POCARIM: Mapping the Population, Careers, Mobilities and Impacts of Advanced
Research Degree Graduates in Social
Sciences and Humanities
Work Package 1: Research Review
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Contents
1.
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................4
2.
Norway ..........................................................................................................................................................................5
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Impact and Contribution ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
3.
UK ..................................................................................................................................................................................8
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Impact and Contribution ................................................................................................................................................................ 9
4.
Germany......................................................................................................................................................................10
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 10
5.
Spain ...........................................................................................................................................................................13
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Impact and Contribution .............................................................................................................................................................. 14
6.
Turkey .........................................................................................................................................................................15
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 15
Impact and Contribution .............................................................................................................................................................. 15
7.
Italy..............................................................................................................................................................................17
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Impact and Contribution .............................................................................................................................................................. 18
8.
Switzerland .................................................................................................................................................................19
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 19
9.
France .........................................................................................................................................................................20
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 20
Impact and Contribution .............................................................................................................................................................. 22
10.
Poland .........................................................................................................................................................................23
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 23
11.
Slovakia.......................................................................................................................................................................25
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 25
12.
Hungary.......................................................................................................................................................................26
Career Paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
13.
Portugal.......................................................................................................................................................................27
Career paths ............................................................................................................................................................................. 27
14.
Annexes ......................................................................................................................................................................29
15.
References..................................................................................................................................................................31
1. Introduction
This work package involves a thorough review of
existing research at national, European and international level. The objective in this work package is to
identify all relevant recent research and literature
addressing issues such as careers paths of graduates
with an advanced research degree in Social Sciences
and Humanities (SHH) and various impacts of SHH in
society.
The time period that is focused on in this review
encompasses the research that was done from the
year 2000 until the present. The studies included in
this review were reviewed for their key objectives,
findings and policy recommendations. The studies
identified fall into two groups:

Studies on employment trends, career paths
and graduate destinations

Studies on impact, engagement and the contribution of SSH research
More than 350 studies have been identified at national, European and international levels focusing on
© Oxford Research AS
the issues of career paths and impacts of SSH. The
studies had a variety of forms ranging from scientific,
peer reviewed articles, scientific non-reviewed articles, various evaluation reports, work papers, pos ition papers to books, conference papers and policy
papers. The distribution of the identified studies
varies at different levels. While there is an abundance of studies at international and European level,
some countries are doing considerably more research and evaluation studies in this area than others.
For data storage and processing, a template for data
collection and primary processing was used (See 14
Annexes). In cases where the studies were published
in local languages, these were summarized by the
native speakers involved in the study. The data from
the templates was subsequently stored in EndNote
in order to pursue two objectives: to have all the
data stored in one place, which is to serve as a database containing full texts; and to use EndNote as an
effective referencing tool.
This report has been written by Mariana Gustafsson
and Dr. Tor Borgar Hansen, both at Oxford Research
AS, Norway. However, it relies heavily on the gracious contributions of all POCARIM team members.
4
2. Norway
For Norway, we have identified a relatively large
number of studies falling into the focus area of this
research, i.e. employment paths and impacts of SHH.
The 28 studies that were identified ha ve an evaluative character and were carried out predominantly
by researchers at NIFU (Nordic Institute for Studies
in Innovation, Research and Education), followed by
studies carried out by international or Nordic expert
panels by assignment from the Research Council of
Norway (RCN) and by the Ministry of Education and
Research (MER). The studies use data sources such
as direct information from the research institutions
collected through questionnaires and interviews,
self-assessment reports, field visits and statistics
available at NIFU and Statistics Norway.
An important data source in all the studies on employment paths is registered data which is stored in
a solid database registering information on all PhD
and Postdoctoral students from Norway from all
times. The database is administered by NIFU
(Doktorgradsregister). Access to this database allowed the researchers to study specifically the paths
of the SSH doctorates, studies usually done in comparison with doctorates from other disciples (ex.
natural sciences, medicine, technology). However,
this source has a limitation, it does not include data
on PhDs and Postdoctoral students who have left the
academia and are working i n the private sector.
When it comes to studies on impact of SSH, there
could not be found studies specifically differentiating
the impact of the SSH research done by the graduates of advanced research degrees. Instead the i mpact of entire disciplines within SSH was evaluated.
This work was usually a part of the evaluations done
on the behalf of The Research Council of Norway, on
the quality of research in the respective disciplines.
Publication analyses and self-evaluations of universities usually encompassed the work done by the PhDand Postdoctoral students.
Career Paths
An important contribution that brought some light
concerning the employment trends, career paths as
well as impact of the doctoral and post-doctoral
students was done in the evaluation of Norwegian
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PhD education (forskningsråd 2002). A national panel of experts was assigned by the RCN, MER, The
Norwegian Association of Higher Education institutions and Bergen University to evaluate the Norwegian PhD education system i n an international perspective. The study looked systematically at all PhD
programmes in Norway analyzing self-evaluation
reports, register data and questionnaire data. The
evaluation is broad and systemic covering a wide
area of topics. In terms of career paths the evaluation found that about 50% of the SSH PhDs engage in
academic positions in the university and college
system (UCS) and that among these 50% of the SSH
PhDs have research and teaching as a main part of
their position (forskningsråd 2002).
Other studies done by NIFU, have shown that the
Postdoctoral SSH students follow the same pattern,
i.e. are most often employed in UCS and have research and teaching as a main part of their work
(Kyvik, Olsen et al. 2003; Olsen 2007). In addition
they find that PhDs in SSH are mostly recruited in the
public sector and that most of them tend to continue
their career at the mother-institution, i.e. at the
same institution where the researcher was educated
and has defended the dissertation (Brofoss and
Olsen 2007; Olsen 2007).
Business-oriented PhD programmes and the resul ting career patterns have been in focus in two identified studies. Since this is a quite new phenomenon in
Norway there were not so many results in terms of
career paths and impacts, however both studies call
for internationalisation and new collaboration pa tterns between the UCS and businesses as well as
more focus on public-private partnerships in further
development of business -oriented PhDs (Næss,
Olsen et al. 2007; NIFU 2012).
Although most of the PhDs in SSH, regardless of their
citizenship (Kyvik and Olsen 2007) have no difficulties in finding a job in Norway (Brofoss and Olsen
2007) , there is clearly an issue of researchers’ mobi lity in the Norwegian system as well as mobility to
Norway (forskningsråd 2003). Most of the PhDs and
Postdocs are staying at the mother-institution; the
probability to advance increases when staying at the
same institution, there is also less propensity to
move across fields (Brofoss and Olsen 2007; Olsen
2007). This also leads to most of the PhDs and Pos tdocs being located in the bigger cities, where the
strong universities are based. This was found to be
partly due to the social conditions (family etc.), scientific affiliation with the mother-institutions and
low incitement to change institution (Kyvik, Olsen et
5
al. 2003). Studies have further found that among
those few Postdocs in SSH who moved, most of
them stayed in the UCS and only one fifth changed
to the industry or busi ness sectors. The finding is
also supported by the fact that double as many
Postdocs in SSH get permanent positions compared
with Postdocs in natural sciences or medicine (Kyvik,
Olsen et al. 2003).
Another dimension of the researchers’ mobility concerns the influx of foreign researchers into the Norwegian research system. A study looking at the conditions that hinder or stimulate researcher mobili ty
to Norway found that one third of researchers
moved to Norway because of their natural course of
life, i.e. family relations (forskningsråd 2003). Among
the negative factors hindering mobility to Norway
were found administrative conditions in relation to
establishment in Norway and tax and security system, while good living and working conditions and
good career opportunities were found to be the
positive factors.
It has been pointed out both in national studies and
international expert evaluations of different areas in
SSH that low researcher mobility in Norway poses
potential challenges in terms of quality and distribution of advanced research competence, in terms of
insularity of certain theoretical schools and more
generally in terms of quality of SSH research in Norway and internationally (forskningsråd 2005;
forskningsråd
2007;
forskningsråd
2010;
forskningsråd 2010). They call for collaboration between institutions, change in the organization of the
academic promotion system, establishment of a
mobility center as a part of European Network of
Mobility Centres, as well as creating incentives for
researcher mobility (forskningsråd 2003; Kyvik, Olsen
et al. 2003).
Impact and Contribution
As mentioned previously, information regarding the
impact of SSH research in Norway is found in expert
evaluations of the research quality of the different
disciplines within SSH, such as economic research,
development research, history, geography, pedagogy and education research, linguistics, Nordic
languages and literature, philosophy and history of
ideas, sociological research and political science,
among others. Only a sample of these evaluations
was studied closer in this review.
© Oxford Research AS
Research output and especially publication in international peer reviewed journals and frequency of
citations is considered to be not only a metric of
quality research, but also of impact of research as
the international recognition and interest in the
researchers’ work imply also an impact on the scientific development of the discipline. On this metric
the expert panels have found a wide variation
among the research institutions and among the SSH
disciplines in Norway. The experts have found that in
economic research there are units with excellent
publication output, including publishing in top five
economic journals (forskningsråd 2007). As well,
high-quality sociological research has attracted i nternational attention and interest, especially in the
area of women's work in relation to organisation of
paid labour and the welfare state, where the Norwegian researchers are most often quoted interna tionally (forskningsråd 2010). Also in development research and especially human rights, armed conflict,
and the displacement of people there are researchers who have brought international recognition and
visibility of their research (forskningsråd 2007).
However, the experts pointed out that too much of
the research output is produced in Norwegian, and
too much work is published in the form of reports
that are not peer-reviewed in order for them to
contribute to the development of the discipline
(forskningsråd 2007).
Another element that indicates the impact of SSH
research is the outreach of research towards the
users of the research results and society at large. The
panels have found this to be a relatively well developed dimension on the national level. They found for
example that in philosophy and history of ideas
there have been successful efforts to communicate
with a wider audience outside philosophy and history of ideas, and outside academi a, but nevertheless
the research in this discipline has made a limited
impact on the international debates (forskningsråd
2010). In economic research, the panel found that
the overall level of outreach was satisfactory and the
same level as in neighboring countries (forskningsråd
2007). In development research, the panels found a
close interconnection between research expertise
and policy processes and a high proportion of the
research being directed at user needs (forskningsråd
2007).
When it comes to the research in Nordic languages
and literature, the panel has found that there was an
unclear division between the communication of the
research itself and its outreach to broader public,
6
which could have negative implications both on the
quality of research and its outreach. They found also
that good research in this discipline does not reach
the research arena internationally (forskningsråd
2005). In linguistics research different areas are
represented by one or several researchers with i nternational activity, especially in Indo-European
languages and psycholinguistics. However this excellent output is dependent on individual researchers at
limited points in time. The panel called for more
collaboration between the institutes nationally in
order to reach a critical mass and a stronger publication policy in order to increase the researchers competitiveness and contributions internationally
(forskningsråd 2002).
The previously named systemic evaluation of Norwegian PhD education system, done by a national
panel of experts for the RCN, MER, The Norwegian
Association of Higher Education institutions and
Bergen University found some data concerning PhDs
contributions and impacts. They found that 80% of
the research institutes considered that the employed
PhDs could contribute in higher or very high degree
to: consolidation of research competence, visibility
in the respective research areas, follow up on R&D
activities, exchange of experience with other research institutions and international R&D activities,
new collaborations at national an EU levels and access to research findings (forskningsråd 2002). This
finding though can be questioned based on the national and international panels’ findings on low mobility of PhDs and Postdoctoral students in Norway.
Among the surveyed companies only 25% considered that PhDs contributed in higher or very high
degree compared with Master students.
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3. UK
Career Paths
There are studies focused on different kinds of pos tgraduate students. One of them ( On the Right
With respect to the UK there is much information
about the employment trends, career paths, graduate destinations, impact, engagement and contribution on the SSH research field. 30 different studies
were identified (quantitative and qualitative) on
these themes.
Most of the information contained in these studies is
based on surveys, interviews, literature review, analysis of quantitative data on the HSS community, and
analysis of government department websites and
literature. The studies concern different topics like
employment, employability, researcher training
systems and the mobility of young researchers .
There are some common findings in different studies:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
UK research is high-quality and efficient.
UK research is mobile and international.
UK research is well-rounded.
UK has mixed performance in knowledge
transfer.
UK research has some potential areas of
vulnerability.
Human Capital in the UK is productive, international (mobile and collaborative), but
growing more slowly than elsewhere
Five key functions of the arts, humanities and social
sciences can be identified in the UK:
1.
Contributing to cultural and intellectual enrichment;
2. Contributing to economic prosperity and
well-being;
3. Contributing new knowledge and understanding of major challenges facing both
the UK and beyond;
4. Contributing to public policy and debate;
5. Providing a rigorous, beneficial and fulfilling
education.
Study and training in these disciplines provide the
high-level skills required to sustain an increasingly
knowledge-based society and economy, at a relatively low cost, representing an efficient and economical
investment. They also contribute to the UK’s cultural, intellectual, and social enrichment and well -being
© Oxford Research AS
Track, 2006, Arts and Humanities Research
Council) presents the findings of research into
the career outcomes of postgraduate students
funded in the Arts and Humanities by the UK's
AHRC. The main findings included the fact that
doctoral holders in the Arts and Humanities
overwhelmingly (78%) go on to work in the HE
sector, with 11% in the public sector and 7% of
in a wide variety of roles in the business sector,
including the creative industries, publishing,
finance, law and accounting.
Another study (Purcell, Durbin et al. 2005) reviewed
the needs of non-academic employers for highlyqualified social scientists. This is the main concl usion: The majority of social scientists with a PhD
work in the higher education (HE) sector, but over 40
per cent work outside academia. The major nonacademic employers of social science PhD graduates
are in activities related to research and development, public administration and defence, health and
social work, manufacturing, and secondary and further education.
Mobility and brain drain is not a major problem in
the UK because it is one of the countries that receives most people in this field. Mobility exists in the
UK but it comes into focus when the researchers
look into knowledge flows, career planning, working
conditions, employability of PhD-holders and distribution of PhD holders among disciplines. Senior
figures within HEIs are less concerned about employing international staff per se than about ensuring
that UK universities remain competitive and can
recruit the best possible staff (Mills, Jepson et al.
2006).
Areas of concern include the declining share of researchers produced in the UK, declining share of
research outputs (especially citations), and
knowledge transfer. In the SSH fields the UK performs well above global averages, and increasingly
so, in terms of outputs and citations (Department for
Business Innovation and Skills 2011).
Doctoral graduates are highly employable and most
are “employed in ‘doctoral occupations’ that are
different from the majority of first degree and ma ster degree occupations. It also provides evidence of
8
the experiences and benefits of doctoral study, both
in employment and wider aspects of society and
culture” (Hunt, Jagger et al. 2010). The same report
reveals the premium that doctoral graduates place
on being able to use their qualification to have an
impact in their workplaces, and achieve high levels
of autonomy and responsibility.
research in places beyond their point of origin, suc h
as rural India.
Many of these studies concern the situation of the
HSS researchers in the HE sector.
Academic impact includes: Enhancing the knowledge
economy - new knowledge and scientific advancement; Worldwide academic advancement to address
issues of importance in other countries or globally;
The development and utilisation of new and innovative methodologies, equipment, techniques, technologies, and cross-disciplinary approaches; Contributing towards the health of academic disciplines –
developing expertise and knowledge in new or declining disciplines or multi-disciplinary areas; Delivering and training highly skilled researchers (RCUK
2011).
Impact and Contribution
The study Leading the World: the Economic Impact
of UK Arts and Humanities Research (2009, Arts and
Humanities Research Council) argues that the quantity spent by the UK government on research in Arts
and Humanities represents an 'excellent investment
for the nation. This investment generates wealth,
improves public policy and helps to maintain quality
of life'. Its argument addresses three 'critical questions'
Arts and Humanities research contributes to our
understanding of the world, culture and ourselves. It
also advances civilization and contributes economically through the £1.306 billion spent on fees and
living costs of non-UK students. Ultimately Arts and
Humanities research plays a critical role in the 'cultural ecosystem' (2009, Arts and Humanities Research Council).
Research Councils in the UK aim to change academic
cultures by rewarding those researchers whose work
has relevance beyond the immediate confines of
academia.
Social science research undoubtedly does impact on
public policy and practice but such non-academic
impacts are rarely amenable to precise, quantitative
metrics (Meagher, Lyall et al. 2008).
Measuring the impact of academic research is understandably a subject of great current interest within British universities. Pressures on higher education
funding mean that academics are increasingly being
asked to demonstrate the public benefit of their
work (Maddrell 2010), and the UK’s 2014 Research
Excellence Framework will, for the first time, attempt to assess the social and economic impact of
research (Williams 2012). Some studies look at the
movement of research ‘beyond the aca demy’, and
the effect of impact evaluation on the conduct of
© Oxford Research AS
Some of the studies talk about the different kinds of
impacts that can be expected from RCUK-funded
research. Impacts can be both academic and social /
economic in a variety of ways .
Social/economic impact includes: Enhancing cultural
enrichment, quality of li fe, health and well-being;
Contributing towards evidence based policy-making
and influencing public policies and legislation at a
local, regional, national and international level ;
Shaping and enhancing the effectiveness of public
services; Transforming evidence based policy in
practice and influencing and informing practiti oners
and professional practice; Improving social welfare,
social cohesion and/or national security; Changing
organisational culture and practices; Contributing
toward environmental sustainability, protection and
impact reduction; Enhancing the research capacity,
knowledge and skills of businesses and organis ations; Contributing to increasing public awareness
and understanding of science, economic and societal
issues; Contributing toward wealth creation and
economic prosperity i.e. the creation and growth of
companies and jobs; enhancing business revenue
and innovative capacity; Enhancing the efficiency,
performance and sustainability of busines ses/organisations including public services; Attracting
R&D investment from global business ; Contribution
to regeneration and economic development; The
commercialisation and exploi tation of scientific
knowledge, leading to spin out companies, and the
creation of new processes, products and services;
Training of skilled people for non-academic professions (RCUK 2011).
Social impacts are usually difficult to quantify (effects on the environment, public health or quality of
life, etc.).
9
4. Germany
In Germany we have identified a relatively high
number of publications in the area of career paths,
working conditions and mobility. Many of the studies
are peer-reviewed research articles, most often
based on wide surveys targeting young academics
from all disciplines. Although some of the studies
report findings concerning SSH disciplines, most of
them encompass all disciplines. In terms of impacts,
engagement and contribution of SSH research, we
have not found any relevant German studies.
Career Paths
It is obvious that young researchers’ mobility has
received a lot of attention in the reviewed publ ications. This reflects a major concern in the German
research and education system, as studies document
a significant international mobility of researchers
with advanced academic degrees from Germany
(Baron 2001; Enders and Bornmann 2002). Studies
report that a fifth of social scientists and a sixth of
philologists had worked abroad in the course of their
professional life (Enders and Bornmann 2002).
Many of these studies concern the exodus of a dvanced research competence, or the brain-drain to
English-speaking countries, namely the USA and the
UK. A research study aiming to explore the international standing of the humanities in Germany found
through interviews with humanities scholars in Germany and abroad that some of the general conditions for young academics, such as a lack of secure
research positions, academic dependency in terms
of funding, combined with restrained time budgets
for qualifying for a professorship are not so favor able for pursuing a career in Germany (Fischer and
Minks 2010). By contrast, the researchers are attracted by the possibility to achieve in a reasonable
time limit a good position at a prestigious university
abroad, which most often also provides a greater
degree of creative freedom (Fischer and Minks
2010). Another study found that having previous
international experience and contacts strengthened
the probability to move to other countries after the
PhD graduate or postdoc project (Enders and
Bornmann 2002).
© Oxford Research AS
Another study that used standardized assessment
instruments for statistical comparison based on a
sample of 4000 respondents showed that the motivations of young scholars to move abroad tended to
be the same, regardless of destination country,
meaning that the same push and pull factors were in
play (Backhaus, Ninke et al. 2002). They found that
the most important criterion for Germans abroad, as
for the foreigners in Germany, was the scientific
reputation of the university or institute in the destination country. The second most important criterion, for both groups, was the possibility to be able to
follow a specific research pursuit in one’s area of
specialization. According to the findings in this study,
better salaries seemed rarely to be the actual reason
for brain-drain, irrespective of source and destination country (Backhaus, Ninke et al. 2002).
As big as the concern about brain-drain may be in
Germany, there are studies that show that many of
these scholars actually return to Germany later in
their career. Enders and Bornmann could show that
the majority of the post-doctoral scholars returned
to Germany, but there was a probability that the
best out of the best scholars may not return (Enders
and Bornmann 2002). Another study found that
most of the young scholars used mobility in order to
increase their chances of being recruited in their
home country at a later stage. Especially postdoctoral students perceived their move to presti gious universities as a difficult, but necessary step in
their acquirement of funding and of qua lifications
that would increase their chances to get a better
academic position back in the home country at a
later stage (Musseline 2004).
As a response to this concern Baron argued that
‘brain drain’ was a consequence of globalization
processes and competition in human resources ma rkets and that it should incite an argument for greater
efficiency, better flexibility, more openness and
increased funding for science and research. The
study concluded that Germany may have to develop
other strategies by pooling its academic resources
with other European countries and the USA and by
adapting its own research and education system to
multi-cultural research environments (Baron 2001).
Another mobility aspect that concerns the research
and education system in Germany is increased mobility, or drop out of young scholars from the aca demy to other spheres not related to research and
development. Evidence collected through a research
report focusing on all disciplines confirmed that the
10
majority of PhDs did not pursue an academic career
after the completion of their PhD (BMBF 2008).
Studies showed that the academic career path in
Germany was characterized by the availability of
only few tenured professorships, high rates of dropout from an academic career both right after completion of a PhD and at further stages as a postdoctoral scholar, disproportionately high rates of dropouts by females, and a high average age of appointment to a full professorship (Heining, Jerger et al.
2007; BMBF 2008).
A study, looking at the effects of university reforms
implemented during the 2000s upon SSH scholars’
motivations to pursue their academic careers, have
found that these have had little effect on incentives
and prospects of pursuing an academic career in
SSH. The study found that working conditions and
future career prospects increased the motivation to
engage in an academic career, but these were most
insecure in the fields of sociology and the social
sciences (Fitzenberger and Leuschner 2012).
Similarly, two other studies, one focusing on the
humanities and another focusing on business admi nistration in Germany, found through interviews and
questionnaires that many of the promising graduates often decided to switch career path to the private sector or teaching due to improved career prospects and earnings opportunities (Chlosta, Pull et al.
2010; Fischer and Minks 2010). Fritsch and Krabel
(2012) similarly investigated the factors that shape
the attitudes of scientists towards starting their own
business or deciding to work in the private sector.
This study focused on scientists working in the German Max Planck Society and found that the motivations for leaving the ‘ivory tower’ differ according to
academic discipline and the self-reported commercial potential of their research. Scientists in the humanities were found to value working in the private
sector as significantly less attractive than their peers
in the life sciences and natural sciences. Fritsch and
Krabel (2012) argued that prior work experience
outside of academia, personal experience in cooperating with industry and the ability to take risks encourage individuals to switch to private sector employment. However, in contrast to findings from
previous studies (Heining, Jerger et al. 2007; BMBF
2008) improved career opportunities and earnings in
other fields as a reason for drop out seem not to
apply for many post-doctoral scholars (Fitzenberger
and Leuschner 2012). This may mean that after an
advanced stage in the academic career the scholars
are more inclined to pursue their academic career,
among others due to the perception of deteriorating
© Oxford Research AS
prospects for non-academic careers. Also there is
evidence that those scholars who pursue a habilitation will not drop out (Fitzenberger and Leuschner
2012). Another study provides evidence supporting
the above. They showed that that postdocs who
received funding from DFG's Emmy Noether Programme (including SSH disciplines), were more likely
to remain in academic research and more likely to go
on to secure permanent employment. Those who
received a grant were also more satisfied with their
position, income, and career outlook (Bohmer and
Hornbostel 2009).
The academic drop-out phenomenon seems also to
be a gendered issue, as female scholars tended di sproportionately more than male scholars to drop out
both after completed PhDs and in the post-doctoral
phase (BMBF 2008; Chlosta, Pull et al. 2010). This
was due to key decisions related to the establis hment of a family, which beside job insecurity and
unclear prospects, also involved disruptions in the
career during maternity leave, as well as difficulties
to combine an ambitious and demanding academic
career with raising a family (BMBF 2008).
In order to cope with the academic drop-out, the
report suggests five areas to strengthen the working
conditions and prospects of young scholars in Germany. These were: early career prospects and predictability of careers (by increasing the "tenure
track" among others); equal opportunities (especially in terms of gender and disability); (sustainable)
effects of academic careers promotional activities
mainly through monitoring and eval uation; internationalization of German universities through active
recruitment of academic staff from abroad and the
recovery of German scientists and scholars from
abroad, as well as the improvement of employment
and expansion of international graduate schools;
career development within and outside of science
and research, particularly by early independence and
autonomy in research, teaching and selfmanagement and improved permeability of the
professional fields of science, business and admi nistration (BMBF 2008).
The reviewed studies show that success factors in
the academic labor market in Germany may also be
gendered and shaped by social origin. Studies reveal
that the academic labor market in Germany is dominated by men who detained more than 90 % of the
tenured positions (Heining, Jerger et al. 2007) and
that 60% of the PhD holders come from the upper
classes (Hartmann 2010). Another study based on a
survey of 2244 respondents from all disciplines point
11
to a stronger influence of gender compared with
social origin which was characteristic for all disc iplines. The study has found that female doctoral
degree holders (69%) were more frequently in lowlevel positions than male doctoral degree holders
(49%) and males (51%) were more frequently than
females (31%) in high-level positions. In every discipline males earned considerably more than females male doctoral degree holders earned between 20%
(social sciences) and 46% (business studies/ economics) more than female doctoral degree holders
(Heining, Jerger et al. 2007). An earlier study analyzing the processes and outcomes of doctoral training
and the impact on their subsequent careers found
also that men living with a spouse and/or children
tended to be professionally more successful than
male singles, controversially, women living with
spouse and/or children tended to be less successful
than female singles (Enders 2002). However the
authors were careful to draw their conclusions on
inequality in the work careers and argued that there
was still too little known about the mechanisms
producing the inequalities in the system (Heining,
Jerger et al. 2007).
Nevertheless, in the long-run holders of advanced
research degrees were found to be more successful
in the general labor market compared with nonholders (Enders and Bornmann 2001) and that most
of them had long-term employment in highly
qualified and well paid full-time positions (Enders
2002). A survey among German PhD holders and
graduates without a PhD from all disciplines, revealed that a quarter of respondents had found
employment in higher education and in research
outside higher education, while a half of them had
left higher education and research for employment
in government, private industry and non-profit organizations. Transition to (further) employment for
the PhD holders was smoother than expected. Six
months after the PhD eight out of ten of the doctoral
degree holders in biology, electrical engineering,
mathematics and business studies/economics have
found a (further) regular employment (Enders 2002).
For doctoral degree holders in German studies and
social sciences, the length of the job search was
somewhat extended to 12 months. Employment in
governmental organizations, private industry and
nonprofit organizations outside higher education
and research were found to be the dominant destination for doctoral degree holders from business
studies/economics (68%), the s ocial sciences (60%)
and German studies (58%) (Enders 2002).
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5. Spain
In Spain the literature on careers paths of SSH PhDs
and the impacts of SSH disciplines is based on a
number of research papers, peer-reviewed articles
and evaluations. CV analysis and development of
mobility indicators has been the method used in a
couple of studies to make comparisons across disc iplines and countries. However the studies emphasize
the need to complement these methods with surveys and interviews in order to provide more robust
evidence to support their findings (Cañibano,
Otamendi et al. 2008). Most of the studies on career
paths focused on international mobility, employabi lity and career success of young scholars. Some of the
reviewed studies include SSH dis ciplines. Recently,
more emphasis has been made in the mobility pa tterns of researchers in the SSH compared to other
disciplines. In terms of impacts, engagement and
contribution of SSH research in Spain, knowledge
transfer has been an is sue in focus.
Career Paths
Researchers’ mobility has been one of the major
themes that have been in the focus of the Spanish
literature on employment trends, career paths and
graduate destinations. Studies, measuring and a ssessing researcher mobility in Spain, based on CV
analysis found that researchers’ international mobility patterns vary across the disciplines which could
imply that different disciplines develop their own
mobility cultures (Cañibano, Otamendi et al. 2008;
Canibano, Otamendi et al. 2011). One important
finding is that international mobility rates vary signi ficantly depending on the type of mobility that is
measured.
Cañibano and colleagues (2011) study on temporary
international mobility finds cross-discipline mobility
rates that are substantially different to those found
in other European studies which do not include
short-term research visits in their measurements.
For instance, they found that defining mobility in
terms of job changes situates the life sciences among
the most mobile disciplines and the human and
social sciences as the least mobile. They find namely
that SSH researchers tend to move temporarily.
Mobility in the SSH is mainly characterized by frequent short-term visits. (Canibano, Otamendi et al.
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2011). An additional characteristic of temporary
mobility of SSH researchers in the studied popul ation is that, since the 2000s, they increasingly visit
new destinations located in African, Eas tern European and Latin-American countries, while researchers
in the life, physical and engineering sciences conti nue to choose predominantly traditional destinations
in North America (the USA and Canada) and Western
European countries. This study concl udes that research policy should take into account the different
mobility cultures in the different disciplines if the
policy was to provide effective support mechanisms.
Other studies connect mobility with scientific
productivity of young researchers. They show that
researchers who have worked abroad perform better after their return (Cruz Castro and Menéndez
2010).
Another matter that has received some attention in
the literature is the employability of young researchers in Spain. Although SSH researchers are not the
main group targeted, the studies show for instance,
that mechanisms facilitating researchers’ contacts
with- and activities in private companies increased
their employability chances (Sempere and Rocha
2003). Cruz-Castro et al. (2010) find differences in
the age in which PhD holders access the labour ma rket according to field, since doctorates in the SSH
normally take longer.
Researchers’ working conditions and career success
have also been in the focus of Spanish studies. En
evaluation for ANIRC (National Association of
Ramón y Cajal Researchers) found that researchers
funded by the Ramón y Cajal program suffered during their contract one or more of the following problems: lack of recognition as researchers, lack of i ndependence, difficulties in applying for research
projects, inadequate working conditions, lack of a
plan stabilization problems in the teaching-research
relationship, loss of stable positions, administrative
rulings, competitive disadvantage, and employment
discrimination (ANIRC, 2010). Another study looking
at professional doctorates careers, based on data
from the National Survey on Human Resources in
Science and Technology (2006) found that young
researchers are mainly academia oriented and have
difficulties in applying their knowledge outside the
university world. According to this study 91% of PhD
holders from SSH did not consider their advanced
academic degree to be necessary in their j obs
(Domínguez and Pérez 2012). The study raises the
concern that the PhD holders from SSH disciplines
13
are not satisfied with their job situation and their
low wages.
Impact and Contribution
There are a number of studies addressing issues
connected to impact and contributions of SSH research to society. Most of these studies agree that a
narrow focus on the economic contribution of research results and on a set of measures based on
indicators of intellectual property rights are problematic to capture SSH research contribution to
society. Knowledge transfer has been the subject for
several studies as a way to provide a better understanding of SSH research contribution to its socioeconomic environment. In the Spanish context, the
knowledge transfer undertaken by SSH research
groups of the Spanish Council for Scientific Research
has been recently analyzed. The relevant factors in
the knowledge transfer process (categorized in five
dimensions: transfer agents, transfer media, transfer
object, transfer recipients and demand environment) have been widely described by CastroMartínez, Fernández de Lucio et al. (2008). Additional studies analyzing the SSH have found that research groups are actually engaged with nonacademic actors through a wide diversity of activities
(e.g. consultancy, contract research, joint research,
personnel mobility and training activities) and that
factors explaining SSH engagement with society
differ across activities (Olmos -Peñuela, CastroMartínez et al., 2011). However, most of these rel ationships between SSH research groups and nonacademic entities take place mostly with entities
other than firms (i.e. governmental agencies, nonprofit-organizations). Moreover, there is a prevalence of informal and occasional relationships which
remain invisible to the parent organization (Castro‐
Martínez; Molas‐Gallart et al., 2011). Overall, these
studies point out that SSH research contributes to its
socio-economic environment but a broad approach
that considers the wide range of potential beneficiaries along with the different types of impacts that
research provides (economic, social, cultural, etc.) is
needed to identify this contribution.
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6. Turkey
There are a couple of studies in Turkey focusing on
brain drain and internationalization of SSH research
in Turkey. Below follows a closer review of the literature.
Career Paths
Brain drain or loss of advanced research competence
in favor of other countries has been the focus of a
couple of studies in Turkey. The focus reflects a
widespread concern of the Turkish academia and
policy makers that the country is losing valuable
competence and presents a high loss for the developing Turkish economy, thereby subsidizing the
human capital of already developed western economies (Tansel and Gungor 2003).
Two studies based on surveys among the Turkish
nationals employed in full -time jobs abroad studied
who these professional were and their intentions for
return and non-return to the home country (Gungor
and Tansel 2008). The authors have found that many
of these professionals were non-returning postgraduate students rather than holders of higher
degrees obtained in Turkey who subsequently
moved. The respondents came from middle-class
families, with highly educated parents. Many of
them have earned their degrees from universi ties
that had foreign language instruction (Gungor and
Tansel 2008). The study could confirm that return
intentions were indeed linked closely with initial
return plans, and that this relationship weakened
with stay duration. They found that return intentions
were weaker for those working in academic environments and that economic crisis, unemployment
or underemployment in the home country (Tansel
and Gungor 2003) and that specialized study and
work experience in the host country appeared to
influence the incidence of non-return (Gungor and
Tansel 2008).
The authors bring up a range of policy implications
based on the study results, some of which were:
training of individuals for academic positions at domestic institutions, supporting study abroad for
shorter periods and improving academic facilities in
the newly established universities. They concluded
that the government should support public and
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private R&D centers to increase the employability of
returnees, but also to improve the quality of the
higher education system in order to both reduce the
need for education abroad and to increase the a ttractiveness of universities as prospective employment places for those acquiring education and experience abroad (Gungor and Tansel 2008).
The dilemma facing Turkey is an interesting one. On
the one hand, those holding postgraduate degrees
from foreign universities have good opportunities of
employment in Turkey, but their return back to the
home country is at risk. On the other hand, those
holding postgraduate degrees from Turkish univers ities are most likely to stay in the home country, but
their employment in Turkey is at risk. Best Turkish
universities have a clear preference to employ researchers with degrees in US and European univers ities. That is why Ph.D. programs in better univers ities of Turkey encourage their students to spend one
or two years in reputable foreign universities
through exchange or dual -degree agreements as
well as postdoc fellowship programs.
Impact and Contribution
Internationalization of SSH research in Turkey and
engagement in international collaborations of SSH
researchers has been the focus of the studies a ddressing impacts, contribution and engagement of
SSH research in Turkey. International visibility of the
SSH researchers, through their contribution to the
development of the disciplines or policy making
processes through publications or advise, is an i mportant dimension of impact and effects of SSH di sciplines in society. The studies have documented
that the internationalization level of SSH disciplines
and the engagement in EU FPs was relatively low in
Turkey (Kuhn and Okamoto 2008; Metris 2011).
Although a small elite of Turkish scholars publish in
international fora and academic journals, most of
the SSH researchers in Turkey operate on the national level.
A study addressing internationalization of SSH research looking into the causes of the low level of
research collaboration between the Turkish and the
European scholars (Kuhn and Okamoto 2008), has
found perceptions among the Turkish social scientists that there was little knowledge abroad about
the SSH profiles and research competence existent
in Turkey, which was partly caused by the prejudice
against the role of the Turkish scholarship on inter-
15
national scientific arena (Kuhn and Okamoto 2008).
The paper discusses also the influence of political
elites and their political debate upon the perception
of the quality of the Turkish academia in SSH and
raises a concern about the lack of possibility to understand and develop common policies and initi atives in the EU, in the absence of recognition and
acceptance of other countries academic potential
and competence.
An ERAWATCH country report on SSH in Turkey described the different SSH related challenges in field
of education and human resources in Turkey, based
on foresight study ‘Vision 2023’ implemented in
Turkey. Among the challenges that SSH disciplines
faced were: insufficient investments in all levels of
education, quality differences between schools and
universities in different regions; the need for i ncreased communication, collaboration and professional solidarity between stakeholders in the education system; and the need for transparency and
accountability in governance of educational institutions (Metris 2011). However, the paper concluded
that although considerable effort was invested into
determining the priorities in SSH disciplines, there
were no monitoring systems or evaluation results for
determining how much these topics were actually
tackled by the SSH researchers or how much the
research results were taken up by the policy makers
(Metris 2011).
Another important finding that shall have implications upon studying the impact of SSH research in
society was the understanding of the mission of the
SSH research in society by the academics. According
to Kuhn and Okamoto (2008) SSH academics in Turkey perceived their work as primarily directed towards science; thus the main users of knowledge
produced in SSH were academics themselves. Policy
makers and companies played a minor role as users.
According to this paper, Turkish scholars produced
knowledge predominantly for the development of
their own knowledge base about social science phenomena and the discourse within the social sciences
community (Kuhn and Okamoto 2008).
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7. Italy
There are a number of monographs and book cha pters that address career paths, employment trends
and destinations in Italy. The studies are usually
using limited data and are based on small samples of
survey respondents, interviewees or individual case
studies, which do not allow generalization for the
entire population of young PhD researchers. Many of
these either do not differentiate among the disciplines or do it to a limited extent. The literature on
impacts, engagement and contribution of SSH research is scarce.
Career Paths
Most of the literature on researchers’ career paths in
Italy focuses on the different aspects of the labor
market, such as researchers’ employability, working
conditions, internal mobility, international mobility
and relevance of PhD training. Brandi et al have
analyzed the researchers’ labor market, in the light
of the neo-liberal theories, where knowledge and
competences are commodities to be exchanged on
the market and where market competition determines their quality and quantity, brought up a cr itique of the existing research labor market in Ital y,
which under the pressure of scarce funding and
budget cuts, created insecure and precarious working conditions for the young researchers in academia
and the wider labor market (Pugliese 2006).
Budget cuts and scarce research funding for SSH in
Italy have had direct effects on the development of
researchers’ careers. Avveduto has ana lysed the
consequences of national budget cuts for research in
Italy in the context of Bologna process, globalization
of research and markets and the opportunities for
research careers offered by the European Research
Area (Avveduto 2011). Graziano has addressed this
issue for the political science discipline (Graziano
2006). According to him, while it was relatively easy
to be recruited in PhD programmes at universities in
Italy, it was considerably harder to continue an ac ademic career after the defense of the PhD thesis.
Based on the existent labor market statistics and the
tendency of the Universities to reinvest only a part
of the resources released by the pensioned professors into creating new positions in academia, he
estimated that only 25% of the young researchers
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got permanent job positions and the possibility to
advance in the academic hierarchy (Graziano 2006).
He points to implications such as drop-outs of valuable competence from the academia in favor of unqualified administrative jobs, which is an important
loss of resources. An employability implication of
this should be according to him, to design PhD programmes in order to train and qualify researchers for
fields also outside academia.
Employability, wages and internal mobility has been
the focus of several survey based studies. With reservation on the limitations of their data, Ballarino
and Colombo found in their study on occupational
outcomes of PhD graduates from Northern Italy that
PhDs from recent cohorts of graduates had increa sing difficulties to get academic jobs, at the same
time as their chances of getting jobs outside academia being also small (Ballarino and Colombo
2010). On the other side the researchers’ wages did
not seem to differ, despite considerable variations in
labor market conditions that characterize Italy. The
authors call for policy measures in addressing the
imbalance in supply and demand of advanced r esearch competence in the labor market, as well as
addressing the variable labor market conditions for
researchers in the different geographical regions at
the policy level (Ballarino and Colombo 2010).
Another issue in focus is mobility, both internal and
international. Due to internal geographical differences and the differing labor market conditions the
mobility of young researchers between the Italian
regions has been the focus of various analyses. Studies have found that most attractive regions for education and work tend to be situated in the North of
the country (Istat 2009; Ballarino and Colombo
2010). Differing education quality, labor market
conditions and probability to get employed in qual ified jobs are some of the factors determining internal mobility. The same factors, complemented by
access to research funds and favorable economic
conditions seem to be important in international
mobility of Italian research (Avveduto, Brandi et al.
2004; "Constant and D’Agosto 2010).
Constant and D’Agosto have studies the brain drain
phenomenon in Italy and analyzed the de determinant factors for mobility outside the country. They
could find discipline-related patterns of mobility.
Thus, Italians trained abroad and those with some
partial education from Italy were more likely to
choose the UK. Italians trained in Italy tended to
choose the USA ("Constant and D’Agosto 2010).
According to them, the discipline of the researcher
17
may be a powerful predictor of country choice. Thus,
Italian researchers in humanities, social sciences and
health tended to choose the UK rather than the US
in pursuing their academic careers .
Impact and Contribution
Literature on impact and contribution of SSH research is scarce in our sample. There is one study
that touches upon impact and engagement dimensions and reflects on the role of Political Science
discipline in Italy. Graziano reflects upon the ‘low’
status of the discipline in the academia and the difficulties of the researchers to maintain a good pos ition in the face of confrontations from their colleagues from other disciplines, all of which have to
fight for the scarce research funds (Graziano 2006).
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8. Switzerland
There a couple of studies in Switzerland focusing on
employment trends and career. These addressed
issues such as labor market for SSH researchers,
gender and inequality issues, employability, PhD
training, quality of researcher education and mobil ity. Analyses on impacts of SSH disciplines were difficult to find.
Career Paths
It is an obvious concern about the value of the PhD
competence in the labor market in Switzerland.
Holding a PhD diploma, in all disciplines, not only in
SSH, does not necessarily mean an easy entrance
into the academic labor market (CRUS 2009; Koller
and Meffre 2010). The general oversaturation of the
labor market and occupational success has been
studied (Engelage and Hadjar 2008). SSH Researchers, especially women and those researchers with
foreign degrees however are the ones who experienced the greatest difficulties on the labor market
(Koller and Meffre 2010). Once SSH researchers have
got an employment, they tend to be in the academia, public sectors or non-profit organizations, shows
a survey-based study (Koller and Meffre 2010).
Dubach et al. 2010). In policy terms, they suggest
addressing structural hinders, re-designing the doctoral programmes so as provide transferrable skills,
stimulating engagement in international research
networks, strengthening career guidance for researchers coming from non-academic families
(Leeman and Stutz 2008).
Mobility connected to advancement and recognition
in the academic field was the focus of a study conducted by Leemann (2010). Leema nn argues that
institutionalization of geographic mobility in academic career paths through research funding institutions and universities has had certain gendering and
social stratification effects (Leemann 2010). The
study found that a range of factors such gender,
family situation, and dual career constellations, as
well as social class and academic integration, were
having an effect upon the researchers’ career paths.
The author has compared the profiles of the different researcher groups with an ideal ‘academic entrepreneur’ and has found that female and older
academics, without academic family background,
living in partnership, in dual-career constellations
and with children, were less frequently supported by
mentors and had low funding support – a group that
is quite far from the ideal academic entrepreneur were disadvantaged in the labor market in terms of
recognition and academic promotion (Leemann
2010).
Touching upon employability of researchers with
advanced academic degrees, studies have analyzed
how the PhD diplomas and the breadth of skills pr ovided by the PhD training are valued in Switzerland
(CSST 2006; CRUS 2009), the quality and breadth of
the PhD training to include transferable skills to nonacademic areas (Rege Colet 2008; CRUS 2009;
Schubert and Engelage 2011) and the elimination of
structural hinders to employability of female and
immigrant researchers (Leeman and Stutz 2008;
Schubert and Engelage 2011).
A couple of studies have looked at the gender differentiation of the SSH researchers in the labor market.
They found statistical patterns showing that female
researchers were overrepresented in the academic
drop out and had difficulties on the labor market
(Leemann, Dubach et al. 2010; Schubert and
Engelage 2011). Poorer integration in international
academic networks and differences in social capital
were found to be the main causes of female researchers’ drop outs from the academia (Leemann,
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9. France
In the case of France, we have analyzed 40 studies,
most (34 of 40) of which are concerned with the
employment of SSH PhD graduates, often in compa rison with PhD graduates of other disciplines (28 of
40). Only few studies concern impact and contribution (3 of 40) of SSH PhD graduates, however s ome
are concerned with researcher mobility (5 of 40).
Career Paths
In Europe, academic mobility has a long tradition
which began with the birth of the European univers ities in the middle ages. Since the 1980s, European
policies were strongly oriented towards the promotion of student and academic mobility and the creation of research networks and projects within Europe.
The PhDs is a kind of protection in terms of employment but PhDs encounter difficulties. The employment became recently more precarious. Many are
expecting to do a career in the academic and public
research but less than 50% are working in public
research, less than 20% in private research and more
than 30% work out of the research.
much better than others. Young graduated from
engineer sciences and law, economics and management fit much better than the PhDs in chemistry or
humanities. The inclusion in the private research
concerns more than 20% of PhDs while academic
research employs 41% of them three years after
their thesis. Over 70% of PhDs wanted to work in
academic or public research. The PhDs working in
the private sector are much better paid than those
who hold positions in the public. However, those
who are not on research positions feel subjectively
second choice: they are much more likely to report
being employed below their skills level.
A post-doctoral programme has no positive effect on
the earnings. It plays the role of a signal in the first
stage of a career.
In a context of evolution towards a society and an
economy of knowledge, the PhD is a key factor for
innovation not only within universities but also within companies and the socio-economic in general.
However, the PhD is still sometimes disregarded into
the firms.
In France, there is a labor market imbalance for
PhDs. The unemployment of PhDs is not related to
an "overproduction" of PhDs but to the underinvestment in research and development and the
preference for engineers. There are differences in
terms of disciplines.
There is a pool of skills specific to PhDs, by which
they can be defined and this is not limited to technical skills. If every skill in this pool is not specific to
the PhD, their combination makes the specificity,
depending on a number of factors (discipline, complementary activities carried on during the PhD, the
conditions of realization of the thesis such as the
financing etc.). PhDs actually use these skills in many
public and private activities not only related to research and development but also in other activities
(support, consulting, production and sales). In companies, they occupy key positions, perform various
activities and have good professional stability. It is
rather in the public sector they have most diffi culties
to pursue their career. Their skills can meet basic
needs expressed by businesses. Potential barriers
may limit the reciprocal attractiveness between
doctors and companies: language differences concerning the expression of competence, differences in
the definitions attributed to same skills. Some employers are experiencing fears but they reduce when
they experience recruiting a PhD.
If being graduate from higher education protects
unemployment, this is not so true for PhDs. The
insertion into the labor market remains difficult for
PhDs. The inclusion of PhDs is very influenced by the
conditions of realization of the thesis and by the
discipline. Those who are funding through the convention with an enterprise or a research grant fit
The policies to facilitate the conversion and to develop the innovation have encountered relative
success and remain below the objectives. Despite
the diversity of PhD profiles and the relative scarcity
of teaching or research jobs, PhD students sti ll continue to expect predominantly to be inserted into
the academic sphere. Many managers develop a
The PhD training is very long and the average age is
high. Most of them conducted the thesis to pursue a
career in the public sector and especially in teaching
and research at the university or within public research organizations as a second project. In fact
most of them are employed in public sector but not
necessarily in teaching or in research; many of them
are doing management.
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stereotypical representation of PhDs, founded on
the cliches of the researcher more than on the experience of their professional activities. Promotion will
be more effective if the investment dedicated to
innovation relates the doctoral training and the
business concerned. Communications would also
ensure that the stereotypical portraits of the PhDs
give way to a knowledge of the capabilities of PhDs.
This evolution of the representations of the PhDs
would be facilitated if the content of doctoral programs would better take into account the skills demanded by the actors of the economy.
Most PhD's have used the knowledge they obtained
in their thesis work in their present job, but a far
larger share of those who continue in academia than
of those who have found other employment state
that they have used this kind of knowledge ‘to a very
large degree’. For those who find employment outside the research system, generic skills obtained
during the doctoral period are most valued; in pa rticular ‘training in systematic/analytical thinking’ and
‘training in handling complex problems’.
Research focused on careers of researchers in private companies does not talk about vocation. PhDs
are turning to private research after the failures in
the entrance into University or research organisms.
Some researchers have a career that takes place
exclusively in the research, but the vast majority of
them work in research only for a time. The company
size is a key parameter in the career of researchers
in both their insertion and their future mobility; the
bigger ones offer more opportunities for mobility.
The sector of activity is another important parameter and affects the size and the type of research
done. The family constraints are also a decisive a spect of the mobility of researchers.
Access and salary jobs in research depend largely on
professional experiences that young people have
had during their PhD (funding related to the industry
or participation in research contracts). In contrast,
young doctors who manifest a preference for their
thesis for public research or higher education are
penalized in terms of remuneration when they enter
in the private sector.
One proven way of protecting oneself from ‘precarity’ and unemployment is to obtain a university degree. However, some PhDs are experiencing increa sing difficulties in finding stable employment. Traditionally destined for careers in academic and other
publicly funded research, they have increasingly had
to look to the private sector in order to widen their
employment prospects. However, it is proving difficult for both PhDs and firms to make the necessary
adjustments.
Two main types of researchers are identified: experts and managers. These two ways of being a
researcher in a private firm define two distinct types
of careers. One that of the expert is undervalued.
The other one, the manager, like other professions
in company, is a way of promotion. Given the pyra midal structures of R&D departments, the access to
these functions is difficult. Thus, the careers of researchers are characterized by a progressive distancing from the activities of research.
PhD graduates consider that doctoral training served
their professional ambitions. However, only 73%
advise a young graduate level Master to continue in
doctoral training. The gender effect is significant;
women doctors advising less this way. The doctoral
interest seems less convincing for women than for
men. For doctors in the humanities and social sciences, it liberates more marked interest during a
change of job or employer.
The careers of researchers follow the logic of large
networks: the diploma and the training are i mportant assets; some profiles are preferred to others. The PhDs have difficulties to be recruited in
large as in small enterprises. However, the researchers who have done their thesis in a company (CIFRE
contracts) enjoy a first vocational integration and
have fewer difficulties.
The transition to work for PhD graduates relates to
conditions of the thesis period (sources of financial
supports obtained during the PhD, nature of the
research laboratory, numbers of scientific public ations, etc.). First cumulative advantages in the first
years of the thesis have a major impact on the scientific productivity of young PhD graduates but also on
their professional path.
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There is a decline in recruitment of PhDs into private
research but a job growth outside research (private
and public). The entries on higher education and
public research are marked by insecurity. The growing contracting in academic research is a risk factor
for long term research and a waste of potential
young scientists but also of possible negative effects
on technological innovation. The benefit that companies can derive basic research also depends on the
quality of the integration of young researchers to the
academic community. The diversity of jobs observed
21
suggests the difficulty has to engage in a professionalization of doctoral training.
The PhDs insertion in a job is still difficult, but different from one discipline to another. The insertion is
better when PhD students received a grant to do
these and better if there were included into a convention linking the fi rm and the university to do
these into the firm. More PhDs are looking toward
private sector but while they are not downgraded in
terms of the positions they hold, they do experience
subjective downgrading. The recruitment criteria in
private / public sectors, in research / not in research,
are different. Right from their graduation, PhDs
seem to have a career plan that will determine the
way in which they present themselves in the labour
market and the type of job they will look for. Thus
when they do not find the kind of employment they
were expecting they have difficulties to use their
skills for a conversion.
PhDs are still very few in companies in computer
science, engineering, studies and consulting. Al though this industry is a highly creative source of
employment and outlets for PhDs, firms are often
reluctant to recruit PhDs. Those that do it are generally used with the world of the university and research. To encourage the linking of businesses and
doctoral programs can be a way to remove the
brakes to the employment by improving reci procal
knowledge. The profiles of PhDs employed in the
sector, like the firms that recruit them, are specific.
Impact and Contribution
PhDs are considered an important resource for the
scientific production but also for knowledge dissemination between organisms.
There is close connection between the research and
its valorization. This valorization of research would
require looking at the social uses of science and
organizes formal debate on it.
The practices of SHS researchers in terms of valorization of their work are of these types :

dissemination of knowledge with respect to
social uses of knowledge, assessment and social
relevance of scientific knowledge (This concern
popularization, restitution of research result,
consulting)
© Oxford Research AS

research interactions with social actors (through
which the researcher makes available its ability
to produce knowledge in relation to the social
demand)

research as a response to a command negotia ted with sponsors and institutions, with a deconstruction of scientific issues and a kind of consented misunderstanding leaving some margins
to the researcher for a collateral exploitation of
the data and research results

teaching appears as a major means of valorization in tension between the reproduction of the
discipline and response to social demand for
skills training.
In all of these activities there are tensions between
academic audiences and social actors, operational
and cognitive aspects of the social demand, contextual and general knowledge.
PhD students who have a CIFRE fellowship plays a
role of mediator between the scientific and the i ndustrial world and allow a bilateral knowledge transfer between the two institutions. Their role relates
also to the informal relationships between the di fferent partners because they let a common
knowledge creation.
There are some publications that talk about univers ity as a prism through which to study the evolution of
European integration. They seek to demonstrate
how the university has taken up the subject of European but also how it i s Europeanized in its training,
as in offering degrees to students. In her book,
Bourdon (2012), for instance, portrays university
pre-cursors activists who chose to open their field of
study (economics, political and legal) to research on
the Communities in construction. She explains the
genesis of exchange programs . Starting with the
iconic Erasmus program whose success is largely due
to the action of academics in the field, it also a ddresses how the universities were involved in the
democratic transition in former Soviet countries. The
book demonstrates how Europe was built in networks, through academic activists who now undertake new challenges for institutional, environmental,
etc. Through this works, we see how are born and
take shape gradually the contours of the European
idea in this place of what the university intellectual
training, foreshadowing how it would spread in soc iety.
22
10. Poland
A number of studies concerning employment, employability, researcher training system and mobility
of young researchers have been done in Poland.
Many of the studies are based on small surveys and
call for further research in the area. Literature in
impact of SSH research was difficult to find.
Career Paths
Political, economic and social changes from the last
decades, accompanying Poland’s adherence to the
EU has also brought about changes in the educational system that prompted new opportunities along
with new challenges (Kwiek 2003). Along with the
Bologna process and a range of new laws intended
to restructure the educational system and the recruitment, promotion and working conditions in the
academia, Poland experienced a transition from the
traditional ‘elite’ higher education system to ‘mass’
higher education. According to Kwiek, this has resulted in a new set of values governing the educational system that included reconsideration of the
role and value of the academia in society (Kwiek
2003).
A number of studies have been looking at the situation of the PhD holders in the labor market. Many of
these find that having PhD degrees does not weigh
too much compared with other degrees (MA and BA)
in the different professions, especially in the nonacademic fields and private sector (Sztabinski 2002;
Kwiek 2003; Kwiek 2004). They call for structural
changes and reforms of the research education system in order encompass wider and transferrable
skills to the non-academic labor market (Kwiek 2004;
Prawelska-Skrzypek and Baran 2010). There is a need
for matching the demand for competence in the
labor market and the supply of competence from the
higher educational organizations through: empowering the supervisors; more openness in the competence transfer between the university and nonacademic sectors; more openness in col laboration
and international mobility; instruments encouraging
doctoral students to commercialize their research
achievements and engagement of non-academics in
doctoral curricula (Prawelska-Skrzypek and Baran
2010).
© Oxford Research AS
Several surveys have been implemented to study the
employment conditions of the PhD holders in Poland. However their data is quite limited either because the sample was limited to one single Univers ity (Całek, Dudek et al. 2011) or because the response rate was too low (Sztabinski 2002). Nevertheless, the authors found that most of the PhD holders
were employed in the university, in which they obtained their degree, while a minority worked for the
public administration or in private sectors. This finding is also confirmed by another study done by Batorski et. al., which found that between 85 % to 95 %
of the employees in the largest and most important
universities obtained their PhDs at their current
employing institutions (Batorski, Bojanowski et al.
2010). Among those working in the private sector, a
third of them were not working in the field related
to their PhD. (Sztabinski 2002). The second study
focusing on PhD graduates from Jagiellonian University found that that 80% of these had a prior employment to the PhD studies and were currently
employed at a university (95%) in permanent pos itions (74%), were satisfied with their jobs (82%) and
worked in the area of their interests (98%) (Całek,
Dudek et al. 2011). The latter findings indicate a
possible bias in the sample that may have included
established academics at the universities who have
upgraded their qualifications in the system – a group
which cannot represent the entire population of
young researchers.
Mobility of researchers has been another focus in
Polish studies. A study done by Batorski et. al., looking at inter-institutional and geographical mobility of
PhD graduates in Poland has confirmed correlations
between job mobility and scientific productivity,
between international mobility and international
cooperation and calls for further research in this
area (Batorski, Bojanowski et al. 2010). In addition,
the study found that promotion to professorship is
becoming increasingly difficult to follow, especially
for women. When it comes to international mobility
of Polish researchers, this is quite limited (Knauff,
Konieczna et al. 2008), but younger researchers from
humanities and life sciences were more prone to
move abroad, while researchers undergoing habilitation and reaching professorship status were less
prone to change institutions (Batorski, Bojanowski et
al. 2010).
Although, international mobility had an overall pos itive effect, depending on its timing and the length, it
can have different effects on the researchers’ careers. An evaluation of the FPS KOLUMB Programme, based on interviews with PhD holders who
23
received funding from the programme, found that
longer mobility periods at later stages in the research career were less constructive than short-term
expert exchanges (Wagner 2009). They could also
see that the fellows who were more mobile in their
MA and PhD studies, they were more open to mobi lity in the later stages of their career (Wagner 2009).
A consequence of mobility is the phenomenon of
‘post-return depression’, when the researchers returning from abroad are facing the reality at home
institutions. Authors call therefore for better support
for the mobile researchers and for systemic reforms
that would make universities and research institutes
more attractive places to return (Knauff, Konieczna
et al. 2008; Wagner 2009).
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24
11. Slovakia
There are a couple of studies that have had mobility
and careers for PhD holders in Slovakia. These however do not provide specific information for SSH, but
encompass all disciplines.
Career Paths
German or French were putting the students spea king them in a relative advantage. A recent study,
conducted by Pazmanyova (2011) looked at hindering and success factors in participating in mobility
programs of Slovak universities. Pazmanyova found,
based on student survey, that there is still work to
be done concerning dissemination of knowledge of
studying opportunities abroad, simplification of
administration, the system of acceptance and synchronization of credits earned abroad and communication
between
the
involved universities
(Pazmanyová 2011).
Mobility and its consequences have been in the
center of the Slovak studies in the field of career
paths, employment and graduate destinations. The
chain of reforms imposed through joining the EU and
the hard economic conditions imposed by the fina ncial crisis created tough conditions for the scientific
development in the country, which also meant difficult working conditions for the researchers
(Velichová 2003; Horníková 2006). Studies show that
the number of women in the academic hierarchy is
decreasing after the PhD and that women dominate
in the SSH (Velichová 2003).
Most of the graduates choose to leave academic for
jobs in the industry or business (Velichová 2003). A
bigger problem though is the reverse part of international mobility. While the country struggles to make
its researchers collaborate and gain competence
from working abroad, brain drain leading to lack of
highly qualified researchers is a major problem that
persists (Horníková 2006; Stachová 2009). Most of
the researchers choose to work in the Czech Republic, Germany, the USA, the UK and Ireland (Velichová
2003; Stachová 2009). Both scientific studies and
policy papers call for governmental measures to halt
brain drain and develop mechanisms to attract the
Slovak researchers back home (Stachová 2009).
A couple of studies focused on student mobility
through European exchange programmes. The target
group in these studies is larger, comprising students
at BA and MA levels. Nevertheless these provide
some findings and recommendations that can be
relevant for the target group in this study, namely
PhD holders and Postdoc students. Balasz (2010) has
examined international student flow through stati stical analyses and found some key factors important
in international mobility. The two dominant factors
concerned language advantage and trade flows
(Vladimír 2010). Thus, languages that were spoken in
economic centers or by cultural proximity: English,
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25
12. Hungary
There are a considerable number of studies on career paths, working conditions and mobility in Hungary. Four of the quantitative studies however had
methodological limitations in terms of low response
or small samples of respondents to the surveys, with
findings that could not be generalized to a larger
population of PhD holders in Hungary. Some of the
studies focused exclusively on other disciplines such
as biology, natural sciences and technologies. And
some others preceded the year 2000, which was set
up as the start year for this review. Studies on i mpact, contribution and engagement of SSH disciplines were not found in Hungary.
ers, showed generally positive satisfaction with the
PhD training received and the value of the PhD diploma on the market (Fábri 2008). The study could
show that the PhD training has had an important
role in their career development and that professional connections originating from the undergraduate and graduate studies are determinative in their
career (Fábri 2008). The growing interest in this topic
is showed by the several ongoing PhD dissertations
dealing with the career of PhD degree holders in
various fields.
Career Paths
Mobility and the resulting brain drain is the predominant theme in the Hungarian studies on careers,
working conditions and employment trends. Mobil ity also comes into focus when the researchers look
into knowledge flows, career planning, working conditions, employability of PhD-holders and distribution of PhD holders among disciplines (Inzelt, Gál et
al. 2000; Fináncz 2005; Fináncz 2007; Vincze 2011).
Some of the key findings from the reviewed studies
were that international mobility of the Hungarian
PhD holders in SSH is relatively low, compared with
the natural sciences and engineering, the latter being the field where the country experiences the
highest brain drain (Csanády and László 2006;
Horváth 2011; Vincze 2011). The USA and the EU are
the most common destinations for the Hungarian
researchers, with the latter being increasingly popular after the EU accession in 2004 (Csanády, Kmetty
et al. 2008). An emerging trend among the researchers is to start the career abroad (Csanády and László
2006) and return to the home country at a later
stage in life (Csanády, Kmetty et al. 2008). Among
the reasons for emigrating abroad were found to
be: higher incomes, high standard of living, opportunities for competence development in the destination countries and instable political situation and
corruption in the home-country (Csanády, Kmetty et
al. 2008).
A survey covering all scientific disciplines is based on
a sample exceeding 1000 respondents – PhD hold© Oxford Research AS
26
13. Portugal
There are a number of studies in Portugal that a ddress careers, employment and researchers’ destinations in the different disciplines. These focus mainly
on gender issues, mobility and labor market situation for the researchers. Studies on impact and contributions of SSH researchers upon society, market
or scientific development were not found.
Career paths
Following modernization trends, the number of
women in higher education and research has i ncreased in Portugal. While men researchers are
overrepresented in the natural sciences - and technical disciplines, there is a relative balance between
man and women researchers in the SSH (Perista and
Silva 2004; Carvalho and Santiago 2009; Araújo and
Cruz 2010). However the welfare system and labor
market structure still allow for considerable gender
differences in terms of career advancement, job
opportunities, mobility and job satisfaction. Through
a number of studies evidence has been gathered
showing that mostly men researchers achieve higher
and more stable job positions in the academia
(Araújo and Cruz 2010) and that women show a
slower progression in the academic career and lower
job satisfaction compared with men researchers
(Casaca and Lopes 2008; Perista 2009).
Among the key factors that influence these gender
differences in the academic labor market were found
to be the family institution in Portugal and the lack
of welfare mechanisms necessary to balance family
and work life. Family support and child care are the
areas where women have the main responsibility.
Consequently, lack of childcare facilities, lack of
employment conditions that take this into account
and women’s family priorities on the one side and
increasing demands for professional dedication connected to academic advancement, lack of job stabi lity and lack of career development opportunities, on
the other side - all these in combination influence
women’s career choices in general in Portugal
(Casaca and Lopes 2008; Perista 2009).
difficult to find a stable and well -paid academic job is
for those researchers who are returning from abroad
(Perista and Silva 2004). Mobility of Portuguese
researchers has been a focus for a number of studies. A study that had mapped the profile of the immigrated researchers and their perspectives on return found that most of the researchers who moved
abroad in late 90’ and beginning of 00’ were still
abroad and intended to remain there (Fontes 2008).
However most of them expressed a desire to return
if Portugal offered more favorable working conditions.
Another study found importantly that a major part
of the researchers residing abroad maintained regular and close relations with the Portuguese academic
world and discussed the important potential of these
researchers as ‘nodal points’ for transnational networks and knowledge transfer (Delicado 2008). Consequently, the article calls for governmental inves tments in creation of favorable conditions for return
and supporting of continuous communication between ‘local’ and ‘immigrated’ researchers in order
to maintain the knowledge transfer (Delicado 2008).
Research funding, publication activity and pursuit of
an academic career go hand in hand also in Portugal.
However universities still struggle with funding,
internationalization and incentive mechanisms for
young researchers (Horta 2010). An evaluation of
existing incentive schemes has shown their positive
effects on researchers’ career paths. An evaluation
of the Gulbenkian Young Researchers Incentive Programme could show that the young researchers
from different disciplines who received funding from
the programme continued to work in the same areas
and that factors such as academic qualifications,
research projects, publications, mobility, internationalization and networking were important dimensions in their career paths (da Costa, Conceição et al.
2009).
Although some favorable indications were found in
terms of general employability and job satisfaction
among researchers (Gaio Alves 2005), especially
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28
14. Annexes
Annex 1: Literature Review Template
Title
Full reference of the study
The nature of the study
Author affiliation
Study country of origin
Language
Topic, please put an "x" in the
appropriate box(es)
Key objectives of the study
Key findings of the study
Key policy recommendations/key
Abstract
Keywords
* please specify whether the document is a peer reviewed research article, a research article, a book, an evaluation report or a policy document
Source: Ox ford Research AS
© Oxford Research AS
29
© Oxford Research AS
30
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