RadiationSafety
Manual
(RevisedMarch2010)
UpdatedAugust2016
StanfordUniversity
VeteransAffairsPaloAlto
HealthCareSystem
EnvironmentalHealthandSafety,StanfordUniversity,StanfordCalifornia
RadiationSafetyManual
(RevisedMarch2010)
UpdatedAugust2016
StanfordUniversity
VeteransAffairs
PaloAltoHealthCareSystem
EnvironmentalHealthandSafety,StanfordUniversity,StanfordCalifornia
CREDITS
ThisRadiationSafetyManualwasdevelopedbytheHealthPhysicsstaffofStanford
University.TheRadiationSafetyManualispublishedandcopyrightedbyStanford
University.
Formoreinformationandupdatesonhealthandsafety,visittheEH&Swebsite:
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/
RadiationSafetyManual
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I
PART 1 THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING RADIATION
1
Sources of ionizing radiation
Radioactivity
Properties of radioactivity and units of measure
Electronic sources of ionizing radiation
Interactions of particulate radiation with matter
Interactions of photons with matter
Measurement of radiation and a unit of exposure
Biological effects of radiation and units of dose
ALARA policy
General workplace safety guidance
References for additional information
PART 2 REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING RADIATION
10 CFR Part 19--Notices, Instructions, and Reports to Workers; Inspections
10 CFR Part 20--Standards for Protection Against Radiation
10 CFR Part 35--Medical Use of Byproduct Material
Title 17--California Code of Regulations
Responsibilities
Words of caution
1
2
9
10
12
13
14
19
23
23
26
27
27
28
31
31
31
32
PART 3 ADMINISTRATIVE AND TECHNICAL PROCEDURES
33
General
Controlled Radiation Authorizations (CRAs) for radioactive materials
Review and approval of applications; amendments
Human use clinical procedures and research
Controlled Machine Authorizations (CMAs) for radiation devices
Setting up the radioactive materials laboratory
Setting up the radiation device laboratory
Signs and labels
Personnel monitoring
Ordering and receiving radioactive material
Use and transfer records
Surveys
Radioactive Waste
Problems Related to Radioactive Wastes
Response to spills, losses, and other incidents
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)I
33
34
39
40
41
43
44
45
46
48
48
50
52
57
58
PART 4 APPENDICES
62
Glossary
Safety data sheets for commonly-used radionuclides
Safety Data Sheet
Reports applicable to the institutional use of radiation
10 CFR Part 20 Appendix C- Quantities of licensed material requiring labeling
Conversion Tables
Signs and Labels
Forms
Index
63
69
70
80
82
92
93
96
107
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Typical beta-spectra
5
Figure 1.2 Maximum range or beta particles
6
Figure 1.3 Typical gamma-ray spectrum
7
Figure 1.4 X-rays
11
Figure 1.5 The photoloectric effect
13
Figure 1.6 Compton scatter
13
Figure 1.7 A simple gas detector
15
Figure 1.8 The characteristic curve for gas detectors
15
Figure 1.9 Half value layer for photon energies from 10 keV to 100 MeV
15
Figure 1.10 Typical film badge
17
Figure 1.11 Sources of radiation dose in the United States
21
Figure 2.1 Radiation symbol
29
LIST OF TABLES
II
Table 1.1 Maximum energy and half-life of selected beta-emitters
5
Table 1.2 Γ- factor, half-life, photopeak ,and half value layer for selected gamma emitters
8
Table 1.3 Standard work rules for radiochemical laboratories
25
Table 2.1 Dose limits for adult workers, minor workers, and members of the public
29
Table 2.2 Posting Requirements
30
Table 3.1 QLM quantities
34
Table 3.2 Controlled Radiation Authorization (CRA) quantities and terms
38
Table 3.3 Action levels for removable contamination
51
Table 3.4 approximate detection efficiencies for some common radionuclides and detectors
52
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Part 1 THE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF IONIZING
RADIATION
Thediscoveryofx-raysin1895,andradioactivityin1896,providedtwofundamentalfoundationstones
fortherevolutioninphysicalsciencethatoccurredinthetwentiethcentury.However,thefieldof
radiationscienceissufficientlyspecializedthatitmayonlybementionedinpassingatthe
undergraduatelevel.
Thispartisaprimerontheoriginsofionizingradiation,itsinteractionwithmatter,itsmeasurement,its
potentialforadversehealtheffects,andthemeasuresusedtoensureasafeworkplace.Therearealso
manyuniquecharacteristicsrelatedtoradioactivityandionizingradiation;thosethatareimportantto
radiationsafety,specificallytime,distance,shielding,andcleanlinessintheradiochemistrylab,willbe
examined.Foradditionalinformation,consultthereferenceslistedattheendofthispart.
Therearemanytermsofartspecifictoionizingradiationandouradministrativestructuretoensureits
safeuse.ThesetermsaredefinedintheGlossaryinPart4.
SOURCESOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Weareconstantlyexposedtoionizingradiationinboththenaturalandthemoderntechnological
environment.Thissectiondescribesthesourcesofionizingradiationusedintheresearchandteaching
environment.
Radiochemicals
Theevolutionofmedicalresearchandpatientcareoverthelastfiftyyearswas
madepossibleinlargepartbytheuseofradioactiveatomstolabelmolecules.
Thistechnologyprovidesasimplemethodbywhichachemicalcompoundcanbe
marked,observed,andmeasuredasitisprocessedbyasimplecellcultureora
humanbeing.Thereareapplicationsthroughoutthelife,physical,and
engineeringsciences.
Thequantityofanaturallyoccurringanalytecanbemeasuredwithisotope
dilutionanalysis.Similartechnologiespermitthestudyof,forexample,solubility
constantsofslightlysolublesalts.Environmentalsamplescanbeanalyzedusing
radiometrictitrationorbymeasuringnaturallyoccurringradiotracers.
SealedSources
Manydevicesusesealedradioactivesourcesbecausetheyprovideaconvenient,
inexpensivesourceofionizingradiation.Sealedradioactivesourcesareoften
madebyencapsulatingthesaltormetalofaradionuclideinaweldedmetal
containerwhosesizetypicallyrangesfromsmallerthanapencilleadtothesizeof
agolfball.Theencapsulationensuresthattherewillbenoradioactive
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
1
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
contaminationofthelaboratory.Alpha“sealed”sourceshaveanopenwindow
constructionwiththesourcematerialbondedtothesurfaceofasilverfoil
mountedintherecessoftheplasticdisc.Sealedsourceapplicationsrangefrom
lowactivityalphasourcesthatareusedinhomesmokedetectorsthroughhigh
activity,self-shieldedirradiatorsthatpermitthestudyofdoseeffects.
X-rayMachines
Anyelectronicdevicethathasfast-movingelectronsisapotentialsourceof
ionizingradiation.Oneisthediagnosticx-raymachine.Firstusedin1896,it
permittednon-invasiveimagingofinternalhumanstructures.Today,intheUS
alone,diagnosticradiologyaccountsfortwo-thirdsofourdosefromman-made
sources.
X-rayDiffraction
andX-ray
Fluorescence
Becausetheirwavelengthiscomparabletothelatticeseparationincrystals,x-ray
diffractionunitscanbeusedtostudythearrangementofatomsincrystals.X-ray
fluorescencepermitsthechemicalanalysisofasamplebecauseeachelementhas
auniquefluorescentspectrumwhoseintensityisproportionaltothatelement’s
concentrationinthesample.Bothtechniquesrequirenarrow,intensex-ray
beams.
HighenergyX-ray Highenergyx-raymachines,operatinginthe4MVto25MVenergyrange,are
usedtotreatmanyillnesses,andvery-high-energyparticleacceleratorsareused
machinesand
particle
byphysiciststounderstandtheinternalstructureoftheelementaryparticles.
accelerators
Electron
Microscopes
Althoughtheyareelectronicdevices,electronmicroscopesdonotnormally
presentaradiationhazardduetotheirengineeringdesignandoperating
parameters.Microscopistswhouseuranylacetate(UA)whenexamining
biologicalspecimensshouldobservehazardouschemicalprecautions.Anylab
workerthatactivelyhandlesthebulkvialtopreparestockUAsolutionsmustbe
licensedunderaControlledRadiationAuthorization(CRA)becauseofthetoxic
andradiologicalhazardsposedbyUAinhalation.Thisdoesnotincludeworkers
usingonlythediluteUAsolutiontopreparesamplesorslides.Workingwiththe
dilutesolutionitselfdoesnotrequirestafftobeonaCRAortoreceive
radiologicaltraining.HealthPhysicsshouldbecontactedforguidanceregarding
CRAreviewanddisposal.
CabinetX-ray
machines
Cabinetx-raymachinesareenclosed,self-shielded,interlockedirradiation
chambers.Themachinecanonlyoperatewhenthechamberdoorissecurely
closed.Theexposureratesateverylocationontheexteriormeetstherate
specifiedforuncontrolledareas.
RADIOACTIVITY
2
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Radioactivityisthespontaneousemissionofchargedparticlesorphotonsbyanatomicnucleusthatisin
anunstableconfiguration.Thiseventiscalledanucleartransformation,adecay,oradisintegration.
Eachdecayeventinvolveslossofmassorcharge.Thereareavarietyofradioactivedecaymodes.One
ofthebestsourcesofinformationondecaymodesistheChartofNuclidespublishedbytheKnolls
AtomicPowerLaboratory.Decayschemesforselectedisotopesalsoappearinmanytextsandreference
books.Foramorecompleteintroductorydiscussion,seeAlpench.3,Hendeech.3,Turnerch.3,or
Bushbergch.14.
Alpha
Thealphaparticleissimplyaheliumnucleus,comprisedoftwoprotonsandtwo
neutrons.Itisassociatedwiththeradioactivedecayofelementsofhighatomic
number.Forexample,
226Ra→222Rn+4α
Eachalphaparticlehasachargeof+2andamassof4.Mosthaveaninitialkinetic
energyofabout5MeV.Theyarefrequentlyaccompaniedbyhighenergygamma
rays.Almostallradionuclidesthatdecaybyalphaemissionhaveatomicnumber
greaterthan83(bismuth).SeeKranech.8.
Propertiesofαparticles
Becauseoftheir+2chargeandrelativelylowvelocity,alphaparticlesaredensely
ionizing,depositinganenormousamountofenergyateachcollisionwithan
attenuatingatom.Thus,theylosealloftheirkinetic,ionizingenergyafter
travellingaveryshortdistanceinanymedium.Athinpieceofpaper,orthelayer
ofdeadcellsonyourskinsurface,willcompletelyattenuateabeamofalpha
particles.Therefore,alphaparticlesposenoexternalhazard.However,if
ingested,theycandeliveraverylargeradiationdosetotissue.Forexample,
radiumisinthesamecolumnoftheperiodictableofelementsascalcium,andisa
boneseeker.Ingestionofradiumcancauseaverylargeradiationdosetobloodformingcells.
Beta
Thebetaparticleisanelectronthathasbeenejectedfromaneutron-richnucleus.
Itdiffersfromanelectrononlybecauseitisaproductofradioactivedecay.This
leadsustoobservethattheneutronisessentiallyaprotonwithanattached
electron.Duringtheradioactivedecayevent,theneutronrevertstoaproton,an
energeticelectronandaneutrinothatescapesthenucleus.Forexample,
14
Themaximumkineticenergyofthebetaparticle,inthisexample0.156MeV,can
rangefromaslowas0.019MeVfora3Hdecaytoashighas1.7MeVfora32P
decay,or3.3MeVfora214Bidecay.Thehigherenergyparticlesaremore
penetrating.SeeTable 1.1forotherexamplesofbetaemitters.
C→14N+0β- (0.156 MeV) + ν
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
3
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Unlikethediscreteenergiesobservedforalphaparticlesandgammarays,the
averagekineticenergyofallbetaparticlesfromagivenisotopicsampleisabout
one-thirdthemaximumenergythatispossibleforthatisotope.SeeFigure1.1.
Themaximumandaveragearecharacteristicfortheisotope.Foralowenergy
betaparticle,wemightaskwherethemissingenergyhasgone.Toexplainthis,
Paulipostulatedtheexistenceofanewparticle,theneutrino(ν),emitted
simultaneouslyandsharingtheenergyofthedecayeventwiththebetaparticle.
Neutrinoshavelittlemassandnocharge,anddonotfrequentlyinteractwith
matter.
Propertiesof
β-particles
Aswithalphaparticles,betaparticlesarecompletelyattenuatedbysmall
thicknessesofcommonmaterials.SeeFigure1.2.Theyposeanexternalradiation
dosetotheskinonly.AhighenergybetaparticlefromaP-32decayeventcanonly
penetrateabout8millimetersoftissue.Ourradiation-sensitiveorgansare
typicallyatleast12to25millimetersbelowtheskinsurface.Abetaemittercan
causeradiationdoseifingested.SeealsoKranech9,andShapiroPartII.
Alowatomicnumbermaterialsuchasplasticisusedforshieldingabetaemitter.
Thedoseratefromapointbetasourcewithenergygreaterthan0.5MeVis:
R=(2.7x105A)/r2
WhereRisthedoseratemeasuredinrad/hr,AisactivityinCi,andrisdistancein
cm.Forexample,thebetadoserateat3cmfroma1mCivialofP-32is:
2.7x105x0.001/[3]2=30rad/hr
Positron
4
Afewisotopes,suchas11C,13N,and18F,decaybypositronemission.Apositron,
theanti-particleofabetaparticle,isemittedbyaproton-richnucleus.Ithasthe
samemassasanelectron,butcarriesapositivecharge.Duringthedecayeventa
protonconvertstoaneutronandapositiveelectron,orpositron,whichisejected
fromthenucleus.Thepositrontypicallytravelsnotmorethanafewmillimeters
beforeannihilatingwithanelectrontoyieldtwo0.511MeVphotons.That
interactionrepresentsaconversionofmasstoradiantelectromagneticenergy.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Radionuclide
EmaxinMeV
Half-life
H-3
0.019
12.3y
C-14
0.156
5730y
P-32
1.710
14.3d
P-33
0.249
25.4d
S-35
0.167
87.4d
Cl-36
0.709
3E5y
Ca-45
0.257
163d
Kr-85
0.687
10.8y
Sr-90*
0.546
28.6y
Y-90*
2.28
64.1h
*Sr-90andY-90areaparent-daughterpair,andare
inequilibriuminasource.
Table 1.1 MAXIMUM ENERGY AND HALF-LIFE OF SELECTED BETAEMITTERS.Theaverageenergyofbeta-particleisaboutone-thirdofthe
maximum.
FIGURE 1.1 TYPICAL BETA-SPECTRA. Betaspectrademonstratetwocharacteristics:maximumbetaparticleenergy;theaverage
betaparticleenergy(typicallyaboutone-thirdofthemaximum).
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
5
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
FIGURE 1.2 MAXIMUM RANGE OF BETA-PARTICLES AS A FUNCTION OF ENERGY IN THE VARIOUS MATERIALS INDICATED.
FromRadiological Health Handbook, p. 122.
6
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Beta-Gamma
Mostbetaemittersdecaytoanexciteddaughterstatethatreleasesexcess
energyfromthenucleusasagammaray.Agammarayissimplyahighenergy
photonemittedbyanucleusduringitstransitionfromahigherenergyexcited
statetoalowerenergyunexcitedstate.Gammaraysarealwaysprecededbya
chargedparticledecay,mostcommonlyabeta-event.Forexample,
137
Cs→137mBa+0β-(1.176MeV)
137m
Ba→137Ba+0γ(0.662MeV).
Althoughtheseconddecay,calledanisomerictransitionfromthemetastable
statetothegroundstate,hasahalf-lifeof2.54minutes,weseldomchemically
separatethe137mBadaughterfromthe137Csparent.Thus,itisnotuncommon
tocolloquiallyrefertoa“.662MeVcesium-137gammaray,”althoughitinfact
emanatesfromametastablebariumnucleus.SeeKranech.10.
FIGURE 1.3 TYPICAL GAMMA RAY SPECTRUM. The spectrum of gamma rays emitted by a given
isotopehavedistinct,characteristicenergypeaksthatpermitidentificationoftheisotope.Thisis
Cs-137spectrumtakenwithaNaI(TI)detector.
Isomerictransition
Ifametastabledaughterissufficientlylong-lived,itcanbechemicallyseparated
fromtheparent,thusyieldingapuregammaemitter.Themostimportant
exampleis
99
Mo→99mTc+0β-(1.214 MeV)
99m
Tc→99Tc+0γ (0.142 MeV)
Thehalf-livesofthereactionsare2.7daysand6.0hoursrespectively.Thusitis
possibletochemicallyseparate99mTcfromitsparentsampleof99Mo,yieldinga
puregammaemittersamplewithahalf-lifeof6.0hours.Tc-99misthe
radionuclideofchoicefornon-invasivenuclearmedicineimaging.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
7
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Radio
nuclide
Γ-Factor
Half-
life
Eγ
(MeV)
Eγ
%
HVL
mmPb
I-125
2.75
60.1d
.027
113
0.03
Co-57
1.512
270.9d
.122
86
0.15
Tc-99m
0.612
6.02h
.140
90
0.3
I-131
2.83
8.0d
.364
82
3.0
Cs-137
3.82
30.0y
.662
89
6.5
Mo-99
1.13
66h
.140
91
7.7
Co-60
13.7
5.3y
1.17,1.33
100
13.5
Ra-226
0.121
1600y
several
-
16.6
TABLE 1.2 R-FACTOR, HALF-LIFE PHOTOPEAK, AND HALF VALUE LAYER (HVL) FOR SELECTED GAMMA
EMITTERS.Eγ,thegammaenergyisbasedonthehighestpercentageabundance;thegammaenergyis
basedonthehighestpercentageabundanceEγ%.
The gamma factor indicates dose rate in R/hr at 1 cm from a 1 mCi point source. Its units are R2
cm /mCi-hr. It can be used to calculate the dose rate at a distance from a point source of the
radionuclidebyusingtheequation:
R=(AoΓ)/r2
WhereRisthedoserate;AisactivityinmCi;Γ isthegammafactor;andrdistanceincm. Forexample,thedoserateat10cmfroma2mCisourceofCo-57is:
2
-2
R=2mCix(1.512Rcm /mCi-hr)x(10cm) =0.03024R/hr.
Thehalfvaluelayer,orHVL,isthethicknessofshieldingmaterialneededtoreducetheexposurerate
byhalf.
Internal
conversion
Ifanexcited,metastablenucleusgoestoitsgroundstatebytransferringits
energytoavalenceelectronthatisejected,theprocessiscalledinternal
conversion.Thisisobservedmorefrequentlyinheavynuclei;gammadecayis
thepreferredmodeforlighternuclei.
Electroncapture
Someproton-richradionuclidesdecaybyelectroncapture.Anorbitingelectron,
usuallyfromtheKshell,entersthenucleusandcombineswithaprotontoyield
aneutron.Itsvacancyisfilledbyacascadingvalenceelectron,whichreleasesits
excessenergyasacharacteristicx-ray.Alternatively,theexcessenergycan
causetheejectionofavalenceelectron,calledanAugerelectron.
Spontaneous
fission
Afewverymassivenuclei,suchasCf-252,candecaybyspontaneousfission.
About97%ofCf-252atomsdecaybyalphaemission.Theremaining3%ofthe
neutron-richnucleisplitintotwolighternuclei,withthereleaseofanaverage
3.8neutronsperfissionevent.
Neutrons
Smallneutronsourcescanbefabricatedbymixinganalpha-emittersuchas238Pu
or241Amwith9Be,whichhasalooselyboundneutron.Thenuclearreactionis:
4
8
α + 9Be→12C+1n
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Thesesourcesarecommonlyusedinphysicsandanalyticalchemistry
experimentswhenalow-fluxneutronsourceisneeded.
PROPERTIESOFRADIOACTIVITYANDUNITSOFMEASURE
Characteristic
decayscheme
Themodesandcharacteristicenergiesthatcomprisethedecayschemeforeach
radioisotopearespecific.Ifinstrumentationissufficientlysensitive,itispossible
toidentifywhichisotopesarepresentinasample,oralternatively,tomeasure
onlytheradioisotopeofinterestwithinasamplecontainingseveral
radioisotopes.
Half-life(T1/2)
Probablythebestknownpropertyofradioactivityisthehalf-lifeT1/2.Afteronehalflifehaselapsed,thenumberofradioactivedecayeventsinasampleperunit
timewillbeobservedtohavereducedbyone-half.ThedecayrateoractivityAt
atanytimetcanbedescribedmathematically:
At=A0e-.693t/T½
e-.693isequalto½,andtheexponentt/T1/2describesthenumberofelapsed
half-lives.Therefore,tandT1/2mustbeexpressedinthesameunit.For
example,thehalf-lifeofI-131is8.0days.Ifavialwerelabeled"29mCiat1pm
June3,"theactivityinthevialat1amJune6is:
29mCie-.693(2.5/8.0)=23mCi
Alternatively,ifnisthenumberofelapsedhalf-lives,then:
At=A0(1/2)n
29mCi(1/2)0.31=23mCi
Half-livesrangefrombillionthsofasecondtobillionsofyears.Thehalf-lifeis
characteristicoftheradioisotope,andcannotbeinferred.Thehalf-lifeis
includedwiththedescriptionofthedecayscheme.
Decayconstant(λ) Thenumberofdecayeventsinasampleperunittime,oractivityA,is
proportionaltothenumberofradioactiveparentatomsNinthesample;A=λ N.Forexample,thedecayconstantfor99mTcis
0.115/hour.Thehalf-lifeisrelatedtotheisotope’sdecayconstant;λ=.693/
T1/2.Thus,wecanalsowritethedecayequation:
At=A0e- t
λ
Forexample,ifavialcontains100mCiofTc-99mat7am,theactivityat7pmis:
100mCie-0.115/hrx12hr=25mCi
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THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Whenusinganyoftheseequations,besurethatthesameunitoftime,whether
hoursoryears,isusedtomeasurebothhalflifeT1/2,ordecayconstantl,and
elapsedtimet.
Measuresof
activity(A)
Thenumberofdisintegrations,ordecayevents,ornucleartransformations,ina
sampleperunittimeisitsactivityA.Twocommoninformalunitsare
disintegrationspersecondanddisintegrationsperminute.
Curie(Ci)
TheUSunitofactivityisthecurie(Ci).Onecurieis2.2x1012disintegrationsper
minute,or3.7x1010disintegrationspersecond.Commonmultiplesarethe
millicurieandmicrocurie.
Becquerel(Bq)
TheSIunitofactivityisthebecquerel(Bq).Onebecquerelis1disintegrationper
second.Thecommonmultipleisthemegabecquerel.Notethat1mCi=37MBq.
ELECTRONICSOURCESOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Productionofxrays
Radioactivityisnottheonlysourceofionizingradiation.Electronsareemitted
byafilamentheatedwithanelectriccurrent;theprocessiscalledthermionic
emission.Iftheelectronsarethenacceleratedthroughanelectricpotentialof
severalkVtoseveralMV,andthenstoppedinstantlyinahighatomicnumber
metaltargetanode,someoftheirkineticenergycanbeconvertedtohighenergy
photonscalledbremstrahlungradiation,fromtheGermantermforbraking
radiation.Thisradiationismorecommonlyknownasx-rays.However,mostof
thekineticenergyisconvertedtoheat.
Forelectronsincidentonathicktarget,thefractionFofenergyconvertedtoxraysisapproximately:
F=7x10-4ZEk
Zistheatomicnumberofthetarget,andEkistheacceleratingvoltageinMV.
Therefore,a1MVelectronbeamacceleratedtoatungsten
(Z=74)targetwillbeabout5%efficientintheproductionofx-rays.
F=7x10-4x74x1=0.052
Theother95%ofthekineticenergyoftheelectronsisconvertedtoheat.
Becausex-rayproductionisdirectlyproportionaltotheatomicnumberofthe
targetandtheacceleratingvoltageofthedevice,reducingbothvariablescan
dramaticallyreducethex-rayoutputofadevice.Thisexplainswhyelectron
microscopes,cathoderaytubes,andtelevisiontubesarenotsignificantsources
ofx-rayexposure.Althoughtheyalsohaveaheatedfilamentandabeamof
10
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
acceleratedelectrons,thetargetisalowZmaterial,andacceleratingvoltages
aretypically20kVto50kV.Becausethemaximumx-rayenergycannotexceed
theacceleratingvoltage,mostofthex-raysproducedcannotpenetratetheglass
envelopeusedtocontainthevacuum.
X-rayspectra
Anx-rayspectrumiscontinuous,withenergiesrangingfromnear0keVtothe
maximumappliedvoltage.Intensityspikesatenergiesthatarecharacteristicof
themetalusedtomakethetargetaresuperimposed.SeeFigure1.3.This
processformsthebasisforradiographicinternalimaginginmedicine.Itisalso
usedextensivelyincrystallographystudies.
FIGURE 1.4 X-RAYS.(a)x-raysareproducedwhenanelectronloseskineticenergywhileinteractingwithatargetnucleus.(b)xraysdemonstrateacontinuousbremstrahlungspectrumwithspikesthatarecharacteristicoftheanodetargetmaterial,inthis
casetungsten.Themaximumx-rayenergy,whenexpressedinkeV,isequaltothevoltageappliedbetweenthecathodeand
anode,inthiscase120kV.Theaveragex-rayenergyisaboutone-thirdofthemaximum.
X-raydiffraction
andx-ray
fluorescence
Aspecialwordofcautionisappropriateforthosewhouseanalyticalx-ray
devices.Althoughthebeamisnarrow,itsintensitycanbe500radspersecond
atthesample,and10,000radspersecondatthex-raytubewindow.Justafew
minuteshandlingasamplewiththebeamoncouldcauseulcerationthatcan
onlybetreatedbyamputation.
Thedoserateforyourunitcanbecalculated:
R(rad/sec)=50xV(kV)xI(mA)xZtarget/[r(cm)]2x74
Forexample,thedoserateat2cmfromacoppertargetoperatedat80kVand
100mAis:
50x80x100x29/(2)2x74=39000rad/sec
Forafurtherdiscussion,seeHealthPhysics.15(6):481-486,December1968.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
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THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Neutrons
Neutronscanbecreatedbybombardingtargetswithhighenergyphotons:
γ + 9Be→8Be+1n,
oracceleratedchargedparticles,forexampledeuterons:
2
d+3He→4He+1n
INTERACTIONSOFPARTICULATERADIATIONWITHMATTER
Alphaparticles
Thealphaparticle,comprisedoftwoprotonsandtwoneutrons,isverymassive,
hashighkineticenergy,andachargeof+2.Duetoitsrelativelylowvelocity,it
leavesadensetrackofionizationscausedbycoulumbicinteractions.Analpha
particlecanpenetrateabout3cmofair,butonlyafewmicronsoftissue.
Betaparticles
Thebetaparticleisahighspeedelectron,withachargeof-1,ejectedfroma
nucleus.Thebetaparticlesfromagivenisotopehaveacontinuousspectrumof
energythatischaracterizedonlybythemaximumenergyassociatedwiththe
isotope.Dependingonthemaximumenergy,betaparticlescanpenetrateafew
micronstoafewcentimetersoftissue.Theyalsoleaveamoderatelydensetrack
ofionizationscausedbycoulumbicinteractions.
Liketheelectronicdevicesdescribedabove,betaparticleswillproducex-rays
whenabsorbedbyatarget.Thefractionofbetaenergyconvertedtox-raysis
approximately:
-4
F=3.3x10 ZEmax
Zistheatomicnumberofthetarget,andEmaxisthemaximumbetaenergyin
MeV.ThisrelationshipexplainswhyweuselowZmaterialstoshieldbeta
sources.Thereislessbremstrahlungproduction.
Neutrons
12
Dependingontheirsource,neutronscanrangeinenergyfromashighastensof
MeVto0.015eV.Becausetheyareuncharged,theyinteractprimarilyby
physicalcollisionwithabsorbernuclei.Thecollisionsarecharacterizedby
conservationofmomentumandkineticenergy,andarecalledelastic.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
INTERACTIONSOFPHOTONSWITHMATTER
Gammaraysand
x-rays
Gammaraysandx-raysarebothformsofelectromagneticradiation.Theydiffer
onlyintheirsource.Agammarayemanatesfromthenucleusofaradioactive
atom.Anx-rayemanatesfromoutsidethenucleusofaradioactiveatom,or
fromanelectronasitchangesdirectionwhenpassinganatomicnucleus;this
lattertypeofx-rayiscalledbremstrahlung.Allarecollectivelyreferredtoas
ionizingphotons
Photon
interactions
Becauseitisnotcharged,aphotondoesnotinteractbycoulumbicforce,but
ratheronlybyinteractionwithanelectron.Thetwomostcommonformsof
interactionarethephotoelectriceffect, .5,andComptonscattering, Figure1.6
Theprobabilityoftheseeventsdependsontheabsorbingmediumandthe
photonenergy.Thephotoelectriceffectpredominatesforlowenergyphotons
(lessthan100keV).ItsprobabilityincreasesdramaticallywithZ.TheCompton
effectpredominatesformoderatetohighenergyphotons(morethan100keV).
SeeHendeech4.Thesefactsdriveourselectionofshieldingmaterials.
FIGURE 1.5THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT.Thephotonis
completelyabsorbed.ItsenergyE liberatesanelectronbound
withenergyEB,andprovidesitwithkineticenergyEK.
Mathematically,E =E -EB
γ
Κ
γ
FIGURE 1.6 COMPTON SCATTER.Anincidentphotonwithenergy
E liberates an orbiting electron, yielding a recoil electron with
kinetic energy EK and a lower energy scattered photon with
energyE Mathematically,E =EK+E γ1
γ2
γ1
γ2
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
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THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Otherinteractions
Lowenergyphotonscanalsointeractbycoherentscattering.Highenergy
photonscanalsointeractbypairproductionandphotodisintegration.Coherent
scatteringisgenerallynotofinterestinradionuclidelaboratorysettingandwill
notbediscussed.Highenergyinteractionsareofinterestinshieldinghigh
energyaccelerators.
Attenuation
ThereductionofintensityIofaphotonfluxiscalledattenuation.The
mathematicsofattenuationofionizingphotonsinanabsorberisidenticaltothe
mathematicsofhalf-life.However,weusethetermsthicknessx,halfvaluelayer
HVL,andlinearattenuationcoefficientµinplaceoftimet,half-lifeT1/2,and
decayconstantλ.Ifonehalfvaluelayerofshieldingisadded,thedoseratewill
bereducedbyone-half.Forashieldingthicknessx,theintensitycanbe
describedmathematically:
Ix=I0e-.693x/HVL
e-.693isequalto½,andtheexponentx/HVLdescribesthenumberofhalfvalue
layers.Alternatively,ifnisthenumberofhalfvaluelayers,then:
Ix=I0(1/2)n
Halfvaluelayerstypicallyrangefrommillimeterstocentimeters,dependingon
theenergyoftheradiationandtheelementalcompositionoftheattenuating
medium.Glass,concrete,steel,lead,anddepleteduraniumareallcommonly
usedasshielding.SeeFigure1.9.
Asnotedbeforeforhalf-lifeanddecayconstant,thehalfvaluelayerandlinear
attenuationcoefficientarerelated:µ=.693/HVL.Thus,wecanalsowrite:
Ix=I0e-µx
Whenusingeitherequation,besurethatthesameunitofthickness,whether
centimetersormillimeters,isusedtomeasurebothHVLandattenuation
constant,andappliedthickness.
MEASUREMENTOFRADIATIONANDAUNITOFEXPOSURE
Therearesevenbasicmethodsusedintheinstitutionalsettingformeasuringionizingradiation.The
methodselecteddependsonthetypeandamountofradiationtobemeasured,therequisitesensitivity,
thetimeavailableforthemeasurement,andequipmentcost.
Gasdetectors
14
Oneoftheoldestmethodsofmeasuringionizingradiationisthegasdetector.A
simpledesignwouldbecomprisedofnomorethanananodeandcathodethat
defineavolumeinspace,avoltagesupply,andanammeter.SeeFigure1.7.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
FIGURE 1.7A SIMPLE GAS DETECTOR.A
simplegasdetectoriscomprisedofan
anode,cathode,voltagesupply,and
ammeter.
Characteristic
curve
Gasdetectorsdemonstrateacharacteristiccurveofsignalstrengthasafunction
ofappliedvoltage;see Figure1.8.Inallcasesthesignalisinitiatedwhenaphoton
orchargedparticleionizesagasmoleculeinthedetectorvolume.
FIGURE 1.8 THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
FOR GAS DETECTORS.Theexactshapeof
thiscurvewouldbedifferentforeach
detectordesign,butthefivedifferent
regionswouldbeobserved.Theyare:Irecombination;II-ionization;IIIproportional;IV-GM;andV-continuous
discharge.
FIGURE 1.9 HALF VALUE LAYER
FOR PHOTON ENERGIES FROM
10 KEV TO 100 MEV. SEE
HANDBOOK
OF
HEALTH
PHYSICS AND RADIOLOGICAL
HEALTH CHAPTER 6.
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15
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Recombination
Iftheappliedvoltageisverylow,afteranionizationevent,thenegativelychargedelectronandthepositively-chargedionwillbeelectrostaticallyattracted
toeachother,andwillrecombine.Therewillbenosignalfromthedetector.
Ionization
Iftheappliedvoltageisjustsufficienttocollectallthereleasedelectronsonthe
anode,andprovidereplacementelectronsfromthecathode,weobservea
currentthatisproportionaltotheexposurerate.Agasdetectoroperatedinthis
modeiscalledanionizationchamber.RefertoKnollch.5.
Ionizationchambersurveymetersareusedtomeasureexternalradiationdose
ratetoindividualsatlevelsofabout0.1milliremperhourorgreater.Theiruse
atlowerdoseratesislimitedduetothesmallelectricalsignal.Theinstrument
cangivefalselowreadingsifusedtomeasureintensepinholebeamssuchasa
leakfromanx-raydiffractionunit,orintensepulsedradiation,suchasfroman
accelerator.
Small,electricallychargedpocketionizationchambersareusedtomeasure
wholebodydoseforindividualswhooccasionallyworkinaradiationarea,or
whomaybeexposedtoahighdoseratewhileperformingaspecialtask.
Roentgen,a
measureof
exposure
TheionizationchamberinFigure1.7leadsustothefirstwell-definedunitof
radiationexposure,theroentgen(R).Theroentgenwasoriginallydefinedasthe
amountofionizingx-rayexposurethatwouldliberate1electrostaticunitof
negativeorpositivechargepercubiccentimeterofair.Nowconsidered
obsolete,itisapproximatelyequivalenttoaradoraremofradiationdose.
Thoseunitsarediscussedlater.
Proportional
counter
Iftheappliedvoltageisincreased,ratherthancollectinganelectricalcurrent,
eachindividualionizingparticlecancauseacascadeofsecondaryionizingevents
thataredetectedasanelectricalpulse.Theprocessiscalledgasmultiplication.
Themagnitudeoftheelectricalpulseisproportionaltotheenergyoftheparticle
thatinitiatedthesignal.Thus,forafixedappliedvoltage,thesignalfroma4.9
MeV241Amalphaparticlewillbealmostthreetimeslargerthanthesignalfrom
a1.8MeV32Pbetaparticle.SeeKnollch.6.
Proportionalcountersarecommonlyusedformeasuringenvironmentaland
laboratorycontaminationsurveysamples.
Geiger-Mueller
(GM)tubes
Ifthevoltageisincreasedfurther,anindividualparticlecancauseacomplete
ionizationofthegasinthedetector.Anyionizingparticle,whetherhighorlow
energy,whetherchargedoruncharged,thatinteractswiththedetectorgas
generatesalargeelectricalpulse.Adetectoroperatedinthismodeiscalleda
Geiger-Mueller,orGMdetector.AGMinstrumentcanbecomeparalyzedand
giveafalse-lowreadingincontinuoushighdoseratefieldsorpulsedfields.See
Knollch.7.
GMtubesarecommonlyusedassurveyinstrumentdetectorsbecausethe
16
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
completeinstrumentisrelativelyinexpensive,lightweight,andrugged.Note
that,althoughaGMsurveyinstrumentmayhavea“milliremperhour”exposure
scale,thecalibrationisvalidonlyfortheradiationsourceusedtocalibratethe
instrument,usuallyCs-137.Dependingonthetypeofradiationencounteredin
thelaboratoryanditsenergy,thisinstrumentmayindicatelowtofive-ortenfoldhighwhenusedtomeasuredoserates.Thus,itmustbecalibratedforthe
radionuclideofinterestifaccuratemeasurementsareneeded.
GMsurveymetersareoftenusedtoconductcursorycontamination
measurements.Themeterindicates"countsperminute";contaminationaction
levelsareexpressedin"disintegrationsperminute."BecausetheGMdetectoris
energysensitive,readingsmustbecorrectedforthedetectionefficiencyforthe
radionuclideofinterest.TypicalefficienciesareprovidedinTable3.4.
Continuous
discharge
Ifthevoltageinthegasdetectorwereincreasedfurther,thepositivechargeon
theanodewouldpullelectronsoffthecathodeandtherewouldbeacontinuous
signalwhetherionizingradiationwerepresentornot.Thisisreferredtoas
continuousdischarge.Adetectoroperatinginthisregioncannotbeusedasa
measuringtool.
Film
Theearliestradiationdetectorwasphotographicfilm.Theunexpected
darkeningofphotographicplatesledWilhelmRoentgentothediscoveryofxraysin1895.Anionizingparticledisruptsthesilverbromidecrystalsinthefilm
emulsion,allowingthesilvertobeprecipitatedontothefilmsubstrateduring
processing.Agreaterradiationdosetoanareaoffilmresultsinadarkerimage.
Filmisusedformedicalimaging;seeBushbergch.9and13.Itisalsousedinfilm
badgetomeasurepersonnelwholebodydose.Asmallfilmsandwiched
betweenmetalandplasticfiltersinaplasticholderprovidesapersonnelmonitor
thatcanmeasurepenetratingandnon-penetratingdose.SeeFigure1.10.The
amountofdarkeningundereachfiltersandwichisafunctionofdose.Only
higherenergypenetratingradiationwilldarkenthefilmwithinthePbsandwich;
betadosewilldarkenthefilmintheopenwindowofthebadge.SeeCemberch.
9.
FIGURE 1.10TYPICAL FILM BADGE.Thefilmbadgeiscomprisedofaplasticholder,metalfilters,
andafilmpacketwithslowandfastemulsions.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
17
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Thermoluminescent
dosimeters(TLDs)
Somecrystals,suchasLiF,storeionizingradiationenergywhenvalenceelectrons
aremovedtohigherenergy“traps”withinthecrystalmatrix.Thetrapped
electronsarereleasedbyheatingthecrystal.Whentheyreturntothelower
valenceenergylevel,thedifferenceinenergyisreleasedasvisiblelight.The
amountofvisiblelightreleasedisproportionaltotheradiationdoseabsorbedby
thecrystal.Theprocessiscalledthermoluminescentdosimetry.
TLDscanbeusedtomeasurepatientdoseindiagnosticradiologyandradiation
therapy.Theyarealsousedasextremitydosimeterstomeasurefingerdosefor
individualshandlingsmall,highactivitysourcesorasapersonnelmonitor.
Scintillation
Counting
Somedetectorsconvertaparticle’senergytovisiblelightthatcanbemeasured
withaphotomultipliertube(PMT).Thisiscalledscintillationcounting.To
measurenon-penetratingbetaradiation,thesampleismixedwithaliquid
scintillantcalledacocktail.Tomeasurepenetratingphotonradiation,asolid
statecrystaldetectorisused.Ineithercase,thechargedparticles,whetherbeta
particlesinliquidscintillationcountingorthephotoelectronsandcompton
electronsinx-rayorgamma-rayanalysis,interactwiththeorbitalelectronsof
thescintillatortocreateflashesoflight.SeeKnollch.8.
LiquidScintillation
counting(LSC)
Tomeasuresampleswithbetaemitterssuchas3H,14C,35S,32P,and33P,the
sampleisaddedtoavialofliquidscintillationcocktailcomprisedofsolventand
scintillant.Thevialisthenmechanicallyloweredintoalight-tightchamberthat
hastwoPMTsthatdetecttheindividualscintillationevents.
NaI(Tl)
Tomeasuresampleswithgammaemitterssuchas125Ior99mTc,thesamplecan
beplacedbesideaNaI(Tl)crystalthatisopticallycoupledtoaPMT;theentire
assemblyisenclosedinanaluminumenvelopetokeepoutroomlightand
humidity.Theenergyoftheincidentgammarayisconvertedtoaflashoflightin
thecrystal.ThePMTdetectstheindividualscintillationeventsandtheirrelative
intensities.
“cpm”and“dpm”
Manytypesofradiationdetectionormeasurementinstrumentsindicate"counts
perminute";actionlevelsareusuallyexpressedin"disintegrationsperminute."
Becausealldetectorsareenergyandgeometrydependent,cpmreadingsmust
becorrectedforthedetectionefficiencyfortheradionuclideofinterest.
Mathematically,
dpm=cpm/efficiency.
TypicalefficienciesareprovidedinTable3.4.
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THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
BIOLOGICALEFFECTSOFRADIATIONANDUNITSOFDOSE
Shortlyafteritsdiscovery,itwasrecognizedthationizingradiationcanhaveadversehealtheffects.See
Alpen,Introduction.Inthissectionweexaminetheradiationdosethatisanaturalpartofour
environment,andthetypesofhealtheffectsassociatedwithlargeacuteexposuresandwithlowdose
ratechronicexposure.
Basiclawof
radiobiology
Earlyintheuseofionizingradiation,harmfuleffectswereobservedinindividuals
whohadbeenexposedtolargeandrepeateddoses.In1906Bergonieand
Tribondeaudevelopedahypothesis,sincetermedtheBasicLawofRadiobiology,
regardingbiologicaleffectsofradiation:Biologicaleffectsaredirectlyproportionalto
themitoticindexandthemitoticfutureoftheexposedcell,andinversely
proportionaltothedegreeofdifferentiation.Mitosisreferstothenaturaldivisionof
acellnucleusduringcellreproduction;differentiationreferstothecell'sdegreeof
specializationtoperformaspecificfunctionintheorganism.
Cellsensitivity Followingthislaw,themostsensitivecellsincluderapidlydividing,undifferentiated
stemcellssuchaserythroblasts,intestinalcryptcells,primaryspermatogonia,and
basalcellsintheepidermis.Rapidlydividingcellsthataremoredifferentiated,
includingintermediatestagespermatogoniaandmyelocytes,arelesssensitivethan
undifferentiatedcellsbutarestillquiteradiosensitive.Irregularlydividingcellssuch
asendothelialcellsandfibroblastsdemonstrateintermediatesensitivity.Cellsthat
donotnormallydividebuthavethepotentialfordivision,suchasparenchymalliver
cellsarerelativelyradioresistant.Non-dividingcelllinessuchasmusclecells,nerve
cells,matureerythrocytes,andspermatozoaarethemostradioresistant.Somecells
thatwouldbepredictedtoberesistanttodamagebecausetheydonotundergo
divisionandaredifferentiated,suchasthelymphocytesandova,arenonetheless
quiteradiosensitive.
DNAasthe
target
AllthesecellsappeartobeaffectedbecauseofDNAlesionsanddoublestrand
breaks.Thetargetinthelymphocytesandovaappearstobelipoproteinstructuresin
thenuclearcellmembraneratherthanintheDNAitself.Damagecanbeproduced
directlybytheinteractionoftheradiationwiththebiochemicaltarget,orby
interactionsofthefreeradicalsOH,e-aq,andHthataretheionizationproductsof
waterwhichhaveunpairedelectrons,withtheDNAorothertargets.SeeTurnerch.
13.
Age,species,
and
fractionation
Otherfactorsaffectradiosensitivity.Asexpected,radiosensitivityisgreatestduring
thefetalstageandbecomesprogressivelysmallerthroughadolescenceand
adulthood.Differentspeciesdemonstratedifferentradiosensitivities.Alargeacute
dosedeliveredatoncewouldhaveagreatereffectthanthesamedoseadministered
overtimeasincrementalfractions.
RadandRem
TheUSunitofdoseistherad;itisthedepositionof100ergsofionizingenergyper
gramoftargetmaterial.TheUSunitofdoseequivalentistherem;forx-,gamma-,
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
19
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
andbeta-radiationitisnumericallyequaltothedoseinrad.Bothareapproximately
equaltotheexposureinroentgen.Therearerad-to-remcorrectionfactorsashighas
twentytoaccountforthegreaterradiationdamagecausedbyalphaparticles,
neutrons,andhighenergyprotons.
Grayand
Sievert
TheSIunitsfordoseanddoseequivalentarethegray(Gy)andsievert(Sv).1Gy=
100rad.1Sv=100rem.Thecentigrayequaltooneradandthemillisievertequalto
100milliremsarecommonlyused.
Average
natural
background
dose
Theamountofradiationanindividualreceivesiscalledthedoseequivalentandis
measuredinrems.TheaverageindividualintheUnitedStatesaccumulatesadose
equivalentof0.3remfromnaturalsourceseachyear. Figure1.11.
Variationsin
natural
background
Naturalbackgroundradiationlevelsaremuchhigherincertaingeographicareas.A
doseof1remmaybereceivedinsomeareasonthebeachatGuarapari,Brazilin
about9days.SomepeopleinKerala,Indiagetadoseof4remseveryyear.Inthe
US,thedosefromnaturalradiationishigherinsomestates,suchasColorado,
Wyoming,andSouthDakota,primarilybecauseofincreasedcosmicradiationathigh
elevationsandnaturalhighconcentrationsofuraniumandthoriuminthesoil.
Radiationdosecanalsobereceivedfrombrickstructures,fromconsumerproducts,
andfromairtravel.
MedicalDose
Manypeoplereceiveadditionalradiationformedicalreasons.Asoftheyear2006,
approximately400millionx-rayradiographyexaminationsareperformedinthe
UnitedStates.Atypicaltwoviewchestx-rayleadstoaneffectiveexposureofabout
20mRem.CTexaminationsdelivermuchhigherdosesthanstandardx-rays.A
typicalwholetrunkCT(chest,abdomenandpelvis)canbe1.5rem.
Deterministic
effects
Aclinicallyobservablebiologicaleffectthatoccursdaystomonthsafteranacute
radiationdoseisadeterministiceffect.Examplesareskinreddeningorswelling,
(alsoknownas epilation,orhematologicdepression.Deterministiceffectsrequireadosethatis
nonstochastic greaterthanathreshold,typicallygreaterthantensorhundredsofrad.Doselimits
aresetsothatoccupationalexposureswillnotcausedeterministiceffects.Examples
effects)
aredoselimitsforthelensoftheeye(15remeachyear)andforanysingleorgan(50
remeachyear).
20
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
FIGURE 1.11 SOURCES OF RADIATION DOSE IN THE UNITED STATES.FromNCRP 160,Fig1.1.Percent
contributionofvarioussourcesofexposuretothetotalcollectiveeffectivedose(1,870,000person-Sv)
andthetotaleffectivedoseperindividualintheU.S.population.
Deterministiceffectsarepossiblewhenusingelectronicdevicessuchasx-ray
diffractionunits(XRDs)orlinearaccelerators.AnXRDbeamissufficientlyintenseto
causeskinburnsandulcerationthatultimatelyrequireamputation.Thebroadbeam
ofalinearacceleratorcouldcausecataractsoralethalwholebodydosewithin
minutes.Thusitisimperativethatinterlocksandothersafetyfeaturesneverbe
bypassed.
Stochastic
effects
Radiationdosecanincreasethechanceofcontractingacancer.Thisisanexampleof
astochasticeffect.Theincreaseinchanceisassumedtobeproportionaltothedose,
anditisassumedthereisnominimumthreshold.Thesetwoassumptionsleadusto
lowworkerandpublicdoselimits.Scientistsdisagreeonwhetherthisconservative
linearnon-threshold,orLNT,modelisthebestmathematicalrepresentationofthe
riskofcancerinduction.ThenormalincidenceoffatalcancerinanaverageNorth
Americanpopulationsampleof10,000individualsisabout2000.Ifeachindividualin
thesamplewereexposedtoa1remwholebodydose,itisestimatedtherewouldbe
about4additionalfatalcancers.SeeBEIRVch.3-5.
Tissue
weighting
factors
Insettinglimitsfordosestoindividuals,theLN-Tmodelalsohasbeenusedto
developafactorthatcomparesthecancerriskofdosetoanindividualorganto
cancerriskofdosetothewholebody.Thisisofinterestwhenasingleorganreceives
doseafteringestionofradioactivity,orwhenyourbodytrunkisshieldedwithalead
apronbutthehead,neck,andarmsareexposed.Whentheorgandoseinradis
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
21
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
multipliedbythetissueweightingfactor,theproductistheeffectivedoseoreffective
doseequivalentinrem.Thisallowsasingle,risk-basedadditivedosequantitytobe
usedtolimitandrecordallexposuresfrompenetratingradiationfromoutsidethe
bodyandradioactivityinsidethebody.
Hereditary
effects
Ahereditaryeffectisonetransmittedtooffspringduetotheirradiationoftheparent
eggorspermcells.Although,ithasbeenestimatedbasedonexperimental
organismsthatthechanceofaseverehereditaryeffectisbetween0and0.00006per
rem,theUNSCEAR2001Reportonthehereditaryeffectsofradiationemphasized
thatnoradiation-inducedhereditarydiseaseshavesofarbeendemonstratedin
humanpopulationsexposedtoionizingradiation.Thenormalchanceofabirth
defectis0.03,aboutone-fourthofwhichisconsideredofgeneticorigin.
Basisfordose
limits
Radiation,likemanythings,canbeharmful.Alargedosetothewholebody(suchas
600remsinoneday)wouldprobablycausedeathinabout30days;butsuchlarge
dosesresultonlyfromrareaccidents.Controlofexposuretoradiationisbasedon
theassumptionthatanyexposure,nomatterhowsmall,involvessomerisk.The5remworkerdoselimitprovidesalevelofriskofdelayedeffectsthatisconsidered
acceptablebytheNRC.Thedoselimitsforindividualorgansarebelowthelevelsat
whichbiologicaleffectsareobserved.Thustherisktoindividualsattheoccupational
exposurelevelsisconsideredtobeverylow.However,itisimpossibletosaythatthe
riskiszero.SeeICRP60,Sec.5.Thusourgoalistokeepallradiationdoseaslowas
reasonablyachievablebelowthelimits;seethediscussiononp.23.
Doselimitfor
radiation
workers
Asaradiationworker,youmaybeexposedtomoreradiationthanthegeneralpublic.
CaliforniaandtheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)haveestablishedabasic
doselimitforalloccupationallyexposedadultsof5remseachyear.
Doselimitfor
minorsand
public
Becausetherisksofundesirableeffectsmaybegreaterforyoungpeople,individuals
underage18arepermittedtobeexposedtoonly10percentof0.5rem,theadult
workerlimits.
Thelimitformembersofthegeneralpublicis0.1rem.
Doselimitfor
pregnant
workers
TheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurementshasrecommended
that,becausetheyaremoresensitivetoradiationthanadults,radiationdosetothe
unbornthatresultsfromoccupationalexposureofthemothershouldnotexceed0.5
rem.CaliforniaandtheNRChaveincorporatedthisrecommendationintheirworker
doselimitregulations.SeeTable2.1.
Itisyourresponsibilitytodecidewhethertheexposureyouarereceivingfrom
penetratingradiationandintakeissufficientlylow.ContactHealthPhysicsto
determinewhetherradiationlevelsinyourworkingareascouldcauseafetusto
receive0.5remormorebeforebirth.HealthPhysicsmakesthisdeterminationbased
onpersonnelexposuremonitorreports,surveys,andthelikelihoodofanaccidentin
yourworksetting.Veryfewworkpositionswouldrequirereassignmentduring
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RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
pregnancy.
Ifyouareconcernedaboutexposurerisk,youmayconsideralternatives:
a)
If you are pregnant, you may ask to be reassigned to areas involving less
exposure to radiation. Approval will depend on the operational needs of the
department. Note, however, that no employer is required to provide a work
environmentthatisabsolutelyfreeofradiation.
b)
You could reduce your exposure, where possible, by decreasing the amount of
timeyouspendintheradiationarea,increasingyourdistancefromtheradiation
source,andusingshielding.Increasedconcernforlabcleanlinesswillreducethe
chanceofuptake.
c)
Youcoulddelayhavingchildrenuntilyouarenolongerworkinginanareawhere
theradiationdosetoyourfetuscouldexceed0.5rem.
d)
Youcancontinueworkinginthehigherradiationareas,butwithfullawareness
thatyouaredoingsoatsomesmallincreasedriskforyourfetus.
Discuss these alternatives with your supervisor and Health Physics. A pregnancy
declarationformappearsinPart4,Appendices.Thereisadditionalinformationinthe
discussionofdoselimitsinPart2ofthismanual.
ALARAPOLICY
Compliancewithdoselimitsensuresthatworkinginaradiationlaboratoryisassafeasworkinginany
othersafeoccupation.Thegoaloftheradiationsafetyprogramistoensurethatradiationdoseto
workers,membersofthepublic,andtotheenvironmentisaslowasreasonablyachievable(ALARA)
belowthelimitsestablishedbyregulatoryagencies.Theprogramalsoensuresthatindividualusers
conducttheirworkinaccordancewithuniversity,state,andfederalrequirements.
Intheprefacetothismanual,managementhascommittedtoanALARApolicy.
GENERALWORKPLACESAFETYGUIDANCE
Education,
training,and
procedures
Safeuseofhazardousmaterialsintheworkplacedependsonthecooperationof
individualswhohavebeeneducatedinthescienceandtechnologyofthematerials,
whohavetechnicaltrainingspecifictotheirapplication,andwhofollow
administrativeandtechnicalproceduresestablishedtoensureasafeandorderly
workplace.
Security
Nomatterwhatsourceofradiationyouworkwith,onewaytoenhancesafetyisto
allowaccessonlytothosewithbusinessinthearea.Ifyouseeunfamiliarindividuals
inthearea,itisimportanttoquestionthemorcallsecurity.Regulatoryagencies
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
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THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
considerahighdegreeofsecuritytobeanimportantcompliancematter.
Time
Thelesstimewespendaroundapotentiallyhazardousmaterial,thelesstherisk.If
youarenotneededinaworkarea,orifyourtaskcanbedoneelsewhere,leave.
Distance
Increasingourdistancereducestheriskfromanypotentiallyhazardousmaterial.
Forgammaradiationsources,thedoserategoesdownrapidlywithdistance.
Mathematically,I2/I1=r12/r22.Thisiscalledtheinversesquarelaw.
Forexample,ifthedoserateis100mrem/hourat5cmfromapointsource,youcan
calculatethedoserateat20cmfromthesource:
I20cm/I5cm=(5cm)2/(20cm)2
I20cm=(100mrem/hr)x(5cm)2/(20cm)2
I20cm=6.2mrem/hr
Whenworkingwithhighenergybetaandgammaemitters,remotehandlingtools
candramaticallyreduceyourhanddose.
Shielding
Ifthesourceisahighenergybetaorgammaorx-rayemitter,shieldingwillreduce
thedoserate.Forbetaemitters,usealowatomicnumbermaterialsuchasplastic.
Forgammaandx-rayemitters,highatomicnumbermaterialssuchassteelorlead
arepreferred.However,rememberthatsteelandleadposetheirowndropand
earthquakehazards.Leadisalsoatoxicmaterial;usegloveswhenhandlingitand
washwhenyoufinish.Contactthehazardouswastestafftodisposeofleadshielding
thatisnolongerneeded.
Clean,orderly
laboratories
Mostlaboratoriesdonotuseamountsofradiochemicalsthatposeanexternaldose
risk.However,areacontaminationcanhappenevenwhenmaterialsarecarefully
handled.Haveintheworkareaonlythosethingsneededforthetaskathand.Wear
glovesandlabcoat,andwashyourhandsafterworking.Useabsorbentcountertop
papertoholdspills.
General
guidance
SomedetailedguidanceonlaboratorysafetymeasuresisprovidedinTable1.3.
Unless,duetospecialcircumstances,yourgrouphasreceivedanexception,you
mustfollowtheguidanceinthattable.
Planahead
Thinkaboutwhatyouaregoingtodo.Whatcangowrong?Whatcandistractyou?
Haveyoureviewedthelaboratoryprotocol?Areallthesuppliesthatyouneedat
hand?Haveyoucheckedlaboratoryandprotectiveequipmenttoensuretheyare
workingcorrectly?Haveyoupracticedtheentireprocedurewearingyourprotective
clothingandusingthetoolsyouneed?Areyouwearinggloves,coat,andimpervious
shoes?Doyouknowwherethesafetyshowerandeyewashare?
Doyouknowwhatyouaredoing,andwhy?
24
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Beforeyoubegin
•OnlyindividualswhohavecompletedStanfordradiationsafetytrainingmayuse
radioactivematerials.
•Reviewthechemical,radiation,andhandlinghazardsprecautionsandsafety
guidancebeforeyoupreparefortheexperiment.
•Orderonlyapprovedradiochemicalsandquantities.Logreceipts.Completely
updatethestoragelogatleastannually.
•Storematerialstocauseminimaldoseinworkareas.Shieldphoton-andhighenergybeta-emitterssothatthedoserateat
30cmislessthan2mR/hrforlowoccupancyareas,or0.2mR/hrforhighoccupancy
areas.Providesecondarycontainment.
•Donotstorefoodorbeveragesinworkareas,oruserefrigerators,hotplates,or
ovensthatareusedforradioactivematerialswork.
•Eatanddrinkonlyatdeskorloungeareas.Nofoodorbeveragesareallowedin
VAPAHCSlaboratories.
Preparingforthe
experiment
•Setupinawell-ventilatedworkarea.UseafumehoodforvolatilessuchasI-125
andS-35.
•Keeptheworkareaclean,neat,anduncluttered.
•Providesecondarycontainmentforspills.
•Useplastic-backedabsorbentpadsortraystocoverworkareas.
•Donotpipettebymouth.Usemanipulators.
•Wearyourdosimeter(e.g.,filmbadge)andringifassigned.
•Keepasurveymeternearbywhenusingmillicuriequantitiesotherthantritium.
UseapancakeGMforbeta-emittersandaNaI(Tl)forphoton-emitters.
Duringthe
•Wearimperviousshoes,gloves,labcoat,andsafetyglasses.
experiment
•Openanddispensereagentsbehindasplashshield.
•Usecappedtubesincentrifugesandagitators.
•Useactivatedcharcoaltoabsorborganicvaporsinincubators.
Afterthe
•Labelindividualcontainersbeforeplacingtheminstorage.
experiment
•Changebenchcoverstoavoidcross-contamination.
•Surveyglassware,apparatus,andcentralfacilityappliances.Decontaminate
beforereleasingforhouseuse.
•Segregatewaste.Solidifyiodineliquids.Treatpathogens.Logdisposals.
Spillsor
accidents
•Immediatelyreportinjuriesorpersonnelcontaminationtoyoursupervisorand
HealthPhysics.
•Promptlyreport>QLMspillstoHealthPhysics.
TABLE 1.3 STANDARD WORK RULES FOR RADIOCHEMICAL LABORATORIES.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
25
THESCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYOFIONIZINGRADIATION
REFERENCESFORADDITIONALINFORMATION
Thispartisintendedonlyasaprimeronionizingradiation.Thefollowingstandardtextsprovidemore
informationonthetopicspresentedhere.AdditionalpublicationsfromtheNationalCouncilonRadiation
ProtectionandMeasurements,theInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection,theNational
AcademyofSciences,andtheNuclearRegulatoryCommissionarelistedinPartIV,Appendices.Allare
availableforreviewinHealthPhysics
Alpen
Alpen,E.L.RadiationBiophysics.EnglewoodCliffs:Prentice-Hall;1990.
BEIRV
CommitteeontheBiologicalEffectsofIonizingRadiations,NationalResearch
Council.HealthEffectsofExposuretoLowLevelsofIonizingRadiations.
Washington:NationalAcademyPress;1990.
Bushberg
Bushberg,J.T.,etal.TheEssentialPhysicsofMedicalImaging.Baltimore:
Williams&Wilkins;1994.
Cember
ChartofNuclides
Cember,H.IntroductiontoHealthPhysics.NewYork:PergamonPress;1983.
KnollsAtomicPowerLaboratory
Hendee
Hendee,W.R.,andRitenour,R.E.MedicalPhysicsImaging.
3rded.St.Louis:Mosby-Yearbook;1992.
ICRP60
InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection.1990Recommendationsof
theInternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection.Oxford:Pergamon
Press;ICRPPublication60;Ann.ICRP21(1-3);1991.
Knoll
Knoll,G.F.RadiationDetectionandInstrumentation.2nded.
NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons;1989.
Krane
Krane,K.S.IntroductoryNuclearPhysics.NewYork:
JohnWiley&Sons;1988.
NCRP
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtection Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the
Population of the United States(ReportNo.160,2009)
RadiologicalHealth
Handbook
BureauofRadiologicHealth.RadiologicalHealthHandbook.Rockville:
DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare;1970.
Shapiro
Shapiro,J.RadiationProtection:AGuideforScientistsandPhysicians.3rded.
Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress;1990.
UNSCEAR2001
Report
UnitedNationsScientificCommitteeontheEffectsofAtomicRadiationUNSCEAR
2001ReporttotheGeneralAssembly,withScientificAnnex-Hereditaryeffectsof
radiation
Turner
Turner,J.E.Atoms,Radiation,andRadiationProtection.2nded.NewYork:John
Wiley&Sons;1995.
26
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Part 2 REGULATIONS FOR THE SAFE USE OF IONIZING
RADIATION
Duringitsfirstfiftyyearsofuse,ionizingradiation,whetherfromx-raytubesorradioactivematerials,was
appliedinavarietyofresearch,medical,industrial,andconsumerproductsandservices.Someapplications
werewellfoundedandsomewerefrivolous.Someofbothresultedininjuryordeathtoradiationworkers
andmembersofthepublic.
Bythe1960’s,thestateandfederalregulatoryframeworksgoverningradiationwereestablished.Theirgoal
wastoprovideadequateassuranceofpublichealthandsafetyinthepresenceofionizingradiation.Today,
theuseofionizingradiationisoneofthemoststringentlyregulatedactivitiesinoursociety.
TheoriginaljurisdictionovermostradioactivematerialswasvestedbyCongressintheAtomicEnergy
Commission(AEC),thepredecessoroftheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC).TheNRChastransferred
regulatoryauthorityoverradioactivematerialstoseveralofthestates,includingCalifornia,byagreement
betweentheNRCandthestate.TheNRCretainsregulatoryauthorityoverfederalfacilities,includingtheVA.
TheregulationsthatapplytotheuseofionizingradiationareinTitle10,Parts19,20and35oftheCodeof
FederalRegulationsandinTitle17oftheCaliforniaCodeofRegulations.Thecompletetextsareavailablefor
reviewinHealthPhysics.RelatedportionsoftheUnitedStatesCodearealsoavailableforreview.
InsomecasesCaliforniahasadoptedNRCregulationsbyreference,andinsomecasesithasissued
regulatorytextthatissimilartoNRCtext.Ithasalsoissuedregulationsonx-raymachines,whicharenot
regulatedbyNRC.
Thispartsummarizestheregulatoryrequirementsthatapplytotheinstitutionaluseofradiation,usingthe
NRCregulationsasanoutline.Rememberthatlicensedocuments,supportingcorrespondence,andorders
imposeadditionalrequirementsthatarespecifictothelicensee.
10CFRPART19--NOTICES,INSTRUCTIONS,ANDREPORTSTOWORKERS;
INSPECTIONS
Part19-Informed
worker
10CFRPart19--Notices,instructions,andreportstoworkers;inspections.Thispart
establishesrequirementsfornoticesinstructions,andreportsbylicenseesto
individualsparticipatinginlicensedactivities,andoptionsavailabletothose
individualsinconnectionwithinspectionsoflicensees.
Notices
§19.11Postingofnoticestoworkers.TheregulationsaresummarizedonformsRH
2364andNRC 3,whichmustbeposted.Youmayexaminetheregulationsandany
correspondencerelatingtolicensedactivities.CallHealthPhysicstomakean
appointment.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
27
REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Instruction
§19.12Instructionstoworkers.Anyonewhoworksinarestrictedareamustbe
providedtraininginradiationsafety,beinstructedtoobserveregulationsand
operatingprocedures,andtoreportunsafeconditions.
Dosimetry
§19.13Notificationsandreportstoindividuals.Atanytimeyoumayrequestacopy
ofyourradiationexposurehistory.Indicateifyouwantanupdatedreporteach
year.Ifdosimetryisrequiredbyregulationsratherthanprovidedinresponsetothe
projectdirector'srequest,youwillbegivenareporteachyear.
Inspections
§19.14Presenceofrepresentatives...,§19.15Consultationwithworkers...,§19.16
Requestsbyworkersforinspections.TheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)
andCaliforniaDepartmentofHealthServices(DHS)conductinspectionsoflicensed
activities.Youmaytalkwiththeinspectorprivatelyifyouwant.Ifyouhave
identifiedaradiationsafetyproblemanddonotbelieveithasbeenproperlydealt
with,youmayrequestaninspection.
10CFRPART20--STANDARDSFORPROTECTIONAGAINSTRADIATION
Part20--Safety standards
ALARA
§20.1101Radiationprotectionprograms.Theradiationprotectionprogram
ensurescompliancewithregulations.Itsgoalistoensurethatdosesto
workersandmembersofthepublicareaslowasreasonablyachievable
(ALARA)belowstateandfederallimits.
Doselimits
§20.1201,§20.1207,§20.1208,and§20.1301.Doselimitsforworkersand
thepublic.Doselimitshavebeenestablishedforadultworkers,minor
workers,declaredpregnantwomen,andmembersofthepublic.Thelimits
areinTable2.1.
28
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Table 2.1DOSE
LIMITS FOR ADULT
WORKERS, MINOR
WORKERS,
DECLARED
PREGNANT WOMEN,
AND MEMBERS OF
THE PUBLIC.Thedose
isthesumofthe
bodydosimeterdeep
doseplusinternal
effectivedose
equivalentfrom
ingestedorinhaled
radionuclides.
Internaldoseis
uncommoninthe
institutionalsetting.
Ourgoalistokeep
radiationdosebelow
10%oftheselimits.
Whole body dose
in one year
Other
limits
Adultworkers
5rem
Lens15remeachyear.Skin,
organ,extremities
inoneyear:50rem
Minorworkers
10%ofAdultLimit
10%ofAdultLimit
Declared
pregnantwoman
0.5rem
fetaldose
50milliremfetaldoseeach
month.Skin,lens,
extremities:sameasadult
worker
Members
ofthepublic
0.1rem
2mreminonehour
Surveys
§20.1501Surveys.Surveysmustbemadetodemonstratecompliancewiththe
regulationsandtoevaluatethepotentialforradiologicalhazardthatmaybe
present.
Security
§20.1801Securityofstoredmaterial.Radioactivematerialincontrolledor
unrestrictedareasmustbesecuredfromunauthorizedremoval.
Radiationsymbol
§20.1901.Cautionsigns.ThestandardradiationsymbolappearsinFigure2.1.Itis
magenta,purple,orblackonayellowbackground.
FIGURE 2.1 RADIATION SYMBOL.Itis
magenta,purple,orblackonayellow
background.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
29
REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Postingrequirements §20.1901and§20.1902 Postingrequirements.Theappropriatepostingdependson
thedoserateoramountofradioactivityintheareaorcontainer.Thresholdsare
providedinTABLE2.2.
TABLE 2.2 POSTING
REQUIREMENTS.
AppendixBisin10CFR
Part20;DACmeans
derivedairconcentration.
AppendixCisin10CFR
Part20;Quantitiesof
LicensedMaterial
RequiringLabeling;the
completeAppendixCisin
PartIV,Appendices.
Condition
Posting
5mremin1hourat30cmfrom
thesourceorshieldsurface
Caution,
RadiationArea
100mremin1hourat30cmfromthe Caution,
sourceorshieldsurface
HighRadiationArea
500radsin1hourat1mfromthe
sourceorshield
GraveDanger,
VeryHighRadiationArea
AirconcentrationsexceedingtheDACin Caution,
AppendixB
AirborneRadioactivityArea
Useorstorageoftentimesthequantity Caution,
inAppendixC
RadioactiveMaterial
Labeling
requirements
§20.1901,§20.1904,and20.1905Labelingrequirements.Containerswithgreaterthan
AppendixCquantitiesmustbelabeledwiththeradiationsymbol,thewords"Caution,
RadioactiveMaterial,"andappropriateprecautionaryinformationsuchasradionuclide,
activity,date,doserateataspecifieddistance,andchemicalform.
Packagereceipt,
opening,and
disposalofempty
containers
§20.1906Receivingandopeningpackages.Allnon-clinicalradioactivematerialsmust
beshippeddirectlytotheHealthPhysicsInspectionStation(SeePartIIIOrderingand
receivingradioactivematerialforfurtherinformation).Afterdeliverytothelaboratory
reviewthesafetyinstructionsprovidedbyHealthPhysicsandinspectthepackagefor
leakageandcorrectnessofcontents.Ifapackageappearsdamaged,promptlycontact
HealthPhysicsandmonitorfordoserateandcontamination.Ifcertainthresholdsare
exceeded,HealthPhysicsmustnotifythecarrier,theDepartmentofHealthServices
andtheNuclearRegulatoryCommission.
Ifyoureceivematerialdirectlyandithasnotbeeninspected,informHealthPhysics
promptly,andifrequested,bringthepackagetotheInspectionStation.
Beforediscardingemptycontainersandshippingpackages,surveythemtoensurethat
theyarenotcontaminated.Thenremoveordefaceallradiationlabelsandwords.This
assuresthatifthepackagegetsoutofthehousewastestreamitwillnotbemistaken
foraradiationsource.
30
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
Waste
§20.2001,§20.2003,§20.2005Wastedisposal.Radioactivewastecanonlybedisposed
ofbytransfertoawastecontractor,decay-in-storage,releaseineffluents,ordischarge
tothesanitarysewer
Records
§20.2101Units.Recordsmusthavemeasuresrecordedinunitsormultiplesofcurie,
rad,andrem(e.g.,mCi,dpm).
Reports
§20.2201,§20.2202,§20.2203Reportsandnotifications.Certaintypesofevents
requirepromptreportingtoregulatoryauthorities.Ifthereisatheft,loss,morethana
minorspill,accidentalrelease,orinjuryinvolvingradioactivematerial,reportit
promptlytoHealthPhysics.
Precaution
Whenmakinganeventreport,donotsimplyleavearecordedmessageoranoteon
someone'sdoor.TalkwithamemberofHealthPhysicsorEH&S,yourprojectdirector,
orthedepartmentchair.Thisassuresthattherewillbeprompt,appropriatefollow-up.
10CFRPART35--MEDICALUSEOFBYPRODUCTMATERIAL
Thereareextensiveregulationsgoverningmedicaluseandhumanresearch.Theycovergeneral
administrativeandtechnicalrequirements,andprescribedetailedprecautionsforspecificdiagnosticand
therapeuticclinicalprocedures.Becausetheyapplyonlytoradiology,nuclearmedicine,andradiation
therapy,theywillnotbefurtherdiscussedhere.
TITLE17--CALIFORNIACODEOFREGULATIONS
Californiaimposesadditionalrequirementsforx-rayinstallations.TheserequirementsarenotunderNRC
jurisdiction.TheradioactivematerialsrequirementsarecomparabletoNRC'sbyproductmaterials
requirements.
Thereareadditionalengineeringandsurveyrequirementsforx-rayinstallations.Becausetheyapply
primarilytothedesignofproposedinstallations,theywillnotbediscussed.
Itisimperativethatyounotbypasssafetyfeatures,andthatyoureportsafetyfeaturesthatdonotappearto
beworking.
RESPONSIBILITIES
Safeuseofionizingradiationrequiresthecooperationofmanyindividualsandcommittees.Their
responsibilitiesaredescribedbelow.
Principal
investigators
EachPrincipalInvestigator(PI)orprojectdirectorisresponsibleforensuring
individualsaretrainedtodotheirtaskssafely,supervisingthem,makingthelab
availableforinspectionatanyworktime,andensuringthattheprojectismanaged
inaccordancewiththeapplication,theadministrativeandtechnicalrequirements
inthismanual,andtheHazards Evaluation.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
31
REGULATIONSFORTHESAFEUSEOFIONIZINGRADIATION
ThePIbearstheadditionalresponsibilityofsettinganexamplefortheproject
staff.Appropriateattentiontodetails,suchasstrictadherencetostandardwork
rules,accuratesurveyrecords,andtimelyreturnofdosimeters(e.g.,filmbadges)
canaffecttheworkenvironmentandtheattitudeofindividuals.
Individualusers
Eachindividualuserisresponsibleforfollowingtheproceduresinthismanualand
instructionsfromsupervisorsandHealthPhysics,andreportingpossiblesafety
problemsandincidents.
Administrative
Panelon
RadiologicalSafety
TheAdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety(APRS)overseestheentire
institutionalradiationsafetyprogramforbothStanfordandVAPAHCS.Italso
reviewsapplicationsthatareoutsidethejurisdictionofthelocalcontrol
committees.
LocalControl
Committees
EachLocalControlCommittee(LCC)isresponsibleforreviewingapplicationsinits
jurisdictiontoprovideassurancethattheworkcanbedonesafelyandin
accordancewiththerequirementsinthismanualandtheHazards Evaluation.
Therearetwolocalcontrolcommittees:Non-HumanUseRadiationSafety
Committee(NHRSC)andClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo)forhuman
useapplications.TheRadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee(RDRC)isasubsetof
CRSCo.ThesecommitteesalsooverseeVAPAHCSprojects.
HealthPhysics
HealthPhysics,adivisionoftheStanfordUniversityDepartmentofEnvironmental
HealthandSafety(EH&S),istheinstitutionalradiationsafetyprogram.Italso
providesradiationconsultation.TheRadiationSafetyOfficer,whoisidentifiedon
theradioactivematerialslicense,isthemanagerofHealthPhysics.
WORDSOFCAUTION
Compliancewith
requirements
Theprivilegetouseionizingradiationinmedicalcare,research,andteachingis
grantedtoStanfordandVAPAHCSbythestateandfederalgovernments.Health
Physicstriestoprovideuserstheflexibilityneeded,consistentwithestablished
policyandregulations.Theremaybesomeadministrativeortechnical
requirementsthatmaynotappearnecessaryinsomecases.However,noncompliancejeopardizesnotonlyyourproject,buttheentirecommunity.
Falsificationof
recordsisa
criminaloffense
Donotfalsifyrecords,ormisleadastateorfederalinspector.Thereare
institutionalandcriminalpenaltiesforsuchactions.Theycanhavesevereadverse
effectonyouracademicorprofessionalcareer.
Ifyouhavemadeamistake,requestassistancetocorrectit.Ifyouhavefailedto
makeasurveyorrecordofuse,notethatintherecord;donotfabricaterecords.
32
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Part 3 ADMINISTRATIVE AND TECHNICAL PROCEDURES
Workerandpublicsafety,andorderlyconductofday-to-daybusiness,requireavarietyofadministrativeand
technicalprocedures.
Administrativeprocedures,usuallycharacterizedbyapplicationforms,supportingdocumentation,approvals,
andotherpaperwork,helpassurethatlaboratoryactivitiesarecarefullyconsideredforreasonableness,
safety,costandbenefit,andcompliancewithinstitutionalpolicyandregulatoryrequirements.Theyarenot
designedtoimpedeyourwork;theirpurposeistoprotectindividualsandtheinstitutionfromaccidents.
Technicalprocedures,usuallycharacterizedbyphysicalmeasurementsorstep-by-stepinstructions,assure
thatpotentiallyhazardousmaterialsordevicesarecarefullyusedandstored.
AllusesofionizingradiationontheStanfordcampusaresubjecttoreviewandapprovalbythe
AdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety(APRS).Thereviewassuresthatprojectscanbeconducted
safely.TheRadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)managesthehealthphysicsprogram
Thispartdescribestheprocessforobtainingpermissiontouseionizingradiation,andapplicablesafety
measures.
GENERAL
ProjectDirectors
ProjectDirectorsmustqualifyasPrincipalInvestigators(PI).Thisprivilegeislimited
tofacultyorcertainseniorresearchassociates,ortheirequivalentsattheVAPAHCS
andtheotherinstitutesoperatingundertheuniversitylicense.
Accessforinspection HealthPhysicstypicallyschedulesinspectionstoavoidinterruptingthelaboratory
calendar.HoweverHealthPhysicsmusthaveaccesstolaboratoriesatanytimeto
observeworkandperformradiationsurveys.
Security
Regulatoryagenciesrequireahighdegreeofsecuritytopreventunauthorizedaccess
toanduseofradiationsources.AtStanford,radiochemicalstocksolutionsand
sealedsourcesgreaterthanC-level(seeTable3.2)mustbestoredunderlock.In
newopenarchitecturebuildings,suchasCCSRorClark,allstockvialsmustbestored
underlock.AtVAPAHCS,alllicensedmaterial,whetheritisstock,inuse,orwaste,
mustbestoredunderlock.Radiationdevicesmustbelockedoutattheconsole.Do
notpropsecuritydoorsopen.
Liquidscintillation
cocktail
TheAPRSrecommendsbiodegradableliquidscintillationcocktail(LSC).Special
applicationandauthorizationisrequiredfornon-biodegradablecocktail.Ifitanonbiodegradablecocktailisnecessary,explainwhyintheapplicationsectionthat
discussesmaterialsorinstrumentation.
Mixedwaste
Discardingmixedradiologicandchemicalhazardouswasteisexpensive.Makeevery
efforttoreduceoreliminateitsgeneration.Specialauthorizationisrequiredpriorto
generatingmixedwaste.Seepages36,55,and58.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
33
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
PermittingproceduresforradioactivematerialsrequireaControlledRadiation
Permitting
Authorization(CRA)issuedbyaLocalControlCommittee(LCC).
proceduresfor
radioactivematerials
TherearetwoLCCs.TheClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo)reviewsall
proceduresthatinvolveadministrationofionizingradiationtohumans.TheNonHumanUseRadiationSafetyCommittee(NHRSC)reviewslaboratoryuseof
radiochemicalsandradiationproducingmachineswithinStanfordandVAPAHCS.
µCi
µCi
µCi
H-3
1000 Co-57
100 Tc-99m
1000
C-14
100 Co-60
1 In-111
100
F-18
1000 Ni-63
100 Sn-113
100
Na-22
10 Zn-65
10 I-123
100
P-32
10 Zn-69
1000 I-125
1
P-33
100 Ga-67
1000 I-131
1
S-35
100 Se-75
100 Xe-133
1000
Cl-36
10 Rb-86
100 Cs-137
10
Ca-45
100 Sr-85
100 Hg-203
100
Cr-51
1000 Y-88
10 Tl-201
1000
Fe-55
100 Y-90
10 Ra-226
0.1
TABLE 3.1 QLM QUANTITIES. This table provides the quantities of licensed material (QLM)
requiring labeling for the most commonly used radionuclides. For other radionuclides, use the
valuesinAppendixCof10CFRPart20;itisduplicatedinPart4,Appendices.
CONTROLLEDRADIATIONAUTHORIZATIONS(CRAS)FORRADIOACTIVEMATERIALS
General
ToobtainaControlledRadiationAuthorization(CRA)thePImustsubmitaCRA
applicationandobtaintheapprovaloftheappropriateLCCortheAPRS.All
radioactivematerialsmustbespecified.
Applicationformat
SendanapplicationtoHealthPhysicsthatprovidesthefollowinginformation.Ifthe
followinginstructionsarenotclear,ifyouneedassistance,orifyouhavespecial
circumstances,pleasecall.Youmaysubmitahardcopy,fax,ore-mail.Foran
applicationformgotohttp://radforms.stanford.edu
Facilities
1.a.Facilities.Identifythedepartment,andlistreceiving,storage,work,andwaste
areas.Facilitiesmustbeadequateforthesafeuseofthematerials.Benchesmust
haveimpervioussurfaces;secondarycontainmentisneededbothinworkand
storageareas;floorsmustbesealedandwaxedifunsealedradioactivematerialsare
handled.Materialsmustbesecuredagainstunauthorizedremoval;materialsin
34
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
commonuseareasmustbelockedwhenunattended.
Alistofroomsise-mailedouteachquarterforupdatingbytheHealthPhysics
contact.
Ventilation
1.b.Ventilation.Describeenhancedventilation,fumehoods,andbiological
containmenthoods.Thesemustbeworkingandfumehoodsmustbecheckedwithin
thelastyearforflowrate,typically100to180feetperminuteandwiththeproper
sashheightmarked.Anexternally-exhaustedbiosafetycabinetisrequiredforusing
volatileiodineinconjunctionwithpathologicalorinfectiousagents.
Personnel
2.Personnel.IdentifytheProjectDirector,seniorstaffmemberswhowilldirectly
supervisetheproject,andotherpersonnelparticipatingintheproject.Identifythe
individualwhowillserveasHealthPhysicscontact;thisindividualcoordinatesday-todayradiationsafetyactivitiessuchasroomsurveysandreports.Noteifindividuals
underage18willbeinthelab.
ForthePI,keysupervisors,andHealthPhysicscontact,provideworktelephone,fax,and
e-mail,mailcode,department,buildingandroom,andSUNetIDifavailable.
Listsofpersonnel,inventory,assignedrooms,sealedsourcesandinstrumentsare
mailedouteachquarterfortheHealthPhysicscontacttoupdate.
Proposedmaterials 3.Materials.Foreachradionuclidethatwillbeused,provide:radionuclide;chemical
forms;maximumquantitytobeusedperexperimentandfrequencyofexperiments;
maximumquantitytobeobtainedperorder;andmaximumtobepossessedatany
time.Forscintillationcocktails,pleaseprovideinformationonwhetheritis
biodegradable,recommended,orhasotherhazardsassociatedwithit.Seepage56.
Characterizevolumesasmillilitersorliters,andidentifyotherhazardousmaterialssuch
astoxicchemicals,corrosives,orpathogensthatmightbemixedwithradioactivity.See
thefollowingwebsitetoidentify.
http://nonhazardouswaste.stanford.edu
Proposeduses
4.Laboratoryprocedure.Characterizethestepsinthelaboratoryprocedurebyusing
theformWorksheet for Radiochemical Protocols.
Appendcopiesoftheexperimentalprotocols.Lookforprocessesthathavecaused
problemsinthepast:inadequatesecondarycontainment,long-termheating,failed
automatictimers,violentvortexmixing,expansionduringheating,containmentduring
centrifuging.
Performacoldrunwithmockmaterialstoensurethatyoucanperformmanipulations
withgloves,handlingtools,andshieldinginplace.
Deliberateintroductionofradionuclidesintotheenvironmentforinvestigational
purposesrequiresissuanceofaspeciallicensebytheCaliforniaDepartmentofHealth
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
35
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
onanexperiment-by-experimentbasis.Toinitiatethisprocedurediscussthe
environmentalimpactandincludeanestimateofriskstothepopulationthatmaybe
exposed.ConsultHealthPhysicsfordetails.
Workrules
5.Workrules.StatethatyouwilladheretothestandardworkrulesinTableI.3.If
specialcircumstancesmakethoseworkrulesinappropriate,callHealthPhysics.Inyour
applicationyouwillhavetoexplainwhytheyareinappropriate,andsubmitalternative
workrulesforreview.
Waste
6.Waste.Normalradioactivewasteserviceisincludedinoverheadcharges.Projects
thatgeneratelargevolumesofradioactivewaste,ormixedwastethatmustbedisposed
ofthroughaspecialbroker,orforprojectswhodonotcontributetoStanfordUniversity
overheadwillbebilledforwasteservices.
Generationofmixedradioactiveandhazardouschemicalwastemustbeapprovedby
theLCCbeforeitisgenerated.Allchemicalmaterialsareconsideredhazardousunless
specificallytestedorotherwisereviewedagainstspecificcriteria.Anexplanationon
howtodeterminewhetherachemicalisnon-hazardouscanbefoundunderAqueous
waste,p.53Ifyoumustgeneratemixedwaste,explainwhythewastemustbe
generated.Describealternativeresearchmethodsthathavebeenexplored,andexplain
whytheyarenotsuitableforthisproject.
Instrumentsand
equipment
7.Radiationmeasurementandsafetyequipment.ReviewTable3.4underSurveys,
p.50,todeterminewhichinstrumentsareappropriate.Listinstrumentsthatare
available.Eachprojectmusthavesuitabledetectionandmeasurement
instrumentation;sharingispermitted.ConsultwithHealthPhysicsifyouneed
assistance.
Identifyanysafetyequipmentthatwillbeusedsuchassplashshields,trays,orremote
handlingequipment.Shielding,particularlystackedleadbricks,andheavyequipment
shouldbesecuredforearthquakes.Largevolumesofliquidwastemusthavesecondary
containment.
Trainingand
experience
8.TrainingandExperience.Ifthisisaninitialapplication,provideinformation
regardingtheprevioustrainingandexperienceofeachPIanduser.Training and
Experienceformsareavailableonlineatradforms.stanford.edu,ormaybecopiedfrom
Part4,Appendices.
TrainingandexperienceareevaluatedbyHealthPhysics.Thosewithlittleorno
experienceandpreviousformalcourseworkinradiationprotectionmustcompletean
eight-hourcoursethatisofferedbyHealthPhysics.Thosewhohavereceived
comparabletrainingandhavelaboratoryexperiencemustcompleteanopen-book
examinationonbasicprinciplesandinstitutionalprocedures.
On-the-jobtraining Inadditiontothecourseorexamination,thePIorsupervisormustprovidespecificonthe-jobtrainingforeachuseroneachprotocol.Thetrainingmustincludesurvey
(OJT)
techniques,recordkeepinginthelabandareviewofwasterequirements.On-the-job
36
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
trainingformsareprovidedforeachuseraftercompletionofRadiationSafetyTraining.
TrainingmustbeloggedonOJTformsandfiledinthelab’sRadioisotope Journal.
Refreshertraining
EachprojectmustholdastaffmeetingfollowingaCRArenewalatwhichradiation
safetytopics,includingthecontentsoftherenewalHazards Evaluation,arereviewed.
TheHazards Evaluationwillincludeanagendaandsignatureblockfordocumentingthe
meeting.ThesignedagendamustbefiledintheRadioisotope Journal.
Concurrentreview
9.ConcurrentReview.Ifapplicable,confirmthattheprojecthasalsobeensubmittedfor
biohazardsandanimalcarereview.Aprojectcannotbeginuntilallcommitteeswith
jurisdictionhaveapprovedit.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
37
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
C-level
B-level
A-level
≤200x
≤10,000x
>10,000x
AppendixC,QLM
AppendixC,QLM
AppendixC,QLM
Initial term
1year
1year
1year
Approval
RSO
LCC
APRS
Renewal term
2years
2years
1year
Documented user
lab surveys
monthly
monthly
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completeweekly
User surveys of
storage areas
quarterly
quarterly
quarterly
User surveys in
shared work areas
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completemonthly
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completemonthly
aftereachuseon
UserSurveyLog;
completeweekly
HP surveys
at Stanford
every4months
every3months
monthly
HP surveys
at VAPAHCS
every3months
every2months
everytwoweeks
HP may
observe
no
firstuse
firstuseand
newpersonnel
Quantity/Vial
TABLE 3.2 CONTROLLED RADIATION AUTHORIZATION (CRA) QUANTITIES AND TERMS.ThistabledefinestheCRAcategories,which
providethebasisfordocumentedsurveyfrequencyandrenewalterm.Usersshouldconductsurveysatthecompletionofeach
experiment;thesedonotrequirearecordunlesstheexperimentisdoneinasharedworkarea.QuantitiesofLicensedMaterials
(QLM)arefoundin10CFRPart20,AppendixC,whichisduplicatedinPart4,Appendices.
38
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
REVIEWANDAPPROVALOFAPPLICATIONS;AMENDMENTS
Review
TheassignedhealthphysicistwillvisitbeforepreparingaHazards Evaluation,which
iscounter-signedbytheRSOordesignate,andreturnedtothePI.Allaffected
projectstaffmustreviewandsigntheHazards Evaluationbeforeitisfiledinthe
Radioisotope Journal.
Approval
TheRSOapprovesC-levelCRAs;aninformationcopyissenttotheLCCchairman.
TheapplicationandhazardsevaluationforB-andA-levelCRAsarecirculatedtothe
appropriateLCCforapprovalviafax.Anymembercanrequestthatthecommittee
convenetodiscussitemsofconcern.Theinitialtermofanapprovalisoneyear.
Shortlyaftertheprojecthasbegunoperationthehealthphysicistwillvisittoensure
thatadministrativeandtechnicalprocedureshavebeenimplemented.
Amendmentsand
Renewals
Substantiveamendmentsundergothesameapplication,review,andapproval
processthatisappliedtonewapplications.Non-substantiveamendments,and
renewalsofCRAsthathaveagoodsafetyrecord,aresubjecttothesame
administrativeprocess,butareapprovedbyasinglememberoftheLCCorAPRSin
thenameofthechairman.
Non-substantiveamendmentsincludeaddingradionuclidesorchanginginventory
limitsthatdonotchangetheC-,B-,orA-levelcharacterizationoftheCRA,oradding
laboratoryproceduresthataresimilartothosealreadyapproved.HealthPhysicswill
addAppendixCQLMquantitiestoaCRAbasedonatelephonerequest.
Renewalperiod
Projectsthatdonotinvolvehumansubjectsandthathaveverygoodsafetyand
compliancerecordsareusuallygivenatwo-yearrenewal.
Recoveryplan
Projectswithsignificantorrepeatedsafetyornon-complianceviolationsreceive
short-term,provisionalrenewalsandenhancedsafetyoversight.Ifsignificant
problemsareuncoveredduringanyvisit,thePIwillberequiredtomeetwiththeLCC
toexplainwhytheproblemsoccurred.ThePIandtheLCCwilldeveloparecovery
plantocorrecttheproblemsandtoavoidrecurrence.
Planahead
Theadministrativeprocessofpreparinganapplicationandhazardsevaluationfor
approvalcanbelengthy.ThePIcanfaxdocumentstoreduceturnaroundtime.
However,committeememberswillnotinterrupttheirworkschedulesto
accommodatetheneedsofthePI.Itisessentialthattheworkscheduleprovide
adequatetimeforsafetyreview.
Inspection
DuringthetermoftheCRA,HealthPhysicswillconductperiodicsurveysandan
inspectionattheendofthetermtoassuresafetyandcompliance.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
39
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Deficiencies
Duringtheinspection,deficienciesmightbeuncovered.Deficienciesthatare
occasionallyobservedinclude:incompleteroomsurveys;lackofon-the-jobtraining;
incompleteuserecords;inadequatesecurityofradioactivematerials;violationsof
wastehandling;labelinganddisposalregulations;evidenceoffoodorbeveragesin
laboratoryworkareas;orinadequateattentiontoworkrules.Deficienciesmustbe
corrected.Failuretocorrectdeficiencies,andpreventtheirreoccurrence,
jeopardizestheinstitutionallicense.
Suspensions
Whennecessary,duetooverexposure,injurytopersonnel,surveydatathatindicate
thatcontinuedoperationposesanunacceptablerisk,falsificationofrecords,or
multipleoruncorrecteddeficiencies,theRSOmayrestrict,modifyorterminatethe
CRApendingreviewbytheappropriateLCCortheAPRS.
Moving,
modifications,or
termination
ProjectDirectorsmustnotifyHealthPhysicsatleastthirtydaysbeforechanging
laboratoryfacilitiesorterminatingaproject.Allradioactivesourcesmustbe
properlytransferredordisposedof.Rooms,facilitiesandapparatususedbythe
projectmustbedecontaminatedsowhenmeasuredbyHealthPhysics,theymeet
thestandardsforuncontrolledareas.Whensurveyshavebeencompleted,Health
Physicswillremovesignsfromroomsandequipment,takecustodyofproject
radiationsafetyrecords,andterminatetheproject,ifappropriate.NotethatPIsor
departmentsareresponsibleforcostsofdecommissioning.
HUMANUSECLINICALPROCEDURESANDRESEARCH
AtStanfordtheoversightofhumansubjectresearchinvolvingradiologydevicesandradioactivematerialsisa
functionoftheClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo)LCCwhichischarteredbytheFoodandDrug
Administration.AtSHSandVAPAHCS,allusesofradionuclidesinhumansregardlessofquantityorpurpose
mustbeapprovedbyCRSCo.Researchprotocolsinvolvinghumansubjectsmustalsobeapprovedby
Stanford’sInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB).Reviewsmaybeconductedconcurrently.Inmostcases,
accordingtoIRBprocedures,onlymedicalfacultyandVAstaffphysiciansmayapply.
Consultation
SafetypoliciesandinstructionsforclinicaluseofradiationsourcesatSHSand
VAPAHCSareavailablefromHealthPhysics.Additionally,Guidance for Preparing
Research Proposals Involving Ionizing Radiation in Human Use Research,provides
informationonadministrativeproceduresandinformedconsentlanguage.The
HealthPhysicsMedicalGroupisavailabletoassistprotocoldirectorsdesigning
studieswithradiation.Earlyconsultationwillhelpassurethattheproposalwillbe
approvedonthefirstreview.
Application
Allprotocolsinvolvingboth"research"or "clinical investigations" and "human
subjects"mustbesubmittedbytheelectronicHumanSubjects"eProtocol"system
andbereviewedandapprovedbytheIRBbeforerecruitmentanddatacollection
maystart.ApplicationsforHumanSubjectswhichincludetheuseofradiationare
forwardedtotheHealthPhysicsMedicalGroupforreview.Humansubjectprotocols
arethenapprovedbytheStanfordClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(CRSCo).If
theresearchrequiresRadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee(RDRC)reviewas
40
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
specifiedbyFDARDRCregulations21CFR361.1,anadditionalapplicationfrom
HealthPhysicsmustbecompleted.
Reviewandapproval YourapplicationmustbereviewedbytheHealthPhysicsMedicalGroupandmay
needtobecirculatedtoindividualmembersoftheCRSCo/RDRCcommitteefor
evaluationandapproval.ConsultwiththeHealthPhysicsMedicalGroupifyouhavea
time-sensitiveneed.
Humanuseresearchapprovalsarecontingentoncontemporaneousapprovalbythe
StanfordUniversityResearchComplianceOfficeonHumanSubjectResearch.
Renewal
Mosthumanuseapprovalsareforoneyear.
Amendments
TheprojectdirectorisresponsibleforinformingHealthPhysicsofchangesin
procedures,personnel,ormodificationsthatmightaffectradiationsafety.
CONTROLLEDMACHINEAUTHORIZATIONS(CMAS)FORRADIATIONDEVICES
AControlledMachineAuthorization(CMA)isrequiredforanyelectronicdevicethatemitsionizingradiation.
Inthehealthcaresetting,radiographicandfluoroscopicunitsarethemostcommonexamples.X-ray
diffractionunits,cabinetx-raymachines,andacceleratorsmaybefoundintheuniversityresearchsetting.
Thefollowinginstructionsweredevelopedfortheprojectsthatdonotinvolveadministrationofionizing
radiationtohumans.Ifyouhaveahumanuseproject,consultwithHealthPhysicstodeterminethe
appropriateinformationtosubmit.
Applicationto
obtainorfabricate
adevice
Beforeyouacquire,fabricate,ormodifyaradiationproducingdevice,submitthe
followinginformationinamemorandumtoHealthPhysics.
1.Descriptionofthedevice.Specifythetypeandmanufacturer,energyload,
andlevelsofradiationanticipated.Indicatetypicalenergies,beamcurrents,
workloadinhoursperweekandadescriptionofhowthedevicewillbeused.
Submitthemanufacturer’sbrochureandacopyofyourpurchaserequest.
Provideinformationaboutinterlocksystems,warningdevices,andinstalled
monitoringsystems.
2.Procedures.Includeacopyofoperatingandsafetyprocedures.These
proceduresshouldbeposted.Describehowthedeviceissecuredagainst
unauthorizeduse.
3.Sketchofthefacility.Includeshieldingcalculationsandspecifications,and
beamdirections.Specifyoccupantsofadjacentareas,includingareasaboveand
below.Ifportableshieldingistobeused,describeit.HealthPhysicswillprovide
assistancewithshieldingcalculations.
4.Monitors.Indicateportablemonitoringinstrumentsthatareavailable.Each
projectmustprovidenecessarysurveyinstruments.Indicatethetypeof
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
41
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
personalmonitoringdevices,suchasfilmbadgesorfingerdosimetersthatwill
beused.ForXRDs,onlyfingerringsarerequired.
5.Trainingandexperience.Provideabriefbutexplicitresumeoftheproject
director’spertinenttrainingandexperience.ForthePIandradiationsafety
contact,providedeskphone,fax,ande-mailinformation.Noteifminorswillbe
inthelab.Eachindividualusermustcompleteappropriatex-raydeviceradiation
protectiontrainingbeforeusingthedevice.Eachindividualusermustalso
completehands-ontrainingfromapersonexperiencedintheuseofthex-ray
device.Anyonewhoperformsorsupervisesx-rayproceduresonhumansmust
holdaCaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealthcertification.
ConditionalApproval ThereviewandapprovalprocessisasdescribedearlierforCRAs.However,
initiationofworkiscontingentonapre-usesurvey.Researchinvolvinghuman
subjectsmustbeapprovedbytheCRSCo.
Pre-usesurvey
Dependingonthetypeofdevice,therewillberadiationsurveysandchecksof
warninglightsandinterlocks.Thedetailsofthisinspectionarespecifictothe
device.Aftershielding,warningdevices,andinterlocksareshowntobeinorder,
thefinaloperatingapprovalisissued.Properpostingandlabelingarealso
confirmedduringthepre-usesurvey.Aconsolewarningstatement,listof
authorizedusers,standardoperatingprocedures,andemergencyproceduresare
requiredtobeposted.
Cabinetx-ray
machines
Cabinetx-raymachinesareenclosed,self-shielded,interlockedcabinets.The
machinecanonlyoperatewhentheopeningissecurelyclosed.Theexposure
levelsateverylocationontheexteriormustmeetthelevelspecifiedfor
uncontrolledareas.Donotoperateamachineiftheinterlocksappeartobe
malfunctioning.Alloperatorsmustbetrainedintheproperoperationofthe
deviceandbecertifiedbyHealthPhysicsinradiationsafetyassociatedwiththe
device.Personneldosimetrymayberecommendedforsomeoperators.
Electronmicroscopes Duetotheirdesignandoperatingvoltage,electronmicroscopesdonotnormally
excepted
presentaradiationhazard.Operatorsdonotneedpersonneldosimeters.Health
Physicsperformsaradiationsurveyeverytwoyears,afteralteration,repairor
movementofthemicroscope,orwhenrequestedbytheprojectdirector.Electron
microscopesshouldnotbemodifiedinanywaytoincreasetheradiationoutputor
reducetheshielding.
Thesedevicesarelabeled“Caution—thisequipmentproducesionizingradiation
whenenergized.”
Staffwhoprepareuranylacetate(UA)solutionsfromthebulkvialmustreceive
trainingandbelistedonaCRAbeforeorderingorusingradioactivematerials.Staff
whoworkfromthedilutesolutiononlyareexemptfromthisrequirement.
Medicaland
42
Medicalradiographicunitsareusedforinternalimagingofpatientsandresearch
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
veterinaryx-ray
machines
subjects.Dependingonthedesign,theyarecapableofmakingstillradiographicor
realtimefluoroscopicimages.Ineithercaselocalizeddosesofmorethan1remto
anearbyoperatorandseveralreminthebeamarereadilyattainable.Therefore,
trainingandexperienceanddevicesafetycriteriaarestringent.
Registrationrequired Allradiation-producingmachinesatStanfordwhetherforresearchorclinicaluse
mustberegisteredwiththeStateofCaliforniawithinthirtydaysafteracquisition.
HealthPhysicsregistersmachinesonbehalfoftheowner;theuser’sdepartment
paystheassociatedregistrationfee.ContactHealthPhysicspriortoordering.The
registrationfeeisbilledafterinitialregistration,andthereaftereverytwoyears.
Thisfeeisdueaslongasthemachineisintheuser’spossession,evenifitis
inactiveorbroken.PleasenotifyHealthPhysics(3-3201)ifthemachineisbeing
sold,transferredorscrapped.Weneedtonotifythestateofthenewuser,orofits
dismantling,otherwisetheuser’sdepartmentwillcontinuetobebilledforthe
registrationfee.
SETTINGUPTHERADIOACTIVEMATERIALSLABORATORY
RadioisotopeJournal EachCRAgroupmustmaintainaRadioisotope Journal.Binderswillbefurnishedby
HealthPhysicstofileandkeepallrequiredrecords.TheRadioisotopeJournalmustbe
accessibletoallpersonswhoworkwithradiationsourcesandmustbeavailablefor
inspectionatanytime.
General
considerations
Theworkareashouldprovidesufficientspaceforsupplies,work,andwaste.Surfaces
shouldbeeasilycleaned.Reducecontaminationbykeepingtheworkareafreeof
unnecessaryitems.Theareashouldbesecuredwhennotsupervised.
Foodandbeverages Donotconsume,store,heat,orrefrigeratefoodorbeveragesinradioactivematerials
workareas.Thiswouldprovideadirectrouteforingestion.Donotdiscardcontainers
inworkareas
orwrappingsinlaboratorytrashcansasitmaybeassumedfoodandbeverageswere
consumedinthelaboratory.
Stanfordfoodand
beveragepolicy
Storageorconsumptionoffoodorbeverageinanylaboratoryworkareais
discouraged.However,theStanfordlicenseallowsconsumptionoffoodand
beveragesindeskareaswithinlaboratoryrooms.Thedeskareamusteitherbefree
standingandatleastonemeterfromtheradioactiveworkarea,orphysically
separatedfromcontiguousworksurfacesbyacontaminationbarrier.Thedeskarea
mustbepostedwithagreennoticereading“NORADIOACTIVEMATERIALSARE
PERMITTEDINTHISAREA”.
TheVAPAHCSradioactivematerialslicensedoesnotallowtheconsumptionorstorage
VAPAHCSfood
andbeveragepolicy offoodorbeveragesinalaboratoryroom.TheNRCconsidersemptyfoodcontainers
orwrappingstobeevidenceofuse.Foodandbeveragesmayonlybestored,
refrigerated,heated,orconsumedinhallways,offices,lounges,orconferencerooms.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
43
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Recordsretention
Allrecordsgeneratedovertheprecedingthreeyearsshouldbekeptonhandforstaff
review.
OldrecordsthatweresubmittedtoorreceivedfromHealthPhysics(Dosimeter
reports,quarterlyupdates,HealthPhysicssurveys,CRAsandamendments,waste
logs,instrumentcalibrationsdonebyStanford,andinformationsheetsor
newsletters)canbediscarded.HealthPhysicshastheoriginalrecordsonfile.
OldrecordsthatwerecreatedbytheprojectstafforoutsideStanford(dailyuselogs,
usersurveys,on-the-jobtrainingrecords,userincidentreports,surveyinstrument
calibrationsbycontractors)shouldberetainedindefinitelyinthelab.Theycanbe
transferredtoHealthPhysicsifstoragespaceisnotavailable.HealthPhysicswill
takecustodyofthemwhentheCRAisterminated.
ContactHealthPhysicsforarecordsreviewbeforetransferringordiscardingrecords.
SETTINGUPTHERADIATIONDEVICELABORATORY
Thefollowingguidanceappliestolaboratoriesthatarenotadministeringionizingradiationtohumans.If
yourapplicationinvolvesspecialcircumstances,pleaseconsultwithHealthPhysics.
Radiationdevice
Operating Log
ResultsofradiationsurveysperformedbyHealthPhysics,repaircompanies,and
laboratorystaff.Whenperformedbythelaboratorystaff,specifythedate,the
personmakingthesurvey,theinstrumentusedandthelocationandlevelsof
radiation.
1. Uselogwithenergy,current,otherparameters,date,anduser’sname.
2. Devicecalibrationrecords.
3. Surveys,safetybulletins,accidentreports,correctiveefforts,repairs,and
modifications.
4. Start-up,use,andshutdownproceduresandprecautions.
Operating
requirements
Eachentranceoraccesspointtoahighradiationareamustbe:
1. Equippedwithacontroldevicethatuponentrytotheareareducesthedeepdoselevelofradiationtolessthan100milliremperhourat30centimetersfrom
theradiationsourceorfromanysurfacetheradiationpenetrates;
2. Equippedwithacontroldevicethatenergizesaconspicuousvisibleoraudible
alarminsuchamannerthatindividualsaremadeawareoftheentry;or
3. Maintainedlocked,exceptduringperiodswhenaccesstotheareaisrequired,
withpositivecontrolovereachindividualentry.
Dosimetry
required
Bothfederalandstateregulationsrequirepersonneldosimetryforindividualswho
enterhighradiationareas.
Signsandlabels
Necessarysignsandlabelsdependonthedoseratearoundthedevice.SeeTableII.2
andtheappendicesformoreinformation.
44
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Precautionsfor
analyticalx-ray
devices
X-raydiffractionandx-rayfluorescenceunitsposeaspecialradiationhazard.They
haveaone-millimeterdiameterbeamthathasaveryhighdoserate.Some
operatorswhochangedoradjustedsampleswhilethebeamwasonhavereceivedso
muchradiationdosethattheirfingershadtobeamputated.
Theseaccidentsaregenerallyattributabletocarelessworkhabitsandinadequate
instruction.Anextractfromthe1989StanfordRadiationSafetyManual,
http://www.stanford.edu/group/glam/xlab/Safety/SafetyManual.pdf,andatraining
filmentitled“TheTwo-EdgedSword”areavailablefortrainingx-raydiffraction
machineoperators.
1. AlloperatorsmustbecertifiedbyHealthPhysicsandreceiveoperationalsafety
instructionsfromtheprojectdirector.Useonlyproceduresapprovedbythe
manufactureroralternateproceduresapprovedintheCMA.
2. Wearafingerdosimeter.
3. Whenaligningthecamerabyeye,besurethatthemachineisturnedofforthat
theviewingisdonethroughaproperlydesignedleadglassviewingwindow.
4. Besurethatthemachineisturnedoffbeforechangingsamples.CheckthekV
andmAmetersandthewarninglight.
5. Afterturningtheuniton,measuretheexposurerateatthetableedge.Itshould
belessthan0.2milliremperhour.
6. Useshieldingtoensurethattheabovelimitsaresatisfied.Donotremoveor
modifythemanufacturer’sshielding.
7. Maintaindirectsurveillanceofthemachine,unlesstheareaissecured.
Machinesshouldbekeptinalockedroom.
8. Checksafetyapparatus,shutter,warninglights,surveymeter,andshieldsfor
properfunctionmonthly.ReportanymalfunctiontothePI.Donotoperatea
machinewithasafetydefect.Lockoutandtagoutthedeviceuntiltheproblem
iscorrected.
9. Ifanychangesaremadeinthemachinethatmightaffectradiationoutput,call
HealthPhysicsforasurvey.
10. PromptlyreportanyaccidentalexposuresorpotentialinjuriestoHealthPhysics
andtheprojectdirector.
11. Maintainalogofalloperations.
12. Neverputanypartofyourbodyinthebeam.Exposuretotheprimarybeamfor
evenafractionofasecondcancauseseveredamagetotissue.
Interlocksand
warninglights
Interlocksandwarninglightsareessentialsafetyfeatures.Donotbypassthem
withoutHealthPhysicsreviewandapprovalofalternatesafetymeasures.
SIGNSANDLABELS
Signsandlabelsprovidehazardinformationandwarningstoyourco-workers,supportstaff,andemergency
responders.Asignisanoticethatappliestoanareaofuseoraworkarea;alabelappliestoanappliance,
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
45
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
container,shield,pipe,orotherequipment.BothareillustratedinPartIV,Appendices.Signsareavailable
fromHealthPhysics.
Signs
RoomsandworkareasarepostedbasedonthecriteriainTable2.2.Any
informationspecifictothearea,suchasuser,telephonenumber,andinventory
shouldbekeptup-to-date.Therearespecialsignageandlogrequirementsfor
projectsthathouseanimalsinDLAM.
Labels
Avarietyoflabelsareusedtodifferentiatecleanandpotentiallycontaminated
surfacesanddevices,andradiationmachines.
PERSONNELMONITORING
Thepurposeofpersonnelmonitoringistoprovideearlynoticeifyourexposureisnotbelowthelimitsand
ALARA.Themonitoringprogramalsoprovidesapermanentrecordofyourexposure.
Typesof
dosimeters
Therearetwoprimarytypesofdosimeterswornbypersonswhoworkwithor
nearsourcesofradiation.Thefilmbadgeisfilmwrappedinlight-tightpaperand
ismountedinplastic.Badgesarecheckedperiodically,andthedegreeof
exposureofthefilmindicatesthecumulativeamountofradiationtowhichthe
wearerhasbeenexposed.Thermoluminescentdosimeters(TLDs)arecrystalline
solidsthattrapelectronswhenexposedtoionizingradiationandcanbe
calibratedtogiveareadingofradiationlevel.Filmbadgesaremostoftenwornby
hospitalstaffpotentiallyexposedtox-raysorresearchersworkingwithhigher
energybetaemitters.TLDsaremostoftenwornbypersonsexposedtoavariety
ofisotopessuchasfoundinnuclearmedicineorthecyclotronfacility.All
dosimetersareprocessedbyacontractor.Theyarecollectedthefirstweekof
everywearperiod.Mostmonitorscanreadaslowas10millirem.
Monitoring
required
Theregulationsrequiremonitoringforanyworkerwhomightexceed10percentof
theapplicablelimit,andanyworkerenteringahighorveryhighradiationarea.
Monitorsareusuallyrecommendedforprojectsauthorizedto5millicuriesof
photon-orhighenergybeta-emitters,andXRDoperators.Dosimetrywillbeissued
whenevaluationestablishesaneedfortheuseofthismonitoringtechnique.
RequirementswillbestatedintheHazards Evaluation.SeeTable2.1forthedose
limits.
RecordsofPrior
Exposure
Eachindividualhavingapreviousoron-goingradiationexposurehistorywith
anotherinstitutionisrequiredtosubmitan“AuthorizationtoObtainRadiation
ExposureHistory”form.
Use
Bodybadgesandfingerringsarewornwherethehighestexposureisexpected;rings
arewornunderneathglovestoavoidcontamination.Ifyouaresuppliedbothtypes,
wearbothwheneveryouareworkingwithradiation.HealthPhysicscanprovide
alternativeguidanceinunusualsituations.
46
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Precautions
Donotwearfornon-workexposuressuchasadentist’soffice.
Storebadgesinasafelocationwhennotinuse,awayfromsun,heat,sourcesof
radiationorpotentialdamage.Protectbadgesfromimpact,puncture,or
compression.
DonotstoreExtremity(finger)ringsinlabcoatpockets.Storingringsinthelabcoat
pocketmayexposetheringstoradiationmeasuredbythewholebodybadge.Rings
aretomeasurehandexposuresonly.
Amissingorinvaliddosimeterreadingcreatesagapinyourradiationdoserecord
andaffectsthemonitoringprogram’sabilitytoprovideaccurateexposurereadings.
Foramissingdosimetera“Lost/DamagedDosimeterReport”isrequired.
Bioassays
Individualswhohandlelargeamountsofeasilyingestedradionuclidesmaybe
requiredtoparticipateinabioassaymonitoringprogram.
Ifyouroutinelyhandleonemillicurieormoreofradioactiveiodine,youarerequired
tocometoHealthPhysicstohaveyourthyroidmonitoredforuptake.Thethyroid
measurementshouldbewithin72hoursfollowingexposureandevery2weeksif
routineworkcontinues.Thebioassayshouldnotbesoonerthan6hours.
ThebioassayrequirementforeachprojectisdescribedintheHazardsEvaluation.
Notethatthyroidblockingagentswillnotbepermitted.
Ifyouhandlemorethan100millicuriesoftritium,youarerequiredtosubmitaurine
sampletoHealthPhysicsseventofourteendaysaftertheexperiment.Thesample
willbemeasuredfortritiumcontent.Pleasemakearrangementswithhealthphysics
priortobeginningwork.
BioassaysmayalsobeorderedbytheRSOafteraspill,anunusualevent,ora
procedurethatmightresultinanuptake.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
47
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
ORDERINGANDRECEIVINGRADIOACTIVEMATERIAL
Orders
Orderallradionuclideshipmentsfordeliverytothefollowingaddress:
HealthPhysicsInspectionStation(CRA#)
StanfordMedicalCenterReceiving
820QuarryRoad,Rm.H0321
PaloAlto,CA94304
StanfordpurchasesmustbemadeonlinethroughOracleasaStandardRadioactive
order.DonotuseUniversityRapidPurchaseOrdersorUniversityPurchasingCard
(PCard)forradioactivematerials.OrderonlythroughProcurementServicesor
VAPAHCSSupplyService.TheCRAnumberontherequisitionmustbeincludedwhen
ordering.
Ifthevendorrequestsacopyoftheradioactivematerialslicense,forwardthe
requesttoHealthPhysics.
Receiptand
inspection
Whenthepackagearrives,HealthPhysicscheckstheexteriorforcontaminationand
doserate,logsthereceipt,andcheckstoensureyouareauthorizedtoreceivethe
radionuclideandamount.HealthPhysicswillthenhaveyourpackagedeliveredto
yourlab.Youmayarrangetopickupapackageifitisurgentlyneeded.
Inspectand
storepromptly
Promptlyinspectthepackageforleakageandcorrectnessofcontents.Besurethat
youremoveeachitemonthepackinglist,andcarefullysiftthroughdryiceand
packingpeanuts.Safetyinstructionsmaybeprovidedwiththepackage.Toensureit
willnotbemisplaced,storethepackagepromptlyafterinspection.
Removepackage
labels
Afteryouremovetheradioactivematerialfromthepackage,removeordefaceany
“radioactivematerials”labelsbeforediscardingtheempty,uncontaminatedpackage
tohousewaste.
Directdelivery
Ifyoureceivematerialdirectlyandithasnotbeeninspected,informHealthPhysics
promptly,andifrequested,bringthepackagetotheInspectionStation.Special
arrangementsfordirectdeliveryofradioactivematerialsfromthesuppliertothe
usermustbeapprovedbytheRadiationSafetyOfficer(RSO)case-by-case.
USEANDTRANSFERRECORDS
DailyUseLogs
AfterapackageofradioactivityhasbeeninspectedbyHealthPhysics,aDaily Usage
Logisattached.Makeanentryeachdaythatthematerialisused.Youmayusea
differentformorformatifalltherequiredinformationisincluded.Keepthelogsin
theRadioisotope Journal orpostthemontherefrigeratororstoragecabinet.Donot
keeptheselogsinyourindividuallaboratorynotebook.
Sealedsource
storageanduse
Ifseveralsealedsourcesareinuse,theyshouldbekeptinacentrallocation.Sources
beingusedinexperimentsmustbesecured,properlyshielded,andlabeledwiththe
radionuclide,activity,doserateifgreaterthananAppendixCQLMquantity,and
48
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
date.Theuselogshouldidentifyeachsource,datesofremovalandreturn,anduser.
Ifsourcesaremovedtootherauthorizedlocations,theuselogshouldindicatethis
alongwiththedateandthenameoftherecipient.
Sealedsource
inventory
ASealed Source Inventory thatise-mailedquarterlylistsallsealedsources.The
responsibleindividualmustpersonallyexamineeachsourcetoensureitisonhand
andinitsproperplace.Verifythelocationofthesourcesandreturntheformto
HealthPhysics.FileacopyintheRadioisotope Journal.
Leaktesting
Mostsealedsourcesmustbeleaktestedtwiceeachyear.HealthPhysicsprovides
thisservice.Requestaleaktestwhenyoureceiveanewsealedsource,before
transferringittoanotherCRA,beforeshippingittoavendor,orifitappears
damaged.
An Inventory Summaryformforunsealedradioactivematerialsisemailedeach
Radionuclide
InventorySummary January,April,July,andOctober.Theformsmustbefilledoutshowingdispositionof
materialstothenearestmicrocurie.UsetheDaily Use Logasthesourcedocument.
Youcanremoveitemsthathavegonethroughtenhalf-livesandcontainlessthan
onemicrocurie.Ifyouhaveaccumulatedaninventoryofshort-livedstockvials,you
mayhavetodecay-correcttheentriestoavoidgoingoveryourinventorylimit.
Indicatetheprimaryviallocationifdifferentfromthelocationlisted.When
completingtheOctoberinventoryyoumustalsophysicallyexamineeachcontainer
toensureitslocationandlabelingareaccurate.
FaxtheformstoHealthPhysicsbythedatespecified.Ifithasnotbeenreceivedby
theduedate,yourincomingpackageswillbeheldattheInspectionStationuntilthe
formsaresubmitted.FileacopyofeachsummaryintheRadioisotope Journal.
Transfertoanother TransfersofradiationsourcesfromoneCRAtoanothermustbereportedtoHealth
CRA
PhysicswiththequarterlyInventory Summaryreport.Beforetransferringradioactive
materialoutsideyourCRA,verifythatthepersonreceivingthematerialisan
authorizeduseroftheCRA,andthatthematerialandactivityiswithinthelimitsof
theCRAyouaretransferringthematerialto.
Transferreport
IfthetransferexceedstentimestheAppendixCQLM,printandcompleteatransfer
formavailableathttp://radforms.stanford.edu.Placetheoriginalandonecopyinto
yourRadioisotope Journalandprovidetherecipientwithtwocopies.Boththe
transferorandrecipientmustattachacopyoftheformtotheirrespectivequarterly
Inventory Summaryreport.
Off-campustransfer HealthPhysicsistheonlycampusgroupauthorizedtoshipradioactivematerialsoff
campus.Forfurtherdetailsandassistance,calltheInspectionStation.
Toensuresafetyandcompliancewithtransportationregulations,allshipmentsof
radioactivematerialsfromthecampusmustbepreparedunderHealthPhysics
supervision.TheshippingcontainermustmeettheappropriateUSDepartmentof
Transportationspecifications.ThepackagemustnotbesealeduntilHealthPhysics
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
49
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
completesitsinspection.
Notethatcarryingradioactivematerialwithyouorinyourcheckedairplaneluggage
isforbiddenunderFederalAviationAdministrationregulations.
SURVEYS
Thepurposeofaphysicalsurveyistoidentifypotentialproblems,suchaspoorstorageorhandlingpractices,
beforetheyactuallyposeahazard,andtodemonstratethatcontaminationlevelsanddoseratesarewell
belowlimits.Surveysshouldbedonethefirstweekofeachmonthtoassuretheyarenotinadvertently
omitted,andmustbedoneaftereachuseinsharedworkareas.
Removable
contamination
surveys
Removablecontaminationsurveyshelpidentifyareaswhereradioactivityhasbeen
spilled.Countertops,sinks,floors,refrigerators,centrifuges,fumehoods,and
telephonehandsetsshouldallbeconsideredforinclusion.Takeasampleby
makinga100cmlongwipeofthesurfacewithasmallpieceofpapertowelora
filterpaper.Countthesampleonthesameequipmentusedtocountyour
experimentalsamples.ThisisnormallydoneonaLiquidScintillationCounter.
Instrumentsurveys Appropriateinstrumentsurveys(e.g.,GMforhighenergybetas,NaI(Tl)forlow
energygammas)helpidentifyareaswhereradioactivityhasbeenspilledorwhere
itisinadequatelyshielded.Surveybenchsurfaces,yourhands,clothing,and
shoes.Mostresearchersuseasurveyinstrumentwithaspeaker,whichresponds
morequicklythanthemeterneedlemovement.Performa“batterycheck,”and
useeitheraradioactivechecksourceoraknownradiationareatoconfirmthe
instrumentisworkingbeforeyoubegin.Movethedetectorslowlytoallowthe
instrumenttimetorespond.
ActionLevel
Ifyoufindoccasionallyoccupiedareaswithapenetratingdoserategreaterthan2
milliremperhour,orcontinuouslyoccupiedworkareaswithapenetratingdose
rateactionlevelgreaterthan0.2milliremperhour,correctiveactionisrequired.
ConsultwiththePIorHealthPhysics.
Records
HealthPhysicswillsupplyasurveyformthatincludesaroomsketch.Seeexample
intheAppendices.Eachsurveyrecordmustinclude:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Asketchofthelab,
Locationsofsamplepoints,
Measurementsinmrem/hrordpm/100cm2,
Identificationoftheinstrumentationused,
Backgroundandefficiencyintheinstrumentation,
Surveyor’sname,and
Date.
Iftheinstrument(liquidscintillationcounter)doesnotcalculateandprintdpm,
butratherprintsjustcpm,youmustdeterminethecountingefficiencytoensure
50
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
thecountsperminuterateisbelowthecleanupthresholdinTable3.3in
dpm/100cm2.TypicalcountingefficienciesarenotedinTable3.4. Document
surveysbycompletingusersurveyformsandenterintotheSweepsProgram,
http://radsurvey.stanford.edu.Thesesurveysmustbeperformedandentered
intotheSweepsProgramthefirstweekofthemonth.
Buildingand
equipment
repair
Beforeanypotentiallycontaminatedareasorequipment,suchasaglovebox,
hood,refrigerator,sink,orpipelineisturnedoverforrepair,itmustbesurveyed.
CallHealthPhysics.Theequipmentwillbesurveyed,de-labeled,andmarked
“Clearedforrepairorreleasetouncontrolledarea.”
Equipmentdisposal NotifyHealthPhysicspriortodisposalofanyradiationdevice.Specialprecautions
areneeded,andthestatemayrequirenotification.
(Note:actionlevelsare
indpm/100cm2)
Materialswith
App.CQLM
≥100µCi1
Materialswith
APP.CQLM
<100µCi2
All
alpha
emitters
Unrestrictedareas
(e.g.,desk,hallways)
2,000
200
20
Restrictedareas
(e.g.,workareas,
equipment)
20,000
2,000
200
1
H-3,C-14,F-18,P-33,S-35,Ca-45,Cr-51,Fe-55,Co-57,Ni-63,Cu-64,Zn-65,Ga-67,
Se-75,Rb-86,Sr-86,Tc-99m,In-111,Sn-113,I-123,Tl-201.
2
TABLE 3.3 ACTION
LEVELS FOR REMOVABLE
CONTAMINATION. This
tableprovidesthreshold
valuesthatrequire
correctiveactionif
exceeded.Actionlevels
areindpm,notcpm.
SeeTable3.4.Call
HealthPhysicsif
removable
contaminationismore
thantentimestheaction
levelinunrestricted
areas
Na-22,P-32,Cl-36,Fe-59,Co-60,Zn-69,Y-88,Y-90,Cd-109,I-125,I-131,Cs-137.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
51
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
1
Radionuclide
LSC Pancake
GM2
NaI(Tl)
Meter3
NaI(Tl)
Well4
H-3
20%
na5
na5
na5
C-14,S-35,P-33
50%
10%
na5
na5
Cr-51,Co-57,Tc-99m,I125
30%
1%
50%
50%
P-32
100%
50%
na5
na5
LSC1:LiquidScintillationCounter
PancakeGM2:Hand-heldsurveymeterwithpancakeGMdetector
NaI(Tl)3:Hand-heldsurveymeterwithwell-typeNaI(Tl)crystal
NaI(Tl)4:Multichannelanalyzerwithwell-typeNaI(Tl)crystal
na5:notapplicableforthisgroupofradionuclides
TABLE 3.4 APPROXIMATE DETECTION EFFICIENCIES FOR SOME COMMON RADIONUCLIDES AND
DETECTORS. This table provides the approximate detection efficiency for the common radionuclide
measurementmethods.MultiplytheactionlevelfromTable3.3bythedetectionefficiencytocalculate
theinstrumentcpmthatindicatesneedforcorrectiveaction
RADIOACTIVEWASTE
Itisvitallyimportantthatyouhaveaccuratedataconcerningtheisotopesandactivitypresentinyourwaste.
Safedisposalofradioactivewasteisexpensive.Whendesigningalaboratoryprocedure,minimizewaste
generationandmixedwastestreamsasmuchaspracticable.
Definition
Radioactivewasteincludesanyitemsthatcontainradioactivitythatisdistinguishable
abovebackgroundlevelsusinganinstrumentthatissensitiveforthenuclide,and
thatissetonitsmostsensitivescale,andwithnointerposedshielding.
Detectinglowenergy Manyradioactivewastes,suchasH-3,C-14,S-35,andI-125arenotreadily
radionuclides
detectablewithGMsurveyinstruments.Hence,itemsthatareintheworkarea
wheretheseorsimilarunsealedmaterialsarepresentmustbeassumedtohave
beencontaminatedunlesstheyaresurveyedbyanacceptablealternativemethod.
Forwastecontaminatedwithlowenergybetaemitters,makesmearsurveysand
measurethemwithaliquidscintillationcounter.ForI-125,useaNaI(Tl)scintillation
detectortosurveypotentiallycontaminateditems.Ifthisisimpractical,ourpolicyis
toassumethatthesurfaceiscontaminatedanddiscarditasradioactivewaste.
Decontamination
Dishdetergent,windowcleaner,vinegar,bubblebath,waterlesshandcleaner,or
ovencleanerareallsuitableforcleaningsurfacecontamination.Usemildproducts
forskincontamination.
Half-lifecategories
Separateallradioactivewastesbyhalf-lifesothatshorthalf-lifematerialscanbeheld
52
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
fordecayfollowedbyincinerationratherthandisposalbyburial.
Radioactive
wastecontainers
andlogsheets
Allwastecontainersmustbelabeledwiththeradiationsymbolandasignreading
“Caution—RadioactiveMaterials.”For each disposal log, note the radionuclide
quantity in microcuries, date of disposal, and your initials.
DonotusecontainersotherthanthoseprovidedbyHealthPhysicsToensure
radioactivewasteisdistinguishablefromhousewaste.
Drywasteboxes
Placeonlydry,non-decomposablewastessuchasgloves,paper,andglasswareinDry
WasteBoxes.Donotputanyliquids,cappedvials,leadshields,animals,bedding,or
scatintothecontainer.Wastethatemitsmorethan2mrem/hrat30cmmustbe
shielded.Donotshieldindividualitemsinthebox;shieldtheentirecontainer.Also,
bagwastecontaminatedwithvolatilematerials,especiallyiodine,priortodisposal.
Waste
removal
Whenacontainerisalmostfull,faxacopyofthewastelogtoHealthPhysics.Be
suretheroomnumberandCRAnumberareontheform.Leavethepinkcopyofthe
logonthebox.Thiswillservetoidentifythecorrectboxduringthepick-up;itcanbe
usedasalogforadditionaldisposalspriortopick-up.
Sharps
Discardsharps,suchaspipettes,syringesandneedles,brokenglass,razorblades,
andscalpelbladesintosharpscontainersbearingtheradiationwarninglabelandlog
sheet.UseseparatecontainersforisotopesotherthanC-14andH-3.Fordisposal,
thefullcappedsharpscontainermaybeplacedinadrywasteboxcontainingthe
sameisotope.Enterthecontentsofthesharpscontainerontothedrywastelog
sheet.Forseparateremovalofsharpscontainers,faxthelogsheettoHealthPhysics.
Largeitems
Largenon-combustibleitemssuchascontaminatedequipmentshouldnotbeplaced
inaDryWasteBox.CallHealthPhysicsforassistanceinthedisposalofsuchitems.
ScintillationVials
Seepage56.
Aqueouswaste
Materialthatisreadilysolubleinwatermaybedisposedofintothesanitarysewer
systemwithadequateflushing,providedthat:
ThematerialisnotchemicallyhazardousorcontainingbiohazardousmaterialofBSL2orabove,oritisnotmedicalwasteotherthanpatienturineorfeces.Seethe
followingwebsitestoidentify:
https://nonhazardouswaste.stanford.edu
http://med.stanford.edu/school/HS/biosafety/bac.html
Contactthemanageroftheenvironmentalprotectionprogramforguidance(7257529);and
Thequantityperlaboratory,perday,doesnotexceedtheQLMquantity.Disposalof
largerquantitiesofradioactivewastesviathesewermustbereviewedandhavethe
writtenapprovalofHealthPhysics;and
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
53
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Logeachdisposalofradioactivitytothesanitarysewerwiththedate,activity,form
andyournameontheDaily Use Log intheRadioisotope Journal;theproperly
completedDaily Use Logentriesconstitutethewastedisposalrecord.
HealthPhysicswillpostsinksusedfordisposalofradioactivewasteswithproper
warningsignstoalertplumberswhoservicethesinks.Useonesinkfordisposalof
radioactivematerialsineachlaboratory.
Humanexcretafrom Humanexcretacontainingradioisotopesmaybedisposedofinthesanitarysewer
system.
nuclearmedicine
procedures
Cementkits
Ifyouaregeneratingsmallvolumesofliquidwastethatcannotbedisposedinthe
sanitarysewer(seeAqueous wasteabove),orderacementkit.Thismethodof
disposalisrequiredforradionuclideswithaQLMvalueof1microcurieorless,except
forI-125andI-131whichhavesewerlimitsof100microcuriespermonthperproject.
Cementcansholdaboutoneliter.Useadifferentkitforeachindividualradionuclide.
Theinstructionsforuseareprovidedwiththekit.Forremovaloffilledcementkits
faxthelogsheettoHealthPhysics.
Ifusingacementkitformixedwastetrainingisrequired.ContacttheManagerof
EnvironmentalPrograms(725-7529).
Combinedradiologicalandbiohazardous(BSL>2)and/ormedicalwastematerials,
Radiologicaland
biohazardous(BSL>2)otherthanhumanexcreta,mustbedeactivatedpriortodisposalasradioactive
and/ormedicalwastewaste.Theprojectstaffshouldreviewthepotentialmethodsofdisinfectingwith
54
HealthPhysics.Thedeactivationmethodsmustbedescribedbytheprojectand
reviewedandapprovedbytheappropriatecommittee.Methodsincludeautoclaving
ortreatingwithchemicalssuchasformalin,carbolicacid,orbleach.Notethat
wasteswithI-125orI-131maybeespeciallydifficulttodeactivatebecauseheatand
strongbleachesmaydriveofftheradioiodinevapors,presentingairbornehazardsor
contaminatingequipment.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Radiologicalandnon- Non-biohazardousbiological(BSL1)ornon-medicalwastecombinedwithradioactive
wastemustbehandledasradioactivewasteinaccordancewithCalifornia
biohazardousand/or
non-medicalwaste regulations.
ForBSLlevels,checktheBiosafetydatabaseat:
http://med.stanford.edu/school/HS/biosafety/bac.html
Liquids.Followguidanceforpermissibledisposalinthesanitarysewer;thisrequires
approvalofHealthPhysicsduringtheCRAreviewprocess.Donotautoclave
combinednon-biohazardousbiological-radioactiveliquidwaste.Donotbleachor
chemicallytreatcombinednon-biohazardousbiological-radioactivewasteto
inactivatethebiologicalorganismspriortodisposal.
Solids.Disposeofnon-biohazardousbiological-radioactivewasteasradioactive
waste.Segregatecombinedbiological-radioactivewastefrombiologicalwastethat
wouldbered-bagged.
Sharps.UseonlythesharpscontainersprovidedbyHealthPhysics.Donotdiscard
combinedbiological(BSL1)-radioactivesharpsinasharpscontainerthatdoesnot
havetheradiationsymbol.
Forthesafetyofwastehandlers,pleasespeciallyannotatedisposalofwastesthat
havebeentreatedforpathogensorinfectiousagents.
MixedWaste
Mixedwasteisdefinedaswastethatcontainsradioactivityandchemicalwastesas
definedinEPAandCaliforniaregulations(corrosiveflammable,oxidizer,air/water
reactive,toxic).These“mixed”wastesneedtobespeciallyidentifiedandhandled.
Generationofmixedwastesmustbeapprovedbytheappropriatelocalcontrol
committeebeforeitisgenerated.See:http://mixedwaste.stanford.edu
Californiahazardouswasteregulationsprohibitdisposalofchemicalmaterialstothe
Radiologicaland
hazardouschemical sewerunlesstheyhavebeenshowntobenon-hazardous.EH&Shasreviewedmany
waste
chemicalmaterialssuchasbuffersandsaltstodetermineifsanitarysewerorhouse
wastedisposalisallowable.Checkthe"Non-hazardousWasteList"at:
https://nonhazardouswaste.stanford.edu
Searchinstructionswillhelpyoudetermineifthechemicalislistedandtherefore
non-hazardous.Becarefultoreviewtheconditions;manymaterialsarenonhazardousonlybelowacertainconcentration.
Ifyouhaveamaterialthatisnotonthelistbutyoubelieveittobenon-hazardous,or
ifthematerialcanbemadenon-hazardouswithsimplein-labtreatment,callthe
RadiologicalWasteProgram.Theremaybeadditionalapplicabledataortesting
methods.EH&Swillmakethedetermination.Treatmentsmustbedocumentedin
yourRadioisotope Journal.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
55
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Ifthehalf-lifeislessthan19days,thematerialmaybestoredfordecayandthen
treatedaschemicalwaste.
Mixedwastes,withpriorapproval,likehazardouschemicalwastesmaybe
accumulatedinthelaboratoryforamaximumof9months.Submitapick-uprequest
at8months.
Decay-in-storage
Decay-in-storageisonewaytohandlewastewithshorthalf-lives.Tostore
radioactivityfordecayinthelab,theCRAapplicationmustspecifytheareasusedto
storewastes,aswellasthemethodsusedtomonitordecayedwastes.Decay-instorageinthelabislimitedtoradionuclideswithhalf-liveslessthan15days.
Decay-in-storagerequiresthatwastesbestoredaminimumof10half-lives,then
surveyed.Thesurveymustshowthattheradiationisindistinguishablefrom
background.Allradiationwarninglabelsmustberemovedorobliteratedbefore
disposingofwasteintohousewaste,ortochemicalwasteifitbeganasamixed
waste.FilestoragelogsandsurveysintheRadioisotope Journal.
Scintillationvials
TheRadiologicalWasteprogramprovides5-gallonbucketsforliquidscintillation
vials.TheStanfordHazardousWasteLabelmustbecompletedanddatedwhenfirst
placinganitemintothebucket.Differentsolventsmaybeaddedtothesamebucket,
butyoumustaddthenameofeachsolventtothelabel.Atradenamemaybeused
i.e.Readysafe,Cytoscint,Optiphase.Notethat,underCaliforniaenvironmental
regulations,even“environmentallysafe”cocktailscannotbereleasedtothesanitary
sewer.
Send or fax (723-3759) the completed request to Radioactive Waste for pick-up
when the pail is full or 8 months old.
Thefollowingradionuclidesareapprovedforuseinscintillationvials.H-3andC-14
maybecombinedinthesamebucket.
H-3,C-14,Na-22,P-32,P-33,S-35,Cl-36,Ca-45,Cr-51,Co-57,Fe-59,Zn-65,Ga-67,
Ge-68,Se-75,Rb-86,Cd-109,In-111,I-125,I-131,andHg-203.
Ifyouneedtoperformliquidscintillationcountingforotherradionuclides,consult
withHealthPhysics.
VialDisposalCost
Reduction
Scintillationvialsnotcontaminatedwitharadioisotopemaybemanagedaschemical
wasteprovidingaconsiderablemonetarysavings.Pleaseseparatethevials
containingradioactivecontaminationfromthosethatdonotanddisposeof
accordingly.
Carcasses,bedding, Certainfreezershavebeenidentifiedascollectionpointsforcarcasses,bedding,and
scat.ThesearelocatedintheResearchAnimalFacilityRoomRAF-061CandDorfor
andscat
imagingisotopeswithhalf-livesoflessthan3daysatClarkS035.Forotherareas,call
HealthPhysicsat723-3201.
56
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Ifanimalshavebeenetherized,letthecarcassesairoutthoroughlyinafumehood
beforeplacingtheminthefreezerstoavoidtheriskoffireorexplosionfromthe
etherfumes.
Discardcontaminatedbedding,carcasses,andscat,segregatedbythehalf-life
category,intodoubleplasticbags.Inrespectofpublicsensitivities,pleaseusean
opaqueouterbag.Tagallanimalwasteontheoutsideofthebagindicatingisotope,
activity,dateofdisposal,andaccountnumbertobecharged.Tagsareavailableat
thefreezer.Also,fillinthelogsheetonthefreezerdoor.
Note:Alwaysusethelogsheetsprovidedwiththewastecontainers.
Radioactivewastechargesareincludedinlaboratoryoverhead.However,pleasebe
Chargesfor
radioactivewasteat carefulthatyoudonotneedlesslycreatewaste,ormixnon-radioactivewasteinto
Stanford
thewastestream.Projectsthatgenerateextraordinaryamountsofwastemaybe
billedextra.
PROBLEMSRELATEDTORADIOACTIVEWASTES
Experienceovertheyearshasidentifiedseveralincorrectpracticesthatcauseadditionalcostandtime.
IncompleteWaste
Logsheets
Theincorrectdocumentationorsegregationofwasteorincompletelabelingmay
resultinthemismanagementofmaterialsandpotentialviolations.
Radioactivewastein Surveyitemsinandaroundradioactivematerialworkareaspriortodisposingofthe
non-radioactivetrash itemsintonon-radioactivewaste.Ifradioactivewasteisimproperlyreleasedtoa
cans
sanitarylandfill,itwilldemonstratealossofcontrolinthelaboratory.Thiscanresult
inacitation,acivilpenalty,andapressreleasebytheregulatoryauthority.
Mixedhalf-life
categories
ExternalradiationreadingsfoundonboxeswhoselogshaveonlyH-3orC-14entries
indicatesthatcategorieshavebeenmixed.Properlysegregatethematerialsbyhalflifecategoryandlogthematerialsbeingdisposedofatthetimeofdisposal.
Secondary
containment
Placeallcollectionbottlesinsecondarycontainment,suchasabeakerorbucket.
Keepbottlewasteinawell-ventilatedareasuchasafumehood.Observefiresafety
practices.
Boxflapsandbox
shields
Donotpushwasteboxflapsdownintothebox,thismakesretrievaloftheflap
difficult,andincreasesthepotentialforcontaminatingthebox,yourhands,andthe
lab.Donotforceaboxintoashield;itisdifficulttoremovewhenitisfull.Health
Physicscanidentifymanufacturerswhoseshieldseasilyaccommodateourwaste
boxes.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
57
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Mixedwaste
Disposalofmixedhazardouswasteisagrowingproblemhereandelsewhere.
Specialpermissionisrequiredpriortogeneratingmixedwaste.Pleasemakeevery
efforttosegregatehazardouswastestreamssuchasreactivechemicalsand
biologics.
Non-radioactive
waste
AttheVAPAHCS,surveyallregularnon-radioactivewastetoensureitisfreeof
contamination.Thenplaceitinthecorridorforpickup.
RESPONSETOSPILLS,LOSSES,ANDOTHERINCIDENTS
Purpose
Incidentresponseproceduresaredesignedtobringanout-of-controlsituationtoa
conditionthatwillminimizetherisktoworkersandthepublic.Proceduresdirected
towardscontainingthesourceoftheriskarenotmeanttorecoverthesituation,
butrathertokeepthesituationfromgettingworse.Proceduresforpersonnel
decontaminationaredesignedtoremoveasmuchcontaminationaspossible
withoutdamagingthecontaminatedskin.
Assistance
Ifyouneedassistancetobringanincidentundercontrol,orguidanceonhowto
recoverfromit,callHealthPhysics.Telephonenumbersareonthebackcover.
Incidentrecords
Afteryouhaverecoveredfromanincident,determineitscauseandeffects.
Considerwhetherprocedures,equipment,facilities,ortrainingshouldbemodified
toreducethechanceofrecurrence.FilearecordofthisintheRadioisotope Journal
sothatotherscanlearnfromyourexperience.
Surface
decontamination
Dishdetergent,windowcleaner,vinegar,bubblebath,waterlesshandcleaner,or
ovencleanerareallsuitableforcleaningitems.
SkindecontaminationCarefullyremovecontaminatedclothing.Whencleaningskin,rinsegenerously,use
mildsoaps,andtakecaretonotabradethesurface.Simplysoakingskininamild
detergentsolution,vinegar,orbubblebathmayremovemostcontamination.
Responseprocedures Therearetendifferentincidentresponseproceduresprovidedonthefollowing
pages.Selecttheonethatismostappropriatedependingonthephysicalformand
sourcestrengthoftheradiationsource.
58
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Smallspills:liquids 1. Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
2. Preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespillwithabsorbentpaper.
andpowdersless
thantheQLM
3. Cleanupthespillusingdisposableglovesandabsorbentpaper.Carefullyfold
quantity
theabsorbentpaperwiththecleansideoutandplaceinaplasticbagfor
transfertoaradioactivewastecontainer.Alsoputthecontaminatedglovesand
(Note:seeseparate
anyothercontaminateddisposablematerialinthebag.
discussionbelowfor
4. Withalow-rangeradiationdetectorsurveymeter,surveytheareaaroundthe
spillsinvolving
spill,yourhands,clothing,andshoesforcontamination.Washcontaminated
positronemitters)
skin.Allpersonnelcontamination(e.g.shoes,skin,clothing)mustbereported
toHealthPhysicsviaphonecall.
5. ReportthespilltothePI.
1. Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
Moderatespills:
liquidsandpowders 2. Preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespillwithabsorbentpaper.
≤ 1000xtheQLM
3. Cleanupthespillusingdisposableglovesandabsorbentpaper.Carefullyfoldthe
quantity
absorbentpaperwiththecleansideoutandplaceitinaplasticbagfortransfer
toaradioactivewastecontainer.Alsoputthecontaminatedglovesandany
othercontaminateddisposablematerialinthebag.
4. Withalow-rangeradiationdetectorsurveymeter,surveytheareaaroundthe
spill,yourhands,clothing,andshoesforcontamination.Washcontaminated
skin.Allpersonnelcontamination(e.g.shoes,skin,clothing)mustbereportedto
HealthPhysicsviaphonecall.
5. ReportthespilltoHealthPhysicsviaphone.
Largespills:liquids 1. Clearthearea.Orderallpersonsnotinvolvedinthespilltovacatetheroom.
andpowdersmore 2. Ifyoucandoitsafely,preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespill
than1000xtheQLM
withabsorbentpaper,butdonotattempttocleanitup.Topreventthespread
quantity
ofcontamination,limitthemovementofallpersonnelwhomaybe
3.
4.
5.
6.
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters-
doserate<5
mrem/houratone
meter
contaminated.
Shieldthesourceifpossible.Thisshouldbedoneonlyifitcanbedonewithout
furthercontaminationorasignificantincreaseinyourradiationexposure.
NotifytheRSOimmediately.
Withalow-rangeradiationdetectormeter,surveyyourhands,clothing,and
shoesforcontamination.Washcontaminatedskin.
TheRSOwillsupervisethecleanupofthespill.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
Surveythespilltodeterminethedoserate.
Preventthespreadofcontaminationbycoveringthespillwithabsorbentpaper.
Cleanupthespillusingdisposableglovesandabsorbentpaper.
Withalow-rangeradiationdetectorsurveymeter,surveyyourhands,clothing,
shoes,andtheareaaroundthespillforcontamination.Washcontaminatedskin.
6. ReportthespilltothePI.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
59
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters-
doserate<20
mrem/houratone
meter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
Surveythespilltodeterminethedoserate.
Surveyallwhoareleavingtheareaforcontamination.
Ifpersonnelarecontaminated,washthecontaminatedareawithmildsoapand
water,andcontactPIorHealthPhysicsimmediately.
Ifthespill is small in areaplaceabsorbentpadandleadbrickatthesametime
onthespill.
Ifthespill is too large in areatobecoveredbyaleadbrick,contactHealth
Physicsimmediately.
Aftercovering,surveythespillareaagain.Ifthedoserateisbeloworequalto5
mremperhourat30cmfromtheshieldsurface,labelthetopofthebrickwith
thenuclideandtimeofday.Allowthespilltodecayinplace.Ifthedoserateis
greaterthan5mremperhourat30cm,thenaddadditionalshieldingtoreach
thislevel.
ReportthespilltothePIandHealthPhysics
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters-
doserate>20
mrem/houratone
meter
Notifypersonsintheareathataspillhasoccurred.
Surveythespilltodeterminethedoserate.
Orderallpersonsnotinvolvedinthespilltovacatethearea.
Surveyallwhoareleavingtheareaforcontamination.Removeallcontaminated
clothing.
5. Ifpersonnelarecontaminated,washthecontaminatedareawithmildsoapand
water,andcontactHealthPhysicsimmediately.
6. Ifthedoserateisless than 100 mrem per houratonemeterandthespill is
small in areaandcanbecoveredbyaleadbrick,thenplaceabsorbentpadand
leadbrickatthesametimeonthespill.
7. ReportthespilltothePIandHealthPhysics
Spillproceduresfor
positronemitters:
WhenisHealth
Physicspresence
required?
1. Ifthespill is too large an areatobecoveredbyaleadbrick.
2. Ifthedoserateisgreater than 100 mrem per hour.
3. Ifpersonnelarecontaminated.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ensure there is no entry into the area until Health Physics arrives.
Stucksourcesin
irradiators
1. Jigglethehandletoreturnthesourcetothestoredposition.
2. Activatethemanualoffcontrol.
3. Ifareamonitorsarealarming,stayoutofthebeamandclosethedoor.Donot
attempttoremoveyoursamples.
4. Orderallpersonstoleavetheroom.
5. Securetheroomtoprevententry.
6. NotifythePIandRSOimmediately.
60
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
ADMINISTRATIVEANDTECHNICALPROCEDURES
Loss,theft,or
disappearance
ofradioactive
materialsora
radiationdevice
1. Askco-workersiftheyknowwherethematerialis.
2. Iftheydon’tknow,promptlycallHealthPhysics.Giveyourname,theCRA
number,andadescriptionofthemissingmaterial.
3. Continuetolookforthematerialandinterviewco-workerspendingarrivalof
HealthPhysics.
Unusualevents
Althoughtheremayormaynotbepersonnelexposure,otherunusualevents,such
asunexpectedorwidespreadcontamination,missingorunexpectedpackages,
missingorextrawaste,indicateapossiblebreakdowninadministrativeortechnical
procedures.CallHealthPhysicsforassistance.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
61
APPENDICES
Part 4 APPENDICES
Theappendicesareacollectionofintramuralandpeer-reviewedinformationgenerallyapplicableto
institutionalradiationsafety.Ifyouhavesuggestionsforadditionalinformationthatshouldbeincludedhere
pleasecontactHealthPhysics.
Glossary
Safetydatasheets
Theglossaryiscomprisedoftermsofartfrom10CFRPart20,other
63
referenceworks,andacronymsspecifictoStanfordandVAPAHCS.
Thedatasheetsprovidebasicinformationonsomecommonlyused
69
radionuclides.ThedatasheetsweredevelopedatStanfordbasedon
informationinreferenceworks.Datasheetsfortheradionuclidesyou
useareinyourRadioisotope Journal,amorecompletesetisonour
website:http://radsafetysheets.stanford.edu
ReportsandGuides Fourorganizationshavepublishedreportsthatwereusedinthe
10CFRPart20
AppendixC–QLM
Quantities,
ConversionTable
80
preparationofthismanual.Thoseapplicabletoinstitutionaluseof
ionizingradiationarelisted.TheNationalCouncilonRadiation
ProtectionandMeasurements(NRCP)wascharteredbyCongressto
provideexpertguidanceonradiationprotection;itsreportsare
considerednationalvoluntarystandards.TheNationalResearch
Councilprovidesexpertservicestothegovernment,thepublic,andthe
scientificandengineeringcommunities.TheInternationalCommission
onRadiologicalProtection(ICRP)providesguidanceonfundamental
principlesofradiologicalprotection.TheUSNuclearRegulatory
Commission(NRC)istheleadfederalagencyonradioactivematerials
safety;itpublishesRegulatoryGuidesonmanytopics.Allthereports
andguidesareavailableforreviewinHealthPhysics.
Eachradionuclidepresentsadifferentrelativehazardduetoitshalf82
lifeanddecayscheme.10CFRPart20AppendixC,QLMQuantitiesof
licensedmaterialrequiringlabeling,providesthebasisforcategorizing
radionuclidesaccordingtorelativehazard.Itisthefoundationforour
QLMquantitiesinTable3.1.
Signsand
labels
Signsandlabelsareusedtoprovideinformationtoradiationworkers
andthosewhomightenterthelaboratoryoccasionally.Thereisa
specialpurposeforeachone.
Theseformsareusedtodocumentreceipt,use,transfer,anddisposal
oflicensedmaterial,surveys,andincidents.
93
Index
Thekeytermsusedinthismanualareincluded.
107
Phone,fax,e-mail,
andwebsites
ManyHealthPhysicsadministrativematterscanbehandled
electronically.Ifyouhaveaquestion,pleasecall.
backcover
Forms
62
96
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
Note:Termsthatareinstitution-specificaremarked(Stanford)or(VAPAHCS).
absorbeddose
Theenergyimpartedbyionizingradiationperunitmassofirradiatedmaterial.The
unitsofabsorbeddosearetheradandthegray(Gy).
activity
Rateofdisintegration,transformation,ordecayofradioactivematerial.Theunitsof
activityarethecurie(Ci)andthebecquerel(Bq).
ALARA
Acronymfor“aslowasreasonablyachievable.”Makeeveryreasonableeffortto
maintainexposurestoradiationasfarbelowthedoselimitsasispracticalconsistent
withthepurposeforwhichtheactivityisundertaken,takingintoaccountthestateof
technology,theeconomicsofimprovementsinrelationtobenefitstothepublichealth
andsafety,andothersocietalandsocioeconomicconsiderations,andinrelationto
utilizationofionizingradiationinthepublicinterest.
AnnualLimiton
Intake(ALI)
Theamountofaradionuclidethatwouldresultinacommittedeffectivedose
equivalentof5rems,oracommitteddoseequivalentof50remstoanorganortissue.
See10CFRPart20AppendixB.
A&MM
Acquisition&MaterialsManagement(VAPAHCS).
APLAC
AdministrativePanelonLaboratoryAnimalCare(Stanford).
APRS AdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety(Stanford).Otherorganizationsmayuse
RadiationSafetyCommitteeorRadiationControlBoard,forexample.
areaofuse
Aroomorsuiteinwhichradioactivematerialsisused.Itmayhaveoneormorework
areas.
background
radiation
Radiationfromcosmicsources;naturallyoccurringradioactivematerials,including
radon(exceptasadecayproductofsourceorspecialnuclearmaterial)andglobal
falloutasitexistsintheenvironmentfromthetestingofnuclearexplosivedevices.
“Backgroundradiation”doesnotincluderadiationfromsource,byproduct,orspecial
nuclearmaterials,ordevicesregulatedbytheNRCorDHS.TheaverageUnitedStates
annualradiationexposurefromnaturalsourcesisabout310millirem(3.1millisieverts
ormSv).
becquerel(Bq)
1nucleartransformationpersecond(s-1).
bioassay
Thedeterminationofkinds,quantitiesorconcentrations,and,insomecases,the
locationsofradioactivematerialinthehumanbody,whetherbydirectmeasurement,
calledinvivocounting,orbyanalysisandevaluationofmaterialsexcretedorremoved
fromthehumanbody.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
63
GLOSSARY
CCR
CaliforniaCodeofRegulations.
CFR
CodeofFederalRegulations.
controlledarea
Anarea,outsideofarestrictedareabutinsidethesiteboundary,accesstowhichcan
belimitedbythelicenseeforanyreason.
cpm
Countsperminute.Mostradiationdetectorsdisplaythenumberofeventsdetected
perunitoftime.Thiscanbeconvertedtoameasureofactivityindpmbydividingby
thedetectionefficiency.
CRA
ControlledRadiationAuthorization(StanfordandVAPAHCS).Thepermitissuedbythe
APRSorRSOthatallowstheuseofionizingradiation.
CRSCo
ClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee(Stanford).
curie(Ci)
Aunitofactivity.3.7x1010nucleartransformationspersecond,3.7x1010becquerels,
or2.22x1012nucleartransformationsperminute.Thetermnucleartransformationsis
oftenreplacedbythetermdisintegrations.
DAC
DerivedAirConcentration.Theconcentrationofagivenradionuclidethat,ifinhaled
continuouslyduringtheworkyear,wouldcauseadoseof5rem.
deepdose
Thedosefromexternalwholebodyexposureatatissuedepthof1cm.
deterministic
effect
Healtheffects,theseverityofwhichvarieswiththedoseandforwhichathresholdis
believedtoexist.Radiation-inducedcataractformationisanexampleofa
deterministiceffect.Alsocalledanonstochasticeffect.
DHS
DepartmentofHealthServices.TheCaliforniaagencythatregulatesradioactive
materialsandradiationdevicesatnon-federalfacilitiesinthestate.
DLAM
SchoolofMedicine,DivisionofLaboratoryAnimalMedicine(obsolete).Nowthe
DepartmentofComparativeMedicine.
doseor
radiationdose
Generictermthatmeansabsorbeddose,doseequivalent,effectivedoseequivalent,
committeddoseequivalent,committedeffectivedoseequivalent,ortotaleffective
doseequivalent,asdefinedelsewhereinthisglossary.
dpm
Disintegrationsperminute.Ameasureofactivity.Seecurie.
DTSC
DepartmentofToxicSubstanceControl.TheCaliforniaagencythatregulates
hazardousmaterialsotherthanradiation.
effectivedose
equivalentor
effectivedose
Thesumoftheproductsofthedoseequivalenttoeachorganortissueandmultiplied
bytheirrespectivetissueweightingfactors,andthenaddedtotheexternalwhole
bodydose.
64
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
GLOSSARY
EPA
USEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.
exposure
Beingexposedtoionizingradiationortoradioactivematerial.
externaldose
Thatportionofthedoseequivalentreceivedfromradiationsourcesoutsidethebody.
extremity
Hand,elbow,armbelowtheelbow,foot,knee,orlegbelowtheknee.
FDA
USFoodandDrugAdministration.
gray(Gy)
SIunitofabsorbeddose.Onegrayisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof1joule/kilogram
(100rads).
Hazards
Evaluation
AdocumentpreparedbyHealthPhysicsthatanalyzesthepotentialriskofaproject
andimposessafetymeasures(Stanford).Otherorganizationsmayusetheterms
license,authorization,orpermit.
Highradiation
area
Anarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelscouldresultinanindividual
receivingadoseequivalentinexcessof0.1rem(1mSv)in1hourat30centimeters
fromtheradiationsourceorfromanysurfacethattheradiationpenetrates.
housewaste
Officeandloungewastesuchaspaperandfoodcontainersthatarenormallydiscarded
inasanitarylandfill(Stanford).
ICRP
InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection.
ionizingradiation Alphaparticles,betaparticles,gammarays,x-rays,neutrons,high-speedelectrons,
high-speedprotons,andotherparticlescapableofseparatingatargetatomintoan
electronandapositiveion.Asusedinthismanual,radiationdoesnotincludenonionizingradiation,suchasradio-ormicrowaves,orvisible,infrared,orultravioletlight.
IRB
InstitutionalReviewBoard(NationalInstitutesofHealth).Acommitteethatreviews
andapprovesresearchprojectsthatinvolve
humansubjects.TheStanfordUniversityAdministrativePanelonHumanSubjects
performsthisfunction.
LCC
LocalControlCommittee(Stanford).TheLCCoverseesradiationsafetywithina
departmentorschool.SeeCRSCoandNHRSC.
LPCH
LucilePackardChildren’sHospital.
monitoring
Themeasurementofradiationlevels,concentrations,surfaceareaconcentrationsor
quantitiesofradioactivematerialandtheuseoftheresultsofthesemeasurementsto
evaluatepotentialexposuresanddoses.
NCRP
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements.Anon-profitcorporation
charteredbyCongresstodisseminateradiationprotectionguidance.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
65
GLOSSARY
nonstochastic
effect
Obsolete.Seedeterministiceffect.
NRC
USNuclearRegulatoryCommission.Thefederalagencythatregulatestheuseof
radioactivebyproductmaterials.Itdoesnothaveauthorityoveraccelerator-produced
radioactivematerialsorx-rays.ItalsodoesnothaveauthorityinCalifornia,exceptat
federalagencies;authorityovernon-federalorganizationswastransferredtoDHS.
occupationaldose Thedosereceivedbyanindividualinarestrictedareaorinthecourseofemployment
inwhichtheindividual’sassigneddutiesinvolveexposuretoradiationandto
radioactivematerialfromlicensedandunlicensedsourcesofradiation,whetherinthe
possessionofthelicenseeorotherperson.Occupationaldosedoesnotincludedose
receivedfrombackgroundradiation,asapatientfrommedicalpractices,from
voluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms,orasamemberofthegeneral
public.
photon
Aquantumofradiantenergy.Inthismanual,thetermusuallymeansgammaraysorxrays.
PO
PurchaseOrder.
publicdose
Dosereceivedbyamemberofthepublicfromexposuretoradiationandtoradioactive
materialreleasedbyalicensee,ortoanothersourceofradiationeitherwithina
licensee’scontrolledareaorinunrestrictedareas.Itdoesnotincludeoccupational
doseordosesreceivedfrombackgroundradiation,asapatientfrommedicalpractices,
orfromvoluntaryparticipationinmedicalresearchprograms.
QLM
10CFR20AppendixCQuantitiesofLicensedMaterialrequiringlabeling.Seepage
IV.23.
qualityfactor
Amodifyingfactorusedtoconvertdoseinradtodoseequivalentinrem.Forx-,beta-,
andgamma-radiationitsvalueis1.
rad
Specialunitofabsorbeddose.Oneradisequaltoanabsorbeddoseof100ergs/gram
or0.01joule/kilogram.100radsequal1gray.
radiationarea
Anarea,accessibletoindividuals,inwhichradiationlevelscouldresultinanindividual
receivingadoseequivalentinexcessof0.005rem(0.05mSv)in1hourat30
centimetersfromtheradiationsourceorfromanysurfacethattheradiation
penetrates.
RAF
ResearchAnimalFacility(Stanford).
RDRC
RadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee(FoodandDrugAdministration).TheRDRCis
charteredbytheFoodandDrugAdministrationtoreviewandapprovebasicresearch
projectsinvolvingtheadministrationofradioactivedrugstohumansubjects.CRSCo
providesthisservice.
66
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
GLOSSARY
rem
Thespecialunitofanyofthequantitiesexpressedasdoseequivalent.Thedose
equivalentinremsisequaltotheabsorbeddoseinradsmultipliedbythequality
factor.Formostformsofradiation,oneremisnumericallyequaltooneroentgenor
onerad.Onesievertequals100rems.
restrictedarea
Anarea,accesstowhichislimitedbythelicenseeforpurposeofprotectingindividuals
againstundueriskfromexposuretoradiationandradioactivematerial.
roentgen(R)
Thespecialunitofradiationexposure.Theamountofexposurethatliberatesoneesu
ofchargeperccofair.Formostformsofradiation,oneroentgenisnumericallyequal
tooneremoronerad.Althoughconsideredobsolete,thistermanditsabbreviation
arestillcommonlyused.
RSC
RadiationSafetyCommittee.ThisserviceisprovidedbytheAPRSandtheLCCs.
RSO
RadiationSafetyOfficer.Theindividualresponsibleformanagingtheradiationsafety
orhealthphysicsprogram.
Safetydatasheet Aone-pageinformationsheetdevelopedatStanfordthatprovidesdecayschemeand
precautionsforasingleradionuclide.
(SDS)
SHS
StanfordHealthServices.AseparateinstitutionalentitythatincludestheStanford
HospitalandClinic.
sievert(Sv)
SIunitofanyofthequantitiesexpressedasdoseequivalent.Thedoseequivalentin
sievertsisequaltotheabsorbeddoseingraysmultipliedbythequalityfactor.1
sievertequals100rems.
SLAC
SLACNationalAcceleratorLaboratory
stochasticeffects Healtheffectsthatoccurrandomlyandforwhichtheprobabilityoftheeffect
occurring,ratherthanitsseverity,isassumedtobealinearfunctionofdosewithout
threshold.Hereditaryeffectsandcancerincidenceareexamplesofstochasticeffects.
SHC
StanfordHospitalandClinic.
Survey
Anevaluationoftheradiologicalconditionsandpotentialhazardsincidenttothe
production,use,transfer,release,disposalorpresenceofradioactivematerialorother
sourcesofradiation.Whenappropriate,suchanevaluationincludesaphysicalsurvey
ofthelocationofradioactivematerialandmeasurementsorcalculationsoflevelsof
radiation,orconcentrationsorquantitiesofradioactivematerialpresent.
tissueweighting
factor
Aweightingfactorforanorganortissuerelatingtotheproportionoftheriskof
stochasticeffectsresultingfromirradiationofthatorganortissuetothetotalriskof
stochasticeffectswhenthewholebodyisirradiateduniformly.
unrestrictedarea Anarea,accesstowhichisneitherlimitednorcontrolledbythelicensee.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
67
GLOSSARY
VAPAHCS
VeteransAffairsPaloAltoHealthCareService.
VMO
VeterinaryMedicalOfficer(VAPAHCS).
VMU
VeterinaryMedicalUnit(VAPAHCS).
VSC
VeterinaryServiceCenter(Stanford).
workarea
Aportionofaroomorlaboratorysuitewhereradioactivematerialsarestoredor
handled.Itisusuallyasinglecountertop.
worker
Anindividualengagedinactivitiesthatarelicensedbyaregulatoryagencyand
controlledbyalicensee.Classificationasaworkerdoesnotrequirean
employer/employeerelationship.Volunteers,studentsonclinicalrotation,residents,
staff,faculty,andvisitingscientistsandphysicianswhosedutiesincludeworkin
radiationorradioactivematerialsareasareconsideredworkers.
68
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SAFETYDATASHEETS
SAFETYDATASHEETSFORCOMMONLY-USEDRADIONUCLIDES
Introduction
HealthPhysicshaspreparedsafetydatasheets(SDS)formanyradionuclides.
Theyprovideinformationaboutthephysicalpropertiesofthenuclidesuchas
decaymode,energy,half-life,QLMquantity,anddecontaminationinformation.
Safetydatasheetsforthemostcommonlyusedradionuclidesareprovided.
Homepage
OthermaterialsusedatStanfordarelistedontheEH&S-HealthPhysicshome
page:
http://www.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/researchlab/radlaser/index.html
Additionalsources
ofinformation
TheHealthPhysicslibraryhasreferenceworksonavarietyofradiationsafety
topics.Itisavailableforyouruseduringworkhours.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
69
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: H-3
FORMS: SOLUBLE, EXCEPT GAS
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 12.35 years
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy 0.0186 MeV
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 25 mCi per item to 200 mCi possession
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 25 mCi per item to 10 Ci possession
A - level (High hazard): > 10 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
Because of its low energy, the vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding to stop the betas.
If skin is contaminated with tritium, betas will not be able to pass the dead layer of skin. However, H-3
will cause a radiation dose if absorbed into body through cuts in skin or by ingestion.
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) based upon a whole body dose of 5 rem per year or upon the
maximum recommended (N.C.R.P.) dose to the hematopoietic or spermatogonial stem cell nuclei (from
DNA precursors) is as follows:
Whole body
80 mCi (inorganic, soluble) based upon NRC ALI
Stem Cell Nuclei
3.5 mCi (CdR)
Stem Cell Nuclei
7 mCi (other DNA and RNA precursors)
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are not appropriate for monitoring H3 exposure.
Routine urine assays are required after handling 100 millicuries or more of H3. See Radiation Safety
Manual Part III.18 for particulars. Spot checks may be required after spills or contamination incidents.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1.
2.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
Since the H3 beta particles have very low energies, the use of G.M. or other survey meters is
3.
precluded. Smear surveys are required.
All waste in a H3 work area is considered to be contaminated. Keep work areas free of unnecessary
items. Segregate wastes to those with H3 and C14 only.
4.
Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 1000 microcuries/ day per lab; and limit of H3 labeled DNA
precursors to sewer as waste is 100 microcuries per day. If the DNA precursors are denatured prior
to disposal, the sewer limits would be the same as for soluble forms.
4/98
70
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: C-14
FORMS: SOLUBLE, EXCEPT GAS
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 5730 years
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy: 0.156 MeV
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 20 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 20 mCi to 1.0 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 1.0 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The maximum range of these betas is ~1 ft in air and 0.0065 in (0.17 mm) in glass. The external hazard of
this isotope is minimal, e.g., the glass vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding to stop
the betas. If skin is uniformly contaminated with C14,1 microcurie/ cm2 will deliver a dose of 1,100
mrems/hr to basal cells of the skin. (Porter Consultants to NRC)
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) which will result in a whole body exposure of 5 rem or maximum
recommended doses (by the NCRP) to hematopoietic or spermatogonial stem cell nuclei is as follows:
Whole body
Stem cell nuclei
Stem cell nuclei
2 mCi (inorganic, soluble)
10 mCi (DNA precursors)
880 µCi (RNA precursors)
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are not appropriate for monitoring C14 exposure.
Urine assays may be required after spills or contamination incidents.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1.
3.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
C14 beta particles have very low energies. G.M. survey meters are not very efficient at such
energies. Smear surveys required.
All waste in a C14 work areas is considered to be contaminated. Keep work areas free of
4.
unnecessary items. Segregate wastes to those with H3 and C14 only.
Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 100 microcuries/ day per lab.
2.
9/98
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
71
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: P-32
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 14.28 days
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy: 1.71 MeV
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 2 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 2 mCi to 100 mCi
A - level (High hazard): > 100 mCi
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The dose rate at 10 cm from an unshielded 1 mCi (dried sample) of P32 (assuming no backscatter or self
absorption in the source) is 2.7 rads per hour; the dose at 1 cm is 270 rads per hour. Dose rates vary
directly with activity and over short distances inversely with the square of the distance from the source.
Maximum ranges of these betas are 20 feet in air, 1/3 inch in water and tissue and 1/4 inch in plastic.
A spill of 1 µCi of P32 on 1 cm2 skin will deliver a dose of 9200 mrads/hr to the basal cells of the
epidermis. (Porter Consultants for NRC)
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) (based upon NRC) which would deliver 5 rems to the whole body is
600 µCi.
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are usually required if 5 millicuries are handled at any one time, or if
millicurie levels are handled on a frequent (daily) basis. Urine assays may be required after spills or
contamination incidents.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1. Work behind low Z shielding, preferably transparent materials. Survey frequently. Change gloves
often.
2. Segregate wastes to those with half-lives < 19 days.
3. Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 10 microcuries/ day per lab.
4. P32 tends to attach to ferrous materials and to glass, weak HCl ( ~ 0.1 N) can facilitate removal
from glass and from some impervious surfaces.
9/98
72
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: P-33
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 25.4 days
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy: 0.249 MeV
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 20 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 20 mCi to 1.0 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 1.0 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The maximum range of these betas is ~ 19 inches in air and 0.009 inches (0.23 mm) in glass. The external
hazard of this isotope is minimal, e.g., the glass vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding
to stop the betas. If skin is uniformly contaminated with P33 , 1 microcurie/ cm2 will deliver a dose of
3,200 mrems/ hr to basal cells of the skin. (Porter Consultants to NRC based upon 0.257 MeV (max.)
beta particles.)
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI, based on NRC) which would deliver 5 rem to the whole body is 6
mCi. Note: The hazards from ingestion or internal deposition of P33 in labeled nucleotide bases may be
greater than for inorganic phosphates.
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are of marginal value (inappropriate) for monitoring P33 exposure.
Urine assays may be required after spills or contamination incidents.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1. Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
2. P33 beta particles have low energies. G.M. survey meters efficiency for such energies is about 10%.
Smear surveys are usually required. (If meter is approved for C14 measurements, it may be used.)
3. All waste in a P33 work areas is considered to be contaminated, unless proved to be clean by
appropriate monitoring techniques. Keep work areas free of extraneous items. Segregate wastes to
those with half-lives from 19 days to less than 65 days.
4. Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 100 microcuries/ day per lab.
4/98
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
73
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: S-35
FORMS: SOLUBLE, EXCEPT GAS
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 87.4 days
Hazard category:
TYPE DECAY: betamaximum energy: 0.167 MeV
C- level (low hazard): > up to 20 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 20 mCi to 1.0 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 1.0 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The maximum range of these betas is 43 cm in air, 0.5 mm in plastic and 0.17 mm in glass. The external
hazard of this isotope is minimal; the vial holding the isotope will provide sufficient shielding to stop the
betas. If skin is uniformly contaminated with S35, 1 microcurie/cm2 will deliver a dose of 1,200 mrad/hr
to basal cells of the skin. (Porter Consultants to NRC).
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
Although the external hazard associated with S35 is small, it is important to avoid ingestion and/ or skin
contamination. Many S35 compounds are volatile or degrade giving off volatile products. Open vials
and work in fume hoods.
The Annual Limit of Intake (ALI, based upon the NRC values) that would result in an effective dose
equivalent of 5 rem/year is 10 mCi. (Note: A lower ALI is used for insoluble, inorganic sulfides and
sulfates- 6 mCi.)
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are not appropriate for monitoring S35 exposure.
Urine assays may be required after spills or contamination incidents.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1. Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
2. S35 beta particles have very low energies. GM survey meters are about 10 % efficient at such
energies. Smear surveys are generally required.
3. S35 compounds frequently are volatile or produce volatile products; open and handle in a fume hood.
When incubating samples use activated charcoal.
4. All waste in a S35 work area should be considered to be contaminated unless proven to be clean by
appropriate monitoring techniques. Keep work areas free of unnecessary items. Generally it is very
difficult to survey the items because of self-shielding. Segregate wastes to those with half-lives from
65 to less than 90 days.
5. Limit for soluble waste to sewer is 100 microcuries/ day per lab.
3/10
74
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: Cr-51
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
____________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 25.4 days
TYPE DECAY: e- capture
gamma: 0.320 MeV (9% )
X-rays: 0.005 - 0.026 MeV
auger e-: 0.005 MeV (76 %)
Hazard category:
C- level (low hazard): > up to 200 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 200 mCi to 10 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 10 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The exposure rate at 1 cm from 1 mCi is 164 mR/hr. The exposure rate varies directly with activity and
inversely with the square of the distance. The tenth value of lead for this radiation energy is 0.7 cm.
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The Annual Limit on Oral Intake (ALI) of Cr51 corresponding to a whole-body guideline gamma
exposure rate of 5 rem/year is 40 mCi.
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings usually required if 5 millicuries are handled at any one time or 1
millicurie level is handled on a frequent (daily) basis.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1.
When 5 millicuries are used or stored, use lead shielding. Survey frequently. Handle stock solution
vials in shields or use tongs or forceps.
2.
Survey frequently with a GM monitor. Change gloves often.
3.
Segregate wastes to those with half-lives from 15 days to less than 60 days.
4. Aqueous wastes may be disposed to the sewer system in amounts of up to 1 mCi daily per lab.
4/98
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
75
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: I-125
FORMS: INORGANIC OR FREE IODINE
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 60 days
Hazard category:
TYPE DECAY: e- capture
Gamma rays 0.035 MeV (7 % )
X-rays 0.027-.031 MeV (140 % )
C- level (low hazard): > up to 200 µCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 200 µCi to 10 mCi
A - level (High hazard): > 10 mCi
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
Exposure rate at 1 cm from 1 mCi is 1.5 R/hr. (Exposure varies directly with activity and inversely with
square of distance from materials.)
Amount of lead required to reduce the exposure rate by a factor of 10 (1 TVL) is approximately 0.1 mm.
1/8 inch of glass would reduce the exposure rate by half. Leaded rubber gloves (0.1 mm lead = 1 TVL)
are available from Health Physics.
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
Contamination on the skin or inhalation will result in internal deposition. Iodide solutions are easily
oxidized and the elemental iodine will become airborne. Ingestion of 40 µCi, or inhalation of 60 µCi
,will result in the thyroid receiving Annual Limit of Intake (ALI),
Blocking the uptake of radioiodine with the stable nuclide is not permitted. WORK IN PROPER FUME
HOODS. (See Radiation Safety Manual, Part 3).
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Badge and ring dosimeters are usually required if 5 millicuries are handled at any one time or if
millicurie levels are handled frequently (daily basis). Arrange for a thyroid survey within 24-72 hours
after the first procedure; thereafter, every three months.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
GM survey meters have a poor efficiency of detection for I-125. Survey by smear tests or use NaI(Tl)
Scintillation probes.
2. Segregate wastes to those with half-lives from 19 to less than 65 days. Assume items in work areas
are contaminated unless cleared with a NaI scintillation survey meter. Wrap all waste items in plastic
bags prior to placing them in waste.
3. Limit soluble waste to sewer is 100 µCi / month per lab.
4. Wear double gloves. Change gloves often.
5. See separate Radiation Safety Data Sheet for non-volatile or non-cleaving compounds.
4/98
1.
76
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: U-NAT
FORMS: SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 4.5 x 109 y
Hazard category:
TYPE DECAY: alpha, beta betas, principally from daughters Th-234 (0.191 MeV) and
Pa-234m (2.29 MeV) Definition: 1 Curie = 6615 lb
C- level (low hazard): > up to 20 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard): > 20 mCi to 1 Ci
A - level (High hazard): > 1 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The surface beta dose rate is 111 mrad/hr. The maximum range of beta radiation in glass is 0.25 inches,
in plastic 0.4 inches (1 cm). There also is some gamma radiation associated with Uranium, but, if
chemical purification has removed the radium, the exposure rate will be quite low.
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
In general, uranyl nitrate or uranyl acetate are considered to be more chemically toxic as a heavy metal
(like lead or bismuth) than as a radiotoxic element and care should be taken to prevent ingestion by
following good hygiene: wearing disposable gloves (this will also minimize beta exposure) and washing
up after use.
Dusty, or vapor or aerosol-producing operations must be contained in fume hoods or glove boxes since
deposition in the lungs is more hazardous.
10 microcuries (oral) or 1 microcurie (inhaled) will result in the bone surface receiving the Annual Limit
of Intake (ALI).
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Generally dosimeters are not required unless one is handling, i.e. in contact with, uranium samples for
more than one hour/week without any absorber between one's skin and the samples. Usually, it is only
appropriate to measure finger doses using TLDs.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
2.
G.M. survey meters are efficient for measuring uranium contamination. Smear surveys required for
unrestricted areas, e.g. floors.
3.
Survey waste in a uranium work area to assess contamination. Please call Health Physics (4-1408)
for information on waste disposal.
4.
Limit of soluble waste to sewer is 3E-6 microcurie/ml per 10CFR20. Phone the hazardous waste
program (725-1408) for information on waste disposal.
3/04
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
77
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: F-18
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 109.74 min.
Hazard category:
TYPE DECAY: EC e+
gamma: 0.511 MeV (193 %)
C- level (low hazard ) : up to 100 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard) : > 100 mCi to 10 Ci
A - level (High hazard) : > 10 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The gamma exposure rate at 1 cm from 1 mCi is 6.95 R/hr. The exposure rate varies directly with activity
and inversely as the square of the distance. The 1/10 value layer in lead is 1.6 cm.
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The annual limit on oral intake (ALI) of F-18 corresponding to a whole-body guideline gamma exposure
rate of 5000 mrem/year is 50 mCi.
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are required for all usage of F-18.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1.
F-18 syringe shields must be used prior to injection.
2.
Store stock material and filled syringes in lead pigs.
3.
Unnecessary exposure to personnel and other patients should be minimized by increasing distance
from the patient while he is waiting to be scanned. The gamma exposure rate at 1 meter from a
patient containing 5 mCi of F-18 will be approximately2.5 mR/hr.
4.
Segregate wastes with those with half-lives less than 4 days (e.g. Tc-99m).
5.
Aqueous wastes may be disposed to the sewer system in amounts of up to 1000 uCi daily per lab.
6.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
02/10
78
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SAFETYDATASHEETS
RADIONUCLIDE SAFETY DATA SHEET
NUCLIDE: C U -64
FORMS: ALL SOLUBLE
_________________________________________________________________________________________
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:
HALF-LIFE: 12.701 HOURS.
TYPE DECAY: EC e+
gamma: 0.511 MeV (38.6 %)
beta:
Hazard category:
0.578 MeV (37.2%)
C- level (low hazard ) : up to 100 mCi
B - level (Moderate hazard) : > 100 mCi to 10 Ci
A - level (High hazard) : > 10 Ci
EXTERNAL RADIATION HAZARDS AND SHIELDING:
The gamma exposure rate 1 cm from 1mCi is 1/32 R/hr. The skin dose for 1 uCi over a 10cm 2 area is 13.3
mrad/hr for gammas and 320 mrad/hr for betas. The exposure rate varies directly with activity and
inversely as the square of the distance. The 1/10 value layer in lead is 17 mm
HAZARDS IF INTERNALLY DEPOSITED:
The annual limit on oral intake (ALI) of Cu-64 corresponding to a whole-body guideline gamma
exposure rate of 5000 mrem/year is 10 mCi.
DOSIMETRY AND BIOASSAY REQUIREMENTS:
Film badges and dosimeter rings are required for all usage of Cu-64
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1.
Store Cu-64 behind 2 inch thick lead (Pb) bricks.
2.
Use tools to indirectly handle unshielded sources and potentially contaminated vessels; avoid direct
hand contact.
3.
Segregate wastes with those with half-lives less than 4 days.
4.
Aqueous wastes may be disposed to the sewer system in amounts of up to 1000 uCi daily per lab.
5.
Always wear protective gloves to keep contamination from skin. Change gloves often.
02/10
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
79
REPORTSANDGUIDES
REPORTSAPPLICABLETOTHEINSTITUTIONALUSEOFRADIATION
TheNational Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements(NCRP)wascharteredbyCongressto
disseminateradiationprotectionguidance.Ithaspublishedreportsonavarietyoftopics.Thereportsare
availableforreviewatHealthPhysics.
111.
DevelopingRadiationEmergencyPlansforAcademic,MedicalorIndustrialFacilities(1991).
107.
ImplementationofthePrincipleofAsLowAsReasonablyAchievable(ALARA)forMedicalandDental
Personnel(1990).
105.
RadiationProtectionforMedicalandAlliedHealthPersonnel(1989).
100.
ExposureoftheUSPopulationfromDiagnosticMedicalRadiation(1989).
99.
QualityAssuranceforDiagnosticImaging(1988).
83.
TheExperimentalBasisforAbsorbedDoseCalculationsinMedicalUseofRadionuclides(1985).
73.
ProtectioninNuclearMedicineandUltrasoundDiagnosticProceduresinChildren(1983).
70.
NuclearMedicine—FactorsInfluencingtheChoiceandUseofRadionuclidesinDiagnosisandTherapy
(1982)
65.
ManagementofPersonsAccidentallyContaminatedwithRadionuclides(1980).
58.
AHandbookofRadioactivityMeasurementProcedures.SecondEdition(1985).
57.
InstrumentationandMonitoringMethodsforRadiationProtection(1978).
54.
MedicalRadiationExposureofPregnantandPotentiallyPregnantWomen(1977).
37.
PrecautionsintheManagementofPatientsWhoHaveReceivedTherapeuticAmountsof
Radionuclides(1970).
30.
SafeHandlingofRadioactiveMaterials(1964).
8.
ControlandRemovalofRadioactiveContaminationinLaboratories(1951).
TheNational Research Councilprovidesexpertservicestothegovernment,thepublic,andthescientificand
engineeringcommunities.
BEIRV:HealthEffectsofExposuretoLowLevelsofIonizingRadiation.
TheInternational Commission on Radiological Protectiondevelopsreportsthatprovidefundamental
principlesofradiologicalprotectionforusebyregulatoryandadvisoryagenciesatthenational,regional,and
internationallevels.Becauseofthedifferingconditionsthatapplyinvariouscountries,itdoesnotprovide
regulatorytext.
80
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
REPORTSANDGUIDES
ICRP60:RadiationProtection--1990RecommendationsoftheICRP.
TheUS Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)issuesregulatoryguidesthatdescribemethodsof
implementingcertainregulationsorevaluatingspecificproblems,orthatprovideguidance.
8.9
AcceptableConcepts,Models,Equations,andAssumptionsforaBioassay
Program(1993)
8.10
OperatingPhilosophyforMaintainingOccupationalRadiationExposure
ALARA(1977)
8.13
InstructionConcerningPrenatalRadiationExposure(1987)
8.18
InformationRelevanttoEnsuringThatOccupationalRadiationExposuresatMedicalInstitutionsWill
BeAsLowAsReasonablyAchievable(1982)
8.23
RadiationSafetySurveysatMedicalInstitutions(1981)
8.29
InstructionConcerningRisksfromOccupationalRadiationExposure(1981)
8.32
CriteriaforEstablishingaTritiumBioassayProgram(1988)
8.34
MonitoringCriteriaandMethodstoCalculateOccupationalRadiationDoses(1992)
8.36
RadiationDosetotheEmbryo/Fetus(1992)
8.37
ALARALevelsforEffluentsfromMaterialsFacilities(1993)
10.5
ApplicationsforTypeALicensesofBroadScope(1980)
10.7
GuideforthePreparationofApplicationsofLicensesforLaboratoryandIndustrialUseofSmall
QuantitiesofByproductMaterial(1979)
10.8
GuideforthePreparationofApplicationsforMedicalUsePrograms(1987)
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
81
QLMQUANTITIES
10CFRPART20APPENDIXC-QUANTITIESOFLICENSEDMATERIALREQUIRING
LABELING
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Hydrogen-3*
1,000 Calcium-41
100 Iron-55
100
Beryllium-7
1,000 Calcium-45
100 Iron-59
10
1 Calcium-47
100 Iron-60
1
Beryllium-10
Carbon-11
Carbon-14
1,000 Scandium-43
100 Scandium-44m
1,000 Cobalt-55
100
100 Cobalt-56
10
100 Cobalt-57
100
Fluorine-18
1,000 Scandium-44
Sodium-22
10 Scandium-46
Sodium-24
100 Scandium-47
100 Cobalt-58
Magnesium-28
100 Scandium-48
100 Cobalt-60m
Aluminum-26
10 Scandium-49
Silicon-31
1,000 Titanium-44
Silicon-32
1 Titanium-45
10 Cobalt-58m
1,000
100
1,000
1,000 Cobalt-60
1
1 Cobalt-61
1,000
1,000 Cobalt-62m
1,000
Phosphorus-32
10 Vanadium-47
1,000 Nickel-56
100
Phosphorus-33
100 Vanadium-48
100 Nickel-57
100
Sulfur-35
100 Vanadium-49
1,000 Nickel-59
100
Chlorine-36
10 Chromium-48
1,000 Nickel-63
100
Chlorine-38
1,000 Chromium-49
1,000 Nickel-65
1,000
Chlorine-39
1000 Chromium-51
1,000 Nickel-66
10
Argon-39
1,000 Manganese-51
1,000 Copper-60
1,000
Argon-41
1,000 Manganese-52m
1,000 Copper-61
1,000
Potassium-40
100 Manganese-52
100 Copper-64
1,000
Potassium-42
1,000 Manganese-53
1,000 Copper-67
1,000
Potassium-43
1,000 Manganese-54
100 Zinc-62
100
Potassium-44
1,000 Manganese-56
1,000 Zinc-63
1,000
Potassium-45
1,000 Iron-52
100 Zinc-65
10
82
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Zinc-69m
100 Selenium-70
Zinc-69
1,000 Selenium-73m
Zinc-71m
1,000 Selenium-73
Zinc-72
Gallium-65
Gallium-66
100 Selenium-75
1,000 Selenium-79
100 Selenium-81m
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
1,000 Rubidium-79
1,000
1,000 Rubidium-81m
1,000
100 Rubidium-81
1,000
100 Rubidium-82m
1,000
100 Rubidium-83
100
1,000 Rubidium-84
100
Gallium-67
1,000 Selenium-81
1,000 Rubidium-86
100
Gallium-68
1,000 Selenium-83
1,000 Rubidium-87
100
Gallium-70
1,000 Bromine-74m
1,000 Rubidium-88
1,000
Gallium-72
100 Bromine-74
1,000 Rubidium-89
1,000
Gallium-73
1,000 Bromine-75
1,000 Strontium-80
100
Germanium-66
1,000 Bromine-76
100 Strontium-81
1,000
Germanium-67
1,000 Bromine-77
1,000 Strontium-83
100
Germanium-68
10 Bromine-80m
1,000 Strontium-85m
Germanium-69
1,000 Bromine-80
Germanium-71
1,000 Bromine-82
Germanium-75
1,000 Bromine-83
1,000 Strontium-89
10
Germanium-77
1,000 Bromine-84
1,000 Strontium-90
0.1
Germanium-78
1,000 Krypton-74
1,000 Strontium-91
100
Arsenic-69
1,000 Krypton-76
1,000 Strontium-92
100
Arsenic-70
1,000 Krypton-77
1,000 Yttrium-86m
1,000
Arsenic-71
100 Krypton-79
1,000 Yttrium-86
100
Arsenic-72
100 Krypton-81
1,000 Yttrium-87
100
Arsenic-73
100 Krypton-83m
1,000 Yttrium-88
10
Arsenic-74
100 Krypton-85m
1,000 Yttrium-90m
Arsenic-76
100 Krypton-85
1,000 Yttrium-90
Arsenic-77
100 Krypton-87
1,000 Yttrium-91m
Arsenic-78
1,000 Krypton-88
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
1,000 Strontium-85
1,000
100 Strontium-87m
1,000 Yttrium-91
100
1,000
1,000
10
1,000
10
83
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Yttrium-92
100 Technetium-94m
1,000 Palladium-101
1,000
Yttrium-93
100 Technetium-94
1,000 Palladium-103
100
Yttrium-94
1,000 Technetium-96m
1,000 Palladium-107
10
Yttrium-95
1,000 Technetium-96
100 Palladium-109
100
Zirconium-86
100 Technetium-97m
Zirconium-88
10 Technetium-97
Zirconium-89
100 Technetium-98
Zirconium-93
1 Technetium-99m
100 Silver-102
1,000
1,000 Silver-103
1,000
10 Silver-104m
1,000
1,000 Silver-104
1,000
Zirconium-95
10 Technetium-99
100 Silver-105
100
Zirconium-97
100 Technetium-101
1,000 Silver-106m
100
Niobium-88
1,000 Technetium-104
1,000 Silver106
Niobium-89m(66min)
1,000 Ruthenium-94
1,000 Silver-108m
1
Niobium-89(122min)
1,000 Ruthenium-97
1,000 Silver-110m
10
100 Ruthenium-103
100 Silver-111
100
10 Ruthenium-105
1,000 Silver-112
100
1 Ruthenium-106
1 Silver-115
1,000
1,000 Cadmium-104
1,000
Niobium-90
Niobium-93m
Niobium-94
1,000
Niobium-95m
100 Rhodium-99m
Niobium-95
100 Rhodium-99
100 Cadmium-107
1,000
Niobium-96
100 Rhodium-100
100 Cadmium-109
1
Niobium-97
1,000 Rhodium-101m
1,000 Cadmium-113m
0.1
Niobium-98
1,000 Rhodium-101
10 Cadmium-113
100
Molybdenum-90
100 Rhodium-102m
10 Cadmium-115m
Molybdenum-93m
100 Rhodium-102
10 Cadmium-115
Molybdenum-93
10 Rhodium-103m
10
100
1,000 Cadmium-117m
1,000
100 Cadmium-117
1,000
Molybdenum-99
100 Rhodium-105
Molybdenum-101
1,000 Rhodium-106m
1,000 Indium-109
1,000
Technetium-93m
1,000 Rhodium-107
1,000 Indium-110(69.1min)
1,000
Technetium-93
1,000 Palladium-100
84
100 Indium-110(4.9h)
1,000
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Indium-111
Indium-112
100 Antimony-119
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
1,000 Tellurium-132
Tin-111
1,000 Antimony-120
(16min)
1,000
Antimony-120(5.76d)
10
Antimony-122
1,000
Antimony-124m
100
Antimony-124
1,000
Antimony-125
1,000
Antimony-126m
1,000
Antimony-126
1,000
Antimony-127
100
Antimony-128
1,000 (10.4min)
Tin-113
100 Antimony-128(9.01h)
100 Iodine-129
1
Tin-117m
100 Antimony-129
100 Iodine-130
10
Tin-119m
100 Antimony-130
1,000 Iodine-131*
1
Tin-121m
100 Antimony-131
1,000 Iodine-132m
100
1,000 Iodine-132
100
Indium-113m
Indium-114m
Indium-115m
Indium-115
Indium-116m
Indium-117m
Indium-117
Indium-119m
Tin-110
1,000 Tellurium-133m
10
100
Tellurium-133
1,000
Tellurium-134
1,000
Iodine-120m
1,000
100
100
1,000
Iodine-120
100
Iodine-121
1,000
Iodine-123
100
Iodine-124
10
Iodine-125*
1
Iodine-126
1
Iodine-128
1,000
10
100
1,000
100
100
1,000
Tin-121
1,000 Tellurium-116
Tin-123m
1,000 Tellurium-121m
10 Iodine-133
10
Tin-123
10 Tellurium-121
100 Iodine-134
1,000
Tin-125
10 Tellurium-123m
10 Iodine-135
100
Tin-126
10 Tellurium-123
100 Xenon-120
1,000
Tin-127
1,000 Tellurium-125m
10 Xenon-121
1,000
Tin-128
1,000 Tellurium-127m
10 Xenon-122
1,000
Antimony-115
1,000 Tellurium-127
1,000 Xenon-123
1,000
Antimony-116m
1,000 Tellurium-129m
10 Xenon-125
1,000
Antimony-116
1,000 Tellurium-129
1,000 Xenon-127
1,000
Antimony-117
1,000 Tellurium-131m
Antimony-118m
1,000 Tellurium-131
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
10 Xenon-129m
1,000
100 Xenon-131m
1,000
85
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Xenon-133m
1,000 Barium-142
1,000 Neodymium-136
1,000
Xenon-133
1,000 Lanthanum-131
1,000 Neodymium-138
100
Xenon-135m
1,000 Lanthanum-132
Xenon-135
1,000 Lanthanum-135
1,000 Neodymium-139
1,000
Xenon-138
1,000 Lanthanum-137
10 Neodymium-141
1,000
Cesium-125
1,000 Lanthanum-138
100 Neodymium-147
100
Cesium-127
1,000 Lanthanum-140
100 Neodymium-149
1,000
Cesium-129
1,000 Lanthanum-141
100 Neodymium-151
1,000
Cesium-130
1,000 Lanthanum-142
1,000 Promethium-141
1,000
Cesium-131
1,000 Lanthanum-143
1,000 Promethium-143
100
100 Cerium-134
100 Promethium-144
10
1,000 Cerium-135
100 Promethium-145
10
100 Promethium-146
1
1,000 Promethium-147
10
Cesium-132
Cesium-134m
Cesium-134
Cesium-135m
10 Cerium-137m
1,000 Cerium-137
Cesium-135
100 Cerium-139
Cesium-136
100 Neodymium-139m
1,000
100 Promethium-148m
10
10 Cerium-141
100 Promethium-148
10
Cesium-137
10 Cerium-143
100 Promethium-149
100
Cesium-138
1,000 Cerium-144
1 Promethium-150
1,000
Barium-126
1,000 Praseodymium-136
1.000 Promethium-151
100
Barium-128
100 Praseodymium-137
1,000 Samarium-141m
1,000
1,000 Praseodymium-138m
1,000 Samarium-141
1,000
Barium-131
100 Praseodymium-139
1,000 Samarium-142
1,000
Barium-133m
100 Praseodymium-142m
1,000 Samarium-145
100
Barium-133
100 Praseodymium-142
100 Samarium-146
1
Barium-135m
100 Praseodymium-143
100 Samarium-147
100
Barium-139
1,000 Praseodymium-144
1,000 Samarium-151
10
Barium-140
100 Praseodymium-145
100 Samarium-153
100
Barium-141
1,000 Praseodymium-147
1,000 Samarium-155
1,000
Barium-131m
86
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Samarium-156
1,000 Terbium-153
1,000 Erbium-169
100
Europium-145
100 Terbium-154
100 Erbium-171
100
Europium-146
100 Terbium-155
1,000 Erbium-172
100
Europium-147
100 Terbium-156m(5.0h)
1,000 Thulium-162
1,000
1,000 Thulium-166
100
Europium-148
10 Terbium-156m(24.4h)
Europium-149
100 Terbium-156
100 Thulium-167
100
Europium-150(12.62h)
100 Terbium-157
10 Thulium-170
10
1 Terbium-158
1 Thulium-171
10
100 Terbium-160
10 Thulium-172
100
Europium-152
1 Terbium-161
100 Thulium-173
100
Europium-154
1 Dysprosium-155
1,000 Thulium-175
1,000
Europium-155
10 Dysprosium-157
1,000 Ytterbium-162
1,000
Europium-156
100 Dysprosium-159
100 Ytterbium-166
100
Europium-157
100 Dysprosium-165
1,000 Ytterbium-167
1,000
Europium-158
1,000 Dysprosium-166
100 Ytterbium-169
100
Gadolinium-145
1,000 Holmium-155
1,000 Ytterbium-175
100
Gadolinium-146
10 Holmium-157
1,000 Ytterbium-177
1,000
Gadolinium-147
100 Holmium-159
1,000 Ytterbium-178
1,000
Gadolinium-148
0.001 Holmium-161
Europium-150(34.2y)
Europium-152m
1,000 Lutetium-169
100
Gadolinium-149
100 Holmium-162m
1,000 Lutetium-170
100
Gadolinium-151
10 Holmium-162
1,000 Lutetium-171
100
Gadolinium-152
100 Holmium-164m
1,000 Lutetium-172
100
Gadolinium-153
10 Holmium-164
1,000 Lutetium-173
10
Gadolinium-159
100 Holmium-166m
Terbium-147
1,000 Holmium-166
Terbium-149
100 Holmium-167
Terbium-150
1,000 Erbium-161
Terbium-151
100 Erbium-165
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
1 Lutetium-174m
100 Lutetium-174
1,000 Lutetium-176m
1,000 Lutetium-176
1,000 Lutetium-177m
10
10
1,000
100
10
87
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Lutetium-177
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
100 Tantalum-182
10 Osmium-182
100
Lutetium-178m
1,000 Tantalum-183
100 Osmium-185
100
Lutetium-178
1,000 Tantalum-184
100 Osmium-189m
1,000
Lutetium-179
1,000 Tantalum-185
1,000 Osmium-191m
1,000
Hafnium-170
100 Tantalum-186
1,000 Osmium-191
100
Hafnium-172
1 Tungsten-176
1,000 Osmium-193
100
Hafnium-173
1,000 Tungsten-177
1,000 Osmium-194
1
Hafnium-175
100 Tungsten-178
1,000 Iridium-182
1,000
Hafnium-177m
1,000 Tungsten-179
1,000 Iridium-184
1,000
Hafnium-178m
0.1 Tungsten-181
1,000 Iridium-185
1,000
Hafnium-179m
10 Tungsten-185
100 Iridium-186
100
Hafnium-180m
1,000 Tungsten-187
100 Iridium-187
1,000
10 Tungsten-188
10 Iridium-188
100
1,000 Rhenium-177
1,000 Iridium-189
100
Hafnium-181
Hafnium-182m
Hafnium-182
0.1 Rhenium-178
Hafnium-183
1,000 Rhenium-181
Hafnium-184
100 Rhenium-182(12.7h)
Tantalum-172
1,000 Rhenium-182(64.0h)
Tantalum-173
1,000 Rhenium-184m
Tantalum-174
1,000 Rhenium-184
Tantalum-175
1,000 Rhenium-186m
Tantalum-176
100 Rhenium-186
Tantalum-177
1,000 Iridium-190m
1,000 Iridium-190
1,000 Iridium-192(73.8d)
100 Iridium-192m(1.4min)
10 Iridium-194m
100 Iridium-194
10 Iridium-195m
1,000
100
1
10
10
100
1,000
100 Iridium-195
1,000
1,000 Rhenium-187
1,000 Platinum-186
1,000
Tantalum-178
1,000 Rhenium-188m
1,000 Platinum-188
100
Tantalum-179
100 Rhenium-188
100 Platinum-189
1,000
1,000 Rhenium-189
100 Platinum-191
100
100 Osmium-180
1,000 Platinum-193m
100
Tantalum-180m
Tantalum-180
Tantalum-182m
88
1,000 Osmium-181
1,000 Platinum-193
1,000
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Platinum-195m
100 Thallium-198
1,000 Bismuth-210
1
Platinum-197m
1,000 Thallium-199
1,000 Bismuth-212
10
Platinum-197
100 Thallium-200
1,000 Bismuth-213
10
Platinum-199
1,000 Thallium-201
1,000 Bismuth-214
100
Platinum-200
100 Thallium-202
100 Polonium-203
1,000
Gold-193
1,000 Thallium-204
100 Polonium-205
1,000
Gold-194
100 Lead-195m
1,000 Polonium-207
1,000
Gold-195
10 Lead-198
1,000 Polonium-210
0.1
Gold-198m
100 Lead-199
1,000 Astatine-207
100
Gold-198
100 Lead-200
100 Astatine-211
10
Gold-199
100 Lead-201
1,000 Radon-220
1
Gold-200m
100 Lead-202m
1,000 Radon-222
1
Gold-200
1,000 Lead-202
10 Francium-222
100
Gold-201
1,000 Lead-203
1,000 Francium-223
100
100 Lead-205
100 Radium-223
0.1
Mercury-193
1,000 Lead-209
1,000 Radium-224
0.1
Mercury-194
1 Lead-210
0.01 Radium-225
0.1
100 Lead-211
100 Radium-226
0.1
1,000 Lead-212
1 Radium-227
1,000
100 Lead-214
100 Radium-228
0.1
Mercury-193m
Mercury-195m
Mercury-195
Mercury-197m
Mercury-197
1,000 Bismuth-200
1,000 Actinium-224
1
Mercury-199m
1,000 Bismuth-201
1,000 Actinium-225
0.01
100 Bismuth-202
1,000 Actinium-226
0.1
Thallium-194m
1,000 Bismuth-203
100 Actinium-227
0.001
Thallium-194
1,000 Bismuth-205
100 Actinium-228
1
Thallium-195
1,000 Bismuth-206
100 Thorium-226
10
Thallium-197
1,000 Bismuth-207
10 Thorium-227
0.01
Thallium-198m
1,000 Bismuth-210m
0.1 Thorium-228
0.001
Mercury-203
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
89
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
Thorium-229
0.001 Neptunium-235
Thorium-230
0.001 Neptunium-236(1.15×105y)
Radionuclide
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
100 Americium-244
10
0.001 Americium-245
1,000
Thorium-231
100 Neptunium-236(22.5h)
Thorium-232
100 Neptunium-237
0.001 Americium-246
Thorium-234
10 Neptunium-238
10 Curium-238
100
Thorium-natural
100 Neptunium-239
100 Curium-240
0.1
Protactinium-227
10 Neptunium-240
1,000 Curium-241
1
Protactinium-228
1 Plutonium-234
10 Curium-242
0.01
Protactinium-230
.01 Plutonium-235
1,000 Curium-243
0.001
Protactinium-231
0.001 Plutonium-236
0.001 Curium-244
0.001
Protactinium-232
1 Plutonium-237
100 Curium-245
0.001
Protactinium-233
100 Plutonium-238
0.001 Curium-246
0.001
Protactinium-234
100 Plutonium-239
0.001 Curium-247
0.001
Uranium-230
0.01 Plutonium-240
0.001 Curium-248
0.001
Uranium-231
100 Plutonium-241
0.01 Curium-249
1,000
Uranium-232
0.001 Plutonium-242
.0001 Berkelium-245
100
Uranium-233
0.001 Plutonium-243
1,000 Berkelium-246
100
Uranium-234
0.001 Plutonium-244
0.001 Berkelium-247
0.001
Uranium-235
0.001 Plutonium-245
100 Berkelium-249
0.1
Uranium-236
0.001 Americium-237
1,000 Berkelium-250
10
Uranium-237
100 Americium-238
100 Californium-244
100
Uranium-238
100 Americium-239
1,000 Californium-246
1
Uranium-239
1,000 Americium-240
100 Californium-248
0.01
Uranium-240
100 Americium-241
0.001 Californium-249
0.001
Uranium-natural
100 Americium-242m
0.001 Californium-250
0.001
Neptunium-232
100 Americium-242
10 Californium-251
0.001
Neptunium-233
1,000 Americium-243
0.001 Californium-252
0.001
100 Californium-253
0.1
Neptunium-234
90
100 Americium-244m
1 Americium-246m
1,000
1,000
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
QLMQUANTITIES
Radionuclide
QLM
Radionuclide
Quantity
(µCi)
Quantity
(µCi)
Californium-254
0.001 Einsteinium-254m
Anyalphaemitting
radionuclidenotlistedabove
ormixturesofalphaemitters
ofunknowncomposition
0.001 Einsteinium-254
Fermium-252
Fermium-253
Einsteinium-250
100
Einsteinium-251
100
Einsteinium-253
0.1
Radionuclide
QLM
Fermium-254
QLM
Quantity
(µCi)
1 Mendelevium-257
10
0.01 Mendelevium-258
0.01
1 Anyradionuclideotherthan
alphaemittingradionuclides
1 notlistedabove,ormixturesof
betaemittersofunknown
10 composition
Fermium-255
1
Fermium-257
0.01
0.01
*H-3INTHEFORMOFLABELEDDNA
BASESISLIMITEDTO100uCi/DAY.
*100uCiOFI-125ANDI-131CANBE
DISPOSEDOFTOTHESEWERWITHPRIOR
APPROVALOFHEALTHPHYSICS.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
91
CONVERSIONTABLES
RADIATION
GUIDE TO SI UNITS
DOSE
AMOUNT
TEMPERATURE
PRESURE (Pascal)
4
rem
sievert
curie
becquerel
Celsius
Fahrenheit
0.1mrem
1µSv
1pCi
37mBq
3000°C
3532°F
1mrem
10µSv
37pCi
1Bq
2500°C
4532°F
1MPa=145psi
100µSv(0.1
mSv)
1nCi
37Bp
2000°C
3632°F
SPEED
10mrem
1Pa=1.45x10‫ ־‬psi
100mrem 1mSv
27nCi
1kBq
1500°C
2732°F
1m/s~2mph
500mrem 5mSv
1µCi
37kBq
1000°C
1832°F
VOLUME
1rem
10mSv
27µCi
1MBq
800°C
1472°F
1m³=10³ℓ
5rem
50mSv
1mCi
37MBq
600°C
1112°F
1cc(cm³)=1mℓ
10rem
100mSv
27mCi
1GBq
400°C
752°F
1cc~ 1gramwater
25rem
250mSv
1Ci
37GBq
200°C
392°F
3785cc/gal7.48gal/ft³
50rem
500mSv
27Ci
1TBq
100°C
212°F
AREA
100rem
1Sv
1kCi
37TBq
50°C
122°F
1km²=10 m²
27kCi
1PBq
0°C
32°F
1m²~11ft²
1MCi
37PBq
-17.8°C
0°F
ABSORBED ENERGY
100rad=1Gy(gray)
SI UNITS PREFIXES:
6
18
6
-6
15
3
-9
PreparedByU.S.NRCAEOD/IRB1/90
12
-2
-12
Eexa10 Mmega10 µmicro10 Ppeta10 kkilo10 nnano10 Ttera10 ccenti10 ppico10 9
-3
Ggiga10 mmilli10 92
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SIGNSANDLABELS
SIGNSANDLABELS
MostofthesesignsandlabelsareavailablefromHealthPhysics.Besurenamesandtelephonenumbersare
up-to-date.
Work area.Markbench
topsandothersurfaces
whereopenradiochemicals
arehandled.Redon
yellow.
General notice.Markthe
doorstoareaswhere
devicesandradiochemicals
arehandledorstored.Red
onyellow.
Appliances, hoods, and
cabinets.Markequipment
thathasheld
radiochemicals.Redon
yellow.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
93
SIGNSANDLABELS
Desk area.Markareas
dedicatedtoofficework
wheretherewillbeno
radiochemicals.Blackon
green.
Sink for disposal.Markthe
insideofthecabinetdoor
ofasinkthathasbeen
usedforradiochemical
disposal.Redonyellow.
Animal cages.Mark
individualcagesorcage
racksifanimalshavebeen
administered
radiochemicals.Redon
yellow.Alsoposttheroom
withananimalcare
instructionform.
94
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
SIGNSANDLABELS
Electronic equipment.
Labelthecontrolpanel.
Burgundyonyellow.
X-ray diffraction units.
Labelthecontrolpaneland
thesamplechamberdoor.
Redonyellow.
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
95
FORMS
FORMS
Thissectionprovidescommentsonfrequentlyusedforms.Ifafullsizedblankisprovidedyoumay
photocopyit.
Training
97
StatementofTrainingandExperience
On-The-Job-Training CompletionofRadiationSafety
Form
98
ProtocolWorksheet WorksheetforRadiochemicalProtocols
99
Pregnancy
DeclarationofPregnancy
100
Monitoring
RadiationDosimetryServiceRequest
101
LostDosimeterReport
102
AuthorizationtoObtainRadiationExposureHistory
103
Laboratory
UserRadiationSurveyReport
104
RadioisotopeUseLog
104
TransferofRadioactiveMaterial
106
96
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
FORMS
STATEMENT OF TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE FOR USE OF
RADIONUCLIDES AND RADIATION DEVICES
Instructions:Allindividualsmustcompleteformalradiationsafetytrainingbeforeusingionizingradiation.
Thetrainingthatisrequireddependsonthetypeandamountofmaterialstobeused,andtheindividual’s
currenttrainingandexperience.Mostindividualsmustattendaneight-hourcoursegivenbyHealthPhysics,
andthenbeprovidedon-thejobtrainingbythelaboratorysupervisor.Youwillreceivespecificinstructions
afterHealthPhysicsevaluatesyourtrainingandexperience.Ifyouhaveanyquestions,pleasecallHealth
Physicsat723-3201.FaxthiscompletedformtoHealthPhysicsat723-0632.CompleteALLfields!
(CRA #) CONTROLLED RAD. AUTH
>> REQUIRED! <<
LAST NAME
M OR F
POSITION*
MAIL CODE
SUNet ID
BUILDING AND ROOM
DEPARTMENT
EMAIL ADDRESS
FIRST NAME
MI
WORK PHONE
FAX NUMBER
* POSITION: Faculty, Post-Doc; Visiting Scientist; Student; Staff
DurationatStanford:❒30days❒<6months❒>6months
Whatsourceswillyouusehere:❒unsealedradiochemicals ❒sealedradioactivesources ❒XRD
❒irradiator❒XRF
❒medicalx-ray
❒non-medicalx-ray ❒cabinetx-ray
TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE WITH RADIATION SOURCES
INSTITUTION
BEGAN(MM/YY)
ENDED(MM/YY)
INSTITUTION
BEGAN(MM/YY)
ENDED(MM/YY)
OFFICE USE ONLY
ESTIMATE THE NUMBER OF CLASSROOM CONTACT HOURS FOR EACH
TOPIC
CLASS
COMPQ
PROQ
XRD
Topic
Hours
Physicsofionizingradiationandradiationunits
Bioeffectsofionizingradiation
Radiationhazardsandprotectionmethods
Regulationsandstandards
S CORE D ATE BY
___ SHP
___ OJT
N OTES ___/___/___
Monitoringandsurveymethods
C DR EQS___/___/___
NOTE TYPICAL RADIONUCLIDES YOU HANDLED AND LENGTH OF EXPERIENCE IN THE APPROPRIATE BOX,
E.G. H-3 5 DAYS; 1-125 6 MONTHS; CS-137 3 YEARS
T YPEOFS OURCES
MICROCURIES MILLICURIES CURIES KILOCURIES SEALED SOURCES OR
NEUTRON EMITTERS
UNSEALED BETA AND
GAMMA EMITTERS
WHATDEVICESHAVEYOUUSED:❒ XRD❒ self-shieldedirradiator❒ XRF❒ medicalx-ray❒ non-medical
x-ray❒cabinetx-ray❒______________________________
____________________________________
Signature
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
____________________
Date
97
FORMS
ON THE JOB TRAINING FORM (OJT)
Health Physics
Stanford University
(650) 723-3202
fax (650) 723-0632
Date:
Memoto:
CRA:
Department:
From:
Training Coordinator
HealthPhysicsTrainingCoordinator
Subject:
CompletionofRadiationSafetyTrainingfor___________________
Thisindividualcompletedformalradiationsafetyorientationon(dateoftraining).Thistwo-day,eight
contact-hourcoursewasdesignedforscientistsusingradioactivematerialsinthebiochemistryenvironment.
Itprovidedacondensedsurveyofradiationsafetyfundamentals.Thecourse,comprisedoftwofour-hour
sessionstaughtbytwoseniorhealthphysicsstaff,provided3hoursphysics,1hourbiology,2hourshazards
andprotection,1hourregulations,and1hourmonitoring.Studentswereevaluatedbymultiple-choice
homeworkaftersession1andmultiple-choiceopen-bookquizaftersession2.
WillyoupleasecompletethetrainingbyprovidingOn-The-Jobtraininginalltheindicatedtasks,plus
demonstrationofeachradioactivematerialsprotocolthisindividualwillperform.Documentthistrainingon
thisform,andfileitinyourRadioisotopeJournalatTab6.
Pleasecallforadditionalinformationonirradiatortraining.
Trainingwasprovidedby
on
.
Orderingradioactivity
❒ Receiving,checking,andstoringnewmaterial
❒ Defacingpackages
❒ RadioisotopeUseLogandWasteLog
❒ Labsurveys
❒ Personnelmonitoring
❒ ProjectrecordsandtheRadioisotopeJournal
❒
Nuclide
µCi/run
ProtocolTitle
Date
Instructor
98
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
FORMS
WORKSHEET FOR RADIOCHEMICAL PROTOCOLS
Instructions:Pleasecompleteaseparateworksheetforeachradiochemicalprotocol.Thepurposeoftheworksheetis
toidentifyhazardousorregulatedchemicals,operations,andwastestreamsthatmightposesafetyproblemsor
unanticipatedcosts.Attachanabstractorcopyoftheprotocol.IfthisisanamendmenttoanexistingCRA,youmayfax
thiscompletedformandthatattachmenttoHealthPhysicsat723-0632.
PILASTNAME
FIRSTNAME
DEPARTMENT
E-MAIL
MI
CRANUMBER
MAILCODE
PHONE
FAX
NUCLIDE
µCIPEREXPT
CHEMICALFORM
µCIINVIAL*
VOLATILE
Yes
No
PHYSICALFORM
Powder Liquid
Solid Gas
*AtStanford,if>100QLM,vialmustbelocked.AtVAPAHCS,allvialsmustbelocked.
PROTOCOLTITLE
SIMPLE HANDLING
Weighing
Pipetting
Type_______________________________________
µL’s
mL’s PROCESSING THAT MIGHT GENERATE MIST, VAPOR, OR SPILL
Heatingto_______˚ C
Openflameheating
Centrifugingfor minutes hours
IDENTIFY ADDED HAZARDS None
Flammablesolvent
ANIMALS None
SPECIES
NUMBER
Stirring
Vortexmixingfor minutes
hours
Chromatography_________________________________
Toxic Corrosive
Reactive Pathogen❒_______________________
Appliedforanimalcommitteeapprovedon_____--_____--_____
GRAMS
EACH
µCIADMIN’D
µCIAT
EUTH
EUTH
❒Ether
CAGESCLND
❒CRAstaff
❒____
❒VSC
µCIINURINE
µCIINSCAT
48HRS:___
7DAYS:___
48HRS:___
7DAYS:___
Wherewillanimalsbehoused;whowillcareforthem:_________________________________________________
Wherewillcarcassesandexcretabedisposed:_________________________________________________________
PROTECTIVE ITEMS THAT WILL BE USED
Shieldingtype_________________________
Interlabtransportcontainer___________________________
Fumehoodinroom_____
Splashshield Dosimetrybadges
Rings
Surveymeter GM Ionization
Nal(TI) _______________________________________
RADIOACTIVE WASTE GENERATION
LiquidScintillationCocktailtradename________________________________________
Drywastecubicfeetpermonth___________
Sharps Literspermonthforsolidification__________
MIXED WASTE GENERATION None
Markonanattachment,allreagentsthatarenotonthe“NonhazardousWasteList”athttp://www.stanford.edu/dept/EHS/prod/enviro/waste/nohaz.html
_____________________________________
__________________
PISignature
Date
Nofollow-upneeded _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________
Signature
Date
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
___________________
99
FORMS
DECLARATION OF PREGNANCY
Instructions:Itisourresponsibilitytoensurethatthedosetoanembryo/fetus,duringtheentirepregnancy,due
tooccupationalexposureofadeclaredpregnantworker,doesnotexceed0.5rem[§20.1208].Ourpolicyisto
examineyourworkenvironmentandjobresponsibilitiestoassurethatyouwillavoidsubstantialvariationabove
0.05remeachmonthduringyourpregnancy.Ifyouhavequestions,pleasecallHealthPhysicsat723-3201.Fax
thiscompletedformtoHealthPhysicsat723-0632.Wewillscheduleaninterviewwithyoutoreviewsafety
measuresandansweryourquestions.
LASTNAME
FIRSTNAME
MI
DELIVERYDATE
STANFORD
VAPAHCS
DEPARTMENT
POSITION*
MAIL CODE
PHONE
EMAIL
* POSITION:Faculty,Post-Doc;VisitingScientist;Student;Staff
Describethesourcesofradiationthatyoupersonallyworkwithdaytoday.Forradioactivematerials,describethe
radionuclidesandactivities,andhoursofuseeachday.Fordevices,identifythetypeofdeviceandhoursofuse
eachday.Alsodescribethelevelofuseforotherindividualsinyourworkarea.
Inaccordancewith10CFR20.1208,Iamvoluntarilydeclaring,inwriting,thatIampregnant.Iunderstand
thatitismysoleandfundamentalresponsibilitytoinformStanfordHealthPhysics,inwriting,ofmy
pregnancy,itIchoosetodoso.IalsorecognizethatIamnowsubjecttodose-limitrestrictionstoensurethat
occupationalprenatalradiationexposuredoesnotexceed0.5remduringthedurationofthepregnancy.
Signature
Date
REVIEW10CFR20.1208ANDRADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL,PART1.
OFFICEUSEONLY
Attach Wearer’s dose for the past 12 months
Workplaceinterviewscheduledfor
date:______________;
Doyouanticipateachangeinyourworkloadoruses?
Willtherebeachangeinco-workers’workloadoruses?
Noteotherquestionsandanswers
time:_____________;
room:____________
HealthPhysicist
Date
100
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
FORMS
RADIATION DOSIMETRY SERVICE REQUEST
Pleasecompleteform&sendwithattachment(s)to:DosimetryCoordinator,HealthPhysics,MC8007orfaxto
HealthPhysicsat650-723-0632.
Fortheonlineversiongotohttp://radforms.stanford.edu
DEPARTMENT: _________________________________
DATE: ____________________
CONTACT (OR PI) RESPONSIBLE
FOR EXCHANGING DOSIMETERS: ________________________ PHONE #: _________________
DOSIMETRY ACCT.# & LOCATION CODE: ________ /________ EMAIL: ___________________
START / STOP SERVICE EFFECTIVE DATE: _______________
TYPE OF SERVICE:
X-RAY,BETA,GAMMA,NEUTRON
❒
❒
❒
❒
Ifapplicable:CONTROLLEDRADIATIONAUTHORIZATION(CRA)#:____________(example:SMN011)
PLEASE PRINT CLEARLY:
(5)
(1)
(2)
Action
NAME
(Last, First)
(3)
Position
(4)
Gender
(M/F)
DATE OF
BIRTH
HISTORY
None
BODY
BADGE
Attach
RING
SIZE
(S-M-L)
(6)
USE
(1) AllpersonnelworkingunderCRA’smustcompleteformalbasicradiationprotectiontrainingprovidedbyHealthPhysics,andon-thejobtrainingprovidedbytheproject,PRIORtousingionizingradiation.Pleasecompletea“STATEMENTOFTRAININGAND
EXPERIENCE”foreachnewpersonlistedwhowilluseradionuclides,andappendittothisrequest.
(2) Acton: (A)-add;
(D)-delete;
(C)-corrections
(3) Position:(F)-faculty;(P)-post-doc;(V)-visitingscientist;(S)-staff;(G)-student;(O)–other
(4) Gender: (M)–Male/(F) - Female
(5) Eachpersonhavingapreviousorongoingradiationexposurehistorywithanotherfacility,asrequiredbyregulations,mustsubmitan
Authorization to Obtain Radiation ExposureHistoryform,ormustcheck“None”toindicatethereisnoradiationexposurehistory.It
iseachperson’sresponsibilitytoinformHealthPhysicsofhistoricalorconcurrentradiationexposuresfromotherfacilities.
(6)Use:
(N)-notusingradiationbutworksinaradiationlab;(C)-radiochemicals;(S)–smallsealedsources;
(XRD)-x-raydiffraction;(XRF)-x-rayfluorescence;(XRM)-x-raymedical;(XRN)-x-raynon-medical;
(XRC)-cabinetx-ray;(XI)–X-rayirradiator;(SI)–SealedSourceirradiator(O)-other
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
101
FORMS
LOST / DAMAGED DOSIMETER REPORT
Instructions:Itisourresponsibilitytoestimateyourdoseifyourdosimeterislostordamaged.Ourestimate
isbasedonyourusualdoseandactivities,andyouractivitiesduringthemonitorperiod.Pleasecompletethe
tophalfofthisformandfaxittoHealthPhysicsat723-0632.
LAST NAME
FIRST NAME
MI
STANFORD
VAPAHCS
DEPARTMENT
POSITION*
EMAIL
PHONE #
CRA/PI
*POSITION:Faculty,Post-Doc,VisitingScientist,Student,Staff
DOSIMETRY ACCOUNT #
LOCATION #
WB DOSIMETER # _________
WEAR PERIOD
RING DOSIMETER # _________
Describethesourcesofradiationthatyoupersonallyworkedwithdaytodayduringthemonitorperiod.For
radioactivematerials,describetheradionuclidesandactivities,andhoursofuseeachday.Fordevicesidentifythe
typeofdevice,roomnumber,andhoursofuseeachday.Alsodescribethelevelofuseforotherindividualsin
yourworkarea.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Was the level of use greater, similar to, or less than usual?
Greater
Similar
Less
To the best of my knowledge, I believe the above statements are true and the estimated radiation dose may be
entered into my exposure record.
_______________________________________
_____________________
Signature
Date
OFFICEUSEONLY
Attach wearer’s dose for the past 12 months
❒Telephone❒ Email
❒Workplaceinterviewconducteddate:____________time:___________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Milliremtobeassigned:
Deep________ Eye_________ Shallow_________NotifyProcessor:Y£N£
_______________________ _____________
HealthPhysicist Date _________________________
RadiationSafetyOfficer
_____________
Date
Distribution:
102
Original:HPdoserecord
Copy:MonitoredIndividual
Copy:DosimetryContact
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
FORMS
PLEASE COMPLETE FORM & SEND TO HEALTH PHYSICS, FAX: 723-0632, M/C 8007
AUTHORIZATION TO OBTAIN RADIATION EXPOSURE HISTORY
PURPOSE:
Inordertocomplywithregulationspertainingtoradiationexposure,itmaybenecessaryfor
StanfordUniversitytoobtainyouroccupationalexposurehistoryifyouhavebeenexposed
toionizingradiation.
INSTRUCTIONS: Pleasecompletetheformbelowgivingtheinformationrequested.Listonlythose
organizationswhereyouwereexposedtoradiationsuchthatpersonnelmonitors
(dosimeters)wereworn.Ifyouhaveneverworndosimeterswrite“none”.
INFORMATION: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Name
____________________________________________________________________________
Soc.Sec.No.
DateofBirth
____________________________________________________________________________
Department
FORMER AFFILIATIONS HAVING RECORDS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE
NameofCompanyorInstitution_______________________________________________________________________
DepartmentorDivision:______________________________________________________________________________
Address:__________________________________________________________________________________________
TimeofAffiliation: From:_____________________
To:_____________________________
IauthorizethereleaseofpastradiationexposureinformationtoStanfordUniversity.
Signature:_____________________________________________ Date:____________________________
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
NameofCompanyorInstitution:_____________________________________________________________________
DepartmentorDivision:_____________________________________________________________________________
Address:__________________________________________________________________________________________
TimeofAffiliation: From:_____________________
To:_____________________________
IauthorizethereleaseofpastradiationexposureinformationtoStanfordUniversity.
Signature:_____________________________________________ Date:____________________________
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
103
FORMS
USER RADIATION SURVEY REPORT
CRA #: ____________
Building/Room #: ____________
Date: ____________
Use Level: A B C
Contamination Survey (dpm) - Working surfaces and floor areas are smear tested for removable radioactive contamination
in a random fashion. An area of approximately 100 cm sq. is covered by each smear. Results are reported as net
(background corrected) disintegrations per minute (dpm) on the sketch below. Printed results are appended where
appropriate.
Area Survey (mrem/hr) – Radiation dose rates are measured at work areas and storage areas. The readings are reported as
millirems per hour (mrem/h) on the sketch below. Except where noted readings are for beta and/or gamma radiation at 1
foot. Known sources of external radiation are noted on the sketch.
Enter the survey date into the “Sweeps online system “http://radsurvey.stanford.edu, and file the copy in the
“Radioisotope Journal”.
Area Survey:
Manufacturer:
Model:
Serial Number:
Date Calibrated:
Background:
(Instrument Used)
Contamination Survey:
Manufacturer:
Model:
Serial Number:
Surveyor’s Name:
Inspection Check
General Lab Deficiencies
a. Rad waste logs current?
b. Rad waste containers over filled or >2mR/hr at 1 foot?
c. Rad waste in the general trash baskets?
d. If “A” levels on hand, is the isotope secured?
e. Refrigerator and other storage area logs current?
f. Refrigerators/freezers in corridors unlocked?
g. Food and Drink physically separated from contiguous radioactive
work area, or by 1 meter from non-contiguous rad work area?
104
(Instrument Used)
N/A
Yes
No
Comments
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
FORMS
**** RADIOISOTOPE USE LOG ****
IfthepackageisCrushed,Wet,orDamaged,IMMEDIATELYsecureitandcallHealthPhysicsat723-3201.
Otherwise,continueyourinspectionfollowingthe“SafetyInstructions.”
CRA:
Vial#:
Nuclide:
Chem.Form:
DateRec.: Amount:
PurchaseOrder#: Vendor: LocationofStorage:
ALWAYSremove/obliterateallRadioactivepackagemarkingsandsurveypriortodisposal.
Amount
OnHand
[uCi]
Amount
Removed
[uCi]
Name
Date
WASTEDISPOSAL
ToHealth
ToSewer
Physics
[uCi]
[uCi]
Other
Explain
[uCi]
LongTerm
Retention†[uCi]
TransferTouCi/CRA
#
†Nuclidesincorporatedintosamplesorintheprocessofanexperiment–Disposaldateisindefinite.
Thislogsheetmustbekeptinareadilyretrievablemannerforinspection;andaftertheshipmentis
usedupthisistobefiledinthelabjournalasalongtermrecord.
Takebalancetozeroshowingfinaldisposalofthestockvialto________on_______(date).
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)105
FORMS
TRANSFER OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
RADIOACTIVEMATERIALTRANSFERANDUSELOG
CHEM.
FORM
NUCLIDE: FROM
FROM
TO
CRA:
NAME:
CRA:
Amount
OnHand
[uCi]
Amount
Removed
[uCi]
Name
Date
DATE
REC:
WASTEDISPOSAL
ToHealth
ToSewer
Physics
[uCi]
[uCi]
AMOUNT
TRANSFERRED:
TO
NAME:
Other
Explain
[uCi]
TRANSFER
DATE:
LongTerm
Retention
*[uCi]
TransferTo
uCi/CRA#
*Nuclidesincorporatedintosamplesorintheprocessofanexperiment–Disposaldateisindefinite.
Thislogsheetmustbekeptinareadilyretrievablemannerforinspection,andaftertheshipmentis
usedupthisittobefiledinthelabjournalasalongtermrecordfor3years.
MAKECOPIESFORDISTRIBUTION:
FROM CRA:
Original
RETURN TO HP:OnecopywithQuarterlyInventory.
TO CRA:
RetainonecopyRETURN TO HP:OnecopywithQuarterlyInventory.
106
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
A
absorbeddose·63
accelerators·2,14,41
accidentalreleasereport·31
actionlevels·51
activity·9,10,49,63,64
AdministrativePanelonRadiologicalSafety·33
adversehealtheffects·19
AgreementStates·27
AirborneRadioactivityArea·30
ALARA·23,28,63
alphaparticle·3,12,16
alphaparticles·3
analyticalx-raydevices·11,45
animals·37,46,56,57,94
appendices·62
aqueouswaste·53
AtomicEnergyCommission·27
attenuation·14
B
backgroundradiation·63
basiclawofradiobiology·19
becquerel·10,63,92
betaparticle·3,4,12,18
betaparticles·4
BETA-SPECTRA·5
beverage·43
bioassay·47,63
biohazardousradwaste·54
bremstrahlung·10,11,12,13
C
C-14·5,34,51,52,71
cabinetx-raymachine·41,42
CaliforniaCodeofRegulations·27
cancer·21,67
cementkit·54
characteristiccurve·15
chemicalwaste·55
clinicalprocedures·31,40
ClinicalRadiationSafetyCommittee·34,40
CodeofFederalRegulations·27
compliance·32,40
Comptonscattering·13
containers·25,53
INDEX
contaminatedequipment·51
contamination·16,24,25,48,50,51,52,58,59,60,61
Contamination·104
ControlledRadiationAuthorization(CRA)·34
conversion factors·92
cosmicradiation·20
cpm·64
Cr-51·34,51,75
CRA·64
CRAquantities·38
CRA,amendments·39
CRA,application·34
CRA,terms·39,40
Cu-64·51,79
curie·10,31,63,64
D
dailyuselogs·48,105
decayconstant·9,14
decayinstorage·31
decayscheme·9
decay-in-storage·31,56
decontamination·52,58,69
deficiencies·40
deskarea·43
deterministiceffect·20,64
Deterministiceffect·21
disappearance·61
disposal,radiationdevices·51
disposal,radioactivity·52
distance·1,22,24,30
DNA·19
doseequivalent·19,20,64,65,66,67
doselimits·28
doserate,calculation·8
dosimeter·18,25,31,41,42,46,47,101
dpm·64
drywaste·53
E
effectivedose·21,64
electromagneticradiation·13
electroncapture·8
electronmicroscopes·42
electronmicroscopes,uraniumsalts·42
electronicdevice·41
emptycontainers·30
emptypackages·30
FORMS
environmentalstudies·35
equipmentrepair·51
excreta·53,56,57
exposurehistory·28
F
F-18·34,51,78
fabricatedrecords·32,40
fee,radiationmachine·43
fetaldoselimit·29
filmbadge·17,25,46
filmbadges·31,41
food·43
forms·62,96
freeradicals·19
fumehood·56,57
fumehoods·25,35,50,74,77
G
gammafactor·8
gammaray·7,13
gasdetector·14
gasmultiplication·16
Geiger-Mueller,GMdetector·16
Glossary·63
gray·20,63,65,92
Guarapari,Brazil·20
H
H-3·5,34,51,52,70
halfvaluelayer·8,14,15
half-life·5,8,9,53
half-lifecategories·53
hazardouswaste·55
Hazards Evaluation·31,39
HealthPhysics·32
Hereditaryeffects·22
highelevations·20
highradiationarea·30,44,45,46,65
humanexcreta·54
humanuse·31,40
HVL·8,14
I
I-131·8,34,51,54
incidentresponse·58
injuryreport·31
inspections·28,32,33
Internalconversion·8
inventorysummary·49
inversesquarelaw·24
iodine·25,35,47,53,54,76
ionizationchamber·16
ionizingphotons·13
isomerictransition·7
K
Kerala,India·20
L
labeling,quantitiesofmaterialsrequiringlabels·82
labels·30,46,62,93
lead·14,24,36,53
leaktest·49
levels,A,B,C·39
linearaccelerator·21
linearaccelerators·Seeaccelerators
linearattenuationcoefficient·14
liquidscintillationcocktail·33,35,52
liquidwaste·54,55
LocalControlCommittees·34
loss·61
lossreport·31
M
measures,requiredunits·31
medicaldose·20
medicaluse·31
minors·29,35
mitoticindex·19
Mixedhalf-lifecategories·57
mixedwaste·36,52,55
modifications·40,41,44
monitoringrequired·46
moving·40
N
NaI(Tl)·18,25,50,52,76
I-125·25,34,51,54,76
108
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionand
Measurements·62,80
naturalbackground·20
naturalsources,dose·20
neutronsources·8
neutrons·3,4,8,12,19
notices·27
NRC·66
NuclearRegulatoryCommission·27,62,81
O
occupationaldose·66
on-the-jobtraining·36,44,98
operatinglog·44
Orderingandreceivingradioactivematerial·48
orders·27,48
P
P-32·4,5,34,51,52,72
P-33·5,34,51,52,73
packages·30,48,49,61,111
pairproduction·14
Part19,10CFR·27
Part20,10CFR·28
pathogen·55
personnelmonitoring·46
personnel,quarterlyupdate·35
photodisintegration·14
photoelectriceffect·13
photomultipliertube·18
pocketionizationchambers·16
positron·4,59,60
postingrequirements·27,30,42
pregnantworker·22,28,100
projectdirector·31,35,40,41,45
ProjectDirector,qualifications·33
proportionalcounters·16
provisionalrenewals·39
publicdose·66
purchases,seealsopackages·48
Q
QLMquantities·34,53,62
qualityfactor·66,67
R
rad·16,19,21,63,66,92
radiationarea·30,47,50
RadiationSafetyCommittee,alsoRSC·67
RadiationSafetyOfficer,alsoRSO·67
radiationsymbol·29
radioactivedecay·2,3,9
RadioactiveDrugResearchCommittee·40
radioactivewaste·52
radioactivity·1,2,9,52
radiobiology·19
radiochemicals·1,25
Radioisotope Journal·43
Recombination·16
records·31
recordsretention·44
records,falsified·32,40
recoveryplan·39
references·26
registrationfees·43
RegulatoryGuides·62,81
rem·16,19,67
removablecontamination·50,51,104
reports·31,59,60,61,80
responsibilities,individualuser·32
responsibilities,PrincipalInvestigator·31
responsibilities,workers·28
rooms,quarterlyupdate·34
S
S-35·5,25,34,51,52,74
safetydatasheets·62,69
scintillationcocktail·Seeliquidscintillationcocktail
scintillationcounting·18
scintillationvials·56
sealedsources·49
security·29,33
sewer·31,53,54,55
sewerlimits,I-125andI-131·54,4.91
sewer,ReadysafeandCytoscintandOptiphase·56
sharps·53
shielding·8,24
shipment·49
SIUNITS·92
sievert·20,67
signs·30,46,62,93
spills·31,59
spontaneousfission·8
standardworkrules·36
stochasticeffects·21
stucksources·60
surveyactionlevels·51
surveymeters·16,50
surveyrecord·50
FORMS
waste,animals·53,56,57
waste,box·57
waste,charges·57
waste,containers·53
waste,decay-in-storage·56
waste,half-lifecategories·53
waste,humanexcreta·54
waste,I-125·52,54
waste,insanitarysewer·53
waste,infectious·54
waste,liquidscintillation·56
waste,lowenergybeta·52
waste,mixed·Seemixedwaste
waste,non-hazardouslist·55
waste,non-radioactive·58
waste,scintillationvials·56
waste,secondaycontaiment·57
waste,sharps·53
waste,sinks·53
workrules·36
worker·68
worksheet·99
surveys·29,38,50
T
T1/2·9
termination·40
theft·61
theftreport·31
thermoluminescentdosimeter·18
thyroidblocking·47
time·24
tissueweightingfactor·21
trainingandexperience·36,37
transfer·49,106
transport·49
tritium,seealsoH-3·47,70
U
U-NAT·77
unusualevents·61
uraniumsalts·42
uranyl nitrate, uranyl acetate·77
uselog·48,105
X
x-raydiffraction·2,11,41,45
x-rayfluorescence·2,11,45
x-rayrequirements·31,41,42,43,45
x-rayspectrum·11
x-rays·2,10
V
ventilation·35
veryhighradiationarea·30,46
Β
W
β-particles·Seebetaparticle
waste·31,33,34,36,52,55
110
RADIATIONSAFETYMANUAL(REVISEDMARCH2010)
TelephoneDirectory
Emergencies-24hours
725-9999
Information
723-3201
Newpersonneltraining
723-3202
RadiationSafetyOfficer
725-1412
Fax
723-0632
CRAstatus
723-3202
Dosimetersandrecords
723-3203
HumanUse-Materials
725-1407
Incomingpackages
723-5857
Incomingpackagesfax
498-4313
Instrumentcalibration
725-1411
Inventoryrecords
723-3202
Sealedsourceleaktest
723-4723
SurveysatStanford
725-1411
SurveyatVAPACHS
725-1411
Thyroidsurveys
723-4723
VAPACHSmaterialsprogram 723-3201
Waste
723-3765
Wastefax
723-3759
x-raymachines-medical
725-7530
x-raymachines-non-medical 723-4723
ShortcutWebAddressforHealthPhysics
HealthPhysicsHome
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2010)
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Forms
http://radsafety.stanford.edu
RadiationSafetySheets
http://radsafetysheets.stanford.edu
SWEEPS
http://radsurvey.stanford.edu
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