were in any way involved in the
recycling and disposal of waste batteries.
Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“At what stages of your education did you receive classes covering the subject of waste batteries? In you
opinion, during which stages of education should this subject be included into the curriculum?”
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 2
Answers
Middle School
Sixth grade Science Class
High School
Campaigns on waste battery collection
University
“Special Topics in Chemistry” course during Third-Year
“Chemical Wastes and Environmental Pollution” course during Fourth-Year
At Every Stage of Education
(Preschool, Elementary School, Middle School, High School and University)
Answer Frequency (f)
3
2
92
44
92
The results on this Table indicate that all of the students taking part in this study learned a certain amount of
information about waste batteries through the “Special Topics in Chemistry” course they received in
university. On the other hand, teacher candidates who have taken the elective course “Chemical Wastes and
Environmental Pollution” have acquired more detailed and comprehensive knowledge on this subject. Direct
citations of the answers provided by the teacher candidates are given below:
- I only learned a little bit about waste batteries during the Special Topics in Chemistry course I received during
my third year in university. However, it was during the elective course named Chemical Wastes and
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
Environmental Pollution, which I took during my fourth year, that I learned a lot more detailed information on
the subject (F62).
- In high school 10th grade, I took part in a battery collection campaign organised by the school; however, at
the time, I had no idea about the types of batteries I was supposed to collect (F23).
All of the teacher candidates described that the subject of waste batteries should be included into the
curriculum at all levels of education - starting from pre-school and at elementary school, middle school, high
school and university levels - either as a separate course in itself or as the content of another course.
Table 3 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“Do you believe that the activities conducted in Turkey for the collection, recycling and disposal of batteries
are adequate?”
Table 3: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 3
Answers
Answer Frequency (f)
Not adequate
Society at large is not knowledgeable about the collection of waste batteries.
79
63
Batteries are thrown into trash cans
Students lack enough knowledge on this subject
Waste battery collection containers are not widespread
Ordinary trash is thrown into battery collection containers.
The Municipalities activities on this subject are inadequate
There are no facilities in Turkey for recycling waste batteries.
Adequate
56
49
43
36
28
19
13
According to the Table above, 79 of the teacher candidates taught that the activities conducted in Turkey for
the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries are inadequate. The reason they cited included the
generally lack of knowledge within society about waste batteries; the lack of knowledge among students on
this subject; and the tendency to throw waste batteries into ordinary trash cans. Some of the students even
said that people tend to throw ordinary trash into battery collection containers, which is a noteworthy
observation. Direct citations of the answers provided by the teacher candidates are given below:
- No, I don’t think they’re adequate, because in our country, people still throw waste batteries into the trash
(F16).
- In place I live, I often look inside battery collection containers, and see regular trash in them instead of
batteries. Unfortunately; children, adolescents and adults all lack knowledge about waste batteries. (F36).
- In recent years, the TAP association has been promoting the collection of waste batteries by organising waste
battery collection campaigns in school. However, these efforts are not enough. This is because these campaigns
in schools lack any cooperation with municipalities, which I think is actually necessary for ensuring that these
reach a larger number of people and gain a broader scope. In addition to this, these campaigns should not just
focus on the collection of waste batteries, but also tell about their harms and hazards. In other words, both
students and society should be informed [about the threats posed by waste batteries (F51).
- In recent times, I believe there have been some positive developments about the collection of waste batteries
(F87).
Table 4 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“What is the importance of the visual and printed media with regards to the collection, recycling and disposal
of waste batteries?”
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Table 4: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 4
Answers
They raise social awareness
They draw attention to battery collection points
They encourage people to collect waste batteries
They help announce campaigns to broader audiences
They inform people about where and how they are supposed to delivered
waste batteries.
They draw attention to the harms caused to the environment by waste
batteries.
Answer Frequency (f)
85
72
51
46
40
37
Results in the Table above indicate that the teacher candidates considered the visual media (public service
announcements, TV programs, documentaries, animations, cartoons and videos) and the printed media
(newspapers, magazines, books) as having a notable effect in raising social awareness about the collection,
recycling and disposal of waste batteries. In addition, they also emphasised that the visual and printed press
could draw attention to where and how waste batteries should be collected, and help increase the amount of
waste batteries being disposed. Direct citations of the answers provided by the teacher candidates are given
below:
- Public service announcements can inform about the recycling of waste batteries, and tell where waste
batteries can be collected (F24).
- Everybody watches TV. Public service announcements, cartoons and animations can inform and draw the
attention of every group within society. The printed media, on the other hand, could be used to inform people
who prefer to read (F5).
- Public service announcements are especially important on this subject. In addition, printed materials such as
journals and boobs may also help raise awareness (F71).
- In our country, people think of batteries as trash, whereas in fact they are not. Posters and informative
materials on waste batteries could be placed at the stops of mass transportation vehicles such as buses and
tramways, are be published through journals and magazines (F49).
Table 5 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“What should be done to increase the collection of waste batteries?”
Table 5: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 5
Answers
Answer Frequency (f)
Courses on waste batteries should be provided at every level of education,
and course content on this subject should be more comprehensive
89
Contests with prizes should be organised to promote the collection of waste
batteries.
Public service announcements as well as informative brochures and posters
should be prepared
Informative TV and radio programs should be broadcast
Municipalities must distribute a large number of waste battery containers,
and ensure that they are regularly collected
(at schools, hospitals, airports, shopping malls, etc.)
Conferences and seminars must be organised
Informative activities and presentations must be performed at schools
77
Preschool children should be encouraged to collect waste batteries through
games and rewards
43
74
70
70
68
52
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Cartoons must describe the harms of waste batteries and encourage their
collection
Machines which give a reward in return for waste batteries must be used
more widely.
Legal penalties or fines should be imposed on people who throw waste
batteries into ordinary trash containers
Project assignments should be given
Scientific articles should be written on the subject
38
21
17
12
5
According to the results in the Table above, most teacher candidates were of the view that the collection of
waste batteries could be increased by including the subject of waste batteries into course content in schools;
by organising contests were rewards; by raising awareness through the visual and printed media; and by
increasing the number of waste battery collection containers and ensuring that hey are regularly collected by
municipalities. In addition, some of the teacher candidates also noted that children could be habituated to
collected waste batteries by using machines (similar to vending machines) which give sweets or gifts in return
for waste batteries. Another interesting observation was that some of the teacher candidates recommended
the use of legal penalities or fine against people who throw waste batteries into regular trash containers. A
small number of students also stated that scientific articles on the harms and hazards of waste batteries will
draw attention to this issue and promote the collection of waste batteries. Direct citations of the answers
provided by the teacher candidates are given below:
- I believe that conferences are an effective means [for raising awareness]; in fact, I learned a lot from the
speech of an expert from TAP who came to our faculty within the frame of a research we were conducting. I
later shared many of the things I learned there with the people (F91).
- Children should be informed about waste battery collection starting from pre-school. In addition, we might
also think about machines in which you “throw a waste battery to get a sweet;” these machines could be
placed in shopping malls and schools, or they might give gifts instead of sweets (F2).
- Batteries must a written warning on them saying “Do not dispose in a trash can.” Or new batteries might be
given in return for flat batteries (F75).
- Every year, entertaining events and projects should be organised through cooperation between the school and
parents (F65).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The study results indicated that the number of students with no opinion or knowledge about the institutions
and organisations responsible for the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries was fairly high. This
was possibly due to the fact that the promotional activities and announcements of these institutions and
organisations have not reached the larger masses, or because the teacher candidates are not sufficiently
aware of the importance of this subject. Teacher candidates who stated that the responsible institutions and
organisations are the municipalities, the TAP and the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning provided
the correct answers. In fact, the TAP Association is the only organisation authorised by the Turkish Ministry of
Environment and Urban Planning with the separate collection, transportation, storage and disposal of waste
batteries, and has been conducting its activities since 2004. In addition, municipalities are also authorised in
collecting waste batteries. The ÇEVKO Foundation, on the other hand, is an organisation established to ensure
the recycling of packaging wastes in Turkey. As such, neither ÇEVKO nor the TEM and Yeşilay Associations are
authorised in collecting waste batteries. Some of the students still assumed that these foundations and
associations also deal with the collection of waste batteries, which was probably because they lacked sufficient
knowledge about their actual purposes.
The study results also revealed that only three of the teacher candidates had received any courses on waste
batteries in middle school; this indicates that the subject of waste batteries is not sufficiently covered during
secondary education in middle schools. At high school, two of the teacher candidates had participated to
battery collection campaigns, although these campaigns provided no information about the environmental
harms of waste batteries, or about the processes these batteries would undergo. This suggests that the
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information provided in high schools on waste batteries is very inadequate. All of the science teacher
candidates participating to the study described that the course entitled “Special Topics in Chemistry,” which
they received during their third year, provide some general yet limited information about the harms of
batteries. On the other hand, it was observed that students who took the course entitled “Chemical Wastes
and Environmental Pollution” during their fourth year had much better knowledge about the collection,
recycling and disposal of waste batteries. For this reason, to raise environmentally-friendly and conscious
generations, it is important to provide such courses to students starting from their preschool education, and
also during their university education (depending on the department they are studying). This will allow
children to learn from an early age that waste batteries should be thrown into waste collection containers
rather than ordinary trash cans.
The fact that waste batteries are thrown in trash cans, while ordinary waste are thrown into waste battery
containers, indicates that there is a serious issue about the understanding and implementation of waste
battery collection practices. The source of this issues appears to be the general lack of knowledge and
awareness within society and among students of all levels of education about waste batteries. In their study on
third-year science teacher candidates, Çelikler and Aksan (2015) demonstrated that the large majority of
students throw waste batteries into trash cans and lack adequate knowledge about the recycling of waste
batteries and their effects on the environment. To resolve this issue, efforts should focus on raising the level of
knowledge of all age groups on this subject through the visual and printed media, and through classes taught
in school. In addition, awareness on waste batteries could also be enhanced through conferences and
seminars organised with the contributions of municipalities and the TAP association, and attended by subject
expert; by ensuring that waste battery containers are more widespread and collected more regularly; or by
enabling people to send waste batteries directly to the TAP Association. The study of Çelikler and Aksan (2015)
described that certain students used ordinary trash cans for disposing waste batteries mainly because waste
battery containers are not widely found.
A reward and sanction system could be utilised to encourage people to collect waste batteries in the proper
locations (i.e. without throwing them in trash cans), or to take them to the proper storage locations for
disposal; this would help promote desirable behaviors, while also preventing undesirable ones.
Batteries are used in many different areas of our lives. It is therefore imperative to raise the awareness of
individuals on the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries, which constitute a form of hazardous
waste. In a study performed by Çelikler and Kara (2015), some of the third-year students in the science
education department described that waste batteries are processed in factories to make batteries once again.
Such statements reflect that many students lack proper or adequate knowledge on this subject, and that they
equate the recycling and disposal of batteries to the recycling and disposal of packaging wastes such as plastic,
glass, metal and paper. In addition, most of the students in the said study did not know how waste batteries
are destroyed, or assumed that they are destroyed through melting, which also points to a significant lack of
knowledge on the subject. Another study by Aksan, Harman and Çelikler (2015) determined that most science
education students were unable to properly and completely illustrate with drawings the recycling processes of
waste batteries through drawings.
The first step towards a sustainable environment is the raising of conscious, sensitive and knowledgeable
individuals. For this reason, it is essential to provide students a comprehensive environmental education
starting from the pre-school period, and all the way up to their higher education programs. Such
environmental education should be provided by using student-centred methods and techniques; by planning
suitable educational events and activities, and by creating quality learning environments. Such education will
help foster among students the necessary awareness and knowledge towards nature, thus helping raise
individual who think about the future, and who are aware that environmental problems are not limited in time
or space. Associations and foundations working on the protection of the environment should also be
promoted through the visual and printed media, while events should also be organised towards students at all
levels and the society at large to ensure their active participation to environmental efforts and activities.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
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IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Ayhan YILMAZ, is a Professor in Secondary Science and Mathematics Education at
Hacettepe University, Turkey. She received her Ph.D.(1996) in Chemistry from Ankara
University. Her main research interests are students’ conceptions of science,
misconceptions in chemistry and science education, and environmental education.
Prof. Dr. Ayhan YILMAZ
Hacettepe University
Faculty of Education
Deparment of Science and Mathematics Education
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: ayhany@hacettepe.edu.tr
Zeynep AKSAN, PhD Student in Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education,
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. She received her MS (2011) in Science Education from
Ondokuz Mayıs University. Her academic interest areas are science education and
environmental education.
PhDc. Zeynep AKSAN
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
E. Mail: zeynep.axan@gmail.com
Dilek ÇELİKLER, Associate Professor in Department of Science Education, Faculty of
Education, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. She received her Ph.D.(2003) in Chemistry
from Kafkas University. Her academic interest areas are chemistry and science education,
and environmental education.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇELİKLER
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
E. Mail: dilekc@omu.edu.tr
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REFERENCES
Aksan, Z., Harman, G., & Çelikler, D. (2015). Evaluation through the use of drawings of the knowledge of
science teacher candidates in Turkey regarding the recycling of waste batteries. International Journal of
Sustainable and Green Energy, 4(1-2), 1-5.
Bartolozzi, M. (1990). The recovery of metals from spent alkaline–manganese batteries: a review of patent
literature. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 4, 233–240.
Bernandes, A.M., Espinosa, D.C.R., & Tenorio, J.A.S. (2004). Recycling of batteries:a review of current processes
and Technologies. Journal of Power Sources, 130, 291-298.
Çelikler, D., & Aksan, Z. (2015). Evaluation from an educational perspective of the effects of waste batteries on
the environment. International Journal of Sustainable and Green Energy, 4(1-2), 12-15.
Çelikler, D., & Kara, F. (2015b). An educational approach to the recycling and disposal of waste batteries.
International Journal of Sustainable and Green Energy, 4(1-2), 16-18.
Kierkegaard, S. (2007). EU Battery Directive, Charging up the batteries: Squeezing more capacity and power
into the new EU Battery Directive. Computer Law & Security Report, 23, 357-364.
Nogueira, C.A., & Margarido, F. (2007). Chemical and physical characterization of electrode materials of spent
sealed ni–cd batteries. Waste Manag; 27:1570–1579.
Suk, W.A. (2008). Hazardous waste: Assessing, detecting, and remediation. In: Ed. Wallace R.B. Public health
and preventive medicine, 15th edition USA: Mc Graw Hill,;901-908.
Taşinabilir Pil Üreticileri ve İthalatçilari Derneği (TAP) (2014). Atık pillerin toplanması ve bertarafı. Genel Eğitim
Sunumu.
Yavuz, C.I., Acar Vaizoğlu, S., & Güler Ç. (2013). Hayatımızdaki Piller. Sürekli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi (STED), 21(6),
19-25.
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ARTVIN CITIZENS’ REASONING ABOUT A LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE: CERATTEPE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Mining is a current problem in Artvin. Officials decided to extract copper and gold mine in Artvin. However,
there are different opinions about this. A group of people objects the decision of officials. On the other hand,
there exists a group of people supporting mining. Taking into account of stakeholders’ position is valuable in
creating democratic societies. Therefore, citizens should have the right to participate in decision-making
process because they are affected directly from it. For the purpose of deciding on their position, local citizens’
views about copper and gold mining in Cerattepe were investigated. For this purpose, 534 local citizens were
interviewed. Their reasoning was coded as econcentric, anthropocentric, mix, or none of them. The data
analysis showed that most of the local citizens showed mix reasoning (including ecocentrism and
anthropocentrism) against mining in Cerattepe but they could not provide sound and scientific reasoning
supported with evidence.
Keywords: Environmental dilemma, reasoning, socioscientific issues.
INTRODUCTION
Mining is a current problem in Artvin. A company is planning to extract copper and gold in Cerattepe which is a
hill in Artvin. Artvin city center is set at the foot of Cerattepe. It has a rich flora as being covered with forests
and on the route of bird migration. It is also noted as the water supply for the city. There were several
attempts for mining in the past but it has never extracted. Nowadays, the company after getting a new license
issued by the government restarted the mining project. Many shops and restaurants hung notes on their store
fronts telling that if any real attempts occur in Cerattepe, that shop will be closed. Indeed some of them were
closed during intervention in Cerattepe. In brief, a majority of Artvin citizens protested against mining in their
hometown. However there is a group of people thinking that the copper and gold ore should be extracted.
That is, this issue created groups among Artvin citizens thinking differently about mining in Cerattepe.
Such issues including mining called socioscientific issues. Socioscientific issues (SSI) are defined as “complex,
open-ended, often contentious dilemmas, with no definitive answers. In response to socioscientific dilemmas,
valid, yet opposing, arguments can be constructed from multiple perspectives” (Sadler, 2004, p. 514). Based on
its definition, it is clear that SSI is complex, controversial, open to inquiry, and include various perspectives.
People should think on these issues carefully by taking different perspectives into account. That is, they should
be able to make sound reasoning. Citizens are the key stakeholders affected from the human intervention on
the environment. Such decisions should be taken as a result of cooperation with different stakeholders who
will be affected directly or indirectly.
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Citizens’ sound reasoning and being a part of decision making process are important in achieving a
scientifically literate society. Those citizens once were students in classrooms. How they reason as citizens of a
society is actually related to how they learned reasoning when they were students. The classroom activities
that foster students’ reasoning on issues related to science, society and environment have a significant role in
preparing citizens of societies for a future world which is highly dynamic in science and technology. Moreover
society is dynamic too and it is affected from the developments in science and technology.
Where and how can educators prepare citizens for such a world? Many scholars, experts and researchers
believe that science education should prepare students to cope with the results of interaction between
science, technology, and society. Millar and Osborne (1998) underlined that science education should prepare
individuals for “a full and satisfying life in the world of the 21st century” (p.2012). Moreover they believe that
for this purpose, they should be involved in learning opportunities in which they can present their ideas and
defend them with evidence. It is important for them to share their ideas with their peers and discuss on
different perspectives and, as a result, reach a common point. Science education should contribute to public
life and common good (Hurd, 1998). For this purpose, educating scientifically literate individuals for the future
is accepted as the main goal of science education in many countries (Aikenhead, 2002; Barrue & Albe, 2013).
Scientific literacy, although there is not a consensus on the definition of scientific literacy (Roberts, 2007),
refers to the science for citizenship which means educating scientifically literate citizens who are aware of
science, technology and their impact on society. Therefore preparation for the citizenship should start from
the early years in school. This means education at all levels has the responsibility to achieve this.
With this in mind, in the present study, we aimed to explore how Artvin citizens reason on a local societal and
environmental dilemma which, as mentioned at the beginning, is copper and gold ore extraction in Cerattepe.
We believe that their reasoning will provide valuable information about whether their formal education
prepared them for citizenship. We investigated Artvin citizens’ reasoning on Mining in Cerattepe in terms of
ecocentrism and anthropocentrism. Kortenkamp and Moore (2001) stated;
Anthropocentrism considers humans to be the most important life form, and other forms of life to be important
only to the extent that they affect humans or can be useful to humans. In an anthropocentric ethic, nature has
moral consideration because degrading or preserving nature can in turn harm or benefit humans… In an
ecocentric ethic nature has moral consideration because it has intrinsic value, value aside from its usefulness to
humans (p. 262).
For example Kahn (1997) studied with children about the ecological dilemma which was the Exxon oil spill in
Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989. They interviewed with 60 children from second, fifth and eighth grades.
Children’s responses were coded as biocentric or anthropocentric. Both types were found among children’s
responses. Kortenkamp and Moore (2001) studied with adults. They coded participants’ reasoning as
ecocentric, anthropocentric, or nonenvironmental for different ecological moral dilemmas. They also
investigated the influence of individual differences and situational variables. The results showed that proenvironmental attitudes were related to more ecocentric and anthropocentric and less nonenvironmental
reasoning. The presence of information about the impact of ecological damage on the environment is related
to more ecocentric reasoning, while the presence of a social commitment elicited more nonenvironmental
moral reasoning.
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participants were 534 people living in Artvin city center. Their hometown is Artvin. Their ages range
between 23 and 67. There were shop and restaurants owner, housewife, pharmacist, security staff, retiree,
student, nurse, teacher, and lawyer among them.
Instrument
A semi structured interview protocol was prepared by the researchers. A few sample questions in the protocol
were given in Table 1. Based on responses further questions were asked to the participants.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 1: Sample Questions in Interview Protocol
Interview questions
What does Cerattepe mean to you?
What do you think about mining in Cerattepe?
Have you ever seen mining area and surrounding environment? If so, how does it affect your decision?
What are the consequences of mining in Cerattepe in terms of your opinions?
Procedure
People living in Artvin were asked if they were voluntary to participate in the study. They were informed about
the goal of study at the beginning briefly. Then they responded to each question in the interview protocol.
They were requested to clarify their ideas if there are unclear points.
Data analysis
Data analysis was based on whether their reasoning is ecocentric, anthropocentric, mixed or none of these
categories. If their reasoning was focused on the impact of mining on human wellbeing, it was coded as
anthropocentric. If they think in terms of impact of mining on nature, plant and animal species then such
responses were coded as ecocentric. Other responses including political authority were coded as none. This
process was performed by two independent researchers and disagreement between researchers was resolved
through negotiation.
RESULTS
This study aimed to explore whether Artvin citizens’ reasoning on mining in Cerattepe. Before that, the
frequency distribution of citizens that are against and in favor of mining was provided in Table 2. Then the
frequency distribution for four categories of reasoning, econcentric, anthropocentric, mixed or none, emerged
from data analysis was provided in Table 3.
Table 2: Artvin Citizens’ Decision on Mining in Cerattepe
What do Artvin citizens think about mining in Frequency
Cerattepe?
Against Mining
425
In Favor of Mining
109
Table 3: Frequency distribution for Artvin Citizens’ Reasoning
Reasoning Type
Frequency
Ecocentric
98
Anthropocentric
124
Mixed
284
None
28
As seen from Table 2, most of the Artvin citizens do not favor mining in Cerattepe. When they were asked the
reason behind their decision, they considered impact of mining on both human and nature in their reasoning.
That is their reasoning was a mix of anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. For example one of the citizens stated;
I do not want mining in Cerattepe because the nature will disappear the human health will be affected in
anyway.
As it is clear from above statement, this citizen’s reasoning was based on human and nature together.
Therefore he was assigned to the category of mix reasoning. Another common response for mix reasoning is;
I think mine should not be extracted because water will be polluted and we are drinking that water. It will
affect us directly. Moreover trees will be cut down and forests will disappear.
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The citizen above showed also mix reasoning in terms of anthropocentrism and ecocentrism for mining in
Cerattepe. In brief, the participants displaying mix reasoning had similar concerns about mining. They all think
that human health will be affected negatively and nature will be destroyed.
On the other hand, there were some participants whose reasoning focused on either nature or human beings.
To exemplify, the next statement belongs to a citizen whose concern for mining was only human health.
We do not want mine. Water will be polluted. Our health will be under dangerous. I live in Artvin for 58 years. I
feel healthy here. But if mine is processed then my health will be affected badly.
Another citizen also considered the impact of mining on people living in Artvin when he was asked about
mining in Cerattepe. He specifically stated;
As Artvin citizens, we are against mining. The company will gain a lot from this. But what we will gain? We will
lose our health, drinking water, our land to make picnic.
There were also a group of people, although a small number, whose reasoning did not include any
environmental or human-related concern. For example the following participant expressed that;
Mining in cerattepe is not a decision of me. It is a decision of authority which is government. Whatever people
do for protest is not useful. The company will get necessary license. If the court reject it, then they will get
another because the government also favors the company.
The citizen above did not make his decision based on ecocentrism or anthropocentrism. His reasoning was not
also based on economy. He just believed that this is an issue of authority not people living in Artvin. Another
example statement given below is also similar to the one above with a difference which was the reasoning
based on economy.
That gold and copper should be extracted. We need it. Why are we keeping in under mountains? That is exactly
what our economy needs. It should be certainly and quickly extracted.
The citizen above takes the economy as a center in his decision. Nothing else was evident in his reasoning. All
of the above statements are examples taken from interviews. These are the common ones among participants.
However, the most important result revealed from data analysis was that none of them could provide a sound
reasoning based on evidence. They could only present their arguments with some explanations but could not
support themselves with evidence and scientific explanations. They only talk about what they hear from others
instead of searching for more information about the consequences of mining. The next statement is clearly
exemplifies this.
Everybody says something about it. Based on what I hear, I am discussing it with my friends, family. Nobody as
expert did tell us about how the mine will be extracted.
When participants were asked about whether they search or read about mining, the common answer was the
one given above showing that they were not knowledgeable enough about the issue.
DISCUSSION
The present study aimed to explore how the local people living in Artvin city center make decision on the
environmental dilemma which was mining in Cerattepe. Cerattepe is a hill. The city was set toward its foot.
Therefore the local people are really concerned about their health and the surrounding environment. This was
apparent in their decisions and reasoning. A majority of people acted against mining in Cerattepe because they
think that their living area, drinking water, nature, forests, all will not be the same after mining. That is they
considered both anthropocentric and ecocentric factors in their decisions. However some people did only
considered one of them. They either think about the influence of mining on human or nature. The results also
revealed, a small group of people made their decisions on other factors such as politics or economy.
Another result found in this study was that although the participants’ reasoning fell into one of the four
categories (ecocentric, anthropocentric, mixed or none), they were only able to present their ideas and claims
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with some explanations rather than supporting their ideas with evidence and scientific explanations. This is
mostly because of the fact that they only hear from others and do not search for more reliable information. As
a result, they could make simple, non-scientific explanations. Obtaining public opinion and preferences
become an essential component of decision-making process for environmental dilemmas (Janse &
Konijnendijk, 2007). However, the ideas of public might be biased, based on others’ ideas and assumptions
(Renn, 2006). Based on this result, it can be inferred that Artvin citizens’ formal education, once they were
students, might not be satisfactory in terms of preparing them for future world in which they may be faced to
make decisions on such dilemmas. As a part of science education, students should be involved in learning
activities in which they can foster their reasoning on controversial issues.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Mustafa CANSIZ completed his undergraduate education in Elementary Science Education
Program at Middle East Technical University. He finished Elementary Education PhD.
Program at the same university. Currently, he is an Assist. Prof. Dr. in Elementary Science
Teacher Education Program in Artvin Coruh University. His area of interests includes
teacher education, history of science instruction, inclusive science classrooms,
epistemology of science, and attitudes toward science.
Asist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: mustafacansiz@gmail.com
Nurcan CANSIZ is currently working in Artvin Coruh University as an Assist. Prof. Dr. in
Elementary Science Teacher Education Program. She got her B.S degree in elementary
science education program from Middle East Technical University. She completed PhD
requirements of the elementary education program in Middle East Technical University in
2014. Her research interests include socioscientific issues in science education, teachers’
beliefs and inclusive education in science education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: nurcansiz7911@gmail.com
REFERENCES
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Paper presented in Lisbon’s School of Science Conference. Lisboa, Portugal.
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Barrue, C., & Albe, V. (2013). Citizenship education and socioscientific issues: Implicit concept of citizenship in
the curriculum, views of French middle school teachers. Science & Education, 22(5), 1089–1114.
Hurd, P. D. (1998). Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world. Science Education, 82(3), 407–416.
Janse, G., & Konijnendijk, C. C. (2007). Communication between science, policy and citizens in public
participation in urban forestry—Experiences from the Neighbourwoods project. Urban Forestry & Urban
Greening, 6, 23-40.
Kahn, P. H. (1997). Children’s moral and ecological reasoning. Developmental Psychology, 33, 1091-1096.
Kortenkamp, K. V., & Moore, C. F. (2001). Ecocentrism and anthropocentrism: Moral reasoning about
ecological commons dilemmas. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21(3), 261-271.
Millar, R., & Osborne, J. F. (eds) (1998). Beyond 2000: Science education for the future. London: King’s College.
Renn, O. (2006). Participatory Processes for designing environmental policies. Land Use Policy 23, 34–43.
Roberts, D.A. (2007). Scientific literacy/science literacy. In S.K. Abell, & N.G. Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of
research on science education (pp. 729–780). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sadler, T. D. (2004). Informal reasoning regarding socioscientific issues: A critical review of research. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 41(5), 513–536.
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VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN TURKEY AND THE WORLD:
NEW TRENDS AND PROBLEMS
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELİŞLİ
Gazi University
Gazi Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Ankara- TURKEY
PhDc. Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA
L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Philology Faculty
Astana- KAZAKHISTAN
Dr. Malik Zh SULTANBEK
International Kazakh-Turkish Unıversity
Turkishtan- KAZAKHSTAN
PhDc. Akkanzhe USSENOVA
Kazakh National Pedagogical University
Almaty- KAZAKHSTAN
ABSTRACT
This study aims to analyze the development and problems of vocational education systems in the globalizing
world. It also investigates the implications of educational development on vocational education. As it suggests
the development and problems of vocational education both in Turkey and within international context, it is a
descriptive study which is designed through qualitative research method. To collect data, literature related to
vocational education was examined.
The results of the study indicate that the implementations with regard to vocational education are schoolbased vocational education and instruction, dual apprenticeship system and informal implementations.
Keywords: Education, Vocational Education, Models in Vocational Education.
INTRODUCTION
The role of qualified workforce which requires individuals to have knowledge, skills and competencies is crucial
as they are the key elements for the industrialization and development of countries. Vocational and technical
education is a kind of training which systematically supports individuals with the necessary knowledge, skills
and competencies for the occupational areas needed in every aspect of social life. Accordingly, vocational and
technical education has to provide individuals with the skills, abilities and competencies necessary for their
occupations in accordance with the targets of economy and the demands of business world (MEB, 2012; 11).
Vocational education and training (VET) can play a central role in preparing young people for work, developing
the skills of adults and responding to the labor-market needs of the economy. Despite this role, VET has been
oddly neglected and marginalized in policy discussions, often overshadowed by the increasing emphasis on
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general academic education and the role of schools in preparing students for university education(OECD; 2010,
9).
Vocational education, which provides individuals with the knowledge, skills and competencies and improving
their abilities in a variety of ways, puts forward its function and qualitative power according to country’s
economic situation. Therefore, the reason of vocational education is labor market, and its main goal is to meet
the demands of business world and workforce for it. This aim is not against the political stance of vocational
education; on the contrary, a common purpose supported by public. In this sense, vocational and technical
education is a process to educate individuals for the necessary knowledge, skills and behaviors for a certain
kind of profession and to enable individuals to be financially and socially powerful in social life. It intends to
prepare them for industry, agriculture, commerce and other service areas; to develop them by in-service
training and to set out principles for formal, non-formal and apprenticeship education (T.C. Hitit University,
2012;11).
Knowledge, skill and competency-based education is gaining importance day by day. To provide education in
accordance with the demands of labor market, to empower the relations between education and
employment, to implement active workforce policies effectively, to increase the employment of workforce by
solving unemployment problems are among the priority issues for industrial countries (MEB, 2012; 11).
In today’s world, through rapid technological change and globalization process, vocational and technical
education is considered crucial. These developments directly effect the labor market and cause changes in it,
and requires workforce to be educated within a systematic plan. Thus, there is a strong relationship between
education policies and building new knowledge, skill and competency. This requires a qualified vocational and
technical education organized in accordance with the changing and developing environment (MEB, 2012; 11).
The need of workforce in Turkish Industry is an important subject for Turkish economy which tries to gain an
international competitive capacity. Outward-oriented economic policy requires workforce to increase the level
of quality and performance. This can only be achieved by supporting economic development and accelerating.
Vocational and technical high schools, which are key elements in vocational education system, are educational
institutions which educate employees for different professional fields and prepare students for higher
education institutions (Yörük et al, 2002; 301).
Traditionally, vocational and technical education has been one of the most important matters all over the
world (Şencan; 2008). The number one reason for this is that unemployment rates increased in 2008 in many
countries. These rates have increased in many industrial and developing countries. Vocational and technical
education has been regarded as important for the youth to have new opportunities. Considering the
percentages of young people (18-24) who are unemployed and lack of education in EU countries, it has a
range from 4% (Holland) to 20% (Greece and Italy) . This rate is over 20% in Latin American countries and 25%
in African countries (Eichhorst, 2012).
In Turkey, there have been many studies and reports about the development, revision and reconstruction of
vocational and technical education. However, the views and suggestions from these studies haven’t been as
effective as expected. Therefore, many young people are still unemployed. On the other hand, companies
have difficulty in finding qualified employee. The reason is that unemployed young people are the ones who
graduate from general high schools and don’t have an area of profession. Another reason is that individuals
who graduate from vocational high schools are not well-educated (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 1-2).
.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the development and problems of vocational education systems in the
globalizing world and suggest new models within the context. It also investigates the reflections of
developments in the educational world on vocational education.
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METHODOLOGY
This study suggests the development and problems of vocational education both in Turkey and within
international context; therefore, it is a descriptive study which is designed through qualitative method. The
data were collected through analyzing the national and international reports and articles related to vocational
education.
FINDINGS
This section discusses the current situation of vocational education in Turkey and the world, problems and new
models suggested for vocational education. The models for vocational education can be categorized as follows;
Vocational Education Models in Developed and Developing Countries
There are a great number of implications within vocational education throughout the world (Eichhorst, 2012).
1. School-based Implications
Described as “Full-time Vocational and Technical Education Model”, this model is based on a-8-10-year
compulsory primary education. After this period is completed, some students are directed to professional life
and some others who have succeeded to some extend are directed to study at higher education institutions.
Meanwhile, this education is quite expensive and requires the school equipment to be renewed regularly.
Vocational education provides students with the knowledge and skills required for their occupations. This
model is commonly used by most of the developed countries (which focus on full-time vocational and
technical education) such as:
 Northern Europe Countries: Spain, Portuguese, Greece, Belgium, Sweden, France and Italy.
 Middle East and Northern Africa Countries (MENA): Egypt, Tunisia, Jordan, Algeria, Israel, Israel, Syria,
Turkey Russia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania Slovenia and Serbia.
 Central Southern Africa Countries: Madagascar, Mali, Senegal.
2. Dual Apprenticeship System (School-based and Workplace-based; Dual System)
In this system, students have theoretical training at school and hands-on training at workplace. Countries such
as Germany, Switzerland, Denmark and Austria focus on apprenticeship model. Similarly, the USA, Holland and
England use both models together.
3. Informal Based Implications
Informal vocational education causes informal employment in many developing countries, which is a big
problem. In many countries such as India and Africa, vocational education or instruction is based on so-called
traditional or informal apprenticeship system. This system is also called clandestine apprenticeship. This
system is usually used in the countries with a low level of labor market and economy (ex: Sub-Sahara
countries, Southern and Northern Africa, and Middle-East countries.).
The models that are used by certain countries can be classified as follows:
Vocational Educational Model in Germany
Vocational education is a keystone in German economy. All the investments in this field is considered as
investments for the future and applied according to view. After the First World War, trade unions began to be
interested in vocational education and introduced apprenticeship law in 1969, then reformed in 2005.
Secondary education structure in Germany is given Table 1 (http://www.tesk.org.tr/tr/proje/yurutulen
/ekspertiz/almanya.html).
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Table 1: Secondary Education Structure in Germany
School Types in General Secondary Education (Gymnasiale Obrestufe):
Gymnasium/ Berufliches Gymnasium/ Fachgymnasium/ Gesamtschule
Vocational Education
Berufsfachschule (Full-time vocational school)
Fachoberschule (Full-time vocational school)
Barufsoberschule (Full-time vocational school)
Duales system (Dual System: Part-time Full-time vocational school and
part-time on-the-job instruction)
16 – 18/ 19 years
15/16 – 18 years
16 – 18 years
18 – 19 years
15/16 – 18/19 years
In German dual system, general education graduates study at vocational training programs for 2-3 years
following full-time compulsory education. This system is called dual system as the students have training both
at workplace and vocational schools (berufsschule) at the same time. The reason why German education
system is powerful in EU countries is its strong cooperation and collaboration between school and
employment. With its intrabusiness training and 1-2 days of theoretical training at school, dual system
provides the students with experience and employment opportunities for their future careers. In Germany,
general education diplomas or vocational school diplomas are at the same level of importance. The basis of
the system goes back to the guilds which provided vocational training in the middle age. With its Vocational
Education Law legislated in 1969, dual vocational system took its present form. In addition to learning about
the professional field, the students gain experience. Dual vocational education has been approved in every
part of the economy since 2007 and it serves for 346 jobs. The duration for dual vocational education is usually
between 2,5 and 4 years (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 4).
Table 2: German Dual Vocational Education System (Özdemir, 2012).
Compulsory
Education (9 years)
On-the-job (practical) education
+
Theoretical education at school
Full-time Vocational
Schools
Education-Business World Cooperation
Private Sector
Public Sector
In Germany, firms are rented to be used by vocational education system, which has been really successful. The
rent and payment procedure of these firms in cooperation with the institutional conditions of German
vocational education system have been simply modelled. These implications on dual vocational education
system, which use schools and physical environment effectively, is common and successful in Germany (Binici
and Arı, 2004; 387-388).
The executive institutions that run the process of German vocational education system are Federal Ministry of
Education and Research, Federal Institution of Education and Instruction and Chambers of Commerce and
Industry. Chambers of Commerce and Industry are represented by Federal Institution of Education and
Instruction. In dual system, schools are funded by the state and municipalities; firms by themselves. Vocational
Education Commissions and Testing Commissions within the scope of chambers are responsible for (Özdemir,
2012):
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The accreditation of business for apprenticeship
Supervision of the education in terms of content and duration.
Offering consultancy service for firms and apprentices.
Testing, Evaluating and the certification of apprentices.
Keeping the records of contracts.
Mentoring apprentices for career
Firms in dual system take their own decisions on how many students they will accept, which professional field
they will provide hands-on training for and how much to spend on these. The following are the responsibilities
of these firms (Özdemir, 2012):
1. Preparing an educational plan in accordance with education directive for dual system.
2. Providing students with practical training for a certain occupational area during 3-4 days a week by means
of signing an apprenticeship contract.
3. Providing environment and educators for practical training.
4. Paying an amount of salary to students.
The main purpose of dual vocational education system is to provide students with the extensive knowledge
and skills for their future careers in accordance with the changing needs of the business world. Many
graduates from different secondary schools (Hauptschule, Realschule, and Gymnasium, Gesamtschule or a
vocational school) reconvene in dual system. To take part in the system, no other prerequisites are needed
(Altay and Üstün, 2011; 4).
Vocational Education Model in Finland
Primary education in Finland is for 7-16-year of children and lasts 9 years. The second half of secondary
education provides the students with the general education. This period ends with abitur exam. Primary
vocational education is provided by specialized vocational institutions in almost every field with apprenticeship
education. It usually takes 2 or 3 years for the students to complete. This proficiency level enables students to
study at any higher education institutions. Higher education system in Finland includes two parallel sectors:
universities and polytechnic schools. Universities are the institutions which provides students with scientific
research abilities whereas polytechnic schools are for business life and these polytechnics serve high skills
which are determined by themselves. These schools provide higher vocational education in multiple fields for
the students who succeeds in abitur exam. If a student has a degree in a two-year vocational program, he or
she can only study in the same field. It usually takes 3.5-4.5 years to graduate (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 15-16).
Vocational Education Model in the USA
th
The 20 century in the USA resulted in institutional change and this provided technical institutions and public
schools with intermediate staff. Federal government provided financial support to this education but it
resulted in the deceleration of the system. Secondary and Post-secondary education plans should be made
different institutions, which is on debate. To encumber the same responsibilities to two different institutions is
harder for the operation of the system. This procedure has been supported by authorities for the last 20 years.
However, it hasn’t been successful within that period. Rather than certain vocational arrangements from the
developments in 1990s, the focus of secondary schools is more on general abilities. It is under consideration
that federal authorities should run the vocational education system (Binici and Arı, 2004; 388).
Vocational Education Model in South Asia
Many countries apart from EU countries also have successful vocational education models. Findings from
vocational education studies in the countries such as Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and China show that
they do not implement only a single type of education. These countries have realized that non-taxation of
vocational education expenses and encouraging the special training is useful. In addition, the institutions in
these countries have the right to choose their own students and staff and free to select which course to teach.
Employers have joined in many activities related to vocational education. These activities include education
policies and the results of these are compared with alternative interventions in human resources field. There
st
have been many studies on the methods of skill acquisition since the early years of 21 century. These studies
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are based on the new trends and acquisition of collaborative study habits. However, the acquisition of these
habits are difficult. By means of skill improvement and collaborative study habit formation, poverty level
reduce whereas growth rates increase (Binici, Arı, 2004; 388-389).
Kazakhstan Vocational Education Model
In Kazakhstan, VET has three main functions: i) qualification: to provide the population with the skills needed
to foster economic prosperity and social stability; ii) employment: to help the population to find a job suited to
their preferences and responsive to societal needs; and iii) integration: to help individuals to insert successfully
in the society. Students wishing to enter VET institutions in Kazakhstan may do so either at upper secondary
level (currently after 9th grade) or after upper secondary schooling (currently after 11 th grade) (OECD 2013).
Overall, upper-secondary and post-secondary VET are provided at the same institutions in Kazakhstan. Until
2012, two main types of institutions provided VET: colleges and vocational lyceums. Both types of institutions
enable students to obtain a professional diploma in more than 180 professions and 15 fields. The colleges of
technical path and professional lyceums, formerly known as Technikums, tended to focus on training
specialists mainly for industry, building, transport and agriculture. Colleges tended to train specialists outside
the industrial sphere, for example for primary teachers or health professions, but also in the field of art,
theatre or dance. Since 2012, these types of VET institutions have been called colleges. The Law on Education
now stipulates in Article 1, Paragraph 35, and that3: “College” refers to an educational institution
implementing educational programs of technical and vocational education, whether at upper secondary or
postsecondary educational levels (OECD, 2013).
In some, we can device general education track of higher secondary education there are also two types of
vocational tracks: Initial Vocational Education, Secondary Vocational Education. Initial Vocational Education in
Kazakhstan is provided by the country’s (initial) training schools and lycees, while Secondary Vocational
Education is provided by colleges. Below we will take a look at the various institutions that provide basic and
advanced vocational education and the type of programs they institute(http://referatikz.ru).
Training Schools (Initial Vocational Education Track)
Training schools in Kazakhstan are designed to train students in a trade or skilled profession of some type.
These programs, which are entirely vocational in nature, can span anywhere from one to three years,
depending on the type of trade or profession on which the student is focusing his/her study. Graduates of
training schools can go on to further their studies at either a vocational college or university, or enter the
world of employment in the same or related trade. Training school education is provided for students free of
cost, although students may be required to purchase special equipment, textbooks and other
materials(http://referatikz.ru).
Lycees (Initial Vocational Education Track)
The lycees in Kazakhstan are also set up to offer students an initial or basic program of vocational education
and to prepare them for a variety of skilled professions. However, lycees differ from training schools in that
they also offer basic academic education along with specific vocational program instruction. All of the
programs in the country’s lycees span three academic years, often referred to as grades 1012(http://referatikz.ru).
Colleges (Secondary Vocational Education Track)
Secondary or Advanced Vocational Education is provided by Kazakhstan’s colleges, with programs that also
include general academic education. Depending on the field of study, the program length at the country’s
colleges can span anywhere from three to four years—Grades 10-12 or Grades 10-13. Accelerated programs
exist for students who have already completed both general secondary education and initial vocational
training in the same field. Graduates may go on to the university to continue their education or they can opt to
begin working in their chosen field of study. After the 1999 Budget Law was passed, colleges became stateowned and self-financed. [xiii] This was done in part to ensure more of the country’s students continued their
education past the compulsory age of 15(http://referatikz.ru).
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The curriculum for both initial and secondary vocational education is established by the Ministry of Education,
with little choice left up to the individual schools. Textbooks are sold in bookstores throughout the country and
are purchased by the students themselves (http://referatikz.ru).
Vocational Education Model in Turkey
In Turkey, Professional Competency Board carries out the research done by the competency boards in
European countries. Furthermore, within the project for the development of vocational training (MEGEP), 42
occupational fields were determined and a modular vocational training programs were designed for 194
majors. In accordance with the law 3308, these programs were classified according to İSCED 97 and the majors
were named similar to the program names in Europe. Vocational training institutions started the
implementation of these modular program in 2005-2006 academic year. These institutions implement
apprenticeship training. Previously named apprenticeship training center, these institutions provide education
for 110 major fields in accordance with the law 3308. There are 378 Vocational Training Centers (MEM) whose
aims are to prepare the individuals (who are 14-18 years old and who don’t have formal education) for their
profession, provide the apprentices and masters with social security, experience and work discipline (Altay and
Üstün, 2011; 21).
Vocational high schools have been providing modular training since 2006-2007. Education programs and
coursebooks for these 4.500 modules were prepared and opened to internet access. In addition to this, these
programs and books were burned onto CDs and sent to schools (Altay and Üstün, 2011; 21).
The preparation of the action plan for the Certificate of Vocational and Technical Education Strategy, which
was developed for 2013-2017, was based on flexibility in policy making. It was aimed to build a flexible
structure among the all the types of schools or institutions for internal and external transfers (MEB, 2012;14).
Figure 1: Student Orientation and Vocational Education Process
The matriculation of students for vocational high schools depends on the school type, fields and majors.
Transfers of the students between programs and school types can only be done under some certain
conditions. Vocational and technical secondary education consists of vocational and technical high schools
which apply various programs (MEB, 2012; 30)..
CONCLUSION
In many countries, there are various implications in vocational education in terms of countries’ level of
development and industrial substructure. According to the findings of the study, the following results were
found:
1. Described as “Full-time Vocational and Technical Education”, School-Based Vocational and Technical
Education Model is based on a-8-10-year compulsory primary education.
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2. Dual apprentices system consists of informal-based applications which combine school and education with a
business-based approach. In this system, students have theoretical training on certain days of the week at
school and practical training at workplace during the rest of the week.
3. Informal-based implications are related to the role of informal vocational education. In addition to this,
informal employment in many developing countries is a big problem.
When the models analyzed, Germany and the USA, which have a good quality of vocational education,
implement dual system; Central Europe and former Soviet Republics apply school-based system and the other
countries, which have a higher level of unemployment and non-taxation economy, adopt informal-based
implications.
Despite the fact that Turkey and Kazakhstan pay attention to vocational and technical education, student
orientation level to vocational secondary schools has decreased because of negative policies. Successful
students tend towards general secondary schools.
In some professions, technology is not followed appropriately and old materials or equipment are used to
educate students. The educations in vocational and technical institutions which train teacher candidates are
still full of uncertainties.
In the physical substructures of vocational and technical schools, their educational programs and teacher
qualifications were not determined. While they apply modular programs, the structure of vocational education
system is not designed in accordance with these programs.
Within the scope of the relationship between EU and Turkey, not an adequate corporation has been achieved
and no transition has been achieved in accordance with the union criteria within vocational education.
There is not a strong connection between school-based vocational education institutions and sector, which
prevents sector from training individuals required for the labor force.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Yücel GELİŞLİ is currently the director of the Department of Educational Sciences at Gazi
Education Faculty at Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey. He holds a Bachelor’s degree in
Department of Curriculum and Instruction from Gazi Education Faculty of Gazi University,
Master’s degree in Curriculum Development from the Social Sciences Institute of Balıkesir
University, and PhD’s degree in Curriculum and Instruction (Social and Historical
Foundations of Education) from the Social Sciences Institute of Ankara University.
He worked as a teacher in primary and secondary education institutions in Ministry of National Education
between the years of 1987 – 1993. He continued his career as a research assistant in Vocational Education
Faculty of Gazi University in 1993. He became an assistant professor in 2001 and an associate professor in 2006.
In 2011, he has become a professor in the department of Curriculum and Instruction in Education Sciences of
Gazi Faculty of Education in Gazi University. His main research interests area are Curriculum Development,
Teacher Training System and Turkish History of Education.
Prof. Dr. Yücel GELIŞLI
Gazi University, Gazi Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: gelisli@gazi.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA, PhD Student, Gazi University, Education Sciences Institute and
academic staff in Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages, Philology
Faculty L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University. Her academic interest areas are
learning languages, curriculum and history of Education.
PhDc. Lyazzat BEISENBAYEVA
L. N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Philology Faculty
Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages
Astana- KAZAKHISTAN
E .Mail: aishalyaz@mail.ru
Malik Zhupanbekuly SULTANBEK, PhD. He holds a PhD degree Educatıonal Administration
from in Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. He is working (academic staff) at the
department of Education Sciences of Yasavi University. His research interests are
professional and pedagogical development periods (1991-2011) of primary school
teachers training system in the Kazakhstan and teacher training.
Dr. Malik Zhupanbekuly SULTANBEK
International Kazakh-Turkish University
Named By H.A.Yasavi
Turkishtan- KAZAKHSTAN
E. Mail: malik_sultanbek@mail.ru
Akkenzhe USSENOVA, PhD student, Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University. Her
academic interest areas are the development of social success fullness of future primary
school teachers.
PhDc. Akkenzhe USSENOVA
Abai Kazakh National Pedagogical University
Shakarim street 13/63
Almaty- KAZAKHSTAN
E. Mail: akkenzhe_08@mail.ru
REFERENCES
Altay,F., Üstün, N.(2011). Mesleki Eğitim Sistemi, Konya Ticaret Odası, Etüd-Araştırma Servisi Araştırma
Raporu, Konya.
Binici, H., Arı, N.(2004).Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimde Arayışlar, GÜ, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24(3), 383-396.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 01 ISSN 1309-6249
Eichhorst,W., Rodríguez-Planas, N.,Schmidl, R., Zimmermann,K.(2012). A Roadmap to Vocational Education
and Training Systems Around the World; Bonn.
MEB.(2012), Meslekî Ve Teknik Eğitim; Strateji Belgesi Ve Eylem Plani (Taslak) ;2013-2017.
OECD.(2010, 9) Learning for Jobs, Synthesis Report of the OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,
OECD Publications.
OECD.(2014). OECD Revıews Of Vocatıonal Education And Training: A Skills Beyond School Review of
Kazakhstan. Report of the OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publications.
Özsoy.(2007).Türkiye’de Mesleki ve Teknik Eğitimin İktisadi Kalkınmadaki Yeri ve Önemi, 2007: 128).
Özdemir, E.(2012). Alman Mesleki Eğitim Sisteminde Özel Sektörün Rolü Ve Ülkemiz Mesleki Eğitim Ve Oda
Sistemi İçin Çikarimlar.
http://www.tobb.org.tr/Avrupa BirligiDairesi/Dokumanlar/Faaliyetler/MeslekiEgitim/Almanya.pdf. Retreived:
29.02. 16.
T.C. Hitit Üniversitesi.(2012). İstihdam Odaklı Mesleki Eğitim İçin Sektörel Talep Araştırması (Çorum İli
Uygulaması), T.C. Kalkınma Bakanlığı ve Orta Karadeniz Kalkınma Ajansı.
Yörük,S., Dikici, A.,Uysal,A.(2002). Bilgi Toplumu Ve Türkiye’de Mesleki Eğitim, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Dergisi Fırat University Journal of Social Science Cilt: 12, Sayı: 2, Sayfa: 299-312.
http://www.tesk.org.tr/tr/proje/yurutulen /ekspertiz/almanya.html.
http://referatikz.ru/load/aza_sha_referattar/aralas/the_education_system_in_kazakhstan/9-1-0-2530.
Education System in Kazakhstan.
The
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
THE EFFECT OF INFORMAL LEARNING ON TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT:
A CASE STUDY
Rabia VEZNE
Akdeniz University
International Relations Office
Antalya- TURKEY
Prof. Dr. İlhan GÜNBAYI
Akdeniz University
Faculty of Education
Antalya- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this research was to analyze the opinions of teachers working in High Schools on informal learning
regarding if they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal learning activities took
place, and if this learning had a contribution to their professional development. The research was a qualitative
study with a multiple holistic case study design. Data were collected from interviews using semi-structured
interview forms. At the end of the research, conclusions were classified under three main themes. The first
main theme was that there were some informal learning activities which the teachers were engaged in. The
second main theme was that most of the informal learning happened through talking and sharing resources
and ideas with others. Especially teacher candidates experienced informal learning through observations of
the practices of senior colleagues. The final theme indicated that the informal learning in school environment
had a positive effect on teachers’ professional development.
Keywords: Informal Learning, Professional Development, Trainee Teacher, Senior Teacher.
INTRODUCTION
As the world is changing radiply, the needs of students who are growing with technology in a technology and
information era are changing as well. Teachers have to work hard in order to cope with the educational needs
of a changing and growing student body. Therefore, they have to continue professional development from
formal, non-formal and informal channels.
Learning can be classified as formal, non-formal and informal learning. Formal learning can be defined as
learning occurring within organized and structured contexts such as formal education and training. Non-formal
learning occurs in an institutional context; but it does not include the formalities of grades, degrees, or
certificates. Whereas, informal learning is different from these two types of learning. Informal learning is
experiential and accidental learning (Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004). Informal learning happens in one’s life
cycle continuously. It is any learning that occurs outside the formal curricula of schools or other educational
programs.
Conversations, reading, watching TV, observing the world, observing colleague or friends, listening to stories,
reflecting on a day’s events, or stimulated by general interest can be counted as informal learnings. It also
comprises visiting to museums or to scientific and other fairs and exhibits, listening to radio broadcasting or
watching TV programmes on educational or scientific themes, reading texts on sciences, education, technology
in journals and magazines, participating in scientific contests, attending lectures and conferences (Dib, 1988).
Livingstone (2001) defines informal learning as any learning activity which occurs outside the curricula of
educational institutions, or the courses or workshops offered by educational or social agencies. In other words,
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
the form of learning is informal when it is done without sustained reference to an intentionally-organized body
of knowledge in more incidental and spontaneous learning situations.
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines informal learning as daily,
work-related, family or leisure activities. It is not managed by any institution or curricula; rather, it is directed
by individuals and their activities. In other words, informal learning is not directed by any organized or
structured objectives, time or learning support (OECD, 2005).
The informal learnings gained at school environment can also help teachers’ in their professional
development. Professional development is defined as “the body of systematic activities to prepare teachers
for their job, including initial training, induction courses, in-service training, and continuous professional
development within school settings” (OECD, 2010: 19). Professional development is the essential requirement
behind knowledge, skills, competence, and learning in the profession (Seferioğlu, 2004). Teachers need
continuous support in order to have the necessary skills to meet the needs of different student groups in a
rapidly changing world.
The OECD carried out their Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) in order to help countries
develop a high-quality teaching profession by better understanding who teachers are and how they work.
There are 9 different professional development activities defined in this survey: (1) Informal dialogue to
improve teaching, (2) Courses and workshops, (3) Reading professional literature, (4) Education conferences
and seminars, (5) Professional development network, (6) Individual and collaborative research, (7) Mentoring
and peer observation, (8) Observation visits to other schools, (9) Qualification programmes.
According to the TALIS survey, with the participation of more than 100,000 teachers and principals from 34
countries, the type of professional development most often mentioned was “Informal dialogue to improve
teaching”, with 93% of teachers on average reporting this activity during the survey period. After “Informal
dialogue to improve teaching”, the most frequently reported activities were “attending Courses and
workshops” (81%) and “Reading professional literature” (78%). The least common types of professional
development was “Observation visits to other schools” (28%) and “Qualification programmes” (25%).
Informal learning activities have a positive effect on new arrivals, since they learn from senior teachers
through observing senior teachers and chatting with them in school environment. Some of the teachers
interviewed reported sharing issues openly with seniors. Nawab (2012), states that the most common form of
informal learning in this school is observation of seniors at the time of induction.
Bull & Buechler (1997) and Desimone (2009) state that the qualities needed for effective professional
development include being individualized and school-based, using coaching and other follow up procedures,
engaging in collaboration, and embedding practices into the daily lives of teachers (Nishimura, 2014). We can
deduce that informal learning types such as; dialogue with colleagues and observing colleagues can be used
for the Professional development of teachers.
In his paper with the title “Transforming Professional Development to Professional Learning”, Steward (2014),
states that learning for teachers in a professional community with other colleagues is more effective. In other
words, it is more effective if professional learning activities take place within a working environment, are
informed by data, and are centred on student work. Steward’s findings also supports that learning from
colleagues which is a kind of informal learning is an effective way of professional development.
Giust (2013) suggests teacher teams and e-learning as a way of informal learning for schools. He states that
although there are several potential options for administrators to eliminate barriers to informal and incidental
learning in the school setting, teacher teams and e-learning are two low-cost suggestions applicable for any
school.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Lohman’s study (2006) found that teachers engaged in three types of informal learning activities. First one is
knowledge exchanging, in which teachers shared and reflected on others’ practice and experiences. Second
one is experimenting, in which teachers actively experimented with new ideas and techniques. Last one is
environmental scanning, in which teachers independently scanned and gathered information from sources
outside the school.
Harbison’s (2008) study explores teachers’ work-based informal professional learning. She suggests to
including informal learning as an important path for Professional growth and re-valuating professional
development systems. She adds that Professional growth is necessary for continual and consistent
implementation of educational reforms and to better respond to the needs of ever changing society.
Shapir (2003), explores teachers’ informal learning experiences in his research. Interview and survey results of
this study indicate that many teachers believe they do engage in valuable informal learning experiences.
Particularly important experiences include past non-teaching jobs, learning from one’s past teachers, and
familial relationships. Teachers’ perceived learning focuses primarily on pedagogical skills and knowledge.
Hoekstra’s (2007) study describes how experienced secondary school teachers learn at work in an informal
environment. The main conlusion of the study is that in an informal learning environment, teachers learn
through engagement in daily workplace activities.
Smaller (2005) found that there is a stark contrast to conventional notions of policy-driven, top-down teachers’
professional development in his study. He suggests that new initiatives must include a much more
sophisticated understanding of the complexities of teacher formal and informal learning, teacher knowledge
and teacher professional self-identity.
According to the key findings of “Scottish Teachers for a New Era” Project, new teachers learnt informally from
colleagues, peers and pupils. An important element in their learning was the level of support they received
from the head teacher and their colleagues. The school could be seen as a workplace learning environment
with various factors impacting on how expansive or restrictive it was to learn in.
The aim of this research is to analyse the opinions of the teachers working in High Schools on informal learning
regarding if they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal learning activities took
place, and if this learning had a contribution to their professional development. To achieve this aim, the
answers to these questions were sought:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What do teachers understand from informal learning?
Does informal learning happen at school environment? If Yes, which informal activities takes place at
school environment?
What is the contribution of the informal learning to teachers’ professional development?
What do teachers think the informal learning is like?
METHODS
Sampling
This study was conducted in Göynük Science High School from January 1st, 2016 to January 31st 2016. One
principal, 3 vice-principals and 23 teachers are working in Göynük Science High School during the 2015/2016
academic year. A non-probability sample technique based on the purposive sampling method was used
because ‘the sample derives from the researcher targeting a particular group, in the full knowledge that it does
not represent the wider population, it simply represent itself. This is frequently the case in small scale
research, for example, as with one or two schools, two or three groups of students, or a particular group of
teachers, where no attempt to generalize is desired; this is frequently the case for qualitative researches such
as action ethnographic or case (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007).
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Tablo 1: Participant status and accompanying data collection
Code
Working Year
Study-field
Interview
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
15+
0-1
0-1
15+
0-1
10-15
15+
15+
Turkish
Physical Education
Biology
History
Biology
Biology
English
Physical Education
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
As seen in Table 1, the informants in this study were teachers. Face-to-face interviews were done with 8
teaching staff members from Göynük Science High School, two of them were trainee teachers and one teacher
had only one year of experience. The participants were volunteers, and there were no restrictions on the ages
and seniority of teachers.
METHOD
The method of this research is qualitative study. The research is a case study with a holistic single case. Data
were collected via face-to-face interviews by using semi-structured interview forms. According to Yıldırım and
Şimşek (2000:19), qualitative study is a study which uses a process to present perceptions and events in a
holistic and realistic way in their natural environment. Data collection methods such as observation, interviews
and document analyses are used in qualitative study. The case study present results by observing them in their
real context which determines the reasons and results. In qualitative research design, the case study method
allows investigators to retain the holistic and meaningful characteristics of real-life events such as individual
life cycles, small group behaviour, organizational and managerial processes, school performance, and
interpersonal relations in real contexts (Cohen et al, 2007; Yin, 2012).
Data Collection
In order to analyse the opinions of the teachers working in the High School on informal learning regarding if
they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal learning activities took place, and if this
learning had a contribution to their professional development, semi-structured individual interviews were
used because this would provide an in-depth exploration of the topic. It would also allow the flexibility, for
example, to change the order of questions, simplify the questions, and to probe the interviews (Cohen et al,
2007). Data were collected from January 1st 2016 to January 31st 2016. Face-to-face interviews were used and
informants' experiences, thoughts and feelings were recorded in a taped diary.
Data Analysis
Data analysis began with repeated readings of interview transcripts from conversations with and teachers. The
purpose was to determine the essence of the phenomenon and structures of opinions of the teachers on
informal learning at school environment. During data analysis, the data were organized categorically and
chronologically, reviewed repeatedly and continually coded. Interview transcripts were regularly reviewed. In
addition, the data analysis process was aided by the use of a qualitative data analysis computer program called
NVIVO 10. These kinds of computer programmes do not actually perform the analysis but facilitate and assist
it. That is to say, NVIVO 10 does not perform the analysis but only supports the researcher doing the analysis
by organizing data and recodes, nodes etc. (Kelle, 1995; Cohen et al, 2007).
Ethical Considerations
Participants were briefed about the aims of the research, kept informed at all stages and offered anonymity. A
consent form was signed between researcher and each participant about the use of the data in terms of how
its analysis would be reported and disseminated. Care was also taken not to impose the researcher’s beliefs on
others since researcher’s beliefs were secondary, and it was the participants thinking which was required.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Interview Process and Mapping
The purpose of this study was to analyse the opinions of the teachers who were working in a High School on
informal learning at school environment. Thus the mapping of interview questions was carried out on four
levels. Firstly, the teachers were asked what they understand from informal learning, secondly if they had any
informal learning in school environment and which informal learning activities took place, thirdly if this
learning had a contribution to their professional development, and finally what they thought of informal
learning and why.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and Reliability In order to ensure the reliability and validity of the study, some steps were followed: (i)
data were collected from various sources such as interviews (individual) and documents in terms of
triangulation (ii) data were used as direct quotations from the interviews without making any comments on
them, (iii) a purposive sampling method based on voluntarism was used in order to get the opinions and
experiences of teachers on informal learning in Göynük Science High School (iv) data were coded by two
independent researchers and Cohen's kappa coefficient was calculated to determine inter-rater reliability of
themes coded -0.714 substantial agreement- for inner reliability (Landis & Koach, 1977) and (v) records of
interviews, documents and participant observations were kept for outer reliability.
FINDINGS
In this study, the opinions of the teachers working in a Science High School on informal learning were tried to
present. The opinions of teachers were classified according to their understanding of informal learning, the
ways of informal learning, and its contribution to thier professional development. During the research process,
participants were offered anonymity.
1. What teachers understand from informal learning
Teachers were asked about what they understood from informal learning. The data can be seen in Table 2.
Tablo 2: Understanding of informal learning
A
B
1. Family, Environment,
Outside of School
2. Without Program
√
3. Without rule
4. Spontaneous
√
C
D
E
F
√
√
√
G
√
√
H
f
%
√
√
4
3
1
1
50,00
37,50
12,50
12,50
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of the understanding of informal learning in Table 2, 50% of
teachers stated that informal learning happened at family, environment, and out of school. The opinions of the
participants are as follows:
Lifelong learning, different environments such as; family, community, media, outside of school. (D1,1)
Learning at school, family, street outside of school environment without an age limit. It does not include a
specific age range.(E1,1)
Learning occurs out of educational institutions. (F1,1)
Informal learning happens everywhere, such as at school, environment, home as long as life goes on. (H1,1)
37,5% of teachers stated that informal learning was the learning that did not have a program. The opinions of
the participants are as follows:
It is a learning type which does not have a program or an aim, in other words, without a terminal behaviour.
(A1,3)
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Learning situations which happen by chance without a plan or a program. (B1,3)
We can define it as learning which happend out of school by chance without a plan or a program. (H1,3)
12,5% of teachers stated that informal learning was the learning that did not have a rule and that is
spontaneous. The opinions of the participants are as follows:
I think it includes all the incidents that we can come across during the life and happens anywhere outside of
school without any rules. (C1,2)
Spontaneous instant learning. (G1,4)
When the opinions of the teachers on the understanding of informal learning were analyzed generally,
teachers stated that it was the learning which happened outside of school without a program. Accordingly, it
was understood that teachers thought that informal learning was a learning which did not have rules. It was
understood that teachers mostly knew what informal learning was, and they could easily list the features of
informal learning.
2. Informal Learning Activities at School Environment
Teachers were asked about which informal learning activities took place at school environment. The data can
be seen in Table 3.
Tablo 3: Informal learning activities
1. Talking and chatting
2. Searching on the net
3. Article, magazine, documentary
4. Observation
5. Observing colleagues
6. Television and radio
A
√
√
√
B
√
√
C
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
D
E
√
F
√
√
√
G
√
H
√
√
√
√
f
%
8
6
2
2
2
2
87,50
75,00
25,00
25,00
25,00
25,00
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of their informal learning activities in Table 3, 87,50% of
teachers stated that talking and chatting was the main informal learning activity at school environment. The
opinions of the participants are as follows:
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,3)
Generally during chatting and searching on the net (B2,3)
It starts at mother’s womb and continues till death. While chatting with friends, searching on the net, or
observing nearing or from books. (C2,3)
More or less while talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, partly searching on the net, but
not from television or radio. (D2,3)
Especially on visual platform. While chatting, searching on the net, like articles, magazines, documentary
channels (F2,3)
It happens while watching foreign tv series, films or talking with a foreigner. I am an English teacher, so
wherever English is used, informal learning is naturally happens and reinforces. (G2,3)
As long as life goes on, infromla learning happens at everywhere like school, environment, home. We can give
example such as chatting at teachers’ room or on the net. (H2,3)
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
75,00% of teachers stated that searching on the net was the main informal learning activity at school
environment. The opinions of the participants are as follows:
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,2)
Generally during chatting and searching on the net (B2,2)
While chatting with friends, searching on the net, or observing nearing or from books. (C2,2)
More or less while talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, partly searching on the net, but
not from television or radio. (D2,2)
Especially on visual platform. While chatting, searching on the net, like articles, magazines, documentary
channels (F2,2)
As long as life goes on, informal learning happens at everywhere like school, environment, home. We can give
example such as chatting at teachers’ room or on the net. (H2,2)
25,00% of teachers stated that observing, reading article, magazine, documentary, observing colleagues,
watching television and listening to the radio were other informal learning activities at school environment.
The opinions of the participants are as follows:
While chatting with friends, searching on the net, or observing nearing or from books. (C2,1)
More or less while talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, partly searching on the net, but
not from television or radio (D2,1)
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,4)
Especially on visual platform. While chatting, searching on the net, like articles, magazines, documentary
channels (F2,4)
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,5)
If we want to give an example to show its contribution to our profession, I cna say that I update my knowledge
by watching different types of teaching methods on the net, and I can use different teaching methods for
different student groups. Moreover, observing also contribtes to our way of teaching. (H2,5)
For example, talking and chatting with colleagues, observing colleagues, searching on the net, via television
and radio, reading papers or magazines, etc. I can update information from my students and colleagues. (A2,6)
It happens while watching foreign TV series, films or talking with a foreigner. I am an English teacher, so
wherever English is used, informal learning is naturally happens and reinforces. (G2,6)
When we interpret the opinions of the teachers on informal learning activities at school environment
generally, teachers stated that they talked with their colleagues and searched on internet. This shows that
teachers prefered listening than reading to learn something. Moreover, the results showed that teachers were
internet-friendly and used technology to learn new things. One of the trainee teacher stated that observation
was one type of the informal activity in school environment. Also experineced teachers found observing
colleagues as a good way of informal learning which improved professional development.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
3. Contribution of Informal Learning to Professional Development
Teachers were asked about the contribution of informal learning to their professional development. The data
can be seen in Table 4.
Tablo 4: The contribution of informal learning to teachers’ professional development
1.Positive
2.Improving professional
knowledge
A
B
√
√
C
D
E
F
G
H
f
√
√
√
√
√
7
√
2
√
%
87,50
25,00
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of the contribution of informal learning to teachers’
professional development in Table 4, 87,50% of teachers stated informal learning had a positive effect on their
professional development. The opinions of the participants are as follows:
It is slow and positive since it develops in its natural period (A3,2)
It has positive contribution since boks do not contain every single rule (B3,2)
During my school life, I mostly learnt how to reach knowedge, rather than knowledge itself, so I can guide
myself for the subject that I want to learn. In other words, informal learning is as effective as formal learning in
my life and professional development. (D3,2)
It is very useful not only for our study field but especially for general knowledgeı (E3,2)
It has quite positive contribution (F3,2)
Of course it has a positive contribution since it is a reinforcement (F3,2)
If we want to give an example to show its contribution to our profession, I can say that I update my knowledge
by watching different types of teaching methods on the net, and I can use different teaching methods for
different student groups. Moreover, observing also contributes to our way of teaching. (G3,2)
25% of teachers stated that informal learning improved their professional knowledge The opinions of the
participants are as follows:
It increases my Professional knowledge and makes my profession more meaningful (C3,1)
If we want to give an example to show its contribution to our profession, I cna say that I update my knowledge
by watching different types of teaching methods on the net, and I can use different teaching methods for
different student groups. Moreover, observing also contribtes to our way of teaching. (H3,1)
When the opinions of the teachers on the contribution of informal learning to their professional development
were analysed generally, teachers stated that it had a positive effect on their professional development.
However, only two teachers, one of them was a trainee teacher, stated that it improved their professsional
development.
4. Metaphors for Informal Learning
Metaphors formulated by the 8 participants can be categorized under four themes as in Table 5: nature, place,
animal, and things. Two of the participants formulated nature metaphors in defining the informal learning. C
described the informal learning as a plant: “It is like a plant. The more we give the necessary minerals,
fertilizers, and nutrition to plants, the better fruits we can get”. Similarly, D used a water drop metaphor for
describing the informal learning: “It is like a water drop since it buils up over time with patience and
determination”.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Tablo 5: Metaphors for informal learning
1 Things
2 Animal
3 Nature
4 Place
A
B
√
√
C
D
E
F
G
H
√
√
√
√
√
√
f
%
3
2
2
1
37,50
25,00
25,00
12,50
One participant formulated place metaphor in defining informal learning. E described informal learning as a
place: “It is like a library. Each teacher and student are like a book about a specific subject”. Two other
participants used animal metaphors for informal learning. Participant F used a fish metaphor and she thought
informal learning was like a fish bone: “In my opinion, formal learning was like a backbone of a fish, and
informal learning was like the fish bones which forms the basis of the backbone”. H described informal
learning as a bee: “It is like a bee. A bee collects pollens to form the honey and makes it more delicious. Good
things happen as long as people collect knowledge from everywhere.” On the other hand, three participant
formulated thing metaphors in defining the informal learning. A described informal learning as a butter: “In my
opinion, it is like an extra butter put on rice, and it is like a flavour given to learning process from outside”. B
formulated a thing metaphor and she defined informal learn as a recycle bin: “It was like recycle bin, because it
changes each passing day and circulates”. Finally, G defined informal learning as a candle: “When a child
reaches out a candle flame, he/she gets hurt. It has an effective result, so it is an exact learning”.
As can be understood from the frequency analysis of metaphors defined by teachers in Table 5, the informal
learning was perceived as a fruitful, effective, interesting and generally positive phenomenon.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study was done to understand and analyse the opinions of the teachers working in a Science High School
on informal learning regarding if they had any informal learning in school environment, which informal
learning activities took place, and if this learning had a contribution to their professional development.
Accordingly, data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews.
Teachers defined informal learning as the learning which happened outside of school without a program and
rules. According to them informal learning took place at family and social community spontaneously. When
teachers opinions are generally interpreted, it could be said that their definitions are compatible with
Livingstones (2001) definition: “the form of learning is informal when it is done without sustained reference to
an intentionally-organized body of knowledge in more incidental and spontaneous learning situations” and
OECD’s (2005) definition: “informal learning is not directed by any organized or structured objectives, time or
learning support”. It was understood that teachers mostly knew what informal learning was, and they could
easily list the features of informal learning.
The informal learning activities at school environment were talking and chatting with the colleagues, searching
on internet, observing, reading article, magazine, documentary, observing colleagues, and watching television
and listening to the radio. When informal learning activities at school environment are interpreted generally, it
can be said that these are compatible with the findings of Nawab’s (2012) study called “The Informal Learning
Approaches of Teachers in a Secondary School in Pakistan”. According to this study, it is stated that the most
common form of informal learning in this school is observation of seniors at the time of induction.
When the opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings to their professional development are
interpreted generally, it can be said that these are compatible with Nishimura’s (2014) study called “Effective
Professional Development of Teachers: A Guide to Actualizing Inclusive Schooling”. According to this study, it is
stated that informal learning types such as; dialogue with colleagues and observing colleagues can be used for
the professional development of teachers. The opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings to
their professional development are also compatible with Steward’s (2014) study called “Transforming
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
Professional Development to Professional Learning”. According to this study, it is stated that learning from
colleagues which is a kind of informal learning is an effective way of professional development. Another study
which is compatible with the opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings to their professional
development is Giust’s (2013) study called “Increasing informal learning opportunities for teachers in the
school setting”. According to this study, it is stated that although there are several potential options for
administrators to eliminate barriers to informal and incidental learning in the school setting, teacher teams
and e-learning are two low-cost suggestions applicable for any school. The key findings of “Scottish Teachers
for a New Era” Project is also compatible with the opions of teachers on the contribution of informal learnings
to their professional development. According to the key findings, new teachers learnt informally from
colleagues, peers and pupils.
Informal learning activities at school environment have great contribution to teachers’ professional
development. Especially observing colleagues and talking with them is very effective on trainee teachers’
professional development. For that reason, teachers should get benefit of informal learning at school
environment and this should be supported by school administration.
According to the findings of this study, the following ideas are suggested by the researcher:
Teachers should be informed more about the importance of informal learning at school environment and
different informal learning activities and they should be encouraged to observe their colleagues, share their
experiences and talk about their study field.
Teachers should also be encouraged to use social media and internet for their professional development. They
should understand the importance of networking with their colleagues from different countries and join
learning communities and networks.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
She completed his BA studies on English Language Teaching in Middle East Technical
University, MA on Educational Administration and Supervision in Kırıkkale University. She is
doing PhD. on Adult Education in Ankara University in Turkey. She has been working as an
EU Projects Advisor since 2009 and she has been working at Akdeniz University,
International Relations Office as an EU Projects Advisor since 2013. She is scholarly
interested in vocational education and EU project.
Rabia VEZNE
Akdeniz University
International Relations Office
Dumlupinar Bulvari
Antalya - TURKEY
E. Mail: rabiavezne@akdeniz.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 02 ISSN 1309-6249
He completed his BA studies on English Language Teaching, MA on Educational
Administration and Supervision, PhD. on Educational Administration, Supervision, Planning
and Economy in Hacettepe University in Turkey and Post Doctorate Study on Qualitative
Research Methods in Sheffield Hallam University in the UK. He has been working as a
Professor Doctor at Akdeniz University, Faculty of Education, Educational Sciences
Department since 2003. He is scholarly interested in qualitative research methods,
organizational communication, organizational culture and climate, motivation at work, job
stressors and school leadership, vocational education and training linked to employment issues and national
development particularly in Turkey but also in Central/Western Asia and Europe.
Prof. Dr. Ilhan GUNBAYI
Akdeniz University
Faculty of Education
Educational Sciences Department
Antalya- TURKEY
E. Mail: igunbayi@akdeniz.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
MOBILE LITERACY REQUIREMENTS IN THE CONTEXT OF LIFELONG LEARNING
Ilker VATANSEVER
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgun OZDAMAR KESKIN
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Today we create and update information faster, and access this information more easily, than ever before.
Modern society, therefore, is in need of people who are eager to progress and whose lifelong learning skills
are high. Mobile technologies, which have become an indispensible part of our lives, have great potential to
support lifelong learning. However, there are numerous mobile operating systems in existence, including
Android, iOS and Windows OS, and all of these operating systems offer a different user experience. For an
efficient mobile experience, users need to acquire technical control of the device and to understand its
limitations at both the hardware and software levels. In addition, there are crucial skills that are needed, such
as the ability to access required information, to search for apps, and to assess their reliability and suitability.
The concept of mobile literacy covers all of these skills. This study will discuss current levels of mobile literacy
in the context of lifelong learning.
Keywords: Globalization, Lifelong Learning, Mobile Literacy, Mobile Technology, Mobile Applications.
INTRODUCTION
Individuals, society and technology are in a process of evolution in which each directly affects the other, and
must evolve together in a way that will allow them to be able to respond and adapt to new requirements.
Individuals (who make up societies) are affected by technological advancements sociologically and even
physiologically. The recent discoveries about neuroplasticity make the essence of the intellect more visible, its
steps and boundaries easier to mark. They tell us that the tools man has used to support or extend his nervous
system – all those technologies that through history have influenced how we find, store, and interpret
information, how we direct our attention and engage our senses, how we remember and how we forget –
have shaped the physical structure and workings of the human mind. Their use has strengthened some neural
circuits while leaving others to fade away. (Carr, 2010). Technological products, which are increasingly
equipped with more advanced features and which provide users with new possibilities, also shape our
relationship with information. In addition to the consumption of these technologies, the industry conditions
and production regimes that allow for their production have also deeply affected both the individual and wider
society. According to Womack, Jones and Roos (1990), how we make things dictates not only how we work but
what we buy, how we think, and the way we live. Our changing lifestyles have been shaping all individual and
social dynamics, including the literacy requirement, which is the subject of this study.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
It can be said that the most important factors that allowed for the rapid development of high technology
products during the past century were changes in our regimes of production and consumption. Making
modern technological products requires organization, automation and build-up, which are far beyond the
capabilities of a craftsman or a small atelier. The foundation of techniques and organizations, which made the
production of high technology products possible, started to be laid out at the beginning of the twentieth
century. In line with changing market conditions, and beginning in the 1970s, the Fordist production type –
which emerged at the beginning of the twentieth century, and in which industrial production to a great extent
was performed as mass production, administrative tasks and hand-power-dependent tasks were determined
by Taylorist differentiation, the division of labor and job descriptions were strictly followed, and in which
product standardization resulted in efficiency increases, increased demand accelerating this standardization
(Eraydın, 1992) – gave way to the Flexible System of Manufacturing and Accumulation (Post-Fordism), a
manufacturing and accumulation regime in which production is performed in a flexible model to meet the
demands of consumption, flexible specialization is attained in manpower and mechanization, and information
and communication technologies are widely used in production (Sakli, 2013). The organization and
automatization experiences that Fordism brought about have facilitated the implementation of creative and
visionary ventures.
According to the OECD (1999) Over recent years, the environment in which companies operate has changed
considerably. Firms are faced with a need to achieve greater economic efficiency, and to adapt more quickly to
changing product market conditions. Many commentators have claimed that these pressures are being
reflected in changes in work organization, towards what are often called “new”, “innovative”, “highperformance” or “flexible” workplaces. Flexible manufacturing has brought along the need for creative
employees who have flexible specialties. According to Cox (1980) this change in production regimes has caused
technological development and innovation to be concentrated in center countries, while production processes
have shifted to peripheral countries which provide cheap labor. In addition, flexible and innovative production
regimes have increased center countries’ need for qualified workers and expanded the workforce market to
global dimensions. This rapid transformation experienced by the workforce and by capital has accelerated the
phenomenon of globalization, which is as old as human history, much faster than ever before. In addition, it
has reshaped the educational needs of both the individual and society. This change has caused traditional
learning habits to be questioned with regards to whether they are responding to our needs in the twenty-first
century. Today, when information is increasing exponentially, and is updated and distributed constantly, the
ability to use the information technologies that provide these possibilities has become something that directly
affects an individual’s learning potential. Within this context, the purpose of this study is to draw attention to
the importance in our era of skills in using the mobile technologies that are increasingly gaining strength and
becoming widespread.
Globalization and Learning
Globalization is an ancient phenomenon, which started when people settled in different parts of world,
searching a better life. Nowadays, relations between continents and countries are much more dynamic
because people, business and material and information flows are moving faster and international relationships
of all sorts are closer than ever. All that progress is pretty much related to increased use of new technologies
in all economic, social and cultural areas (Bran, 2015). Both a reason and a result of the process of
globalization gaining momentum is an increasing migrant population. According to the Migration Policy
Institute (MPI) (2013) the total worldwide migrant population has increased twofold during the past 55 years.
In addition to these migration movements, a brain-drain within the countries in need of qualified labor has
been increasingly intensifying. According to the OECD (2013), the rate of highly educated migrants in OECD
countries is continuing to rise. The number of migrants who are university graduates or equivalent in OECD
countries has increased much faster than expectations in the past decade (+70%); it reached 27.3 million as of
2010/2011.
Migration takes place not only on an international scale but also on a national scale. According to World Bank
(2014) data, rural-urban migration movements that began at the dawn of industrial society have been
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
continuing even in the 2000s. While populations living in rural areas are continuing to decrease, cities have
been becoming ever more populous. Increasing migrant numbers have also led to the problem of increased
levels of social exclusion. Migration is one of the greatest reasons for social exclusion, because the “inability to
join the social life” constitutes the foundation of social exclusion. Being deprived of one of the fields which
allow for joining the social life constitutes a process that brings about deprivation from other fields as well. For
example, exclusion from the economic field can lead to exclusion from social, political or cultural processes too
(Tartanoğlu, 2010). While exclusion from the social and economic fields can increase poverty and crime rates,
it can also be said that exclusion from political and cultural processes poses a threat to social structure and
democracy.
According to Fryer (1997) the need for a change of culture is presented as necessary for a number of reasons,
including widening inequalities, increasing poverty and increasing social exclusion and disaffection. In the new
culture, lifelong learning will enable competing values to be reviewed, their relevance for society today and
tomorrow to be assessed and newly emerging values can be transmitted. In addition, Fryer (1997) has
mentioned that lifelong learning can change people’s lives, even transform them and that promise needs to be
encapsulated in a learning culture for all. Preventing people from becoming excluded from the economic field
is possible through personal and professional training, which is compatible with employers’ innovation and
growth targets. In a report published by the European Union in 2010 it was mentioned that innovation and
growth, as well as knowledge, skills and abilities that foster individuals’ skills and creativity, could be attained
by a lifelong updating that starts from an early age, i.e. by lifelong learning.
Lifelong Learning and Information Literacy
While the post-Fordist period that began in the 1970s gave birth to new educational needs, it has also been a
period in which new technologies have been developed in response to those needs. These were the years that
saw the foundation of companies such as Apple and Microsoft, which attained great commercial success, and
this period has been called the period of small companies generating high technology. According to Kline,
Dyer-Witheford and De Peuter (2003) , The new digital production processes and changing technology put
small firms that could rapidly adapt to new market conditions in an advantageous position. This period is also
called the era of dynamic and individual-scale ventures, constituted by digital craftsmanship, a mass of small
entrepreneurs and high technology production processes. This period, in which communication technologies
have rapidly advanced as well, has also made the concept of the information society a current issue. According
to Balan (2013) the information society is a new stage of humanity, in which information is intensely used at
every stage of human existence and human activities; this has serious social and economic consequences, and
provides a high quality standard of living.
Technological advancements have brought along new multimedia possibilities and information technology
applications. Information and communication technologies gaining new meanings increase competition,
provide new perspectives from which to develop business organizations, and create new professions. In
addition, progress is made in such fields as social work, healthcare and environmental management, and new
communication channels are opened between the state and its citizens. Information technologies overcome
problems of location and age and allow for all segments of a society to have access to a wide range of
educational and cultural possibilities. However, in order to benefit from these possibilities it is necessary to
have certain skills and competencies.
The foremost feature that individuals within an information society should possess is information literacy.
Information literacy is also the most important skill that the individual will need in order to fulfill the process of
lifelong learning. Lifelong learning is the development of knowledge and competences that will enable each
citizen to adapt to the knowledge-based society and actively participate in all spheres of social and economic
life, taking more control of his or her future (European Society of Association Executives, 2007).
In today’s information society, the most important learning outcome for all students is their ability to function
as independent lifelong learners. The essential enabler to reach that goal is information literacy.Information
literacy refers to the abilities to know when there is a need for information, and to be able toidentify, locate
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand. In a world in whichinformation is
expanding at an exponential rate, and the technology, which provides access to much of that information is
rapidly changing, such abilities are fundamental to lifelong learning, So on the one hand,information literacy
abilities both enhance student performance in formal learning settings and allow students tolearn
independent of such offerings. On the other hand, information literacy is a solution without a problem or
audience, if people do not understand their need for lifelong learning (Tamilchelvi and Senthilnathan, 2013).
Table 1: Relationship between Information Literacy and Lifelong Learning (Thamilchelvi, 2013 as cited in
Horton, 2005)
Inter-relationships
Both improve
Differences
Self-motivated
Set of personal choices and options
Information literacy is a set of
skills
Self-directed
Quality and utility of education and
training
Lifelong learning is a good habit
Self-empowering
Prospects of finding and keeping a job
Self-actuating
Effective
contexts
participation
in
social
Mobile Literacy
Parallel to developments in media literacy and information technologies, the concept of information literacy –
defined for the first time by Paul Zurkowski in 1974 as the ability to recognize, access, evaluate and effectively
use information – has begun to be discussed within new concepts such as digital literacy and computer
literacy. Finally, the mobile technologies which have developed and become widespread in recent years, which
have their own operating systems and which provide new user experiences, have placed the concept of mobile
literacy onto the agenda. Although the debate around which devices are mobile or not is evaluated differently
in different contexts, according to ADL (Advanced Distributed Learning) mobile learning or “mLearning” is the
use of handheld computing devices to provide access to learning content and information resources (Haag,
2011).
Mobile phones, which entered our lives in the ‘90s, have evolved into “smartphones” that are fully functional
computers with powerful and efficient processors, modern operating systems and user friendly interfaces
(Wang et al., 2014). Modern smartphones provide the opportunity to access wireless internet connections or
services provided by GSM operators, to determine locations through GPS systems, to take high quality photos
or shoot videos through both front and rear cameras, to record voices, and to access and arrange different
types of file types such as MS Office file formats, PDF or e-pub. Besides this, mobile devices provide other
advantages, such as access to content in the HTML5 format through advanced web browsers, the ability to
play multimedia content such as mp3, wav, mp4, the ability to use data matrix connections and mobile
signature technologies, and the provision of web access over protocols such as http and ftp.
With millions of available applications, mobile devices have many advanced features that other information
technologies can or cannot provide, spanning from education to social media and from banking services to
games. The fact that smartphones are increasingly becoming widespread and decreasing the need for other
information technology devices makes these devices and the ability to use these devices more important than
ever. According to data from Statista (2016) the market share of smart devices that can connect to the internet
(PC, Notebook, Tablet, Smartphone) has been changing every year. This data envisions that each year until
2019 smartphones will increase their market share and that the market share of other devices will decline.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
Figure 1: Information Technology Devices Market Shares
The fact that mobile devices are reachable ubiquitously, opens up new learning possibilities for their users.
However, the benefits to be derived from these possibilities are directly proportional to the individual’s ability
to use mobile devices. Mobile literacy is separate from concepts of computer literacy or digital literacy. It can
be said that in line with the general mood of our modern era, having access to a piece of information or
educational content that we need at any time and from any place has created a new technology and learning
culture.
In addition to access to information, our capacity to produce and share information has also gained a new
dimension thanks to mobile technologies. Visual materials shot by smartphones that have a high resolution,
and the ability to share these instantly on social media, have led to an increase in social movement. Societies
which cannot fight against social, economic and political exclusion through democratic methods have
witnessed events in which accumulated opposition energy mobilized as a result of this rapid increase in
organization and news-gathering possibilities. One of the most recent examples of this is the social movements
referred to as the Arab Spring which took place in North Africa and the Middle East. The rapid spread of
multimedia materials in social media have turned each individual into a reporter and even afforded nonprofessional individuals the opportunity to provide news materials to mainstream media outlets. In an
interview in 2011 with Castell about the Arab Spring, he mentioned that Al Jazeera has collected the
information disseminated on the Internet by the people using them as sources and organized groups on
Facebook, then retransmitting free news on mobile phones. Thus was born a new system of mass
communication built like a mix between an interactive television, Internet, radio and mobile communication
systems. The communication of the future is already used by the revolutions of the present. […] Obviously
communication technologies did not give birth to the insurgency. The rebellion was born from the poverty and
social exclusion that afflict much of the population in this fake democracy (Gjergji, 2013). This underlines the
fact that mobile technologies are not just learning tools which offer opportunities for preventing social
exclusion but also are instruments to fight it directly.
According to Walsh (2012) mobile information literacy embraces the portable nature of mobile devices and
thus “search no longer happens in fixed, controlled environments, but in random, messy, uncontrolled ones,
from crowded public transport on the way to work, to the loneliness of Mount Everest.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 2 lists the differences between information search using mobile devices and information search using
fixed devices such as desktop computers.
Table 2: Differences between Mobile Information Search and Fixed Information Search
Fixed Information Search
Mobile Information Search
Where?
Largely in “set” places. At a desktop
computer (with little variation in
software); at a fixed workplace;
within a library.
Anywhere. Any mobile device (phone, games console,
e-book reader – massive variety of devices)
What?
Anything and everything.
Normally quick information, often context- or
location-specific.
How?
Range of established tools to access Often narrow apps and individual specialist sites
and manage wide range of rather than open web.
information
sources.
Standard
search engines.
Time
spent?
Varies. Often slow, long access.
People spending long periods
searching for, organising and
extracting information, especially
for academic use.
Quick / fast only. Shorter searches. Little pondering
and extracting information. Favour short chunks of
information. Convenience of device.
According to Librarian (2011) mobile literacy is the collection of skills required to reach useful information and
to produce information by means of mobile devices in the mobile-connected world. Parry (2011) states that
the teaching of mobile literacy is a fundamental skill on par with teaching basic literacy. For him, practicing
“the skill of quick information access and credibility detection” via mobile devices is not a one-time exercise to
be conducted within the walls of a classroom. It is a skill necessary for current and future generations if they
are to become lifelong learners. Being beyond the skills necessary to reach the desired information only within
the context of informal learning processes, mobile literacy is also necessary to benefit from the formal
educational possibilities that mobile technologies provide.
In order to teach and learn with mobile devices, educators and students need to acquire technical control of
the device and understand its limitations at both the hardware and software levels. For the educator,
knowledge of how to search for suitable apps and assess their suitability is also required. In a society where
having some control over the authoring of apps to adapt them to one’s use is encouraged, being able to code
or re-code apps would be an advantage (Ng et al., 2015). In Figure 2 mobile devices’ functions used in
educational processes are classified with respect to skill levels.
Basic skills such as the ability to make phone calls using a smartphone, to use SMS, MMS or other instant
messaging services (Whatsapp, Viber, Skype etc.), and to send and receive e-mail, can be considered within the
framework of communication skills. The ability to produce media such as photographs, video, voice recordings,
or to take notes using smartphones, are within the scope of content generation. Social media skills refer to the
ability to access social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, Periscope, Snapchat etc.) via mobile
applications or browsers. The ability to access educational content, which is considered an advanced skill,
means being able to access web pages and applications that were prepared specifically for educational
purposes in both a formal and an informal context. In addition to technical competency, this task often (other
than cases stipulated by formal educational institutions) requires awareness of the need for education, and an
understanding that this need can be met by mobile technologies. Likewise, the skill of being able to access
useful information is a multidimensional concept. The ability to use search engines, skill in determining how
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
one can reach the required information (wikis, scientific studies, forums, or social media?), and whether the
information obtained is reliable, valid and useful, are all within the scope of skill in accessing useful
information. Application development skills, which are defined as very advanced skills, are within the scope of
computer programming and are not directly related to learning; these are far from being attainable by
everybody. However, it is important to determine that skill in accessing educational content and useful
information is beyond the level of basic skills.
Figure 2:Mobile literacy levels (Nielsen, 2015 as cited in Ion, 2015)
Widespread formal educational possibilities for the development of mobile literacy skills within society are
virtually non-existent, and individuals have been developing the skills they need via their own efforts. The fact
that individuals, who do not encounter with any problems while using social media through mobile devices,
have problems while reaching out for information and learning, is related to the fact that the need to develop
these skills has not been adopted, and education about this matter has not been provided.
Ng (2012), argued that the purposeful use of technology by young people in informal settings is not
characterised by exploring educational technologies but rather consists of social networking where there is
value and purpose in keeping in touch with friends and family, making more friends and finding out about the
world through their social network. He therefore argued that it is the role of educators to teach young learners
about learning with technology and to raise awareness about the types and flexibility of available applications
that could be used for learning. Educators therefore challenged to help students reverse unfavourable habits
that they may have developed in their informal development of digital literacy, for example their
underdeveloped web-based search and assess skills and the use of digital content ethically for academic
purposes.
Effective use of mobile technologies has made accessing information and educational content easier than ever,
and brought the related problems of time and space to a minimum. The fact that mobile technologies are
accessible by all segments of society has also made these technologies a very powerful instrument for lifelong
learning.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Developments both in society and in technology have been transforming the individual, as well as the
individual’s social, economic and personal needs. The need for education is one of these needs. New social and
economic realities have also resulted in a need for a new educational culture. In order to be a part of an
information society and an information economy, individuals should have the possibility to constantly update
their knowledge and skills; in other words they need to be lifelong learners. The first characteristic needed for
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
this is to be aware of the need for knowledge, learning and education, to know one’s own mind, and therefore
to have the necessary motivation. Determining the need for information, the ability to assess the validity,
applicability and reliability of information reached, and using this information in line with ethical rules, require
intellectual accumulation and perception beyond mere technical skills. In addition to this, skill in effective use
of up-to-date technologies, which have become indispensible for accessing information, learning, and
education, is needed. Here the emphasis on up-to-date technology is especially important. For example, the
“ability to use the library very effectively” is no longer enough on its own.
Effective participation in social and economic life also requires to keep up-to-date. Mobile technologies
provide a platform via which all of the contextual, positional, just-in-time, social and gamificated learning
approaches can be realized. They also present new and developed possibilities for both instructors and
learners in the fields of education and learning. Gaining the skills and perspectives necessary to benefit from
these possibilities will make it easier for the individual to join social and economic life. Although these
technologies are produced for their end users, within the context of their usage for lifelong learning,
enhancing the awareness in society and developing individuals’ mobile literacy skills are the duty of educators.
IJONTE’s Note: This study is presented as an oral presentation at International Congress on Education,
Distance Education and Educational Technology- ICDET- Turkey.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
İlker VATANSEVER is Educational Technologist currently working at Anadolu University,
Open Education Faculty, Learning Technologies Research & Development Department and
graduate student at Department of Distance Education, Anadolu University. His major
research interests are cognitive science, life-long learning, learning analytics, learning
materials and open and distance learning.
İlker VATANSEVER
Anadolu University
Open Education Faculty
Eskisehir-TURKEY
E. Mail: ilkervatansever@anadolu.edu.tr
Dr. Nilgun OZDAMAR KESKIN received her Ph.D. from the Department of Computer
Education and Instructional Technologies of the Graduate School of Educational Sciences
of Anadolu University in the year 2011. She was a visiting scholar at University of Central
Florida from 2009 to 2010. She got a best paper award at m-Learn Conference 2011 in
China. Her research interests include online learning, mobile learning, open and distance
education, MOOCs.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nilgün ÖZDAMAR KESKİN
Open Education Faculty
Anadolu University
Eskisehir-Turkey
E. Mail: nozdamar@anadolu.edu.tr
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 03 ISSN 1309-6249
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A REVIEW ON THE PROGRAM EVALUATION STRATEGIES IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
Prof. Dr. Salih UŞUN
Mugla Sıtkı Kocman University
Faculty of Education
Department of Educational Sciences
Mugla ‐ TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to review the program evaluation strategies in point of suitabilities to distance
education . In the study, it was used of literature review technique to gather data. Firstly ,relevant and
previous studies in the literature on the program evaluation strategies in distance education were searched
and in detailed reviewed. Then, thirteen evaluation strategies that were frequently used to collect data for
educational program evaluations were described and reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance
education. In conclusion, it was determined that the objectives‐oriented strategy and systems ‐based
evaluation strategies were highly suited to distance education programs. But, traditional, expertise‐oriented,
humanistic and academic evaluation strategies were not suited to distance education programs. The
conclusions obtained in this study may be useful in the exploration of further research areas in the field of
program evaluation in distance education. In future , qualitative and / or quantitative researches should be
realized on the suitabilities of the strategies of the objectives‐oriented and systems ‐based evaluation for
distance education programs.
Keywords: Distance education, program evaluation, strategy.
INTRODUCTION
Program evaluation is defined as “a process used to determine whether the design and delivery of a program
were effective and whether the proposed outcomes were met” (Caffarella, 2002, 225). While program
evaluation first focuses around this definition, important considerations often include how much the program
costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there
are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and
useful (Shackman,2012).
Distance learning is a method of conveying education and instructions, generally on an individual basis, to the
students who are not physically available in a usual setting such as a classroom. Distance learning is rapidly
becoming an alternative to traditional classrooms. Students can benefit from the flexibility that comes with
distance learning, and for students who don't have the time or money to attend traditional schools, distance
learning can provide a path to higher education(Rao and Krishnan ,2015).
Distance education is a form of education in which there is normally a separation between teacher and learner
and thus one in which other means the printed and written materials, the broadcasting(radio and television),
computer and communication technologies and academic consultancy (Usun, 2006). Distance
education or distance learning is the education of students who are not physically present at a school. Distance
education is designed to give people options. It makes learning attainable for people from all walks of life. A
great alternative to traditional, campus‐based classes, distance education allows students to study on a more
flexible basis. Geber (2000) provides a contemporary definition of distance education as any formal approach
to learning in which the majority of the instruction occurs while educator and learner are at a distance from
each other.
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Evaluation is one of the critical steps in the process of performance improvement. Evaluation feeds evidence‐
based information back to the next cycle of performance improvement. However, organizations often neglect
to conduct comprehensive evaluations on their programs due to environmental barriers or the lack of
practitioners’ evaluation expertise (Chyung ,2015). Generally, evaluation is used to determine the degree to
which program objectives are met through the procedures used by the program. The evaluation determines
whether or not the outcomes or results predicted by the program occurred and if their occurrence was due to
the project. It is essential that evaluation and feedback be part of all distance learning programs. Evaluation in
distance education must be carefully balanced between a traditional view that allows for program
justification/development and a new view that has the potential for empowering. Also, evaluation in distance
education is undertaken to guide decision‐makers program leaders, program coordinators with an overall
objective to improve service delivery and client satisfaction. Evaluation commonly aims to determine the
relevance, efficiency, effectiveness, impact and sustainability of a distance education program or project.
Program evaluation is a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and utilizing information to answer basic
questions about projects, policies and programmes. Methodologies included cross sectional surveys and
review of literature to gather data. Evaluation in open and distance learning is undertaken to guide decision‐
makers programme leaders, programme coordinators with an overall objective to improve service delivery and
client satisfaction (Miriam and Offat, 2015). Program evaluation is about carefully collecting information on a
program or some aspects of a program in order to make necessary decisions. The process can include different
types of evaluation, such as needs assessment, accreditation, and cost effectiveness, formative and summative
evaluations. Pradhan (2006) described some of the components of a program evaluation activity . Distance
and open learning programs are designed for learners. They should be learner centred and should be
continually evaluated to improve the quality of the graduate. Programs must be evaluated to decide if the
programs are actually useful to the learners and whether they are achieving their stated objectives. Keegan
(1996) recommended that the evaluation of any distance education program should focus on four aspects: (a)
the quantity of the learning (i.e.,enrollment, new learner markets, and course‐completion rates), (b) the
quality of the learning (i.e., effectiveness of courses or program to enable desired learner outcomes), (c) the
status of the learning (i.e., transferability of coursework and employer recognition of degrees and certificates),
and (d) the relative cost of the learning (i.e., institutional cost effectiveness and cost benefits).
Distance education is a discipline that offers solutions to some important education problems. Distance
education, contribute to the solution to the problems such as; inequality of opportunities, lifelong education,
the implementation of a series of individual and social goals that can contribute to and benefit from
educational technology and self‐learning. In distance education, methods of measurement and assessment
must be consistent with the objectives and contents of teaching.( Kaya and Tan 2015).A series of studies
(Zawacki‐Richter (2009) ; Zawacki‐Richter, Bäcker and Vogt (2009) ; Zawacki‐Richter and von Prümmer (2010) ;
Zawacki‐Richter and Anderson (2011); Zawacki‐Richter and Anderson (2014) were conducted by Zawacki‐
Richter to explore the distance education(DE) research domain ( Bozkurt et al.,2015).In his study, Zawacki‐
Richter (2009, cited in Bozkurt et al.,2015) developed a categorization of research areas in DE and identified
the most important and the most neglected research areas in DE. Having conducted an extensive literature
review and a Delphi study with expert responses from editorial board members from the major DE journals
from September‐December 2008, Zawacki‐Richter identified 15 research areas which were organized into 3
broad categories. The participants of the study were 19 voluntary experts with an average of 27 years of
professional experience in DE who had made significant contributions to DE literature. Based on the experts’
responses, Zawacki‐Richter grouped the 15 research areas into three categories. In the second round of the
Delphi study, each category was prioritized by the expert as three levels. Macro level; distance education
system and theories ; meso level: management, organization and technology and micro level: teaching and
learning in distance education. We see that there is no any research level and area on the program evaluation
and/ or evaluation model or strategy in distance education.
According to current literature, some of the studies (Gunawardena,Lowe and Carabajal, 2000; Alhawiti,2014 )
on the evaluation model of distance education and learning programs focus on on‐line programs and
courses . Davie’s (1995) study focus on computer mediated communication, Osika and Camin’s (2005) study
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focus on Internet –Based distance learning programs and Khow’s(2014) study focus on e‐learning.The other
evaluation models on the distance education and learning programs are the followings (Usun,2016):
*Kaufman’s(1981) Organizational Needs Model
*Simonson,Smaldino and Zvacek’s (2002) AEIOU(Accountability, Effectiveness , Impact,
Organizational
Context, Unanticipated Outcomes) Model
*Forster and Washington’s(2000) Interactive Video Technology Model
*Compora’s(2003) Administrative Operational Model .
Worthen et al. (1997) identified six evaluation strategies (objectives‐oriented, management‐oriented,
consumer‐oriented, expertise‐oriented, adversary‐oriented and participant‐oriented) that are frequently used,
either singly or in some combination, to collect data for educational program evaluations. Rovai (2003) ,in his
study titled “A practical framework for evaluating online distance education programs” reviwed these
strategies in point of suitabilites and utilities to distance education.
As above seen, in current literature although there are some studies on the program evaluation models in
distance education, but there are only a few study on the program evaluation strategies in distance
education. So, current study can contribute to related literature on the program evaluation strategies in
distance education.
The aim of this study is to review the program evaluation strategies in point of suitabilities to distance
education.
METHODS
In the study, it was used literature review method to gather data. This study provided a descriptive review
on the the program evaluation strategies in distance education. Firstly,relevant and previous studies in the
literature on the program evaluation strategies in distance education were searched and rigorously
reviewed. Then, thirteen evaluation strategies that were frequently used to collect data for educational
program evaluations were described and reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance education.
A Review of Program Evaluation Strategies in Point of Suitabilities to Distance Education
Usun (2016) in his Turkish book titled “Eğitimde Program Değerlendirme: Süreçler,Yaklaşımlar ve Modeller”
(Program Evaluation in Education:Processes, Strategies and Models) ” identified thirteen evaluation strategies
that are frequently used to collect data for educational program evaluations. In this section, these strategies
are ,shortly,described and reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance education:
Objectives-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The objectives‐oriented evaluation strategy focuses on specifying the goals and objectives of a given program
attained. Ralph Tyler, who conceptualized the objectives‐oriented approach to evaluation in 1932, is
recognized as being the pioneer of this approach (Stufflebeam & Shinklefield, 1985). According to Worthen
and Sanders (1987,63), Tyler's early approach to evaluation was logical, scientifically acceptable, and readily
usable by educational evaluators.
Objectives‐oriented approach is highly suited to distance education programs that have highly defined
objectives, and the purpose of the evaluation is to determine if, and to what extent, these objectives have
been met (Rovai, 2003). According to Guba and Lincoln (1981), there were problems associated with the
objectives‐oriented approach. Critics of this evaluation approach claimed that the selection of appropriate
objectives to evaluate was problematic, as not all objectives could be evaluated and the process by which
objectives were selected was open to bias (Stufflebeam & Shinklefield, 1985).
Major weaknesses often cited regarding this strategy include the difficulty of evaluators of distance education
to operate in a program environment with ill‐defined objectives, to identify unintended program outcomes,
and to measure learning. Grades, often used to operationalize learning, can have little relationship to what
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students have learned as students may already know the material when they enroll, or their grades may be
more related to class participation, or work turned in late, than to learning (Rovai, 2003). Furthermore, grades
may not be a reliable measure of learning, and using grades as a measure of distance learning can be
problematic .
Systems -based Evaluation Strategy
A systems‐based strategy of evaluation is based on efficiently‐ determining which are the most effective
programs. It focuses on the organization, determining whether appropriate resources are devoted to goal
activities (and to nongoal activities, such as staff training or maintenance of the system) . The systems
approach to program evaluation is highly compatible with strategic planning, which has the goal of
strengthening the management decision‐making process by having it recognize and address key internal and
external factors that affect the organization. Moore and Kearsley (1996, 5) suggested that a systems approach
is very helpful to understanding distance education and that ‘‘the systems model provides a tool that not only
helps us recognize many of the issues that separate distance education from conventional education, but also
helps us distinguish good distance education from bad.’’ Consequently, it is important to evaluate distance
education programs by how they work as a whole rather than by evaluating individual components without
regard to overall program effectiveness (Rovai, 2003).
According to Worthen et al., (1997), potential weaknesses of the systems based (management oriented)
approach may occur from evaluators giving partiality to top management, from evaluators’ occasionalinability
to respond to questions, from costly evaluation processes, and from the assumption that important decisions
can be clearly identified in advance. The other weakness of this strategy is that it tends to reinforce the status
quo of management rather than balancing the interests of management with those of other internal and
external stakeholders. If management does not value distance education, evaluation results will likely reflect
this bias (Rovai, 2003).
Collaborative Evaluation Strategy
Collaborative evaluation is a proactive evaluation strategy that enables program staff to engage in continuous
program improvement. A collaborative program evaluation can employ a variety of approaches, but focuses on
building a relationship between the evaluation team and program staff with the goal of building the capacity of
program staff to use evaluation results and promote program improvement (O’Sullivan, 2012). The process of
a collaborative evaluation occurs in three general phases: (1) getting underway, (2) full engagement, and (3)
wrapping up. While the phases appear linear, they are, in fact, dynamic and iterative as implemented
throughout the evaluation process.
The collaborative program evaluation strategy allows the evaluation team and program staff to stand
shoulder‐to‐shoulder in determining how to improve program implementation and effectiveness, thereby
increasing the probability of improved student outcomes. In this type of evaluation, evaluators apply
appropriate data collection and methods of analysis to determine whether the program is having the desired
impact and provides recommendations for program improvements. While a collaborative program evaluation
requires an ongoing commitment by all parties, it also produces high value to stakeholders and greatly
increases the likelihood that educational programs will meet their intended goals and objectives (Usun ,2016).
A possible weakness to the participant‐oriented approach is that each stakeholder is likely to have different
criteria regarding program value and effectiveness (Rovai, 2003). One of the best way to ensure objectivity in
the measurement of quality of outcomes in a distance education program is the exploration of the
stakeholders views. Cost, time and resistance to multiple evaluation sources are important limitations in the
search for objective parameters.
Participant-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The participant‐oriented evaluation strategy stresses firsthand experiences with program activities and
emphasizes the importance of the participants in the process. As defined by Royse, Thyer, Padgett, and Logan
(2006,93), participative evaluation “centers on enlisting the cooperation of the least powerful stakeholders in
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the evaluation from start to finish”.Stakeholders define the evaluation approach and determine the evaluation
parameters.
The participant‐oriented evaluation strategy allows for the evaluator to engage with the stakeholder as a
partner in solving the problems. One advantage to this approach is that it uses the technique of progressive
focusing to data gather and analyse for prospective studies. Participant‐oriented strategy is suited to
distance education programs .But, the participant‐oriented evaluation (including empowerment) strategy is
not without disadvantages. A possible weakness to the participant‐oriented strategy is that each stakeholder is
likely to have different criteria regarding program value and effectiveness. If the evaluator attempts to find
common ground and to satisfy all stakeholders, the evaluation is likely to become ineffective, and those
designing and conducting evaluations may focus on answering questions that are not relevant, but to which
everyone agrees.
Adversary-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The adversary‐oriented evaluation strategy utilizes a judicial process in examining a program. According to
Levine (1982, 149), the adversarial approach operates with the assumption that the truth emerges from a
hard, but fair, fight in which opposing sides present supporting evidence. One advantage to this strategy is
that it illuminates both positive and negative view points. Additionally, the strategy is open to participation by
stakeholders and decisions place greater assurance in the conclusion of the trial. This evaluation strategy is not
commonly adopted because of it’s determination of guilt. Worthen et al (1997) stated, “Evaluation should
aspire to improve programs, not determine their guilt or innocence.”
The adversary‐oriented strategy attempts to reduce bias by attempting to assure fairness by incorporating
both positive and negative views into the evaluation itself. Several models have been used for adversary
evaluations, to include structured public debates, such as town hall meetings, and the use of opposing
evaluators that debate the issues. The idea of using this model is not so much to win a verdict as it is for all
stakeholders and evaluators to acquire a beter appreciation of the issues involved and to gain insights into
other points of view (Worthen et al.,1997). For distance education, this strategy can be helpful if students and
faculty members are identified who support and oppose the distance education program and are provided the
opportunity to present their points of view to the evaluators.
One advantage to this evaluation strategy in distance education is that it illuminates both positive and
negative view points. Additionally, the approach is open to participation by stakeholders and decisions place
greater assurance in the conclusion of the trial. But, this evaluation approach is not commonly adopted
because of it’s determination of guilt. The other weakness of this strategy is that it can be used only in
summative evaluations and it required compact effort and takes a long time.
Qualitative Evaluation Strategy
Qualitative evaluations use qualitative and naturalistic methods, sometimes alone, but often in combination
with quantitative data. The data for qualitative evaluation typically comes from fieldwork. The evaluator
spends time in the setting under study—a program, organization, or community where change efforts can be
observed, people interviewed, and documents analyzed. Qualitative methods include three kinds of data
collection: in‐depth, open‐ended interviews; direct observation; and written documents (Denzin & Lincoln,
1998; Greene, 1994).Permit evaluator to study selected issues, cases or events in depth and detail.
Qualitative methods are considered useful tools to evaluate the effectiveness of distance education programs
(Beck & Kacirek, 2011). Qualitative research method uses a naturalistic approach to understand phenomena in
context‐specific settings, such as real world setting [where] the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2002).Because of the qualitative program evaluation strategies are as if
describe the story of program, these aproaches can be used as effectively in program evaluation of distance
education.
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Expertise-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The expertise‐oriented evaluation strategy is the oldest and most widely used evaluation approach to judge a
program, activity, or institution (Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1997). Evaluators utilizing this strategy draw
on a panel of experts to judge a program and make recommendations based on their perceptions. But in this
strategy , educational criteria of expertise evaluator is not clearly be defined. The expertise‐oriented strategy
to evaluation, widely used by accrediting agencies, depends primarily upon professional expertise to judge an
educational program(Usun ,2016).
This strategy has a potential weakness in the evaluation of distance education programs,so, that is likely to
have different criteria regarding value and effectiveness of distance education program. An other weakness is
the limited reliability of expert testimony. Different experts may not make the same judgments and
recommendations regarding the program (Rovai, 2003).In the eyes of critics, the overall limitation to the
expertise‐oriented evaluation strategy is the central role of the expert judge. Critics suggest that the use of
expert judges permits evaluators to make judgments that are personally biased, inherently conservative,
potentially incestuous, and are not based upon program objectives of distance education .
Consumer-oriented Evaluation Strategy
The consumer‐oriented evaluation strategy is commonly used by government agencies and consumer
advocates who compile information to evaluate a product’s effectiveness. According to Stufflebeam et al.,
(2000), a consumer‐oriented evaluation requires a highly credible and competent expert with sufficient
resources to conduct a thorough evaluation. Scriven (1991) was a pioneer in applying the consumer‐oriented
approach to program evaluation and was responsible for distinguishing between the formative and summative
roles of evaluation. The primary purpose of formative evaluation is to improve the quality of the program
being developed so it will be possible to achieve the objectives for which it was designed (Beyer, 1995).
Summative evaluation is conducted to provide decision‐makers or potential customers with judgments about
the worth or merit of a program in relation to important criteria (Brown & Gerhardt, 2002).
The central theme of this strategy is the development of information on products for use by consumers (i.e.,
students). Such an approach has particular appeal for distance education programs because of the increasing
competition among such programs. Limitations on the use of this model in a distance education context arise
as the result of individual student differences. What appeals to one student may not appeal to another (Rovai,
2003).
One advantage to this strategy is that it attracts attention the greatness and eventual cases of the program
impacts and so sensitizes the program evaluators .In this strategy,in order to appoint the basic characteristics
of the potential considerations, the evaluator of distance education have to take help from the other
professional experts ,such as education psychologists .
Constructivist (Postmodern) Evaluation Strategy
Constructivist evaluation is that form of evaluation based on the propositions (basic assumptions) undergirding
the constructivist paradigm. Evaluation in constructivist settings is goal‐free.A constructivist strategy to
knowledge construction and learning can be well supported in distance education settings through a variety of
technologies. Fourth Generation Evaluation (FGE) is Guba and Lincoln’s (1989) response to what they believe
to be the inadequacies of previous evaluation methodologies. Guba and Lincoln’s (1989) specific complaints
include previous evaluation generations’ political bias toward whoever sponsored the evaluation; inability to
acknowledge pluralism in participants’ perspectives; and over‐reliance and emphasis on ‘qualitative analysis of
a quasi‐scientific nature’.The basic process of FGE includes (1) identifying stakeholders; (2) examining
stakeholders’ claims, issues and concerns about the construct; and (3) seeking consensus among stakeholders
via discussion, negotiation, and interchange.
One of the weaknesses and criticisms of the constructivist strategy is its inability to evaluate learning.
Therefore, distance education courses require clear and specific structure in order to be successful. Structure,
however, does not necessarily suggest an objectivist approach to instructional design. Constructivist
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evaluation is a difficult strategy to adopt. It is highly labor intensive. It is ever‐recursive and requires frequent
recapitulations. If is often adversarial and confrontational. It is a diffuse process impossible to specify in detail
(in design form); hence, its personnel and resource commitments can at best be “guesstimated.” It requires
the evaluator to play multiple roles which at times may appear to be in conflict. It denies the possibility of
reliable generalizations and of determining solutions “that work” everywhere (Guba and Lincoln ,1989).So, it
can be said that constructivist evaluation is a difficult strategy to adopt, is not suited to distance education
programs.
Traditional Evaluation Strategy
Patton (1997, 7) refered that ,with the application of scientific methods to program evaluations, traditional
evaluation (TE) was born. Traditional evaluation is characterized by its emphasis on scientific methods.
Reliability and validity of the collected data are key, while the main criterion for a quality evaluation is
methodological rigor. TE requires the evaluator to be objective and neutral and to be outcome‐focused. This
leads to a preoccupation with experimental methods, numbers (as opposed to words), statistical tools, and an
emphasis on summative evaluations (aimed to determine whether or not to continue a particular program)
rather than formative ones (aimed at program improvement).
Stake (1973) argued for storytelling as a means of conveying the “holistic impression, the mood, even the
mystery of the experience”.In essence, the debate hinges on legitimacy: whereas TE draws legitimacy from
scientific rigor, responsive evaluation draws legitimacy from endorsements by a majority of important
stakeholders. Although Stake took pains to suggest that responsive evaluation should supplement traditional
evaluation, rather than replacing it, it is easy to see the conflicting orientations of the two approaches. Thus,
the seeds were sown for the debates discussed in subsequent sections of this paper. This early offshoot of TE
would be a precursor to what has since been referred to as the “paradigm wars” (Caracelli, 2000.) Although TE
is still widely used today, it is not the only available strategy to program evaluation in distance education .
Competing strategies have since been developed, mostly in response to one of TE’s most serious drawbacks –
the fact that many TE reports are not used or even read (Patton, 1997). A weakness of this strategy is that it
requires highly administral control , and also there are important problems concerned with objectivity and
methodology.
Pragmatic Evaluation Strategy
These strategy essentially ignores the paradigm debate and show no hesitation to mix strategies in ways that
loyalists to either paradigm would never do out of fear of compromising their findings. One might even
speculate that these pragmatic approaches are appearing because of the persistence of the paradigm war – its
abstract debates have not addressed the questions and problems that evaluators in the “real world” wrestle
with, and may have led to the advent of “mixed‐method approaches” . For example, Johnson, McDaniel, and
Willeke (2000) argue that assessments of portfolios can satisfy psychometric demands of reliability. Datta
(2001,405) concurs: “as the ends draw apart, the widening middle ground is getting filled with new approaches
to unify us, such as realistic evaluation”. Although a treatise of realistic evaluation falls beyond the scope of
this paper, it is a noteworthy contribution worthy of further examination. Thus far, there are no articles
reporting on an application of this philosophy to program evaluation. Time will tell whether or not emergent
realism will catch on in the field.In spite of the continued paradigm war, which tends to polarize the field
between two alternatives (objectivist or constructivist assumptions; quantitative or qualitative methods;
summative or formative purpose; etc.), the literature shows an increase in popularity of pragmatic strategies
(Bengston & Fan, 1999; Pratt et al., 2000).Pragmatic strategies act as a conciliator between different and
dual alternatives, so, it can be said that pragmatic strategies are suited to distance education programs.
Humanistic Evaluation Strategy
Lee Cronbach quoted Ornstein (1988) two conflicting strategies in curriculum evaluation suggests that the two
front ends are on a continuum. These strategies are: scientific and humanistic strategy is applying standard
tests to evaluation of scientific approach indicators and in fact, this approach goes back approach is the ruling
on education. Data obtained via a human strategy to significantly differ significance of scientific evaluation. In
this strategy , often qualitative methods such as observation, interviews and data are use. In fact, this strategy
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represents both quantitative and qualitative approaches in the field of evaluation. The most common way is
that the curriculum as a sequence of courses or a program of what is thought to occur in the classroom.
Assessment based on technical evaluation of this strategy is based on the belief that better results can be
evaluated to determine the payments. In the second method, curriculum, not as a program but as what
actually happens to students is viewed. The evaluation strategy is based on this strategy is more human
approach. Humanistic strategy in the last three decades it has grown to feature which is trying to gain a more
complete picture of the curriculum (Usun ,2016).
The advantages of this strategy are that it use often qualitative methods such as observation, interviews .
In fact, this strategy represents both quantitative and qualitative strategies in the field of evaluation and it is
based to process.The weakness of this strategy is that it applies standard tests to evaluation of scientific
approach indicators. So, humanistic approach is not suited to evaluate of distance education programs.
Academic Evaluation Strategy
The academic strategy attempts to analyze and synthesize major positions, trends, and concepts of curriculum.
It tends to be grounded on historical and philosophical curriculum developments and to a lesser extent on
social conditions. This strategy is concerned with comprehensive domains of schooling, including the study of
educa on. It is usually scholas c and theore cal, hence, also referred to as ―tradi onal, encyclopedic,
synoptic, intellectual, or knowledge‐oriented approach‖ (Ornstein & Hunkins 1993:6). This strategy has
partially returned in recent times – Emphasis is placed on understanding how knowledge is constructed,
deconstructed and reconstructed. Also, this strategy was very concerned with presenting a broad variety
foundational issues related to the topic, such as historical, philosophical , social and political (Usun ,2016).
The academic strategy is a more focused on the structure on knowledge and organization of subject matter
into subjects. The training and development of the mind is what is most important. Observable actions are not
as significant in this strategy. When people adopt this strategy they believe in training the mind like a muscle.
A strong muscle can be used in many different ways just as a strong mind can be used in many different
occupations in life. The weaknesses of this strategy is that it is not practical ,usually theoretical ,
encyclopedic, synoptic and intellectual ,so, is not suited to distance education programs.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
It is essential that evaluation and evaluation strategies should be part of all distance education programs. In
current and related literature there are only a few study on the program evaluation strategies in distance
education. In this study, Usun’s(2016) thirteen evaluation strategies that are frequently used to collect data
for educational program evaluations were reviewed in point of suitabilities and utilities to distance education;
The objectives‐oriented evaluation strategy focuses on specifying the goals and objectives of a given program
attained. This strategy is highly suited to distance education programs that have highly defined objectives,
and the purpose of the evaluation is to determine if, and to what extent, these objectives have been met.
Major weaknesses often cited regarding this strategy include the difficulty of evaluators of distance education
to operate in a program environment with ill‐defined objectives, to identify unintended program outcomes,
and to measure learning. Systems ‐based evaluation strategy is very helpful to understanding distance
education and that ‘‘the systems model provides a tool that not only helps us recognize many of the issues
that separate distance education from conventional education, but also helps us distinguish good distance
education from bad.’’ Consequently, it is important to evaluate distance education programs by how they
work as a whole rather than by evaluating individual components without regard to overall program
effectiveness. Potential weakness of the systems based (management oriented) strategy may occur from
evaluators giving partiality to top management, from evaluators’ occasionalinability to respond to questions,
from costly evaluation processes, and from the assumption that important decisions can be clearly identified in
advance .
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 04 ISSN 1309-6249
In spite of the continued paradigm war, which tends to polarize the field between two alternatives (objectivist
or constructivist assumptions; quantitative or qualitative methods; summative or formative purpose; etc.), the
literature shows an increase in popularity of pragmatic strategies. Pragmatic evaluation strategies act as a
conciliator between different and dual alternatives, so, it can be said that pragmatic approaches are suited
to distance education programs. Qualitative methods are considered useful tools to evaluate the effectiveness
of distance education programs .Qualitative research method uses a naturalistic approach to understand
phenomena in context‐specific settings, such as real world setting [where] the researcher does not attempt to
manipulate the phenomenon of interest .Because of the qualitative program evaluation strategies are as if
describe the story of program, these aproaches can be used as effectively in program evaluation of distance
education. The central theme of the consumer‐oriented evaluation strategy is the development of
information on products for use by consumers (i.e., students). Such an approach has particular appeal for
distance education programs because of the increasing competition among such programs. Limitations on the
use of this model in a distance education context arise as the result of individual student differences. In this
strategy,in order to appoint the basic characteristics of the potential considerations, the evaluator of distance
education have to take help from the other professional experts ,such as education psychologists . The
collaborative and participant‐oriented evaluation strategies allow for the evaluator to engage with the
stakeholder as a partner in solving the problems. The advantages to these strategies are that they use the
technique of progressive focusing to data gather and analyse for prospective
studies. The possible
weaknesses of these strategies are that each stakeholder is likely to have different criteria regarding program
value and effectiveness . The adversary‐oriented evaluation strategy utilizes a judicial process in examining a
program. For distance education, this strategy can be helpful if students and faculty members are identified
who support and oppose the distance education program and are provided the opportunity to present their
points of view to the evaluators. One advantage to this evaluation strategy in distance education is that it
illuminates both positive and negative view points. The weakness of this strategy is that it can be used only in
summative evaluations and it required compact effort and takes a long time.
Traditional, expertise‐oriented,humanistic and academic evaluation strategies have potential weaknesses in
the evaluation of distance education programs. Although traditional evaluation (TE) is still widely used today,
it is not the only available strategy to program evaluation in distance education . Competing strategies have
since been developed, mostly in response to one of TE’s most serious drawbacks – the fact that many TE
reports are not used or even read . A weakness of this strategy is that it requires highly administral control ,
and also there are important problems concerned with objectivity and methodology. The expertise‐oriented
evaluation strategy i strategy has a potential weakness in the evaluation of distance education programs, so,
that is likely to have different criteria regarding value and effectiveness of distance education program. An
other weakness is the limited reliability of expert testimony. Different experts may not make the same
judgments and recommendations regarding the program. Humanistic strategy in the last three decades it has
grown to feature which is trying to gain a more complete picture of the curriculum. The advantages of this
strategy are that it use often qualitative methods such as observation, interviews . In fact, this strategy
represents both quantitative and qualitative strategies in the field of evaluation and it is based to process.
The weakness of this strategy is that it applies standard tests to evaluation of scientific approach indicators.
The academic strategy is a more focused on the structure on knowledge and organization of subject matter
into subjects. The training and development of the mind is what is most important. Observable actions are not
as significant in this strategy. When people adopt this strategy they believe in training the mind like a muscle.
A strong muscle can be used in many different ways just as a strong mind can be used in many different
occupations in life. The weaknesses of this strategy is that it is not practical ,usually theoretical ,
encyclopedic, synoptic and intellectual ,so, is not suited to distance education programs.
By understanding the similarities and differences between the strategies above mentioned it is hoped that
program evaluators of distance education can be more effective in their application of multiple evaluation
strategies .
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
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Recommendations
In this study, it was determined that the objectives‐oriented and systems ‐based evaluation strategies
were highly suited to distance education programs. But, traditional, expertise‐oriented, humanistic and
academic evaluation strategies have potential weaknesses in the evaluation of distance education programs .
As above (in section of Introduction) mentioned , in current literature although there are some studies on
the program evaluation models in distance education, but there are only a few study on the program
evaluation strategies in distance education. The findings obtained in this study may be useful in the
exploration of potential research areas and identification of neglected areas in the field of distance education.
We think that the conclusions of our study is a set of new questions that can be used as ideas for further
research. So , in future , qualitative and / or quantitative researches should be realized on the suitabilities
and effectivenesses of the strategies of the objectives‐oriented and systems ‐based evaluation for distance
education programs.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF AUTHOR
Salih USUN, Ph.D. is professor in Department of Education Sciences , Faculty of
Education, Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Unıversity . He received his PhD degree from Ankara
University, Educational Technology programme. His research interests are educational
and instructional technology, individual instruction technologies, distance education,
computer assisted instruction, program development and evaluation. He is a member of
various national and international referee committes, syposiums, congress and other
scientific assembles. He has many books,papers and articles on the subjects of
educational and instructional technology, distance education,computer assisted instruction and program
development and evaluation.
Prof. Dr. Salih USUN
Education Sciences Department
Faculty of Education
Mugla Sıtkı Kocman University
Mugla‐ TURKEY
E. Mail: susun@mu.edu.tr
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EFFECT OF UNIVERSITY’S WEB PAGES TO STUDENTS IN PREFERENCE PERIOD
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa COŞAR
Hitit University
Çorum- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Preferences of students taking university entrance preparation is known to affect multiple factors. Among the
most important ones; want to see the city and university student education, family orientation, tutoring and
guidance teachers redirects, close to the joint decision of friends, standings and finally the university may be
able to introduce themselves criteria. The decisions of the students to increasing the number of universities in
preferred period since the 2000's has captured quite. In this case, students and parents have been making
universities are researching gather broad information about them. Web pages of universities that are highly
effective in influencing the availability of this information gathering phase and preferences is of utmost
importance.
In this study, students who choose the University of Hitit, were tried to be determined the level of receiving
information from the web page. First, during the preference period, the web page's clicked reports was taken.
Then, some information collected with survey the students. This information has been interpreted and
evaluated with the help of statistical analysis. This study as a decision support system can help students and
universities.
Keywords: Web design, High education, Preference, Google analytics, Decision support system.
INSTRUCTION
Today, individuals from many sources the decision phase is fast, secure and free can collect information. The
development of the technology along with the most used among these resources is the internet. University
candidates who started using the internet especially at an early age, it is believed that they use the internet
during the preference period in an active way. In this process, institutions, determining how they affect these
environments when making decisions about the future of this candidates, this environment should make it
more convenient and investments should be made in this direction. Determining the level of these effects may
help students make the right choices. As a result, they can increase their success at the university.
In 2015, a total of 1,239,800 students, including transition without examination, made preference (url_1).
3673 student has earned Hittite University. As the school year 2015-2016 begins in Turkey, the numbers of the
university, which reached 193 (Url_2), It is known that they have serious competition about filling their quota.
This competition is a rational, research-based, and requires you to create your promotional strategies right. In
addition, this strategy should not be forgotten when determining the factors of the quality of university
education, academic and physical infrastructure facilities, housing, social facilities, where the University is
located, the count will be correct. Universities, needs accurate data and sound analysis about the candidates
to introduce yourself correctly.
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Universities, especially in recent years attaches great importance to promotional activities. In this context;
 The promotion of participation between provinces and even international education fairs.
 at the beginning of the preference period, written and oral ads,
 in most environments, such as transport vehicles, banners and publish
 Promotional activities for high schools.
These events require quite large resources, such as, time, money and human resources. However, institutions
out of pop-ups on your web pages although it does not replace them very effective and low cost promotional
tool.
In this study, during the preference period, winning university new students make a decision in order to
determine which of the promotional tools that are just how impressed they have been made.
PREFERENCE PROCESS
Each year, the months of June and July are very important months for the university to the candidates.
Because thousands of students are about to make decisions about their professional lives. Therefore, each
student collects information from as many sources as possible.
The increase in the number of universities that does not matter whether private or state university, are
brought advertising and competition. These efforts are beneficial to the students. At the same time, is
messing with their heads too. In 2015, the number of universities in Turkey, research and teaching continuing
activities, is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Number of Universities and the State-Private Status
University
Count
State
109
Private
76
Private Vocational School
8
Total
193
As seen in Table 1, in total, there are 193 universities in Turkey (url_2). The majority of them has been
established in recent years. Their names, which they were in town, they are better known areas and facilities
are not known exactly. A process with so many unknowns, makes it difficult to be managed by students and
their parents. Many parents wants to study their students at a university where is near their living, but it is
believed that the students did not attach much importance to it.
Preferability factors effect of a University can be listed as follows:
 The instructor team,
 Teaching and research activities,
 Physical infrastructure,
 International activities,
 Socio-cultural contributions offered to students,
 The structure of the city and region,
 The preferred percentage.
METHODOLOGY
In this study, in the 2015-2016 academic year, first-year students of Hitit University Engineering Faculty,
carried out a survey in order to reveal what the factors in choosing this University. The survey consists of 15
questions. The first section of the questionnaire is individual questions. There are questions about the process
of preference in the second section.
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A total of 211 students participated in this survey. According to students' gender and department the
distribution are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: According to students' gender and department
Gender
Departments
Woman
Food Engineering
37
Chemical Engineering
23
Mechanical Engineering
19
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
6
Total
85
Man
11
16
69
30
126
Student Number
48
39
88
36
211
After the application of the survey, University web page visitors clicked on the preference of the period in the
date range taken from Google Analytics reports to gather information on the spatial has been studied. Assume
that this is of clicks performed by the students. The collected data are digitized in a computer environment,
and then statistical analysis has been interpreted and evaluated with the help of.
FINDINGS
Reports of the web page visitors
The clicks information of the Hitit University's web page were taken from Google Analytics (GA, 2015). Which
city and how many clicks it is seen that from this report. An example of the report shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Cities are making the most clicks to the web page
Visitor information from Google Analytics and from the Registrar's office (OIDB, 2015) with a list of students
who according to the city preferred are summarized in figure 2.
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According to the City, Web Page
Number of Visitors
1
ÇORUM
15.901
2
ANKARA
5.427
3
İSTANBUL
3.234
4
SAMSUN
1.483
5
KAYSERİ
880
6
İZMİR
605
7
ADANA
494
8
AMASYA
436
9
KONYA
379
10 BURSA
369
11 ANTALYA
278
12 DİYARBAKIR
273
13 ORDU
259
14 TOKAT
246
15 MERSİN
243
According to the City, The Number of
those Who Prefer to Hitit University
1
ÇORUM
1105
2
ANKARA
481
3
SAMSUN
219
4
İSTANBUL
196
5
AMASYA
125
6
TOKAT
88
7
YOZGAT
74
8
KAYSERİ
63
9
ORDU
62
10 KONYA
60
11 KOCAELİ
52
12 KIRIKKALE
47
13 ADANA
43
14 BURSA
39
15 GAZİANTEP
33
Figure2: Web page visitors and who prefer to Hitit University
As shown in Figure 2, 2015 preference during the period, in the first part a list of the cities where most of the
visitors to web page is located. In the second part, new students were determined to live in what city. Then
two information were compared. As a result, the visitor data of the web page and preferred to be
approximately 75% of it has been seen that by are overlapping. In the first part, it does not seem in the
preferred of the cities written in red. In contrast, although the number of visitors from the cities written in red,
there has been a lot the number of students who preferred.
Student Opinions
2014-2015 academic year University students who are studying in the Faculty of Engineering accepted the
Hittite prefer of the questions that were prepared to determine trends made over the results from the
application of a questionnaire are given in the following table.
Table 3: Where were you heard the name of University firstly?
Reference
Number
Preferred guide
100
Internet
41
The University promotional materials
7
Written and visual media
3
Preferred robots
9
Courses
16
School teachers
3
Friends
21
Friends at University
17
Graduating from Hitit
12
Educations fairs
5
Other ………………………………….
18
Total
252
Rate
39.68
16.27
2.78
1.19
3.57
6.35
1.19
8.33
6.75
4.76
1.98
7.14
100
According to the table above, the majority of students, university's name said that firstly they heard from
preferred guide and internet. Although the number of students who said that heard from the internet are not
very high, it is seen that the second highest number.
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Table 4: Decision time to University
Decision Time
During my high school education
Before taking the exam
After the results of the examination were announced
During the preference period
Total
Number
5
19
47
136
207
Rate
2.42
9.18
22.71
65.70
100
According to Table 4, 65% of students say that the university decided to give preference period. Therefore, it
can be said that students have decided quickly in less time. In the elections of research resources, while this
decision is thought to be in the same direction. In line with this, it can be concluded that the internet can come
to the forefront.
Table 5: Which sources have been used to gather information about University?
Reference
Number
Visited the University
10
Received information by phones
29
Received information from course guidance service
33
Received information from school guidance service
9
Searched on Internet
112
Received information from the University web page
61
I received information from educational fairs
17
any where
29
Other ……..………………………………….
13
Total
313
Rate
3.19
9.27
10.54
2.88
35.78
19.49
5.43
9.27
4.15
100
As seen in Table 5, the largest number of students in gathering information source is the Internet. It is
observed that 36% of students prefer the internet. On the other hand about 20% the proportion of students
were told the information from the web page. When considered as a common source of the two technologies.
It reveals that more than half of the students chose this method.
CONCLUSION
According to the information that is collected from the students has an important place, it is observed that the
preferred phase of web pages. The vast majority of students are using internet for search. In addition, the web
page according to the report, 75% effective was observed. According to this result, it is believed that the
University should give more importance to web pages.
Research, performed on different faculties and departments, different results can be obtained. Thus, both
students and University administrators support information can be provided.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 05 ISSN 1309-6249
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESS OF THE AUTHOR
Dr. Mustafa COŞAR is an assistant professor at Computer Engineering Department of
Engineering Faculty, University of Hitit, Çorum, Turkey. He got his master degree in
Computer Education and Instructional Technology in Education on (Distance Education)
from Gazi University, Institution of Educational Sciences. And he got his PhD in Computer
Education and Instructional Technology from Gazi University. He has published a few
research papers in Journals and also presented more than 29 research papers in various
National and International Conference/Seminar/Workshops.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa COŞAR
Hitit University
Computer Engineering Department of Engineering Faculty
19030 Çorum- TURKEY
URL: http://web.hitit.edu.tr/mustafacosar
E. Mail: mustafacosar@hitit.edu.tr
REFERENCES
GA., (2015), Google Analytics, 2015 Clicked on a Web Page Report.
OIDB, (2015), Hitit Üniversitesini Kazanan Öğrenci Profili, Hitit Üniversitesi Öğrenci İşleri Daire Başkanlığı,
Url_1: http://www.osym.gov.tr/belge/1-20574/2014-osys-basvuran-aday-sayisi-adaylarin-basvuru-bilgil-.html
Url_2: https://istatistik.yok.gov.tr/
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL MEDIA USAGE FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING PURPOSES
Prof. Dr. İbrahim AKMAN
Atılım University
Department of Computer Engineering
Ankara- TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Çiğdem TURHAN
Atılım University
Department of Computer Engineering
Ankara- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
In this study, adoption of Social Media for learning and teaching purposes (SL/T) has been analyzed based on a
conceptual research model. Factors included in this study have been categorized under two empirical factors,
namely, socio-demographic and utilitarian. A survey approach has been adopted for this purpose and the least
square regression techniques is used to investigate the relationships among the variables included in the
research model. The test results indicate that, except perceived awareness (PAW), all the remaining factors
have significant effect on the actual usage of SL/T.
Keywords: Social media, learning, teaching, socio-demographic, utilitarian, regression.
INTRODUCTION
Social media has made a significant impact on different aspects of society over the past few decades especially
in the way people communicate and share information. Through video sharing sites, wikis, forums, etc., social
networking sites (SNS) provide an active, free and open platform for teaching and learning to any interested
user regardless of their socio-demographic characteristics such as age or gender (Huang, Hood, & Yoo, 2013;
Osatuyi, 2013). Furthermore, this platform provides the perfect medium for personalized informal learning in
the domains that the user is interested in, and increases the motivation to continue the learning process.(Bull
et al., 2008).
Yet, differences exist on SNS utilization in terms of users’ sociodemographic attributes as well as their attitudes
and behaviour towards social media platforms. For example, even though no major differences exist between
different genders in the Internet usage, women prefer to use social media more whereas men prefer to use
other Internet sources in larger numbers (Kim, Sin, & Tsai, 2014). Furthermore, in their study, Malesky and
Peters (2012) show that significant disagreement exists between the faculty and students of higher-education
instututions regarding their interaction on SNSs, largely dependent on their beliefs and attitudes.
Even though there have been numerous research on the usage of social media, there have been only a few
studies on the acceptance of social media tools in teaching and learning (Echeng & Usoro, 2014). In his
research, Tess (2013) concludes that most of the previous studies have concentrated on the effectiveness of
social media, but that there should be more empirical studies on this domain. In consequence, this study aims
to empirically investigate the adoption of social media for learning and teaching from different sociodemographic viewpoints and perceptions. Age, gender and position constitute the socio-demographic
perspectives, whereas the perceived ease of use, usefulness, social pressure and awareness are included in the
utilitarian empirical category.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
The results of the study can provide feedback to the SNS providers in developing new social media platforms
and to educators in incorporating social media into their formal learning environments The remainder of the
paper is organized as follows. The next section explains the hypotheses development in terms of the sociodemographic and utilitarian categories followed by the research method. Then, the descriptive and test
results are explained followed by the conclusion.
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
The present study was performed among academics and students from higher education institutions to
investigate the impact of decision (independent) variables regarding the adoption of social media for learning
and teaching purposes (SL/T). The decision variables are grouped under two empirical categories namely,
socio-demographic and utilitarian (Figure 1). The empirical group, socio-demographic, contains gender, age
and position, whereas perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, perceived social pressure and perceived
awareness constitute the utilitarian group. The justification of the factors in the analysis and their
corresponding hypotheses are provided below.
Socio-demographic
gender
age
H1
position
Actual SL/T usage
Utilitarian
PEU
H2
PU
PSP
PAW
Figure 1: Research Model
Socio-demographic
The role of the Internet has been increasing in the daily life of many people around the globe and the studies
on the Internet widely use individuals’ socio-demographic characteristics in explaining the nature of usage. For
example, in an earlier study, Taylor, Zhu, Dekkers and Marshall (2003) reported that Internet usage pattern
may have different dispersions for different gender groups. According to Kalmus, Realo and Siibak (2011) age,
experience, education level are the significant predictors of adoption of social media. On the other hand, the
nature of Internet has changed drastically with the rising popularity of social media especially during the last
decade. This phenomena has attracted the attention of higher education institutions. More specifically, Calisir,
Atahan and Saracoglu (2013) pointed that differences may be significantly explained by the demographic
characteristics for the adoption of Social Network Sites (SNS). This means demographic characteristics should
be taken into account, as the nature and consequences of SNS usage could be potentially different for
different demographic groups. However, the SNS trend is a relatively new one and little research has been
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
reported on its acceptance and use in education . Furthermore, available literature generally recognizes the
obstacles and challenges for using SL/T (Elases et al., 2016) but does not pay much attention on the sociodemographic differences in higher education. Therefore we propose the following hypotheses.
H11: Socio-demographic factor gender does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
H12: Socio-demographic factor age does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
H13: Socio-demographic factor position does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
Utilitarian
The measures perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness have been extensively used in research related
to acceptance of technoloy (Davis, 1989; Malhotra, Heine, & Grover, 2001). With regard to the ease of use and
usefulness technology dimensions, more autonomous users seem to find the social networking platform more
difficult to use (Lane & Coleman, 2012). According to Lane and Coleman (2012) one’s personal traits are
related to one’s perceptions of technology usefulness and ease of use, and ultimately how intensely the SN
platforms are used. This also seems to be logical for the usage os SN platforms for teaching and learning
purposes. Therefore we propose following hypotheses.
H21: The utilitarian factor Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T
(AU)
H22: The utilitarian factor Perceived Usefullness (PU) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T (AU)
Available empirical research has shown that awareness goes along with attitude and “positive attitude towards
ICT is widely recognized as a necessary condition for the effective implementation” (Lane & Coleman, 2012;
Woodrow, 1990). In their study, Michaelidou, Siamagka, and Christodoulides (2011) also support this view by
stating that awareness is the most prominent reason for adopting SNS, which justifies the increased
importance of awareness as a reason for using SNS for educational purposes. According to previous empirical
studies, SNS use behaviour tend to be motivated by various aspects of factors including social ones (Chin,
Evans, Choo, & Tan, 2015). Mazman and Usluel (2009) studied individuals’ usage purposes of social networks
with a focus on the possible differences between genders and reported subjective norms to be one of the
social factors having significant indirect influence on adoption of SNS. Furthermore, according to Theory of
Reasoned Action, humans are rational enough for their attitudes and subjective norm (i.e. social pressure)
affect their behavioral intention, which in turn results with a high correlation to actual behavior (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975). This implies, influence of subjective norm on usage of SNS is worth investigating. Against this
backdrop, the below hypotheses are proposed.
H23: The utilitarian factor Perceived Social Pressure (PSP) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T
(AU)
H24: The utilitarian factor Perceived Awareness (PAW) does not have any influence on Actual Usage of SL/T
(AU)
RESEARCH METHOD
This study uses a systematic analysis to investigate the impact of socio-demographic and utilitarian factors on
adoption of SL/T. A survey approach was adopted for this purpose and the data was obtained by means of a
questionnaire corresponding to the proposed hypotheses in the research model. A group of academics and
students were interviewed to finalize the questionnaire. The questionnaire contains 12 items (Table 1). Eight
of these items were grouped under 4 constructs. Each one of the four single items and four constructs reflects
a discrete variable. Table 1 gives these variables along with their definitions. All of the factors in the utilitarian
empirical group were measured by a 5 point Likert-type scale (Table 1). The sample was limited to groups of
academics and students from universities since these groups are believed to have higher concern on the issues
of usage of social media for educational purposes. A total of 142 completed survey questionnaires were
obtained.
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 1: Summary of Research Questions and Constructs/Variables
Construct/
Item
Variable
Gender
What is your gender? (Male, female)
Age
What is your age (years)? (21- 30, 31-40, 41-50, >50, 61 or more)
Position
What is your position at the university? (academic, student)
Do you think that it is easy for you to use SNS for your learning/teaching activities?
Perceived Ease
Do you think that you never face problems in using SNS for your learning/teaching
of Use (PEU)
activities?
Do you think that using SL/T improves your work?
Perceived
Usefulness (PU) Do you think that using SL/T meets your requirements?
Do you think most people who are important to you expect you to use SNS for your
Perceived Social learning/teaching activities?
Pressure (PSP)
Do you think most people who are important to you use SNS for their learning/teaching
activities?
Perceived
Do you think you are familiar with using social media for learning/teaching?
AWareness
Do you think you are familiar with using social media?
(PAW)
Actual
Usage
Do you currently use SNS for learning/teaching purposes?
(AU)
The independent variables were categorized into two empirical factors: (i) socio-demographic (gender, age,
position); and (ii) utilitarian (Perceived Ease of Use (PEU), Perceived Usefulness (PU), Perceived Social Pressure
(PSP), Perceived Awareness (PAW)). Fig. 1 demonstrates the model for research.
Least square regression technique was utilized to predict and explain the relationships between the dependent
and independent variables.
Descriptive Results
Table 2: Profile of Respondents
Variable-description
Academics (N=57)
N
Percent. Mean
Gender
100.0
0.056
1=male
44 77.1
2=female
13 22.9
Age
100.0
0.127
1= <31
6
10.5
2= 31-40
19 33.3
3= 41-50
21 36.9
4= >50
11 19.3
Actual use of SL/T
100.0
0.187
1=str. disagree
16 18.1
2=disagree
12 21.1
3=average
12 21.1
4=agree
10 17.5
5=str. agree
7
12.2
SD
0.423
0.957
1.410
Students (N=85)
N
Percent.
100.0
55
64.7
30
35.3
100.0
74
87.1
7
8.2
3
3.5
1
1.2
100.0
10
11.8
14
16.5
20
23.5
19
22.3
22
25.9
Mean
0.052
SD
0.481
0.625
0.068
0.145
1.341
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
The number of male respondents appears to be slightly more (69.8%) in this study. Almost half (49.5%) of the
male respondents were observed to be below 31 years of age and those between 31-40 and 41-50 years of age
constitute 20.2% and 19.2% respectively. For female respondents these percentages were observed to be 72.1,
14.0, and 11.6. The distribution of gender shows similar nature for academics and students. However, as
expected, the dispersion of age is diverse for academics and students. Interestingly, a close inspection of data
showed that female usage of social media sites for educational purposes is more than the males. The
percentage of males using SL/T more than average is 32.3%, whereas this percentage is higher for females
(54.8%) and chi-square test results showed that this distribution is significant (Chi-Square = 9.535; DF = 4; PValue = 0.049) in terms of gender. However, chi-square test results do not show a significant relationship (ChiSquare = 4.870; DF = 4; P-Value = 0.301) for the dispersion of academics’ and students’ SL/T usage.
Test Results
The proposed hypotheses were tested using the linear least square regression modeling approach and the
results are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Test Results
Emp. Factor
Hyp.
Test results
Coeff.
p-val
H11
0.495
0.048*
AU
AU
H12
H13
-0.368
0.039
0.002*
0.000*
AU
AU
AU
AU
H21
H22
H23
H24
0.145
0.244
0.144
0.074
0.010*
0.000*
0.007*
0.096
Indep.
var/const.
Dep..
Var.
Gender
AU
Age
Position
*
Socio_Demographics
Utilitarian
PEU
PU
PSP
PAW
* indicate statistically significant at 5%.
Socio-Demographic: The tests results for this empirical category are as follows:
 Interestingly, the regression results (Table 3) reveal significance for the variable “gender” (coeff= 0.495, pvalue=0.048) and hence H11 is rejected. This means, there is significant difference between males and
females regarding the actual usage of social media sites for learning and teaching purposes in higher
education. Considering positive coefficient for the variable gender, this interestingly means, females
intend to use SNS more for educational purposes in higher education.
 As expected, examining p-values in Table 3 shows that the significance for the variable “age” is of similar
nature to gender (coeff= -0.368, p-value=0.002). In other words, there is significant age diversity for
“Actual Usage” of social media towards teaching and learning, and therefore H12 is rejected. This means
different age groups have different views regarding the adoption of social media for educational
purposes. It is important to note here that the younger respondents have more tendencies to use SL/T
since the coefficient was observed to be negative.
 Surprisingly, inspection of Table 3 shows rejection of H13 because we observe strong significance for the
variable “position” (coeff= 0.039, p-value=0.000). In other words, academics and students have different
attitudes towards using SNS for learning and teaching. This can also be interpreted as, based on the
positive coefficient found for “position”, students show more tendency to adopt social media for learning
and teaching purposes in higher education institutions.
Utilitarian: The tests results for utilitarian empirical category are given below.
 Interestingly, the regression results (Table 3) reveal significance for the variable “PEU” (coeff=0.145, pvalue=0.010) and hence H21 is rejected. This means, there is significant difference in perceptions of users
towards easiness regarding the actual usage of social media sites for learning and teaching purposes in
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249



higher education. Considering the positive coefficient for the variable PEU, this interestingly means that
the respondents, who find it easier, intend to use SNS more for educational purposes in higher education
institutions.
As expected, examining p-values in Table 3 shows that the significance for the variable “PU” is of similar
nature to PEU (coeff=0.244, p-value=0.000). In other words, there is significant diversity among the
respondents who find usage of SNS to be useful or not useful for teaching and learning purposes, and
therefore H22 is rejected. This can also be interpreted as perception of usefulness regarding SL/T has
significant influence on its usage. It is important to note here that the respondents, who find using SNS
easier show more intention for its adoption for educational purposes in higher education institutions since
the coefficient was observed to be positive.
Surprisingly, inspection of Table 3 also shows rejection of H23 because we observe strong significance for
the variable “PSP” (coeff=0.144, p-value=0.007). Therefore we reject H23. In other words, perceived social
pressure has significant positive influence on using SNS for learning and teaching. The more respondents
feel social pressure the more tendency they show for using SL/T. This can also be interpreted as, based on
positive coefficient found for “position”, academicians and students perception about others’ views has
significant importance regarding the adoption of social media for learning and teaching purposes in higher
education institutions.
The only utilitarian variable, which does not have a significant impact on the adoption of social media sites
for learning and teaching purposes in higher education institutions is “PAW” (coeff=0.074, p-value=0.096).
This means test results supports the corresponding hypothesis and therefore we accept H24. In other
words, the level of awareness regarding the usage of SNS for educational purposes does not influence its
adoption.
CONCLUSION
This study uses a systematic analysis to investigate the impact of socio-demographic and utilitarian factors on
the adoption of SL/T. The analyses show that all the socio-demographic factors (i.e. gender, age and position)
considered in the analysis were found to have significant influence on the users behavior in adopting social
media sites for learning and teaching purposes in higher education institutions. Test results also indicate that
except for perceived awareness, all the remaining factors (i.e. perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness and
perceived social pressure) in the utilitarian category were found to have significant influence on the adoption
of SNS for learning and teaching purposes in higher education institutions.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Ibrahim AKMAN has graduated from Dept. of Mathematics, METU in 1976. Later, he
received his Master’s degree (METU-Dept. of Statistics) in 1981 and Ph.D degree
(Lancaster University-Operations Research) in 1983 with NATO scholarship. After working
in the Dept. of Computer Engineering, METU during 1986-2002, Prof. Akman has joined
Dept. of Computer Engineering, Atilim University. Presently, he is serving as the chairman
of the department. Prof. Akman has authored over 90 publications in
national/international journals, conferences, as well as a number of text books.
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim AKMAN
Atilim University
Department of Computer Engineering
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: ibrahim.akman@atilim.edu.tr
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 06 ISSN 1309-6249
Çigdem TURHAN, is currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Software Engineering, Atilim University, Ankara, Turkey. She has a Ph.D degree in
Computer Engineering from the Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey. She is
the author of a number text books in the area of programming. Her research interests
include natural language processing, machine translation, semantic web technologies and
engineering education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Cigdem TURHAN
Department of Software Engineering
Atilim University
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: cigdem.turhan@atilim.edu.tr
REFERENCES
Bull, G., Thompson, A., Searson, M., Garofalo, J., Park, J., Young, C., & Lee, J. (2008). Connecting Informal and
Formal Learning Experiences in the Age of Participatory Media. Comtemporary Issues in Technology and
Teacher Education, 8(2), 100-107.
Calisir, F. Atahan, L., & Saracoglu, M. (2013). Factors Affecting Social Network Sites Usage on Smartphones of
Students in Turkey. Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering and Computer Science, 23-25 October,
2013, San Francisco, USA.
Chin, C. P.-Y., Evans, N., Choo, R. K.-K., & Tan, F. B. (2015). What Influences Employees to Use Enterprise Social
Networks? A Socio-Technical Perspective. PACIS 2015 Proceedings, Paper 54.
Davis, F.D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and user acceptance of information technology.
MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319-340.
Echeng R. & Usoro A (2014). Acceptance factors and current level of use of Web 2.0 technologies for learning
in higher education: A case study of two countries. International Journal of Advanced Computer Science and
Applications 5(5), 9-14.
Elkaseh, A. M., Wong, K. W. and Fung, C. C. (2016). Perceived Ease of Use and Perceived Usefulness of Social
Media for e-Learning in Libyan Higher Education: A Structural Equation Modeling Analysis. International
Journal of Information and Education Technology, 6(3), 192-199.
Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and
Research. Addison-Wesley.
Huang W-HD, Hood DW, & Yoo SJ (2013). Gender divide and acceptance of collaborative Web 2.0 applications
for learning in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 16, 57–65.
Kalmus, V. Realo, A. & Siibak, A. (2011). Motives for internet use and their relationships with personality traits
and socio-demographic factors. Trames, 15(65/60), 4, 385–403.
Kim K-S, Sin S-CJ, & Tsai T-I (2014). Individual differences in social media use for information seeking. The
Journal of Academic Librarianship, 40, 171–178.
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Lane, M. & Coleman, P. (2012). Technology ease of use through social networking media.
Technology Research, 3, 1-12.
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Malesky Jr., L.A. & Peters, C. (2012). Defining appropriate professional behavior for facultyand university
students on social networking websites. Higher Education, 63, 135-151.
Malhotra, M, Heine, M. & Grover, V. (2001). An evaluation of the relationship between management practices
and computer aided design technology. Journal of Operations Management, 19(3), 307-333.
Mazman, S.G. & Usluel, Y.K. (2009). The usage of social networks in educational context. International Journal
of Behavioral, Cognitive, Educational and Psychological Sciences, 1(4), 224-228.
Michaelidou, N., Siamagka, N. –T. & Christodoulides, G. (2011). Usage, barriers and measurement of social
media marketing: an exploratory investigation of small and medium B2B brands. Industrial Marketing
Management, 40 (7), 1153-1159.
Osatuyi B (2013). Information sharing on social media sites. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 2622–2631
Taylor, W.J., Zhu, G.X., Dekkers, J., & Marshall, S., (2003). Socioeconomic factors affecting home internet usage
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Copyright © International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications / www.ijonte.org
International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
THE EFFECTS OF STUDENT-CONTENT INTERACTION
ON ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN DISTANCE-LEARNING COURSES
Dr. Neslihan Fatma ER
İstanbul Kültür University
UZEMER
Istanbul- Turkey
neslihanfatmaer@gmail.com
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ER
Turkish Air Force Academy
Department of Foreign Languages
Istanbul- TURKEY
m.er@hho.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
Information technology is a widely used tool to facilitate teaching and learning activities in tertiary education.
Distance learning courses designed and delivered via information technologies present opportunities to
students with difficulties in enrolling and attending courses in higher education. Students enrolled in these
courses are expected to participate in the technology supported learning environments and interact with the
content presented through distance education technologies. This study is designed to elaborate on the factors
that have effect on student success in two undergraduate courses taught through distance education
technologies. Participants of this study are 124 freshman students. The aim of this study is to investigate the
effects of student-content interaction on academic performance via a detailed analysis of data retrieved from
the distance learning environment. This study will also shed light on the relationship between gender
differences and success levels in distance education courses with respect to participation performance.
Keywords: Distance learning, academic performance, student-content interaction.
INTRODUCTION
Though for centuries learning and teaching activities have been carried out in face-to-face format, beginning
from the second half of the 20th century peoples’ needs changed and the demands of the new era entailed
flexibility and diversity in educational practices. By the help of educational technologies, educators ensured
flexible and diverse instructional designs and the number of educators using internet and multimedia contents
increased to a great extent (Menchaca & Bekele, 2008). In the new era, educators in traditional universities
presented distance education programs to those who are hardly able to attend regular programs. However, as
the teaching has been practiced in the presence of both the teacher and students for centuries, distance
education programs are considered as something odd. Advocates of traditional education programs claimed
that a person can only acquire and assimilate knowledge by human to human interaction and discussion
(Garrison, 1993). Hence, educators practicing distance education have tried to increase the quality of the
teaching materials and systems in order to prove the effectiveness of those programs.
Moore & Kearsley (2005) states that success of distance education programs depends on the extent to which
the learners are provided with appropriate structure and the appropriate quantity and quality of interaction
between instructor and learner. Furthermore, structure and interaction are the two most critical factors in the
success of distance learning and they are much more important than the learners’ characteristics and course
delivery format (Stein et al., 2005). Noting those facts, educators’ main concern has been overcoming so called
distance defect via more interactive instructional designs created through well use of computer and web
technology. Those educators’ efforts ended in well structured distance education programs using qualitatively
excellent teaching materials.
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
Since distance learners, facing a new learning environment that entails self-management of learning,
independent learning skills and the ability to engage in activities, sufficient amount of learning interactions and
support are essential in distance education (McLoughlin & Marshall,2000:1). Researchers reported that high
quality and levels of interaction are closely linked with academic achievement (Jung et al., 2002; Picciano,
2002). Since it is of vital importance in distance education, educators tried to figure out the nature of
interaction and Moore (1989) identified three-dimensions of interaction as either learner to content, learner
to instructor, or learner to learner. Moore (1989) also states that the learner’s intellectual interaction with
content leads to changes in the learner’s understanding, perspective and the cognitive structure of the
learner’s mind. Learner-content interaction is directly related to the time spent with course content including
textbooks, PowerPoint, web pages, and discussion forums (Su, Bonk, Magjuka, Liu, & Lee, 2005). The quality of
distance learning programs basically depends on the level of interactivity (Dzakiria, 2005). Vrasida (2000) notes
that all education is based on learner-content interaction which is the most important form of interaction.
Furthermore, Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2005) consider interaction as central to the educational experience
and they claim it should be primary focus in the study of learning outcomes in online classes. The focal point of
this study will be learner to content interaction and its effects on academic achievement in a distance
education program carried out in tertiary education.
DISTANCE LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND SYSTEM INFRASTRUCTURE
In the selected higher education institution, undergraduate and graduate programs are carried out on a
platform called Computer Aided Training & Educational Services (CATS) which is a kind of Learning
Management System (LMS). CATS, being a part of SAKAI open source project, has been developed in that
institution in accordance with the institutional needs. CATS is already used by 994 instructors and 12,612
students so that average number of entries per month is 155,000 and the average number of unique user
entry to the system is 9500 per month.
CATS, as a technology based learning platform, including a number of tools employing educational technology
in line with contemporary learning approaches supports distance education practices of the institution. CATS
tools can be grouped under three main headings which are Content Management, Collaboration and
Assessment. The tools and their functions are as follows:
Content Management
SYLLABUS: It is for posting a summary outline and/or requirements for the course.
Figure 1: Main Page of the Course
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
RESOURCES: It is for posting all digital course documents in any file format, or sharing some related URLs,
independent of time and place.
Figure 2: Resouces of the Course Arranged in Weeks
DROPBOX: It enables the instructor and students sharing specific documents, so students can take documents
from the instructor based on their needs. Since students can upload files via this tool, instructors can also use
this tool for monitoring student progress.
LESSONS: It enables the instructor to create learning scenarios by developing content modules for desired
periods or even for the whole course.
WIKI: It enables the instructor and students to create the web page contents of the course via collaborative
creation.
WEBPAGE: Web pages that could be a resource for the course can be accessed directly from the platform via
this tool.
EXTERNAL TOOLS: It provides to run the external learning tools improved in Information Management
Standards (IMS), on the course website.
Collaboration
CALENDAR: All activities of the course can be planned via this tool.
MESSAGES: It allows all participants of the course to communicate.
FORUM: All participants of the course are enabled to discuss various topics under the opened titles. This tool
creates a cooperative learning environment.
APPOINTMENT: For the face to face interaction with the instructor, students are able to get an appointment
via this tool.
ANNOUNCEMENTS: This tool is used for posting current and time-critical information.
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Figure 3: Chat Room Tool Screenshot
CHAT ROOM: It is instant messaging tool for real time conversation in written form.
VIRTUAL CLASSROOM: It is a tool which gives an opportunity to the participants to meet in the same virtual
environment, sharing documents,
whiteboard and desktop. Virtual classroom is Adobe Connect
Videoconferencing service integrated with CATS.
Assessment
GRADEBOOK: The grades of the all tests and quizzes taken on the system are stored automatically in this
module. It also allows the instructor to key in the grades manually, so the final grade of each student can be
calculated with different weights of each grade.
TESTS & QUIZZES: Online tests and surveys with different types of questions and scenarios can be created via
this tool.
ASSIGNMENT: This tool is used for the creation, forwarding and evaluation of online assignments.
Figure 4: Tests and Quizzes Tool Screenshot
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
PLAGIARISM REPORTING: CATS platform has an integration with Turnitin plagiarism reporting services, so the
uploaded assignments are scanned through different scientific databases and detailed plagiarism report is
constructed to contribute to the evaluation of the assignment.
SITE STATISTICS: Records of each activity of the users of all courses are kept via this tool on CATS platform.
Using the above mentioned components, online courses are carried out via digital documents. Resources in
pdf file format including audio and/or video content, prepared by using Adobe Presenter program and
documents in any file format are uploaded to the resources of the course in the CATS. Also URL of some
related web pages can be uploaded as a resource. All the resources are organized in folders named by the
belonging week number, according to the syllabus released on the site. Student can access to the content
week by week. Student can contact with their instructors directly via messages or e-mail tools. Instructors are
present in the Chat Room for real-time conversations according to the timetable on the home page of the
course. Additionally students can get an appointment via Appointments tool for the face to face meetings with
the instructor. Participating the Virtual Classes are held twice per week according to the program announced
from the homepage of the course. The midterm exam is taken online and it is prepared by the instructor on
the CATS. For that purpose, question pools are constructed as a first step and the exam is created from the
pools belonging to the each chapter randomly.
Participants
The subjects participated in this study were 66 male and 59 female students enrolled in distance education
courses in a four year higher education institution. They were all freshman students from the departments of
economics, business administration, international trade, law, architecture, civil engineering, industrial
engineering, computer engineering and electronics engineering, taking two compulsory distance education
courses.
Data Collection And Analysis
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of student-content interaction on academic
performance via a detailed analysis of data retrieved from the distance learning environment. This study also
aimed at discovering the relationship between gender differences and success levels in distance education
courses with respect to participation performance. Data of the research is derived from CATS platform. The
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the purpose of data entry, manipulation, and
analysis. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were used to describe the study sample.
Assessment of the normality of the data is done via Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Comparison
of means was done using t-test. The level of significance selected for this study was p< 0.05 level.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The research hypotheses of this study and the findings related to these hypotheses are as follows. The first
research hypothesis of this study is stated as, “There is a correlation between learner-content interaction and
students’ achievement levels”. Findings related to this hypothesis are presented below.
Table 1: Interaction and Achievement Mean Scores of the Group
Mean
Std. Deviation
Interaction
17.4080
8.94796
Achievement
81.5600
15.86760
N
125
125
The total number of participants of the study is 125. Interaction and achievement mean scores of the whole
group are presented in Table 1. The normality of the data was assessed by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and ShapiroWilk tests. The results of those tests are presented in Table 2.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 2: Results of by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-WilkTests
Kolmogorov-Smirnov(a)
Statistic
df
Sig.
Interaction
.214
125
.000
Achievement
.173
125
.000
** a LillieforsSignificanceCorrection
Statistic
.775
.899
Shapiro-Wilk
df
125
125
Sig.
.000
.000
First of all, using SPSS normality of the data was checked by Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests.
According to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (p-value: 0,000) and Shapiro-Wilk (p-value: 0,000) test results, neither
the interaction data nor the achievement data is normally distributed. Since the data was not normally
distributed, in order to find out the correlation coefficient between learner-content interaction and students’
achievement levels Spearman correlation coefficient was calculated. Correlation coefficents between the two
variables are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Correlation Coefficents Between the Variables Interaction and Achievement
Interaction
Spearman's rho
Interaction
Correlation Coefficient
1,000
Sig. (2-tailed)
.
N
125
Achievement
Correlation Coefficient
.250(**)
Sig. (2-tailed)
.005
N
125
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Achievement
.250(**)
.005
125
1.000
.
125
Analyzing the Spearman correlation coefficients, it is found that there is a positive and statistically significant
relationship (p-value: 0,005) between the learner-content interaction and students’ achievement levels. But
this relationship is weak (Spearman correlation coefficient: 0,25)
The second research hypothesis of this study is stated as, “There is a no statistically significant difference
between male and female students in their learner-content interaction and achievement levels”. Findings
related to this hypothesis are as follows. Means of learner-content interaction and achievement levels for both
female and male students are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Means of Learner-Content İnteraction and Achievement Levels for Both Genders
Gender
Interaction
Achievement
N
Female
Male
Female
Male
59
66
59
66
Mean
17.1695
17.6212
83.5593
79.7727
Std. Deviation
8.73588
9.19492
14.62316
16.81190
Std. Error Mean
1.13731
1.13182
1.90377
2.06940
According to Table 4, male and female students’ learner-content interaction rates (the former: 17.16 and the
latter: 17.62) are almost the same. Comparing the achievement means of the male and female students, it is
also found that there is no great difference between the two groups.
In order to find out whether there is a statistically significant difference between the interaction and
achievement means of the male and female students, t-test applied. T-test results, presented in Table 5,
showed that for both variables i.e. interaction and achievement there is no statistically significant difference
(Achievement p-value: 0.18; interaction p-value: 0.77) between the two groups.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 5: T-test Results for Interaction and Achievement
Levene's
Test for
Equality of
Variances
F
Achievement Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances not
assumed
Interaction
Equal
variances
assumed
Equal
variances not
assumed
.854
.774
Sig.
t-test for Equality of Means
t
Sig.
(2tailed)
df
Mean
Std. Error
Difference Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Lower
Upper
.357 1.336
123
.184
3.78659
2.83398
-1.82310
9.39629
1.347
122.915
.181
3.78659
2.81190
-1.77943
9.35262
.381 -.281
123
.779
-.45172
1.60916
-3.63696
2.73352
-.282
122.531
.779
-.45172
1.60452
-3.62790
2.72446
Interaction is an essential element in education and it is of the seven principles of good practice in schools
(Chickering & Gamson,1987). Pointing out the importance of learner-content interaction, Tuovinen (2000)
asserts the critical importance of learner-content interaction and states that it leads to student learning. The
findings of this study also shows that there is a positive and statistically significant relationship between the
learner-content interaction and achievement means of the students. Though the relationship is statistically
significant, it is also found that this relationship is weak. The mean score of learner-content interaction for the
whole group is quite low. The importance of interaction in distance education is evident. But in order to realize
the acknowledged effect of interaction on learning, the number of interactions should be sufficient enough to
create the expected effect on learning. It is mostly probable that the participants of this study having spent 12
years in traditional teacher centered and controlled classrooms lacked the motives to engage in self-learning
activities through interacting with the content presented via distance learning system. Traditional learners’
transition into becoming active learners in distance education programs is not an easy task (Saw et.al., 1999).
Another finding of this study is there is no statistically significant difference between the interaction and
achievement means of the male and female students. The similarity of interaction rates of both male and
female students points out the fact that both group of students are equally affected by the teacher-centered
education and their concept of learning is almost identically-the interaction mean scores of both male and
female students is 17- shaped by their previous learning experience.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Educators and students of the new age faced a new challenge of fulfilling the 21st century demands.
Overcoming this challenge basically depends on creating student-centered learning environments. Distance
learning settings are quite much more student-centered learning environments entailing students’ selfpropelled actions to acquire knowledge. It is a real challenge for graduates of conventional forms of education
to adapt the distance learning programs heavily based on learner to content, learner to instructor, or learner
to learner interaction. After spending years in teacher-centered classrooms and being exposed to one way teacher to learner- interaction, it is difficult for traditional learners to become active distance learners. Thus,
instructional designers and curriculum developers, employing the latest technologies to increase the
interactivity of the delivery systems, are supposed to take learner characteristics and needs into consideration
and the teachers are to assume new roles in order to increase the effectiveness of distance learning
environments. Both in traditional classrooms and distance learning settings, student learning depends
primarily on what the students do rather than what the teacher does. As the findings of this study also point
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 07 ISSN 1309-6249
out learner-content interaction has positive effect on achievement and the success of distance education is
determined by the structure and the quantity and quality of interaction between instructor and learner.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Neslihan F. ER is a lecturer at Istanbul Kultur University, Turkey. She earned her MS degree
in Nuclear Energy Applications from Istanbul Technical University in 1995. She also has MS
degree in Information Technology and she earned this degree from Kadir Has University in
2010. She received her PhD degree in Applied Mathematics from Istanbul Kultur University
in 2015. She actively took part in instructional design efforts in distance education. She has
been working as a coordinator for Istanbul Kultur University Distance Education Center
(UZEMER) since 2011. She also has experience in teaching and she been teaching at high
schools and higher education institutions for 25 years. Her research interests are applied
mathematics, curriculum design and distance education.
Dr. Neslihan F. ER
Istanbul Kultur University
İstanbul-TURKEY
E. Mail: neslihanfatmaer@gmail.com
Mustafa ER is the Chair of Department of Foreign Languages and an instructional designer
at Turkish Air Force Academy, İstanbul, Turkey. He has been working for promotion of
foreign language learning and teaching in Turkish Air Force for almost 25 years. With more
than 25 years of teaching experience, he is primarily interested in curriculum design and
evaluation in English Language Teaching (ELT) programs. His research interests are
curriculum development, active learning, distance education and teaching English as a
foreign language.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa ER
TurAF Colonel Turkish Air Force Academy
İstanbul - TURKEY
E. Mail: m.er@hho.edu.tr
REFERENCES
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perspectives, Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, Vol.6 (2) 1-14.
Garrison, D. R. (1993). Quality and access in distance education; Theoretical consideration. In Keegan D. (Ed.),
TheoreticalUnderpinnings of Education at a Distance, London: Routledge, 9–21.
Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: Interation is
not enough. American Journal of Distance Learning, 19, 133-148.
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Jung, I., Choi, S., Lim, C., & Leem, J. (2002). Effects of different types of interaction on learning achievement,
satisfaction and participation in Web-based instruction. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 39,
153–162. doi:10.1080/14703290252934603.
McCloughlin, C. & Marchall, L (2000). Scaffolding: A model for learner support in anonline teaching
environment. In A. Herrmann and M.M. Kulski (Eds), Flexible Futures inTertiary Teaching. Proceedings of the
9th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, 2-4 February2000, Perth: Curtain University of Technology.
Menchaca, M. P., & Bekele, T. A. (2008). Learner and instructor identified success factors in distance
education. Distance Education, 29 (3), 231–252.
Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of Distance Education, 3(2), 1-7.
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance Education: A Systems view, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Picciano, A. G. (2002). Beyond student perceptions: Issues of interaction, presence, and performance in an
online course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 6, 21–40. Retrieved from
http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/jaln_main
Saw, K.G., Awang, M. N., Idrus, R. M., Atan, H., Azli, N.A., Jaafar, I, Rahman, Z. A. and Latiff, Z. A. (1999).
Educational Transition of East Malaysian Distance Learners, Open Learning, pp.24-36
Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Calvin, J., Overtoom, C., & Wheaton, J. E. (2005). Bridging the transactional
distance gap in onlinelearning environments. American Journal of Distance Education, 19 (2), 105–118.
Su, B., Bonk, C. J., Magjuka, R. J., Liu, Z., & Lee, S.-h. (2005). The importance of interaction in web-based
education: A program-level case study of online MBA courses. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 4, 1-19.
Tuovinen, J. E. (2000). Multimedia distance education interactions. Education Media International, 37(1), 1624.
Vrasidas, C. (2000). Constructivism versus objectivism: Implications for interaction, course design, and
evaluation in distance education. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 6, 339-362.
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PRESERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS' ORIENTATIONS TOWARDS TEACHING SCIENCE
TO MIDDLE SCHOOLERS
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to explore the orientations preservice science teachers (PST) hold in preparing
to teach science to middle schoolers and how their beliefs were reflected in their CoRes. As the framework to
evaluate PSTs' orientations, Magnusson, Krajcik, and Borko's (1999) nine orientations were utilized. Eleven
senior preservice science teachers (PST) were selected to participate in the study using a convenience
sampling method. Each preservice science teachers prepared six CoRes on different science topics. The result
indicated that most of the CoRes were designed around didactic-based orientation and any of PSTs prepared
the CoRes based on conceptual change and activity-driven instructional approaches. Moreover, the study
provide evidence that PSTs hold multiple orientations. Results from this study suggest that, among other
factors presented in the literature such as early experience, PSTs orientation may be affected by the objectives
in the curriculum as well.
Keywords: Science teaching orientation, pedagogical content knowledge, content representations,
instructional approaches.
INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
One of the earliest study about science teaching methods was written exactly one century ago by John Dewey.
In 1916, Dewey published a paper in which he described the methods in science teaching. He pointed out that
method means a way to a result, a means to an end, a path to a goal. Method, therefore, varies with the end
to be reached (Dewey, 1916). In Turkey, there have been three major curriculum reforms in science education
since last two decades (in 2000, 2004, and 2013). The perspective of teaching science based on behaviorist
approach turned into learning science based on constructivist approaches starting from 2000 curriculum
reform. Although, there are some similarities between these two philosophies, they differ in important aspects
such as methods they propose to teach students in classroom settings. The proponents of behaviorist learning
theory advocates that students are passive learners while the opponents, mainly constructivist, claim the
opposite. In other words, the supporters of constructivist learning theory view students as active learners who
build their learning based on their past experience in which they construct meaning. It is apparent that
behaviorism and constructivism’s path to teach students in classroom settings differ from each other
apparently as supported by Dewey.
Shifting educational philosophy from behaviorist to constructivist approaches is relatively easy when
compared to practice of that specific approach. In fact, teachers’ orientations toward teaching science play a
key role in implementations. It is apparent that the classroom practice based on constructivist approach is
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
virtually impossible without teachers’ orientations toward teaching science shift from behaviorist to
constructivist. Borko and Putnam (1996) defended that knowledge and beliefs [orientation] lead teachers’
instructional practices from beginning to the end in diverse ways such as, decision of learning objectives, the
use of textbooks and other resources, assessment of learning, and the content of assignments. Orientations
toward teaching science refer to “teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about the purposes and goals for teaching
science at a particular grade level” (Magnusson, Krajcik, & Borko, 1999, p. 97). Orientations toward teaching
science is an important component of pedagogical content knowledge [PCK] (Magnusson et al., 1999) and
plays a key role in reforms to be successful. As a result, science education literature seeks for research to
explore teachers’ orientations toward teaching science and change or combine their orientations in coherence
with the goals of curriculum reforms (Abell, 2007; Nargund-Joshi, Rogers, & Akerson, 2011).
Magnusson et al. (1999) critically analyzed the science education literature and identified nine different
orientations to science teaching: process, academic rigor (Lantz & Kass, 1987), didactic, conceptual change
(Roth, Anderson, & Smith, 1987), activity-driven (Anderson, & Smith, 1987), discovery (Karplus & Thier, 1967),
project-based science (Ruopp, Gal, Drayton, & Pfister, 1993; Marx et al., 1994), inquiry (Tamir, 1983), and
guided inquiry (Magnusson & Palinesar, 1995). Table 1 indicates nine orientations with the goal of teaching
science and the characteristics of instruction for each orientation. Magnusson and colleagues alerted that
some teaching strategies, such as the use of investigations, may be the specific to more than one science
teaching orientation. They clarified that in such moments what distinguishes a teacher’s orientation to
teaching science is the purpose of employing it not the use of it. Magnusson et al. (1999) provided the
following example for such situations teachers with a discovery, conceptual change, or guided inquiry
orientation night [sic] each choose to have students investigate series and parallel circuits, but their planning
and enactment of teaching relative to that goal would differ. The teacher with a “discovery” orientation …
would expect his students to discover that there are different types of circuits and he would supply the
appropriate name for the different types as students discovered them. The purpose of the instructional activity
would be for students to discover what they can about electrical phenomena through pursuing their own
questions. In contrast, the teacher with a “conceptual change” orientation might begin by having her students
talk about their ideas about electricity to have them become aware of their own ideas and differences
between their ideas and others, and to give her some sense of some of the misconceptions they have about
electricity. … She would expect the students to compare the explanations of one another to identify
differences among them, and she might provide the view of scientists for them compare as well with their own
explanations. The hope is that students would be persuaded by the greater explanatory power of the scientific
view to adopt that view following opportunities to test out and apply their understanding of it (pp. 97-102).
Some researchers preferred other term referring to orientation. For example, Trigwell, Prosser, and Taylor
(1994) selected the term approaches to teaching science. They identified five different orientations in teaching
science: information transmission (a teacher-focused strategy with the intention of transmitting information to
students), conceptual acquisition (a teacher-focused strategy with the intention that students acquire the
concepts of the discipline), conceptual acquisition (a teacher-student interaction strategy with the intention
that students acquire the concepts of the discipline), conceptual development (a student-focused strategy
aimed at students developing their conception), and conceptual change (a student-focused strategy aimed at
students changing their conceptions). In her PhD studies, Friedrichsen (2002) studied different science
teaching orientations and suggested that orientation could be classified under two main categories namely
teacher-centered orientations, and orientations based on reform efforts and associated curriculum projects.
Considering, possibly comparing, traditional and current reform efforts, Friedrichsen subdivided orientations
based on reform efforts and associated curriculum projects into two. She situated process, activity-driven, and
discovery orientation as based on the reform efforts of the 1960s; and conceptual change, project based
science, inquiry, and guided inquiry orientation as based on contemporary reform efforts and curriculum
projects. Some other researchers preferred to simplify these classification. For example, Käpylä, Heikkinen,
and Asunta (2009) assigned science teaching orientations into two as constructivist teaching orientation
(student-centered teaching methods) and conceptual teaching orientation (teacher-centered methods).
METHOD
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
The purpose of this study was to explore the orientations preservice science teachers hold in teaching science
to middle schoolers and how their beliefs were reflected in their CoRes. Through critically analyzing PSTs'
content of CoRes, this study gave the researchers an opportunity to uncover their orientations.
To date various methods have been introduced to measure individuals’ science teaching orientations. We
preferred to use Magnusson et al.’s (1999) nine orientations to explore participants’ orientations. Friedrichsen,
Driel, and Abell (2011) identified several critiques of using nine orientations described by Magnusson et al. in
different studies. They criticized that although having a week empirical basis, some researchers assigned
individuals to one of these nine orientations. They further mentioned that any individual may have more than
one orientation depending on the topic or the grade level. During the study, we have taken those critiques into
consideration. Besides, as a researchers we further suggest that if previous research has described the context
and individuals’ orientations in that context, then we believe that it is worth reporting. Having multiple
orientation depending on the topic or the grade level does not mean that a teacher could not perform
teaching practice based on one of these nine orientations in particular setting. In fact, human behavior is
influenced by the setting and activities can best be understood in the setting in which they occur (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 1993). Therefore, our aim was twofold: exploring participants’ orientation in particular setting, and
exploring participants’ pool of orientations in multiple context. There are other studies which reported the
prevailing orientation of individuals although some features of other orientations was occasionally observed
(e.g. Friedrichsen et al., 2008; Schwarz and Gwekwerere, 2007). The evidence presented thus far supports the
idea that orientations are not mutually exclusive.
Eleven students studying in teacher education program in elementary science were recruited for this study
using a convenience sampling method. All of the participants were senior preservice science teachers (PST).
Just over half the sample (58%) was female. For the purpose of exploring participants' orientations, subjects
were asked to prepare content representations (CoRe). CoRe originally developed by Loughran, Mulhall, and
Berry (2008) to represent conceptualizations of teachers' collective PCK around a specific science topic
including "the key content ideas, known alternative conceptions, insightful ways of testing for understanding,
known areas of confusion, and ways of framing ideas to support student learning" (p. 1305). CoRe was
introduced to the participants at the beginning of the study. Each preservice science teachers prepared six
CoRes on a specific science topic. Data analysis were based on how preservice science teachers plan their
teaching on specific topics. The way they plan teaching science was used as an indicator for their orientation in
that topic.
More specifically, this study seeks to address the following research questions:
 What are the preservice science teachers' orientations around specific science topics?
 Do preservice science teachers' orientations differ depending on the topic?
Table 1: The Goals and the Nature of Instruction Associated with Different Orientations to Teaching Science
ORIENTATION
GOAL OF TEACHING CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTION
SCIENCE
Process
Help students develop Teacher introduces students to the thinking processes
the “science process employed by scientists to acquire new knowledge.
skills.”
(e.g.,
SAPA Students engage in activities to develop thinking process
[Science:
A
Process and integrated thinking skills.
Approach]).
Academic Rigor
Represent a particular Students are challenged with difficult problems and
body of knowledge (e.g., activities. Laboratory work and demonstrations are used
chemistry).
to verify science concepts by demonstrating the
relationship
between particular concepts and
phenomena.
Didactic
Transmit the facts of The teacher presents information, generally through
science.
lecture or discussion, and questions directed to students
are to hold them accountable for knowing the facts
produced by science.
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Conceptual
Change
Activity-driven
Discovery
Project-based
science
Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Facilitate
the
development of scientific
knowledge
by
confronting students with
contexts to explain that
challenge their naive
conceptions.
Have students be active
with materials; “handson” experiences
Provide opportunities for
students on their own to
discover targeted science
concepts
Involve
students
in
investigating solutions to
authentic problems.
Represent
inquiry.
science
as
Students are pressed for their views about the world and
consider the adequacy of alternative explanations. The
teacher facilitates discussion and debate necessary to
establish valid knowledge claims.
Students participate in “hands-on” activities used for
verification or discovery. The chosen activities may not be
conceptually coherent if teachers do not understand the
purpose of particular activities and as a consequence
omit or inappropriately modify critical aspects of them.
Student-centered. Students explore the natural world
following their own interests and discover patterns of
how the world works during their explorations.
Project-centered. Teacher and student activity centers
around a “driving” question that organizes concepts and
principles and drives activities within a topic of study.
Through investigation, students develop a series of
artifacts (products) that reflect their emerging
understandings.
Investigation-centered. The teacher supports students in
defining and investigating problems, drawing conclusions,
and assessing the validity of knowledge from their
conclusions.
Learning community-centered. The teacher and students
participate in defining and investigating problems,
determining patterns, inventing and testing explanations,
and evaluating the utility and validity of their data and
the adequacy of their conclusions. The teacher scaffolds
students’ efforts to use the material arid intellectual tools
of science, toward their independent use of them.
Constitute a community
of
learners
whose
members
share
responsibility
for
understanding
the
physical
world,
particularly with respect
to using the tools of
science.
Note: Adapted from Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., and Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of
pedagogical content knowledge for science teaching.
FINDINGS
During the analysis of CoRe, two authors studied independently to evaluate participants' orientations toward
science teaching. Then, they come together and discussed the dominant orientation of teacher candidates in
each particular CoRe. The analysis indicated that there were only small discrepancies in interpretations and
they were resolved by negotiation and researchers reached an agreement.
Table 2 presents the results obtained from the analysis of PSTs' CoRe. This table is quite revealing in several
ways. First, from the table, it can be seen that by far the greatest percent of total classifiable CoRe (37%) were
designed around didactic-based orientation (23 out of 63). Moreover, what is interesting in this table is that
nobody could prepare the CoRes based on conceptual change and activity-driven instructional approaches.
Similarly, only three CoRes were organized based on process approach. Another interesting finding was that
the researcher neither individually nor as a group could decide three CoRes to be compatible with any of these
nine orientations.
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In Table 3 we have tabulated each PSTs' CoRes based on topics. It is apparent from this table that all PSTs hold
multiple orientation. In fact, some preservice teacher designed lesson in the same topic based on different
orientations. For example, PST 1 prepared three lesson plan about the different objective of the topic
absorption of light. In the first CoRe, his dominant orientation was guided inquiry while the leading orientation
in the second CoRe was academic rigor. The third CoRe of PST 1, however, was based on Project-based
science. Alike, PST 2 prepared 6 CoRes during the course of the study. Her fourth and fifth CoRes were about
density. Her science teaching orientations in fourth and fifth CoRes were academic rigor and didactic
respectively.
Another interesting finding was that all PSTs prepared her/his CoRes based on didactic science teaching at
least one time. Indeed, 5 of 11 PSTs' (PST2, PST3, PST6, PST7 and PST8) orientations in their 3 CoRes (out of 6)
were represented the characteristics of didactic teaching in which they focused on transmitting the facts of
science through lecture or discussion.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
This study aimed to investigate preservice science teachers’ orientations through CoRes prepared on different
science topics. For in-depth exploration, each preservice science teachers were asked to prepare six CoRes. A
thorough analysis of CoRes yielded important results for the research on science teaching orientation. First, it
was found that a variety of orientations were identified from PSTs’ CoRes. They were didactic, academic rigor,
inquiry, guided inquiry, discovery, process, project-based. Two orientations, activity-driven and conceptual
change, were not identified during data analysis. Among them didactic approach to science teaching was the
one most preferred by PSTs. Actually each PST preferred didactic orientation at least one of their six CoRes.
The second result found to be important was that each PST was inclined to show a mix of orientations on
either same or different topics. This means that PSTs can have multiple orientations as research showed
(Nielsen, 2011). This result may be related to the fact that participants of this study prepared CoRes based on
objectives in the national science curriculum. Objectives in the curriculum are quite different in terms of
cognitive domain. On the one hand, some objectives were related to define science concepts; on the other
hand some of them refer to the discovery of science concepts. That is based on the objectives, PSTs shape
their orientation. To exemplify, one of the objective was “students can define the sound”. For this objective,
didactic orientation was used. However, when another objective “students can test the brightness of the lamp
in parallel and series circuits” was investigated, it was noticed that academic rigor orientation was dominant.
That is we believe that objectives that students should gain at the end of the lessons may serve as an indicator
of PSTs’ orientation toward science teaching. Therefore it is not unusual to come up with multiple orientations
for each PSTs. For a more valid interpretation of this; future studies in which participants were interviewed
around this result, should be conducted.
Table 2: Number of CoRe Prepared Based on Specific Science Topic
Instructional Approach
Number of CoRe
Specific Science Topic
Process
1
Weather events
1
Electrical circuits
1
Chemical and physical change
Academic Rigor
1
Resistivity
2
Parallel and series circuits
1
Sound propagation
1
Refraction of light
1
Thermal conductivity
1
Changes of phase
1
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
1
Velocity
1
Density
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1
Absorption of light
1
Conductors and insulators
1
Resistivity
1
Rocks and minerals
1
Fossils
1
Power plants
4
Sound
1
Thermal insulation
2
The resultant force
1
Models of the atom
1
Excretory system
1
Weather events
2
Electrical circuits
1
The reflection of light
1
Skeletal System
1
Density
1
Cell
1
Circulatory system
1
Types of teeth
Conceptual Change
0
Activity-driven
0
Discovery
1
Simple Machines
1
Properties of matter
1
Five senses
1
Nutrition
Project-based science
1
Erosion and landslides
1
Simple Machines
1
Expansion and contraction
1
Models of the atom
1
Absorption of light
Inquiry
1
Energy transformation
1
Shadow formation
2
The reflection of light
1
Force and motion
1
Blood Function and Composition
1
Respiratory system
1
The effects of smoking and alcohol on the body
1
Digestive System
Guided Inquiry
1
Electrical Conductivity
1
Lenses
1
Organ transplant
1
Earthquake
1
Seasons
2
Sound Propagation
1
Absorption of light
Unclear
3
Note: The data on Table 2 belong to 11 PSTs and each prepared 6 CoRes.
Didactic
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Table 3: Each Preservice Science Teachers’ Orientation on Different Science Topic
Participants
Science Teaching Orientation
Specific Science Topic
PST 1
PST 2
PST 3
PST 4
PST 5
PST 6
PST 7
PST 8
PST 9
Guided Inquiry
Academic rigor
Project-based science
Discovery
Didactic
Inquiry
Didactic
Process
Inquiry
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Didactic
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Didactic
Didactic
Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Inquiry
Didactic
Project-based science
Academic rigor
Didactic
Process
Discovery
Project-based science
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Inquiry
Inquiry
Didactic
Project-based science
Discovery
Inquiry
Didactic
Didactic
Didactic
Didactic
Project-based science
Didactic
Process
Academic Rigor
Academic Rigor
Academic Rigor
Didactic
Guided Inquiry
Didactic
Didactic
Academic rigor
Academic rigor
Didactic
Absorption of light
Absorption of light
Absorption of light
Nutrition
Types of teeth
The effects of smoking and alcohol on the body
Skeletal System
Chemical and physical change
Respiratory system
Density
Density
Cell
Parallel and series circuits
Electrical circuits
The reflection of light
Sound
The reflection of light
Sound Propagation
Force and motion
The resultant force
Models of the atom
Velocity
Models of the atom
Weather events
Properties of matter
Expansion and contraction
Changes of phase
Sound
Shadow formation
The reflection of light
Thermal insulation
Simple Machines
Simple Machines
Energy transformation
Electrical circuits
Power plants
Conductors and insulators
Resistivity
Erosion and landslides
Fossils
Electrical circuits
Resistivity
Thermal conductivity
Parallel and series circuits
Circulatory system
Electrical Conductivity
Sound
Excretory system
Homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture
Refraction of light
Sound
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PST 10
PST 11
Discovery
Guided Inquiry
Unclear
Guided Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Didactic
Guided Inquiry
Inquiry
Unclear
Didactic
Didactic
Inquiry
Guided Inquiry
Academic rigor
Unclear
Five senses
Earthquake
Lenses
Sound Propagation
The resultant force
Seasons
Blood Function and Composition
Weather events
Rocks and minerals
Digestive System
Organ transplant
Sound propagation
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Nurcan CANSIZ is currently working in Artvin Coruh University as an Assist. Prof. Dr. in
Elementary Science Teacher Education Program. She got her B.S degree in elementary
science education program from Middle East Technical University. She completed PhD
requirements of the elementary education program in Middle East Technical University in
2014. Her research interests include socioscientific issues in science education, teachers’
beliefs and inclusive education in science education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: nurcansiz7911@gmail.com
Mustafa CANSIZ completed his undergraduate education in Elementary Science Education
Program at Middle East Technical University. He finished Elementary Education PhD.
Program at the same university. Currently, he is an Assist. Prof. Dr. in Elementary Science
Teacher Education Program in Artvin Coruh University. His area of interests includes
teacher education, history of science instruction, inclusive science classrooms,
epistemology of science, and attitudes toward science.
Asist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: mustafacansiz@gmail.com
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 08 ISSN 1309-6249
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THE VIEWS OF SCIENCE TEACHER CANDIDATES REGARDING THE COLLECTION,
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF WASTE BATTERIES
Prof. Dr. Ayhan YILMAZ
Hacettepe University
Faculty of Education
Deparment of Science and Mathematics Education
Ankara- TURKEY
PhDc. Zeynep AKSAN
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇELİKLER
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to investigate the views of science teacher candidates regarding the collection,
recycling and disposal of waste batteries. The study was conducted with a total of 92 fourth-year science
teacher candidates attending the education faculty of a public university in Turkey. Study data were collected
using five open-ended questions regarding the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries, and
analyzed using the descriptive analysis method. It was determined that 57 of the teacher candidates
participating to the study did not have any views or knowledge regarding the institutions and organizations in
Turkey responsible for the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries. In addition, 79 of the teacher
candidates described that current activities in Turkey for the collection of batteries are inadequate, while 85 of
the teacher candidates noted that public service announcements through the visual and printed media, as well
as posters and informative programs, regarding batteries might help increase people’s level of awareness on
this subject. Another noteworthy result of this study was that all of the participating teacher candidates
expressed the importance of raising environmentally-conscious individuals by including the subject of waste
battery management into educational programs/curricula at all levels of education.
Keywords: Science teacher candidate, waste batteries, recycle.
INTRODUCTION
The environmental problems caused by human disregard towards nature, the widely-held belief that nature is
only a resource and living space for human use, and increasing population and industrialisation are disrupting
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
natural ecological balances. In parallel to the developments in technology engendered by industrialisation,
various portable devices intended for personal have become popular, and are now widely used in both homes
and workplaces. These devices use portable batteries or cells as energy source.
Batteries are considered as hazardous wastes whose improper disposal leads to significant problems.
Hazardous waste is a collective term referring to materials in solid, liquid, gas or sludge form that are
dangerous for human health and the environment (Suk, 2008). As batteries are widely used, the problem
caused by waste batteries, a hazardous waste, is also very significant (Yavuz, Vaizoğlu & Güler, 2013).
Since they are disposed in very large numbers and contained toxic materials, waste batteries pose an
important threat to human health and the environment (Bernandes et al., 2004; Kierkegaard, 2007). Since
batteries contain toxic metals such as lead, mercury (Bartolozzi, 1990) and cadmium, as well as reusable
metals such as nickel, recycling processes for batteries must take into account these different metals
(Nogueira, 2007).
Batteries can be divided into two groups as rechargeable and non-rechargeable batteries. In Turkey, there are
currently no facilities which can recycle the precious metals (such as nickel and cobalt) extracted from
rechargeable batteries (NiCd, NiMh and Li-ion). For this reason, these batteries can be sent abroad under the
supervision of the Portable Batteries Manufacturers and Importers (TAP) Association for recycling. The
recycling of non-rechargeable batteries, on the other hand, is not economical, which is why they are disposed
by the TAP Association by being stored in solid waste storage areas built aboveground or underground
according to mono-storage principles (i.e. one type of waste stored in one particular area) (TAP, 2014).
Ensuring the disposal of used batteries in a way that would result in minimal harm for human health and the
environment is essential for preserving the environment. This requires individuals efforts as well as public
regulations (Yavuz, Vaizoğlu & Güler, 2013).
Since science teacher candidates will actively take part as teachers in the education system in the future,
ensuring that these teacher candidates are knowledgeable regarding the collection, recycling and disposal of
waste batteries is of vital important for a sustainable future. In this context, we believe that the present study
will help reflect in the detail the different opinions of science teacher candidates regarding the recycling and
disposal of waste batteries, and thus contribute and provide further depth to the literature on this subject.
METHODS
The study was conducted with 92 fourth-year science teacher candidates attending the Education Faculty of a
public university in Turkey. The study was performed using a scanning model, and the opinions of the teacher
candidates regarding the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries were recorded using an
assessment tool with five open-ended questions. The study data were analysed using the descriptive analysis
method. The names of the teacher candidates were kept confidential by using codes such as “F1, F2…Fn.”
Direct citations of the answers given by the teacher candidates are provided in the Results section of the
study.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“Write down the institutions and organisations in Turkey responsible for the collection, recycling and disposal
of waste batteries.”
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 1: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 1
Answers
No idea
Collection of Waste Batteries
The Municipality
TAP
Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning
ÇEVKO
Ministry of National Education
Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs
Ministry of Health
Recycling and Disposal of Waste Batteries
TAP
Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning
TEMA
Yeşilay
Answer Frequency (f)
57
8
7
5
4
4
3
2
10
3
2
1
The Table above indicates that 57 of the teacher candidates had no opinion about the institutions and
organisations in Turkey responsible for collecting, recycling and disposing waste batteries. According to the
study results, some of the teacher candidates believed that the municipality, TAP and the Ministry of
Environment and Urban Planning are responsible for the collection of waste batteries. In addition, some of the
students believed that the ÇEVKO foundation is responsible for collecting waste batteries, which was
interesting observation. Some the teacher candidates described that the recycling and disposal of waste
batteries is the TAP association’s responsibility. Another interesting observation in this study was that some of
the teacher candidates thought that the Yeşilay and TEMA associations were in any way involved in the
recycling and disposal of waste batteries.
Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“At what stages of your education did you receive classes covering the subject of waste batteries? In you
opinion, during which stages of education should this subject be included into the curriculum?”
Table 2: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 2
Answers
Middle School
Sixth grade Science Class
High School
Campaigns on waste battery collection
University
“Special Topics in Chemistry” course during Third-Year
“Chemical Wastes and Environmental Pollution” course during Fourth-Year
At Every Stage of Education
(Preschool, Elementary School, Middle School, High School and University)
Answer Frequency (f)
3
2
92
44
92
The results on this Table indicate that all of the students taking part in this study learned a certain amount of
information about waste batteries through the “Special Topics in Chemistry” course they received in
university. On the other hand, teacher candidates who have taken the elective course “Chemical Wastes and
Environmental Pollution” have acquired more detailed and comprehensive knowledge on this subject. Direct
citations of the answers provided by the teacher candidates are given below:
- I only learned a little bit about waste batteries during the Special Topics in Chemistry course I received during
my third year in university. However, it was during the elective course named Chemical Wastes and
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July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 09 ISSN 1309-6249
Environmental Pollution, which I took during my fourth year, that I learned a lot more detailed information on
the subject (F62).
- In high school 10th grade, I took part in a battery collection campaign organised by the school; however, at
the time, I had no idea about the types of batteries I was supposed to collect (F23).
All of the teacher candidates described that the subject of waste batteries should be included into the
curriculum at all levels of education - starting from pre-school and at elementary school, middle school, high
school and university levels - either as a separate course in itself or as the content of another course.
Table 3 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“Do you believe that the activities conducted in Turkey for the collection, recycling and disposal of batteries
are adequate?”
Table 3: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 3
Answers
Answer Frequency (f)
Not adequate
Society at large is not knowledgeable about the collection of waste batteries.
79
63
Batteries are thrown into trash cans
Students lack enough knowledge on this subject
Waste battery collection containers are not widespread
Ordinary trash is thrown into battery collection containers.
The Municipalities activities on this subject are inadequate
There are no facilities in Turkey for recycling waste batteries.
Adequate
56
49
43
36
28
19
13
According to the Table above, 79 of the teacher candidates taught that the activities conducted in Turkey for
the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries are inadequate. The reason they cited included the
generally lack of knowledge within society about waste batteries; the lack of knowledge among students on
this subject; and the tendency to throw waste batteries into ordinary trash cans. Some of the students even
said that people tend to throw ordinary trash into battery collection containers, which is a noteworthy
observation. Direct citations of the answers provided by the teacher candidates are given below:
- No, I don’t think they’re adequate, because in our country, people still throw waste batteries into the trash
(F16).
- In place I live, I often look inside battery collection containers, and see regular trash in them instead of
batteries. Unfortunately; children, adolescents and adults all lack knowledge about waste batteries. (F36).
- In recent years, the TAP association has been promoting the collection of waste batteries by organising waste
battery collection campaigns in school. However, these efforts are not enough. This is because these campaigns
in schools lack any cooperation with municipalities, which I think is actually necessary for ensuring that these
reach a larger number of people and gain a broader scope. In addition to this, these campaigns should not just
focus on the collection of waste batteries, but also tell about their harms and hazards. In other words, both
students and society should be informed [about the threats posed by waste batteries (F51).
- In recent times, I believe there have been some positive developments about the collection of waste batteries
(F87).
Table 4 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“What is the importance of the visual and printed media with regards to the collection, recycling and disposal
of waste batteries?”
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
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Table 4: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 4
Answers
They raise social awareness
They draw attention to battery collection points
They encourage people to collect waste batteries
They help announce campaigns to broader audiences
They inform people about where and how they are supposed to delivered
waste batteries.
They draw attention to the harms caused to the environment by waste
batteries.
Answer Frequency (f)
85
72
51
46
40
37
Results in the Table above indicate that the teacher candidates considered the visual media (public service
announcements, TV programs, documentaries, animations, cartoons and videos) and the printed media
(newspapers, magazines, books) as having a notable effect in raising social awareness about the collection,
recycling and disposal of waste batteries. In addition, they also emphasised that the visual and printed press
could draw attention to where and how waste batteries should be collected, and help increase the amount of
waste batteries being disposed. Direct citations of the answers provided by the teacher candidates are given
below:
- Public service announcements can inform about the recycling of waste batteries, and tell where waste
batteries can be collected (F24).
- Everybody watches TV. Public service announcements, cartoons and animations can inform and draw the
attention of every group within society. The printed media, on the other hand, could be used to inform people
who prefer to read (F5).
- Public service announcements are especially important on this subject. In addition, printed materials such as
journals and boobs may also help raise awareness (F71).
- In our country, people think of batteries as trash, whereas in fact they are not. Posters and informative
materials on waste batteries could be placed at the stops of mass transportation vehicles such as buses and
tramways, are be published through journals and magazines (F49).
Table 5 shows the frequency distribution of the answers provided by the teacher candidates to the question
“What should be done to increase the collection of waste batteries?”
Table 5: Frequency Distribution of the Teacher Candidates’ Answers to Question 5
Answers
Answer Frequency (f)
Courses on waste batteries should be provided at every level of education,
and course content on this subject should be more comprehensive
89
Contests with prizes should be organised to promote the collection of waste
batteries.
Public service announcements as well as informative brochures and posters
should be prepared
Informative TV and radio programs should be broadcast
Municipalities must distribute a large number of waste battery containers,
and ensure that they are regularly collected
(at schools, hospitals, airports, shopping malls, etc.)
Conferences and seminars must be organised
Informative activities and presentations must be performed at schools
77
Preschool children should be encouraged to collect waste batteries through
games and rewards
43
74
70
70
68
52
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
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Cartoons must describe the harms of waste batteries and encourage their
collection
Machines which give a reward in return for waste batteries must be used
more widely.
Legal penalties or fines should be imposed on people who throw waste
batteries into ordinary trash containers
Project assignments should be given
Scientific articles should be written on the subject
38
21
17
12
5
According to the results in the Table above, most teacher candidates were of the view that the collection of
waste batteries could be increased by including the subject of waste batteries into course content in schools;
by organising contests were rewards; by raising awareness through the visual and printed media; and by
increasing the number of waste battery collection containers and ensuring that hey are regularly collected by
municipalities. In addition, some of the teacher candidates also noted that children could be habituated to
collected waste batteries by using machines (similar to vending machines) which give sweets or gifts in return
for waste batteries. Another interesting observation was that some of the teacher candidates recommended
the use of legal penalities or fine against people who throw waste batteries into regular trash containers. A
small number of students also stated that scientific articles on the harms and hazards of waste batteries will
draw attention to this issue and promote the collection of waste batteries. Direct citations of the answers
provided by the teacher candidates are given below:
- I believe that conferences are an effective means [for raising awareness]; in fact, I learned a lot from the
speech of an expert from TAP who came to our faculty within the frame of a research we were conducting. I
later shared many of the things I learned there with the people (F91).
- Children should be informed about waste battery collection starting from pre-school. In addition, we might
also think about machines in which you “throw a waste battery to get a sweet;” these machines could be
placed in shopping malls and schools, or they might give gifts instead of sweets (F2).
- Batteries must a written warning on them saying “Do not dispose in a trash can.” Or new batteries might be
given in return for flat batteries (F75).
- Every year, entertaining events and projects should be organised through cooperation between the school and
parents (F65).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The study results indicated that the number of students with no opinion or knowledge about the institutions
and organisations responsible for the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries was fairly high. This
was possibly due to the fact that the promotional activities and announcements of these institutions and
organisations have not reached the larger masses, or because the teacher candidates are not sufficiently
aware of the importance of this subject. Teacher candidates who stated that the responsible institutions and
organisations are the municipalities, the TAP and the Ministry of Environment and Urban Planning provided
the correct answers. In fact, the TAP Association is the only organisation authorised by the Turkish Ministry of
Environment and Urban Planning with the separate collection, transportation, storage and disposal of waste
batteries, and has been conducting its activities since 2004. In addition, municipalities are also authorised in
collecting waste batteries. The ÇEVKO Foundation, on the other hand, is an organisation established to ensure
the recycling of packaging wastes in Turkey. As such, neither ÇEVKO nor the TEM and Yeşilay Associations are
authorised in collecting waste batteries. Some of the students still assumed that these foundations and
associations also deal with the collection of waste batteries, which was probably because they lacked sufficient
knowledge about their actual purposes.
The study results also revealed that only three of the teacher candidates had received any courses on waste
batteries in middle school; this indicates that the subject of waste batteries is not sufficiently covered during
secondary education in middle schools. At high school, two of the teacher candidates had participated to
battery collection campaigns, although these campaigns provided no information about the environmental
harms of waste batteries, or about the processes these batteries would undergo. This suggests that the
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
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information provided in high schools on waste batteries is very inadequate. All of the science teacher
candidates participating to the study described that the course entitled “Special Topics in Chemistry,” which
they received during their third year, provide some general yet limited information about the harms of
batteries. On the other hand, it was observed that students who took the course entitled “Chemical Wastes
and Environmental Pollution” during their fourth year had much better knowledge about the collection,
recycling and disposal of waste batteries. For this reason, to raise environmentally-friendly and conscious
generations, it is important to provide such courses to students starting from their preschool education, and
also during their university education (depending on the department they are studying). This will allow
children to learn from an early age that waste batteries should be thrown into waste collection containers
rather than ordinary trash cans.
The fact that waste batteries are thrown in trash cans, while ordinary waste are thrown into waste battery
containers, indicates that there is a serious issue about the understanding and implementation of waste
battery collection practices. The source of this issues appears to be the general lack of knowledge and
awareness within society and among students of all levels of education about waste batteries. In their study on
third-year science teacher candidates, Çelikler and Aksan (2015) demonstrated that the large majority of
students throw waste batteries into trash cans and lack adequate knowledge about the recycling of waste
batteries and their effects on the environment. To resolve this issue, efforts should focus on raising the level of
knowledge of all age groups on this subject through the visual and printed media, and through classes taught
in school. In addition, awareness on waste batteries could also be enhanced through conferences and
seminars organised with the contributions of municipalities and the TAP association, and attended by subject
expert; by ensuring that waste battery containers are more widespread and collected more regularly; or by
enabling people to send waste batteries directly to the TAP Association. The study of Çelikler and Aksan (2015)
described that certain students used ordinary trash cans for disposing waste batteries mainly because waste
battery containers are not widely found.
A reward and sanction system could be utilised to encourage people to collect waste batteries in the proper
locations (i.e. without throwing them in trash cans), or to take them to the proper storage locations for
disposal; this would help promote desirable behaviors, while also preventing undesirable ones.
Batteries are used in many different areas of our lives. It is therefore imperative to raise the awareness of
individuals on the collection, recycling and disposal of waste batteries, which constitute a form of hazardous
waste. In a study performed by Çelikler and Kara (2015), some of the third-year students in the science
education department described that waste batteries are processed in factories to make batteries once again.
Such statements reflect that many students lack proper or adequate knowledge on this subject, and that they
equate the recycling and disposal of batteries to the recycling and disposal of packaging wastes such as plastic,
glass, metal and paper. In addition, most of the students in the said study did not know how waste batteries
are destroyed, or assumed that they are destroyed through melting, which also points to a significant lack of
knowledge on the subject. Another study by Aksan, Harman and Çelikler (2015) determined that most science
education students were unable to properly and completely illustrate with drawings the recycling processes of
waste batteries through drawings.
The first step towards a sustainable environment is the raising of conscious, sensitive and knowledgeable
individuals. For this reason, it is essential to provide students a comprehensive environmental education
starting from the pre-school period, and all the way up to their higher education programs. Such
environmental education should be provided by using student-centred methods and techniques; by planning
suitable educational events and activities, and by creating quality learning environments. Such education will
help foster among students the necessary awareness and knowledge towards nature, thus helping raise
individual who think about the future, and who are aware that environmental problems are not limited in time
or space. Associations and foundations working on the protection of the environment should also be
promoted through the visual and printed media, while events should also be organised towards students at all
levels and the society at large to ensure their active participation to environmental efforts and activities.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
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IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Ayhan YILMAZ, is a Professor in Secondary Science and Mathematics Education at
Hacettepe University, Turkey. She received her Ph.D.(1996) in Chemistry from Ankara
University. Her main research interests are students’ conceptions of science,
misconceptions in chemistry and science education, and environmental education.
Prof. Dr. Ayhan YILMAZ
Hacettepe University
Faculty of Education
Deparment of Science and Mathematics Education
Ankara- TURKEY
E. Mail: ayhany@hacettepe.edu.tr
Zeynep AKSAN, PhD Student in Department of Science Education, Faculty of Education,
Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. She received her MS (2011) in Science Education from
Ondokuz Mayıs University. Her academic interest areas are science education and
environmental education.
PhDc. Zeynep AKSAN
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
E. Mail: zeynep.axan@gmail.com
Dilek ÇELİKLER, Associate Professor in Department of Science Education, Faculty of
Education, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. She received her Ph.D.(2003) in Chemistry
from Kafkas University. Her academic interest areas are chemistry and science education,
and environmental education.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Dilek ÇELİKLER
Ondokuz Mayıs University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Science Education
Samsun- TURKEY
E. Mail: dilekc@omu.edu.tr
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REFERENCES
Aksan, Z., Harman, G., & Çelikler, D. (2015). Evaluation through the use of drawings of the knowledge of
science teacher candidates in Turkey regarding the recycling of waste batteries. International Journal of
Sustainable and Green Energy, 4(1-2), 1-5.
Bartolozzi, M. (1990). The recovery of metals from spent alkaline–manganese batteries: a review of patent
literature. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 4, 233–240.
Bernandes, A.M., Espinosa, D.C.R., & Tenorio, J.A.S. (2004). Recycling of batteries:a review of current processes
and Technologies. Journal of Power Sources, 130, 291-298.
Çelikler, D., & Aksan, Z. (2015). Evaluation from an educational perspective of the effects of waste batteries on
the environment. International Journal of Sustainable and Green Energy, 4(1-2), 12-15.
Çelikler, D., & Kara, F. (2015b). An educational approach to the recycling and disposal of waste batteries.
International Journal of Sustainable and Green Energy, 4(1-2), 16-18.
Kierkegaard, S. (2007). EU Battery Directive, Charging up the batteries: Squeezing more capacity and power
into the new EU Battery Directive. Computer Law & Security Report, 23, 357-364.
Nogueira, C.A., & Margarido, F. (2007). Chemical and physical characterization of electrode materials of spent
sealed ni–cd batteries. Waste Manag; 27:1570–1579.
Suk, W.A. (2008). Hazardous waste: Assessing, detecting, and remediation. In: Ed. Wallace R.B. Public health
and preventive medicine, 15th edition USA: Mc Graw Hill,;901-908.
Taşinabilir Pil Üreticileri ve İthalatçilari Derneği (TAP) (2014). Atık pillerin toplanması ve bertarafı. Genel Eğitim
Sunumu.
Yavuz, C.I., Acar Vaizoğlu, S., & Güler Ç. (2013). Hayatımızdaki Piller. Sürekli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi (STED), 21(6),
19-25.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249
ARTVIN CITIZENS’ REASONING ABOUT A LOCAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUE: CERATTEPE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Education Faculty
TURKEY
ABSTRACT
Mining is a current problem in Artvin. Officials decided to extract copper and gold mine in Artvin. However,
there are different opinions about this. A group of people objects the decision of officials. On the other hand,
there exists a group of people supporting mining. Taking into account of stakeholders’ position is valuable in
creating democratic societies. Therefore, citizens should have the right to participate in decision-making
process because they are affected directly from it. For the purpose of deciding on their position, local citizens’
views about copper and gold mining in Cerattepe were investigated. For this purpose, 534 local citizens were
interviewed. Their reasoning was coded as econcentric, anthropocentric, mix, or none of them. The data
analysis showed that most of the local citizens showed mix reasoning (including ecocentrism and
anthropocentrism) against mining in Cerattepe but they could not provide sound and scientific reasoning
supported with evidence.
Keywords: Environmental dilemma, reasoning, socioscientific issues.
INTRODUCTION
Mining is a current problem in Artvin. A company is planning to extract copper and gold in Cerattepe which is a
hill in Artvin. Artvin city center is set at the foot of Cerattepe. It has a rich flora as being covered with forests
and on the route of bird migration. It is also noted as the water supply for the city. There were several
attempts for mining in the past but it has never extracted. Nowadays, the company after getting a new license
issued by the government restarted the mining project. Many shops and restaurants hung notes on their store
fronts telling that if any real attempts occur in Cerattepe, that shop will be closed. Indeed some of them were
closed during intervention in Cerattepe. In brief, a majority of Artvin citizens protested against mining in their
hometown. However there is a group of people thinking that the copper and gold ore should be extracted.
That is, this issue created groups among Artvin citizens thinking differently about mining in Cerattepe.
Such issues including mining called socioscientific issues. Socioscientific issues (SSI) are defined as “complex,
open-ended, often contentious dilemmas, with no definitive answers. In response to socioscientific dilemmas,
valid, yet opposing, arguments can be constructed from multiple perspectives” (Sadler, 2004, p. 514). Based on
its definition, it is clear that SSI is complex, controversial, open to inquiry, and include various perspectives.
People should think on these issues carefully by taking different perspectives into account. That is, they should
be able to make sound reasoning. Citizens are the key stakeholders affected from the human intervention on
the environment. Such decisions should be taken as a result of cooperation with different stakeholders who
will be affected directly or indirectly.
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Citizens’ sound reasoning and being a part of decision making process are important in achieving a
scientifically literate society. Those citizens once were students in classrooms. How they reason as citizens of a
society is actually related to how they learned reasoning when they were students. The classroom activities
that foster students’ reasoning on issues related to science, society and environment have a significant role in
preparing citizens of societies for a future world which is highly dynamic in science and technology. Moreover
society is dynamic too and it is affected from the developments in science and technology.
Where and how can educators prepare citizens for such a world? Many scholars, experts and researchers
believe that science education should prepare students to cope with the results of interaction between
science, technology, and society. Millar and Osborne (1998) underlined that science education should prepare
individuals for “a full and satisfying life in the world of the 21st century” (p.2012). Moreover they believe that
for this purpose, they should be involved in learning opportunities in which they can present their ideas and
defend them with evidence. It is important for them to share their ideas with their peers and discuss on
different perspectives and, as a result, reach a common point. Science education should contribute to public
life and common good (Hurd, 1998). For this purpose, educating scientifically literate individuals for the future
is accepted as the main goal of science education in many countries (Aikenhead, 2002; Barrue & Albe, 2013).
Scientific literacy, although there is not a consensus on the definition of scientific literacy (Roberts, 2007),
refers to the science for citizenship which means educating scientifically literate citizens who are aware of
science, technology and their impact on society. Therefore preparation for the citizenship should start from
the early years in school. This means education at all levels has the responsibility to achieve this.
With this in mind, in the present study, we aimed to explore how Artvin citizens reason on a local societal and
environmental dilemma which, as mentioned at the beginning, is copper and gold ore extraction in Cerattepe.
We believe that their reasoning will provide valuable information about whether their formal education
prepared them for citizenship. We investigated Artvin citizens’ reasoning on Mining in Cerattepe in terms of
ecocentrism and anthropocentrism. Kortenkamp and Moore (2001) stated;
Anthropocentrism considers humans to be the most important life form, and other forms of life to be important
only to the extent that they affect humans or can be useful to humans. In an anthropocentric ethic, nature has
moral consideration because degrading or preserving nature can in turn harm or benefit humans… In an
ecocentric ethic nature has moral consideration because it has intrinsic value, value aside from its usefulness to
humans (p. 262).
For example Kahn (1997) studied with children about the ecological dilemma which was the Exxon oil spill in
Prince William Sound, Alaska in 1989. They interviewed with 60 children from second, fifth and eighth grades.
Children’s responses were coded as biocentric or anthropocentric. Both types were found among children’s
responses. Kortenkamp and Moore (2001) studied with adults. They coded participants’ reasoning as
ecocentric, anthropocentric, or nonenvironmental for different ecological moral dilemmas. They also
investigated the influence of individual differences and situational variables. The results showed that proenvironmental attitudes were related to more ecocentric and anthropocentric and less nonenvironmental
reasoning. The presence of information about the impact of ecological damage on the environment is related
to more ecocentric reasoning, while the presence of a social commitment elicited more nonenvironmental
moral reasoning.
METHODOLOGY
Participants
The participants were 534 people living in Artvin city center. Their hometown is Artvin. Their ages range
between 23 and 67. There were shop and restaurants owner, housewife, pharmacist, security staff, retiree,
student, nurse, teacher, and lawyer among them.
Instrument
A semi structured interview protocol was prepared by the researchers. A few sample questions in the protocol
were given in Table 1. Based on responses further questions were asked to the participants.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249
Table 1: Sample Questions in Interview Protocol
Interview questions
What does Cerattepe mean to you?
What do you think about mining in Cerattepe?
Have you ever seen mining area and surrounding environment? If so, how does it affect your decision?
What are the consequences of mining in Cerattepe in terms of your opinions?
Procedure
People living in Artvin were asked if they were voluntary to participate in the study. They were informed about
the goal of study at the beginning briefly. Then they responded to each question in the interview protocol.
They were requested to clarify their ideas if there are unclear points.
Data analysis
Data analysis was based on whether their reasoning is ecocentric, anthropocentric, mixed or none of these
categories. If their reasoning was focused on the impact of mining on human wellbeing, it was coded as
anthropocentric. If they think in terms of impact of mining on nature, plant and animal species then such
responses were coded as ecocentric. Other responses including political authority were coded as none. This
process was performed by two independent researchers and disagreement between researchers was resolved
through negotiation.
RESULTS
This study aimed to explore whether Artvin citizens’ reasoning on mining in Cerattepe. Before that, the
frequency distribution of citizens that are against and in favor of mining was provided in Table 2. Then the
frequency distribution for four categories of reasoning, econcentric, anthropocentric, mixed or none, emerged
from data analysis was provided in Table 3.
Table 2: Artvin Citizens’ Decision on Mining in Cerattepe
What do Artvin citizens think about mining in Frequency
Cerattepe?
Against Mining
425
In Favor of Mining
109
Table 3: Frequency distribution for Artvin Citizens’ Reasoning
Reasoning Type
Frequency
Ecocentric
98
Anthropocentric
124
Mixed
284
None
28
As seen from Table 2, most of the Artvin citizens do not favor mining in Cerattepe. When they were asked the
reason behind their decision, they considered impact of mining on both human and nature in their reasoning.
That is their reasoning was a mix of anthropocentrism and ecocentrism. For example one of the citizens stated;
I do not want mining in Cerattepe because the nature will disappear the human health will be affected in
anyway.
As it is clear from above statement, this citizen’s reasoning was based on human and nature together.
Therefore he was assigned to the category of mix reasoning. Another common response for mix reasoning is;
I think mine should not be extracted because water will be polluted and we are drinking that water. It will
affect us directly. Moreover trees will be cut down and forests will disappear.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
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The citizen above showed also mix reasoning in terms of anthropocentrism and ecocentrism for mining in
Cerattepe. In brief, the participants displaying mix reasoning had similar concerns about mining. They all think
that human health will be affected negatively and nature will be destroyed.
On the other hand, there were some participants whose reasoning focused on either nature or human beings.
To exemplify, the next statement belongs to a citizen whose concern for mining was only human health.
We do not want mine. Water will be polluted. Our health will be under dangerous. I live in Artvin for 58 years. I
feel healthy here. But if mine is processed then my health will be affected badly.
Another citizen also considered the impact of mining on people living in Artvin when he was asked about
mining in Cerattepe. He specifically stated;
As Artvin citizens, we are against mining. The company will gain a lot from this. But what we will gain? We will
lose our health, drinking water, our land to make picnic.
There were also a group of people, although a small number, whose reasoning did not include any
environmental or human-related concern. For example the following participant expressed that;
Mining in cerattepe is not a decision of me. It is a decision of authority which is government. Whatever people
do for protest is not useful. The company will get necessary license. If the court reject it, then they will get
another because the government also favors the company.
The citizen above did not make his decision based on ecocentrism or anthropocentrism. His reasoning was not
also based on economy. He just believed that this is an issue of authority not people living in Artvin. Another
example statement given below is also similar to the one above with a difference which was the reasoning
based on economy.
That gold and copper should be extracted. We need it. Why are we keeping in under mountains? That is exactly
what our economy needs. It should be certainly and quickly extracted.
The citizen above takes the economy as a center in his decision. Nothing else was evident in his reasoning. All
of the above statements are examples taken from interviews. These are the common ones among participants.
However, the most important result revealed from data analysis was that none of them could provide a sound
reasoning based on evidence. They could only present their arguments with some explanations but could not
support themselves with evidence and scientific explanations. They only talk about what they hear from others
instead of searching for more information about the consequences of mining. The next statement is clearly
exemplifies this.
Everybody says something about it. Based on what I hear, I am discussing it with my friends, family. Nobody as
expert did tell us about how the mine will be extracted.
When participants were asked about whether they search or read about mining, the common answer was the
one given above showing that they were not knowledgeable enough about the issue.
DISCUSSION
The present study aimed to explore how the local people living in Artvin city center make decision on the
environmental dilemma which was mining in Cerattepe. Cerattepe is a hill. The city was set toward its foot.
Therefore the local people are really concerned about their health and the surrounding environment. This was
apparent in their decisions and reasoning. A majority of people acted against mining in Cerattepe because they
think that their living area, drinking water, nature, forests, all will not be the same after mining. That is they
considered both anthropocentric and ecocentric factors in their decisions. However some people did only
considered one of them. They either think about the influence of mining on human or nature. The results also
revealed, a small group of people made their decisions on other factors such as politics or economy.
Another result found in this study was that although the participants’ reasoning fell into one of the four
categories (ecocentric, anthropocentric, mixed or none), they were only able to present their ideas and claims
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with some explanations rather than supporting their ideas with evidence and scientific explanations. This is
mostly because of the fact that they only hear from others and do not search for more reliable information. As
a result, they could make simple, non-scientific explanations. Obtaining public opinion and preferences
become an essential component of decision-making process for environmental dilemmas (Janse &
Konijnendijk, 2007). However, the ideas of public might be biased, based on others’ ideas and assumptions
(Renn, 2006). Based on this result, it can be inferred that Artvin citizens’ formal education, once they were
students, might not be satisfactory in terms of preparing them for future world in which they may be faced to
make decisions on such dilemmas. As a part of science education, students should be involved in learning
activities in which they can foster their reasoning on controversial issues.
th
IJONTE’s Note: This article was presented at 7 International Conference on New Trends in Education ICONTE, 13- 15 May, 2016, Antalya-Turkey and was selected for publication for Volume 7 Number 3 of IJONTE
2016 by IJONTE Scientific Committee.
BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS
Mustafa CANSIZ completed his undergraduate education in Elementary Science Education
Program at Middle East Technical University. He finished Elementary Education PhD.
Program at the same university. Currently, he is an Assist. Prof. Dr. in Elementary Science
Teacher Education Program in Artvin Coruh University. His area of interests includes
teacher education, history of science instruction, inclusive science classrooms,
epistemology of science, and attitudes toward science.
Asist. Prof. Dr. Mustafa CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: mustafacansiz@gmail.com
Nurcan CANSIZ is currently working in Artvin Coruh University as an Assist. Prof. Dr. in
Elementary Science Teacher Education Program. She got her B.S degree in elementary
science education program from Middle East Technical University. She completed PhD
requirements of the elementary education program in Middle East Technical University in
2014. Her research interests include socioscientific issues in science education, teachers’
beliefs and inclusive education in science education.
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurcan CANSIZ
Artvin Coruh University
Faculty of Education
Department of Elementary Education
TURKEY
E. Mail: nurcansiz7911@gmail.com
REFERENCES
Aikenhead, G. S. (2002). Renegotiating the culture of school science: scientific literacy for an informed public.
Paper presented in Lisbon’s School of Science Conference. Lisboa, Portugal.
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International Journal on New Trends in Education and Their Implications
July 2016 Volume: 7 Issue: 3 Article: 10 ISSN 1309-6249
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