Resource Pack
Unit K314 – Approaches to Learning
(CSW)
Sept 2013 – Aug 2014
Contents
Section 1 – Teacher Notes

Guidance for each Learning Outcome and Assessment Criteria

Unit K314 Candidate Assessment Record (CAR) Form

Example Assignment Feedback Sheet

Portfolio Building Guidance
Section 2 – Resources

Direct Support Strategies

Direct Support Strategies Activity

Issues Influencing Support

Strategies and Techniques

Support Strategies Assignment

Individual Support Packages

Key principles of learning and teaching

Key principles of adult learning

The five basic principles of learning - how we learn

The seven principles of learning

Learning Theory Education
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Section 1 – Teacher Notes
Learner background
A minimum of Level 2 BSL is essential for candidates studying this unit.
Level 3 BSL is desirable. Candidates should also have English at a minimum of level 2. Centres
must ensure that learners are assessed and meet this requirement.
Candidates without BSL level 3 at entry are strongly recommended to achieve Level 3 BSL
while training or shortly after achieving the unit. Those who work/intend to work in
establishments where learners using BSL are the norm should gain BSL at level 3 alongside
this qualification.
Essential requirements
A minimum of Level 2 BSL is essential for candidates studying this certificate. Level 3 BSL is
desirable. Candidates should also have English at a minimum of level 2. Candidates without
Level 3 BSL at entry are strongly recommended to achieve BSL level 3 either whilst training or
shortly after achieving the certificate. Those who work/intend to work in establishments where
learners using BSL are the norm should gain BSL at level 3 alongside this qualification.
This qualification is listed as appropriate for learners 19+.
It is recommended that all candidates undertake an initial assessment prior to commencement
of the course. This should include an assessment of their BSL skills, and their individual needs
with respect to the minimum core of language, literacy, numeracy and ICT. The minimum core is
not required as part of the qualification, but to work as a Learning Support Practitioner (CSW),
learners will need proof that they have met the standards.
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Teacher background
Individuals with a good knowledge of learning support and in particular, communication support,
are likely to have the necessary knowledge and background to teach this unit.
It would be an advantage if the teacher:

holds a recognised teaching qualification e.g. Certificate/Postgraduate certificate in
Education or Certificate in FE teaching-stage 1, 2 and 3, NVQ Level 4 in Learning and
Development; CTLL, DTLL, Teacher of the Deaf

has substantial, successful teaching experience, supported by evidence from internal
observation of teaching and learning reports

is fully conversant with contemporary issues in the post 16 sector

is fully conversant with contemporary issues in the education of d/Deaf learners.
Delivery strategies
This unit examines the possible routes, both vocational and academic, for education and
training in the lifelong learning sector. It is an introductory unit and should be delivered first.
This could be combined with additional units to provide a particular focus for the introductory
part of the programme.
The unit also examines the ways in which learning support practitioners, e.g. CSWs, can
underpin and facilitate this process.
The above will be examined within the context of current educational legislation and practice.
The tutor should encourage relevant, recent internet research by learners. Learners will benefit
from having experience as a learning support practitioner (Communication Support Worker) in
an educational setting. However, this is not a prerequisite. There are detailed descriptions of
what to cover in the unit specification.
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Unit K314 – Supporting Learning: Communication Support
for Deaf Learners
Guidance for each Learning Outcome and Assessment Criteria
Learning outcome 1: Understand the learning process
Assessment criteria
Guidance – the following guidance may cover
one or more assessment criteria
1.1 Explain key principles of
Learning theories (education), including
learning.
behaviourism, congnitivism, constructivism
1.2 Describe ways people learn.
How we learn – Basic Principles of Learning, e.g.
1.3 Explain key factors in
1. Feedback
effective learning.
2. Active Learning
3. Reinforcement
4. Meaningful Material
5. Multiple Sense Learning
6. Overlearning
7. Primary and Recency
What factors are influential in ensuring that
learning is effective? e.g. learning preferences:
visual, auditory, kinaesthetic.
Individual learning needs: e.g. learning styles,
learning difficulties and/or disabilities.
Prior experience – could be valuable or
disadvantageous
Motivation – using different methods to motivate
learners, e.g. e-learning etc.
Setting individual learning goals
Effective use of resources: e.g. adaptation of
resources to meet individual needs
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Variety of assessment methods: e.g. short
answer questions, practical activities,
observation etc.
The key principles of adult learning
The seven principles of learning
Learning outcome 2: Understand the responsibilities of a learning support
practitioner in learning programmes
Assessment criteria
Guidance – the following guidance may cover
one or more Assessment Criteria
2.1 Explain ways that learning
Focus on individual learning needs and
programmes are developed.
associated learning difficulties and/or disabilities.
2.2 Explain the responsibilities of
a learning support practitioner in
identifying learners’ needs and
Clear communication with all parties involved –
especially the d/Deaf learner
the planning of a learning
programme.
The importance of advance notification of d/Deaf
learner needs. Adequate time is needed to plan
2.3 Explain the responsibilities of
appropriate support during the learning cycle.
a learning support practitioner in
the delivery and review of a
learning programme.
Clear communication with all tutors/ assessors/
support staff involved in learning programme –
2.4 Explain the responsibilities of
may need to adapt resources, assessment,
a learning support practitioner in
teaching environment.
the recording of achievement and
progression.
The importance of treating each d/Deaf learner
as an individual with individual needs.
Assessment may need to be adapted to match
the needs of the d/Deaf learner, e.g. short
answer questions, practical activities,
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observation etc.
Support Strategy Plans – what they may include
Identify strategies that the CSW will need to use
to enable the d/Deaf student to succeed in a
programme of learning.
Working as part of a team – the importance of
team working, identifying role and
responsibilities, management structure etc.
The need to provide feedback and complete
appropriate paperwork, as per organisational
policies and procedures.
Learning outcome 3: Be able to use learning support activities to meet the
individual needs of learners
Assessment criteria
Guidance – the following guidance may cover
one or more Assessment Criteria
3.1 Explain how English,
Identify individual learner needs and learning
Mathematics and ICT can be
preferences to ensure integration of literacy,
integrated into learning support
language, numeracy and ICT skills.
activities to meet the individual
Identify appropriate technical aids and resources
needs of learners.
which may assist the D/deaf learner in their
3.2 Integrate activities into own
learning activities
learning support practice to
enable learners to develop and
Be aware of the importance of literacy, language,
apply their English, Mathematics
numeracy, ICT and how they impact on everyday
and ICT skills.
life: e.g. reading newspapers, posters, dealing
with money, access to internet, texting etc
3.3 Use learning support
activities to meet the identified
needs of an individual learner.
The importance of being aware of Deaf learner’s
need for support in literacy, language, numeracy,
ICT and wider key skills and how to integrate into
the CSW role – e.g. encourage interaction with
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peers, encourage the use of internet for
research, conversations about newspaper
articles, managing money etc
Be aware of the benefits of new technology and
environmental aids. Investigate latest
developments in technology and environmental
aids which could be used to meet particular
learning needs. Identify benefits and limitations
Learning outcome 4: Be able to communicate with learners and other learning
professionals to enhance learning
Assessment criteria
Guidance – the following guidance may cover
one or more Assessment Criteria
4.1 Use communication methods
Be aware of how resources can be adapted to
and media to meet the needs of
meet individual learning needs e.g. modification
learners.
of text, changing layout / colour of paper etc.
4.2 Communicate with other
Identify benefits and limitations of adapting
learning professionals to meet
resources
learner needs and support
progression.
Learning outcome 5: Be able to use resources to meet the individual needs of
learners
Assessment criteria
Guidance – the following guidance may cover
one or more Assessment Criteria
5.1 Explain ways in which
Adapt learning resources, working with the
resources can be used to meet
person leading the learning and the learners.
the individual needs of learners.
Know how to adapt text to match learner needs
5.2 Select resources to meet the
(Gunning Fox Index)
identified needs of an individual
learner.
Know strategies to make reading written
resources more accessible to Deaf learners –
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5.3 Adapt resources to meet the
change of font or font size, use of italics,
identified needs of an individual
underlining, layout of text on page etc
learner.
5.4 Use resources to meet the
Awareness of the variety of assessment
identified needs of an individual
methods – written examination / test paper,
learner.
verbal question and answer, observation, short
answer questions, practical activities, eassessment
Learning outcome 6: Be able to use assessments to meet the individual needs of
learners
Assessment criteria
Guidance – the following guidance may cover
one or more Assessment Criteria
6.1 Explain how to use
Identification of how different assessment
assessment for learning and
methods could be used for an identified learning
progression.
programme to match the Deaf learner needs.
6.2 Use assessments to identify
and meet the identified needs of
an individual learner.
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Unit K314 – Supporting Learning: Communication Support for Deaf Learners
CANDIDATE ASSESSMENT RECORD FORM
Candidate name
………………………………………………………………….
Candidate ID……………………………………
Learning outcomes - All outcomes must be achieved
1
Achieved
()
Evidence Reference
Number(s)
Understand the learning process
Assessment criteria
1.1 Explain key principles of learning
1.2 Describe ways people learn
1.3 Explain key factors in effective learning
2
Understand the responsibilities of a learning support practitioner in learning programmes
2.1 Explain ways that learning programmes are developed
2.2 Explain the responsibilities of a learning support practitioner in identifying learner’s needs and the
planning of a learning programme
2.3 Explain the responsibilities of a learning support practitioner in the delivery and review of a learning
programme
2.4 Explain the responsibilities of a learning support practitioner in the recording of achievement and
progression
3
Be able to use learning support activities to meet the individual needs of learners
3.1 Explain how literacy, language, numeracy can be integrated into learning support activities to meet
the individual needs of learners
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3.2 Integrate activities into own learning support practice to enable learners to develop and apply their
literacy, language, numeracy and ICT skills
3.3 Use learning support activities to meet the identified needs of an individual learner
4
Be able to communicate with learners and other learning professionals to enhance learning
4.1 Use communication methods and media to meet the needs of learners
4.2 Communicate with other learning professionals to meet learner needs and support progression
5
Be able to use resources to meet the individual needs of learners
5.1 Explain ways in which resources can be used to meet the individual needs of learners
5.2 Select resources to meet the identified needs of an individual learner
5.3 Adapt resources to meet the identified needs of an individual learner
5.4 Use resources to meet the identified needs of an individual learner
6
Be able to use assessments to meet the individual needs of learners
6.1 Explain how to use assessment for learning and progression
6.2 Use assessments to identify and meet the identified needs of an individual learner
I certify that the above assessment was carried out according to Signature regulations for this unit, that the candidate has successfully
completed the above tasks, and that the work I have marked is the authentic work of the candidate.
Teacher-assessor name (please print) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Signature
………………………………………………………………………… Date ……………………………………………
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Example assignment feedback sheet
Student name: ……………………………………………………
Date: …………………
Assessment Title………….……………………………………..Ref…………………….
Unit number/s: …………………………………………………………..
Feedback:
PASS
REFER
Assessor Signature……………….. …………………………………………………………
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Portfolio building – guidance
Evidence

Candidates should provide a minimum of two pieces of evidence for each learning outcome
assessment criteria.

Evidence can be referenced to more than one learning outcome assessment criteria/ several
learning outcomes assessment criteria if appropriate.

Evidence needs to show what students have learnt – so should consist mainly of
assignments, group activities, tasks etc rather than handouts/ printouts/ copies of journal
articles etc.

All evidence should clearly identify candidate name and include an evidence reference
number.

Assessor feedback should be included whenever candidates have completed tasks/
assignments. This can include group tasks and presentations.
 Feedback should be constructive and concentrate on positive aspects of candidate work.

Quality not quantity is important.
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Section 2 - Resources
Direct support strategies
Direct support is the practical side of supporting deaf learners, involving direct contact with the
client:
1. Assessment of learner:

Assessment of learner’s academic and linguistic abilities

Assessment of learner’s suitability for a course of study

Assessment and monitoring of learner’s progress

Assessment of learner’s specialist needs (technical, English, tutorial support, technical
aids, curriculum, course assessment and modifications
2. In-session communication support:

SSE (text to SSE, SSE to text, voice to SSE, SSE to voice)

Lip-speaking

Interpreting (text to BSL, BSL to text, voice to BSL, BSL to voice)

Re-phrase, infill, explain vocabulary and concepts

Re-writing text (VI learners)
3. Individual tuition:

Preparation for new work

Following up lessons/ lectures

Language tutorials

Study skills and assignment work

Technical tutorials to clarify information and instructions (preferably with specialist tutor)

Examination preparation

Speech improvement

Sign language tuition
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4. Specialist audiological work:

Testing of hearing (Teacher of the Deaf or referral to Audiologist)

Testing of hearing equipment
5. Training for deaf learners:

Role of CSW and how to use

Advice on technical aids (Radio aids, Loop systems, Text phones, Typetalk,
environmental equipment at home)

Research skills

Study skills
6. Support, advice and counselling referrals:

Social life

Employment guidance

Financial matters

Anxieties about relationships

Parental support
Direct Support Strategies Activity
Direct Support is the practical ‘hands-on’ side of supporting deaf learners involving direct
(usually in the classroom) contact with the client. Timetabled, regular tutorial sessions with the
CSW or Tutor for Deaf Students can also be classed as direct support.
Task:
In groups list the differing types of direct support under the headings:
1. In-session communication support

SSE (Text to SSE)
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2. Individual tutorials

Preparation for new work
Issues Influencing Support
Evaluate the issues which influence the support provided by CSWs.
Assignment
1. Collect assessment templates used by your work placement. Comment on each one.
2. Illustrate the support model over one academic year.
3. Write a list of questions to assess the needs of:
a. deaf student
b. college tutor.
Strategies and Techniques
Evaluate the practical constraints and issues involved for a CSW and discuss appropriate
professional strategies and techniques.
Dilemmas
Write an account or discuss the following scenarios:
1. You are signing for a deaf student. At the beginning of the lecture the lecturer mentions he
has never had a deaf and dumb person in class before. How do you react?
2. You are given a new student. You find you are totally out of your depth. You decide to
persevere. What do you do? What consequences can occur?
3. The class has agreed to work through without a break. What do you do?
4. The lecturer gives additional information ‘off the record’ and then says ‘you don’t need to
sign this’. What do you do?
5. You are asked to provide support for a deaf student in a car mechanics course. He tells you
that he finds the work too difficult to follow. What do you do?
6. A student is ill in the afternoon. What should you do?
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7. Whilst interpreting, in a class at a FE college, the deaf student starts chatting with you about
mutual friends and colleagues. What should you do?
Support Strategies - assignment
The aim of this assignment is to give you the opportunity to devise a plan of support and gain a
greater understanding of the strategies involved.
Task
Plan and present two individual support strategy plans for the case study students A and B. The
plans must show evidence of the variety of ways in which the deaf students can be supported.
Key objectives will be to consider the needs of the students, teaching and non-teaching staff
and to demonstrate an awareness of why each support strategy has been chosen.
Guidance notes
Make an assessment of the student’s:
1. Academic and linguistic abilities needs
2. Communication preferences.
Make an assessment of the teaching staff’s deaf awareness needs. Plan a support strategy
package and state when and where you intend to implement it.
List the variety of learning situations and teaching methods that the staff may use. Highlight any
situation that may pose difficulties for the students.
List the differing environmental situations that the students may find themselves in. State how
some of the situations could be improved to allow the deaf student better access to
communication.
Think about the functions that the CSWs will need to perform to allow the deaf student to
succeed on their course. Devise a support strategy plan and categorise the functions into
‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ support.
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Mention any additional support that you feel may benefit the student with their college/
university course and social interaction with their peer group.
Individual Support Packages
Task
Working in a group – discuss, plan and present individual support packages for three given
scenarios.

Evaluate the practical constraints and issues involved for a Communication Support Worker
and discuss appropriate support strategies and techniques.

Plan your strategy on the handout provided.

Present your support packages to the class.
Assessment criteria

Demonstrate the knowledge and skills required to work as part of a support team for deaf
students.

Demonstrate knowledge of appropriate support strategies available to a range of deaf
students in a variety of learning environments.

Demonstrate an understanding of the difficulties, practical constraints and issues involved.

Demonstrate an ability to explain and present a support strategy plan
Key principles of learning and teaching
1. Learning is a purposeful, goal-directed activity. Ongoing goal setting and self-assessment
are central to effective learning.
2. Purposeful learning builds on learners' prior knowledge and experience to shape and
construct new knowledge. It should always be remembered that those who have faced
prejudice and discrimination based on gender, race, age, sexuality or disability may have
internalised some of these negative ideas about their capacity to learn.
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3. Learning is a social activity embedded in a particular culture and context. Learning occurs
through engaged participation in the activities of knowledge communities such as workplace
colleagues or family members.
4. Effective transfer of learning from one context to another requires that the learner
understand not only the facts but the "big picture" - underlying principles, patterns and
relationships - that is acquired through the application of knowledge.
5. Knowing when and how to apply what has been learned (procedural knowledge) is central to
expertise, and can be acquired only through practice.
6. Teaching involves informed interpretations of, and responses to, learners' approaches to
learning. Tutors should always be aware of the effect of prejudice and discrimination based
on gender, race, age, sexuality or disability.
7. Metacognitive strategies (knowledge about one's own thinking processes) can be taught.
Through monitoring and assessing their own progress, learners can develop metacognitive
awareness and strategies.
8. Scaffolding instruction helps learners to develop their fluency, independence and range as
they move from being a new learner to becoming an expert learner.
http://www.aloscotland.com/alo/104.html
Key principles of adult learning
Adults:

Turn to learning when they need to know something

Develop a strong need to be autonomous and self-directing in their learning

Value prior experience (though this can be disadvantageous)

Become ready to learn at particular stages of their lives and when they want particular
outcomes

Often focus on solving problems in contexts or situations that are important to them

Are usually well motivated to learn, either for its intrinsic worth or some other reason
The five basic principles of learning – how we learn
From the time we are born, one of the most important mental functions we perform is learning.
As a toddler, we learn to walk and to speak. When we start school, we master the alphabet,
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learn to make friends, and start acquiring writing skills. We then continue to learn various
subjects, mastering a few, performing just adequately at many while failing particularly
spectacularly at some subjects.
Why do we perform brilliantly at some subjects and fail miserably at others?
How exactly do we learn?
You can find the answers to these questions and more by understanding the five basic
principles of learning:
1. The Learn by Doing Principle: Ever heard that experience is the best teacher? What it
basically means is that the best way to learn something is by actually doing or experiencing
it. A good teacher or training program therefore uses learner involvement tools, such lab
exercises, fieldwork, hands-on training, group discussion, role playing, and audio visual aids.
2. The Learn When You Are Ready Principle: The best time for learning is when we feel
ready and motivated to learn. If you are not motivated enough, chances are you'll work half
heartedly. If you're motivated, you'll find something new to learn in whatever kind of job you
do, which can ultimately help you achieve your career goals. An instructor can help students
to become ready by letting them know the importance of the concept they are learning, its
relevance in their lives, and the benefits they can get from learning it.
3. The Learn What is Relevant Principle: It is easier to learn content that is meaningful and
relevant to us than something that is irrelevant. For example, if you are learning to drive, it
would make sense to learn basic maintenance jobs, like changing the oil. However, learning
the whole theory behind how the car engine works would be of no use.
4. The Learn by Association Principle: It is easier to start with something we
know before proceeding to related, but new tasks. For example, when learning
to draw, it is more challenging drawing styles.
5. The Learn by Reinforcing Principle: Repetition helps in retaining and recalling what we
have learned. Repetition reinforces a concept or skill in our minds. You must have seen the
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summaries, questions, and diagrams in books. That's what they do. They reinforce.
Keep the above principles in mind while designing any type of learning. These
principles will definitely increase the effectiveness of your learning product.
Leena Pandey
http://ezinearticles.com/?How-Do-We-Learn
The Seven Principles of Learning
Introduction
Learning is a very complex topic, e.g. when a psychologist talks about 'learning' he can be
referring to any type of behaviour from simple arithmetic to designing a computer system.
Therefore the learning theories you find in textbooks are attempts to analyse and explain very
broad areas of human experience. However, our concern here is with only one kind of learning classroom learning. The principles of learning covered in this paper are limited in scope to this
particular type of behaviour - how people learn in the formal training situation.
These principles of learning have been derived from research, experiment and experience. You
will find them in any syllabus for trainer training in one form or another. Some are very old, while
others have only been accepted fairly recently. Some which used to be included have been
dropped; which gives a thought for the future. In ten years time we may not be using the same
principles - as knowledge increases some ideas may need to be revised.
Scope
Training (and education) is the application of these general principles to a particular learning
situation. These principles should help you to plan a good program, deliver it efficiently and
evaluate it afterwards. Here is a list of the principles to be examined:
1. Feedback
2. Active Learning
3. Reinforcement
4. Meaningful Material
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5. Multiple Sense Learning
6. Overlearning
7. Primary And Recency
Feedback
This principle states: Learning proceeds more efficiently when both instructor and trainee give
feedback to each other.
The instructor needs feedback to tell him how the trainee is progressing; and the trainee needs
feedback from the instructor on quality of performance.
Rules for the training room:
1. Encourage trainees to ask questions
2. Test frequently
3. Maintain eye contact - this is a most important communication channel
4. Discuss and correct errors; don't criticise them
5. Give trainees knowledge of results as quickly as possible
Active learning
This principle states: Trainees learn more quickly and effectively when they are actively involved
in the learning process.
The simplest expression of this idea is: We learn by doing. This applies equally to all forms of
training.
Rules for the training room:
1. Ask questions to stimulate thought
2. Plan for exercises and tests in sessions
3. Use projects and assignments to supplement lessons
4. Use discussion methods from time to time
5. Provide plenty of practical work
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Warning
Beware of notetaking as a form of active learning - the student's fingers may be active - but not
their brains.
Reinforcement
This principle states: Learning which is rewarded is more likely to be retained.
This is how we train our pets and even our children.
Rules for the training room:
1. When a trainee gives a right answer - tell him so
2. Provide for early success in learning a new topic
3. Prevent trainees from making mistakes as much as possible
Meaningful material
This principle states: Trainees understand (and therefore learn) material only when it is related
to their existing knowledge.
A trainee may be able to recall facts, etc, which he has committed to memory (by overlearning).
But if you want him to comprehend the material fully you must give him a frame of reference into
which he can fit these isolated bits of information so that a pattern develops in his mind.
Rules for the training room:
1. Pitch your sessions at the students level, not yours
2. Present the topic in a definite form or sequence
3. Use plenty of examples, illustrations, analogies, and anecdotes
4. Always move from the know to the unknown; that is, begin with what the student already
knows or has experience
Don't make the mistake which one writer has described as follows:
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'Many teachers plunge ahead from a starting point that many of their students have never
reached and they then proceed to teach the unknown by means of the incomprehensible'.
Pressey, Robinson & Horrocks - 'Psychology in Education'.
5. Make your material as concrete as possible, avoid abstractions
6. Find out what your trainees already know or have experienced before
Multiple sense learning
The principle states: Presentation methods which use two or more senses are more effective
than using one sense only.
The Chinese proverb 'one picture is worth a 1,000 words', is another way of stating this
principle. It appears that the most important senses for information and theory learning are
sight and hearing. But don't forget the others - particularly if you are teaching a physical skill.
Rules for the training room:
1. Combine telling and showing - don't rely on one only
2. Provide audiovisual aids for every session you give
3. Make certain that you and your aids can be, and are, easily seen and heard
4. If you have a model as one of your aids, let the trainees handle it as well as see it and hear
you talk about it
Overlearning
This principle states: Forgetting is reduced significantly by frequent attempts at recall of learned
material.
Forgetting quickly sets in, and illustrates how frequent revision can help trainees to retain larger
amounts of what they have learned. This applies particularly to the learning of factual material
or 'information'.
NB. Repetition of material by the trainer is not overlearning. The trainees must do the work for
this principle to operate.
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Rules for the training room:
1. Ask frequent questions
2. Provide exercises which force trainees to recall previous learning
3. At the start of each session, ask trainees to summarise briefly the previous session
4. Include review periods in your timetable
5. Train your trainees to use overlearning during their private study
6. Supply summaries of session material
24
Primacy and recency
This principle states: Trainees can recall well those things they learn first and last in sequence.
'First impressions are lasting' sums up the principle of Primacy; the principle of Recency is
almost axiomatic.
Warning
These principles are not true under all conditions and sometimes they act against one another,
such as when our most recent impressions change or blot out our first impressions.
Rules for the training room:
1. Give a preview of the session
2. Summarise the important points of the session at the end
3. Prepare carefully what you are going to say and do during the first few minutes of the
session
4. Remind trainees from time to time of the sequence in which they have learned a topic
CONCLUSION
You will probably have noted that many of these principles tend to overlap one another, e.g.
Active Learning and Overlearning. This is quite true. For a good understanding of learning, you
must develop a clear picture of the interrelationships which hold these principles together. You
need to form a well integrated theory of learning on which to build your training techniques.
Adapted from:
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www.mindshop.com.au/food.nsf
Learning Theory (Education)
In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together
cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or
making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod,
1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place.
Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to
describe how people and animals learn; thereby helping us understand the inherently complex
process of learning. Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in
providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of
learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical
problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those
variables that are crucial in finding solutions.
There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall:
behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively
observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based
learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs
or builds new ideas or concepts.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the
work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull. What characterises these
investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three
basic assumptions are held to be true. First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior.
Second, the environment shapes behavior. A be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement
(any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining
the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through
conditioning.
There are two types of possible conditioning:
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1. Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the
case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the
dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still
dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were
served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs
reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat .In a series of experiments,
Pavlov then tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a
bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the
dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of
the bell, they responded by drooling.
2. Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a
punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is
known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior
‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which
increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not
considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the
terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this
framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement,
and direct instruction have emerged from this model.
Cognitivism
The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt
psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt nd third, the principles
of contiguity (how close in time two events must behavior to explain learning. Gestalt
psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of
learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories. Two key
assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: (1) that the memory system is an active
organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in
learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists
consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological
processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long
term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory. The major
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difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity:
the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists
emphasize.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working
memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new
cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today,
researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory.
These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. Aspects of cognitivism
can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory
as related to age.
Constructivism
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds
new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words,
"learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences."
Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts,
rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This
is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism). Social constructivists posit
that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared
problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a
culture by more skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many variations,
such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety,
constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure. The
teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and
to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be
found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated
cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice.
Informal and post-modern theories
Informal theories of education may attempt to break down the learning process in pursuit of
practicality. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of
concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in
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later. Critics believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to
build a masonry structure without bricks.
Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. Some argue that learning is primarily
self-regulated and that the ideal learning situation is one dissimilar to the modern classroom.
Critics argue that students learning in isolation fail.
Other learning theories
Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes than general
learning theories. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn.
Connectivism is a recent theory of Networked learning which focuses on learning as making
connections.
Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in
learning
Criticism
Criticism of learning theories that underlie traditional educational practices claims there is no
need for such a theory. The attempt to comprehend the process of learning through theory
construction has created more problems than it has solved. It further claims that in order to
make up for the feeling of inadequacy in confronting a process that we don't really comprehend;
we label something "learning" and measure it. Then we're comfortable, because at least then
we have the feeling that we have a grasp on the problem. We don't really follow the process, but
in lieu of a profound understanding of what's going on, we find something and say, "Let's
declare that to be learning, by consensus." This is basically what the entire educational system
the world over has done: quantify learning by breaking it up into measurable pieces-—curricula,
courses, hours, tests, and grades. The assumption is that psychologically one knows enough
about the mind to identify aptitudes: the accepted (knowledge-based) conception of learning
identifies four assumptions of the accepted view of learning: that (some) one knows what ought
to be learned by people, why it ought to be learned, how it ought to be learned, and by whom
each thing ought to be learned. Together these assumptions are the lenses through which
people have been socialized in our culture to judge whether learning is occurring or not; and a
further assumption is that once one knows aptitudes, one also knows how to track a person so
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he will in fact reach the goal that is being set out for him. The whole approach is the ultimate in
pedagogical and psychological technology. The only trouble is that it is humanly absurd. In this
society, such a process is exceptionally subtle, because it involves an authoritarian approach
within a free culture. By employing a variety of ruses the system produces a process which
allows it to inhibit personal freedom without really feeling that this is what is going on. The
person doesn't feel that something arbitrary is being done to him—which is in fact what is
happening.
Adapted from:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)
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