EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
NATIONAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN THAILAND:
A COMPARISON AMONG ORGANIZATIONAL SECTORS
Graham Winley
Assumption University
Thailand
gkwinley@s-t.au.ac.th
Chanissara Arjpru
University of Technology Sydney,
Australia
sara@it.uts.edu.au
Jittima Wongwuttiwat
Assumption University,
Thailand
jittima@s-t.au.ac.th
ABSTRACT
This study was motivated by the challenges confronting the developing Southeast Asian
nation of Thailand in realizing national policy objectives aimed at creating a knowledgebased society. The study determines and compares the development plans of 72 medium to
large sized organizations representing 7 organizational sectors in terms of the relative and
changing importance assigned to a range of technologies, professional activities, and IT
knowledge/skills and assesses the alignment of these development plans with national policy
objectives.
Keywords: ICTs, Knowledge-based Society, National Policies, Organizational Sectors,
Professional Activities and Skills
1.
INTRODUCTION
Since 1992 the importance of information and communication technology (IT/ICT) in the
development of the Thai economy and society has been promoted by government
ministries/agencies and national committees. In 1992 the National Information Technology
Committee (NITC) was formed and in 2002 the Ministry of ICT was established as the
champion for ICT matters in Thailand with the primary task of converting policies into
actions and practices. In 2003 NITC was restructured to become the National Committee on
Information Technology and Communications (NCICT) including representation of the
newly formed Ministry of ICT and continuing responsibility for drafting national policies.
Over the years government agencies such as the National Electronics and Computer
Technology Center (NECTEC) and Software Park have been established in order to facilitate
policy implementation and various subcommittees of NITC/NCITC have worked on aspects
such as: drafting electronic transaction and computer crime laws; digital divide issues;
utilization of ICT in the public sector; human resource development; and Internet policy.
The first national IT policy (IT-2000) covered the period 1996–2000 and focused on 3
agendas: investment in information infrastructure; investment in people to build a literate
populace and an adequate technology human resource base; and investment in good
governance to ensure that IT will result in a decrease in social and economic gaps. The
national IT policy framework IT-2010 covering the period 2001-2010 extends the focus of
IT-2000 to include not only the required foundations but 5 application domains (flagships) in
which IT should be utilized: e-government; e-commerce; e-industry; e-education; and esociety. The ultimate vision of IT-2010, which incorporates elements of the 9th National
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Economic and Social Development Plan, is not on the technology itself but the utilization of
IT that would lead to sustainable development of a knowledge-based economy and society. In
conjunction with IT-2010 the National ICT Master Plan (2001-2006) identifies the visions,
missions, objectives, strategies, plans, targets and timeframe for the first 5 years of IT-2010.
This Master Plan identifies 7 strategic agenda to: elevate the Thai ICT industry to become a
regional leader; utilize ICT to enhance the quality of Thai society; reform and enhance ICT
research and development (R&D); develop human resources; enhance entrepreneurial
leadership; promote the use of ICT in small and medium enterprises (SMEs); and utilize ICT
for the purpose of public administration and services. A full description of the development
and content of this series of policy statements is given by Intarakumnerd and Panthawi
(2003).
Against this background of national policies and frameworks this study has 2
objectives: (i) to determine and compare the development plans of medium to large sized
organizations representing different organizational sectors in terms of the relative and
changing importance the sectors assign to technologies, professional activities, and IT
knowledge/skills; and (ii) to assess the alignment of these development plans in the sectors
with national policy objectives.
No previous study of this type in Thailand was found and since the national ICT
policies in Thailand were not formulated on the basis of organizational sectors this study
provides a different perspective on the alignment of development plans within sectors and the
national policies. The findings and methodology are expected to be of interest to those
interested in national ICT policy formulation and implementation in developing countries,
and academics, practitioners, policy makers, and commercial organizations interested in ICT
developments and opportunities in Thailand as seen from the perspectives of different
organizational sectors.
2.
NATIONAL POLICIES AND RELATED LITERATURE
Summaries of national policies are presented together with the results of an evaluation of IT2000. This is followed by a review of published research over the period 2003-2007 on
aspects of ICT development in Thailand and includes a SWOT analysis of ICT in Thailand,
comparisons with other Asian countries, and ICT indicators used to monitor development.
2.1
National Policies
Summaries of the policies IT-2000, IT-2010, and the National ICT Master Plan (2001-2006)
are presented in Table 1. They are based on the detailed presentations by Intarakumnerd and
Panthawi (2003). Keywords from these policy documents are identified in order to highlight
aspects of the objectives and to assist with developing the study questionnaire and assessing
the alignment of each sector’s development plans with national policy objectives.
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IT-2000 (1996-2000)
Agenda 1: Invest in equitable nationwide information infrastructure to empower human ability and
enhance life quality and decrease social and economic gaps.
Agenda 2: Build a literate populace and an adequate technology human resource base.
Agenda 3: Invest for good governance.
IT 2010 (2001- 2010)
E-government: The utilization of IT within the public sector. Develop good governance that will
strengthen the overall competitiveness of the country for a better quality of life for all.
E-commerce: Strengthen the competitiveness of Thai industries by means of e-commerce for exports,
trade, provision of services, and domestic consumption.
E-industry: Promote IT within the private sector to become a knowledge based industry.
E-education: Strengthen people capital at all levels to enable a knowledge-based society.
E-society: Use IT for quality-of-life improvement, knowledge-based society development, and digital
divide reduction.
ICT Master Plan (2002-2006)
Strategies: ICT industry to become a regional leader. Utilize ICT to enhance quality of Thai lives and
society. Reform ICT R&D. Develop human resources, entrepreneurial and leadership strengths to
improve national competitiveness. Promote ICT in SMEs and utilize ICT for public administration and
services.
Keywords
Information Infrastructure: Telecommunications facilities and technologies; networks; hardware;
systems software; interactive multimedia; manufacturing technologies; developing and maintaining
databases; software applications for back office computerization, accounting, human resource
management, e-mail, information searching, online interactive public/private services, e-commerce; local
development of PC’s, software, network computing and Web services.
Organizational Development and ICT Management Issues: IT planning, policy, R&D, technology
diffusion and transfer, knowledge-based industry, affordable access for all; integration of IT for all
functions (administration, production, logistics, marketing), ICT for supply chain management; standards
for development, innovative application development and outsourcing of development and services;
increased numbers of knowledge-workers, human resource development of IT professionals and an ICTliterate workforce,
Organizational Sectors: Government and private sector administration, manufacturing, finance, trade,
transportation, manufacturing and production, logistics; increased use of ICT in SMEs.
National Concerns: Knowledge-based society; national and international knowledge; digital divide
reduction
Table 1: Summary of Policy Objectives
Intarakumnerd and Panthawi (2003) report the results of an evaluation of IT-2000 by
NITC (2002) which indicated progress with the development of: information infrastructure
with a large increase in telephone penetration and the establishment of the Telephone
Organization of Thailand providing optic fibre cable and microwave communication services;
regulatory infrastructure including the National Telecommunications and Broadcasting
Commissions to allocate and regulate radio frequency; legal Acts for electronic transactions,
universal access, computer crime, data protection, and data privacy; the provision of
computers for schools; and networks for schools (SchoolNet) and universities (ThaiSarn).
Chief Information Officers had been appointed in Government organizations and IT
utilization in the public sector had improved for internal use and public online services.
Secure network services for government organizations were available through GINet, the
Software Park agency was established to support the Thai software industry, and an
Electronic Commerce Resource Center was to be launched in 2003. However, IT manpower
demand was still not satisfied and the National Interactive Multimedia Institute had not been
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established although several entities were implementing multimedia for learning and CAI
projects.
2.2
Related Literature
Although there has not been any formal evaluation of progress on IT-2010 or the National
ICT Master Plan there is evidence in the literature published since 2003 of positive
developments and research aimed at clarifying and understanding ongoing problems.
NECTEC et al. (2003) published Series 1 of the Thailand ICT Indicators. The second
in the series appeared in 2005 (NECTEC, 2006) and incorporated: the results of IT surveys of
households and businesses introduced in 2004 by the National Statistics Office as well as
initiatives by NECTEC including: an annual survey of the profiles of Internet users; a
readiness survey of government web-based services; and a web statistics service (Truehits,
http://truehits.net) which in cooperation with web site owners monitors Internet user
behavior. The 2005 series includes statistics related to: broadcasting; computer usage;
telecommunications; Internet; e-commerce; the ICT market and industry; ICT in
Government; ICT human resources; and R&D activities. The 2005 indicators show progress
in most aspects of national concern but despite government intervention the infrastructurerelated statistics indicate that the digital divide persists and that fundamental components of
ICT development and knowledge creation (R&D and human resource development) require
extensive investment.
A comprehensive review of published research related to ICT issues in the context of
Thailand since 2003 is summarized in Table 2.
Research Focus
Internet Applications and E-learning:
Slow adoption of e-commerce among SMEs
Barriers to corporate Internet banking
E-commerce in the retail industry
Registration of e-commerce operators
Issues of support for e-commerce infrastructure
Corporate perspectives on Internet banking
E-learning technologies and practice
Quality assessment of e-learning websites
Adoption strategies for Internet banking
E-commerce models for virtual enterprises
Making websites trustworthy
Web-based services in Internet banking
Assessing satisfaction with e-learning
Issues in e-learning
ICT Management and Organizational Issues:
Building IT infrastructure
Implementation of ERP systems
R&D using knowledge management
Professional IT activities, skills, and knowledge
Developing IT human resources
Implementing IT - a management perspective
Improving the quality of software development
Managing IT infrastructure
Software transfer from Europe to Thailand
Banking support for technology-based business
Information quality techniques for production
The technology/business interface
Authors
Lertwongsatien and Wongpinunwatana (2003)
Rotchanakitmnuai and Speece (2003)
EIU ViewsWire (2003b)
EIU ViewsWire (2003c)
Gray and Sanzogni (2004)
Rotchanakitmnuai and Speece (2004)
Suanpang and Santijanyaporn (2005)
Pruengkarn et al. (2005)
Jaruwachirathanakul and Fink (2005)
Wattanasupachoke and Tanlamai (2005)
Rattanawicha and Esichaikul (2005)
Rotchanakitmnuai and Speece (2005)
Siritongthaworn and Krairit (2006)
Pagram and Pagram (2006)
Pimchangthong et al. (2003)
Kanthawongs and Nah (2004)
Numprasertchai and Igel (2004)
Wongwuttiwat et al. (2004)
Hawley and Paek (2005)
Suratida and Settapong (2005)
Phongpaibul and Boehm (2005)
Chanopas et al. (2006)
Lusk et al. (2006)
Wonglimpiyarat (2006)
Kengpol (2006)
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Innovative technological capabilities in firms
Cultural barriers and knowledge management
Industry Specific Studies:
Technology in the automotive industry
IT outsourcing in the banking industry
IT and the public hospital system
Integration of IT in the assurance industry
Technology and innovation in food production
Technological in the electronics industry
Predicting business failure in the IT industry
Technology for service quality in hospitals
ICT adoption in the hotel industry
Technology in the automotive industry
Start-up companies in the software industry
IT outsourcing in the finance industry
IT in the construction industry
Group decision support for logistics firms
Data and content management in banking Supply
chain in the automotive industry
Simulation technologies in manufacturing
Technology transfer in the packaging industry
Software development practices
Government and Digital Divide:
Potential of satellite and broadband services
The digital divide and the “People’s PC”
Buddhist view of the digital divide
Rural poverty and Internet use
Legal/infrastructure issues for e-governance
University-industry in regional Thailand
Government management of R&D
ICT Policy Issues:
ICT labour market, education, and manpower
ICT and economic development since 1950
The dissemination of national ICT policies
A SWOT analysis of ICT in Thailand
5
Wonglimpiyarat and Yuberk (2006)
Berger and Diez (2006)
Kaweevisultrakul and Chan (2007)
Laosirihongthong et al.(2003)
Bangkok Post (2003)
Watcharasriroj and Tang (2004)
Larpsiri and Speece (2004)
Siriwongwilaichat and Winger (2004)
Rasiah (2004)
Puagwatana and Guanawardana (2005)
Sivabrovomvatana et al. (2005)
Sahadev and Islam (2005)
Laosirihongthong and Dangayach (2005)
Ruokolainen (2005)
Paisittanand and Olson (2006)
Teerajetgul and Charoenngam (2006)
Kengpol and Tuominen (2006)
Barnes (2006)
Boon-itt and Paul (2006)
Kumar and Phrommathed (2006)
Whangthomkum et al. (2006)
Sison et al. (2006)
Crispin (2003)
Buckman (2003)
Kitiyadisai (2003)
EIU ViewsWire (2003a)
Basu (2004)
Schiller (2006)
Wonglimpiyarat (2007)
Makishima and Suksiriserekul (2003)
Frankema and Lindblad (2006)
Meso et al. (2006)
Wiggins et al. (2006)
Table 2: Literature Related to National Policies: 2003-2007
From Table 2 it is seen that there has been a stream of studies concerning: internet
applications (e-commerce, legal infrastructure, e-learning, websites, and internet banking);
ICT management and organizational issues (R&D and infrastructure development and
management, outsourcing, innovation, quality assurance, and cultural effects); the digital
divide; software development; and ICT issues in different types of organizations
(government, banking, assurance, manufacturing, construction, logistics firms, the retail
industry, hotels, public and private hospitals, the electronics and IT industries, software firms,
food production, packaging, education, SMEs, and the automotive industry).
Wiggins et al. (2006) provide analyses of ICT in Thailand based on a SWOT analysis
(Table 3(a)) and a comparison with other Asian countries based on characteristics of ICT
development (Table 3(b)).
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Strengths
1. Regional hub for several industries 2. Reasonable internal infrastructure 3. Relatively inexpensive
to conduct business and a pro-business environment 4. Primary and secondary education system
Weaknesses
1. Lack of: Recognition as an ICT nation; regional IT firm or brand; ICT-research facilities;
technology investment capital and startup culture; project completion, accountability; certainty in the
political environment; clear ICT vision from Government and support for IT sector; focus in ICT
sector and too many IT industry organizations; and adherence to international best practices and
standards 2. Expensive international Internet gateways
3. Limited scale of the workforce
Opportunities
1. Aggregate ICT talent from Indochina; leverage talent of visitors; and attract global talent to
Thailand 2. Partner with firms from India and China and compete with Malaysia for regional hosting
3. Develop national R&D plan for ICT 4. Deregulate telecommunications 5. Leverage benefits from
Government projects and mega projects 6. Development of animation and mobile applications and
call center facilities
Threats
1. Autocracy 2. Corruption 3. Time taken to resolve international Internet Gateway issues
4. Shortage of ICT trained talent 5. Plans but not enough actions 6. Deficiency in technical
competency in government
Table 3(a): SWOT Analysis of ICT in Thailand
Characteristic
English Language
Education System
Labor Pool
Labor Cost
Infrastructure
Government Support
Political Stability
Data/Internet Security
Country
India
Philippines
China
Malaysia Thailand Vietnam
Excellent
Excellent
Fair
Very Good
Poor
Poor
Excellent
Good
Very Good
Good
Good
Fair
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Fair
Fair
Poor
Very Good Very Good Very Good
Fair
Good
Excellent
Fair
Fair
Very Good Very Good Very Good
Fair
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent Very Good
Poor
Poor
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Fair
Poor
Fair
Poor
Poor
Table 3(b): ICT Development Characteristics
Comparing the information in Tables 3(a) and 3(b) it is seen that Thailand’s strengths
related to internal ICT infrastructure, business costs, and the education system compare
favorably with the other Asian countries. However, weaknesses related to: political stability;
government vision and support for the ICT sector; the limited scale of the workforce; English
language standards in the workforce; and Internet gateway issues place Thailand in a
relatively poor position compared to most of the other Asian countries.
Table 4(a) shows predictions of expenditure on enterprise IT in Thailand over the
period 2005-2009 (Wiggins et al., 2006).and Table 4(b) compares expected growth rates in
this expenditure among Asia Pacific countries over the period 2003-2009 (Wiggins et al.,
2006).
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Note: CAGR is the percentage average growth rate for the components
Table 4(a): Expenditure (USD millions) on Enterprise IT
Country
AGR (%)
India Indonesia Thailand Malaysia
China
33
16.1
8.3
7.3
South
Korea
6.7
Singapore Taiwan
6
2.2
Hong
Kong
0.26
Table 4(b): Average Annual Growth Rates (AGR) in Expenditure on Enterprise IT
From Table 4(a) it is seen that the largest expenditure in any year is on
telecommunications followed by hardware, with much smaller expenditures on IT services
and software. Among the subcomponents most of the annual expenditure is on
telecommunications services and equipment followed by hardware for client computing while
expenditures on other subcomponents are much less. Predicted growth rates in expenditure on
software and IT services are much higher than the growth rates for telecommunications and
hardware. Among the subcomponents the highest growth rate is for infrastructure software
and professional IT services followed by application software and product support which
have higher growth rates than any of the other subcomponents.
From Table 4(b) it is seen that based on expected growth rates in expenditure
Thailand is predicted to be in a favorable position compared to these other Asia Pacific
countries. However, in 2003 with the exception of Indonesia (USD 3,500 million) other
countries spent between 1.1 and 11.1 times as much as Thailand (USD 4,500 million). By
2009 Thailand’s expenditure (USD 6,753) is expected to be the lowest among all of these
countries which will be spending between USD 6,876 million (Malaysia) and USD 75,000
million (China).
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3.
8
METHODOLOGY
Information about development plans in the sectors was obtained in 2006 using a
questionnaire completed by senior IT professionals from medium to large sized organizations
representing the 7 sectors: Government (G); Banking/Finance (B/F); Information and
Communication Technology (ICT); Wholesale/Retail (W/R); Health (H); Tourism/Transport
(T/T); and Manufacturing/Engineering (M/E). These categories are used by the Ministry of
Commerce to classify registered organizations and the Ministry of Industry defines medium
to large sized organizations as those with more than 50 employees and total fixed assets,
excluding land values, in excess of 50 million baht (USD 1.4 million). The questionnaire was
structured into 4 sections as summarized in Table 5.
1. Characteristics of the Organizations: Scope of operation (international/national; number of
locations in Thailand); IT staffing profiles (number of IT staff classified by position description); IT
budgets; IT sourcing strategies.
2. Technologies: 82 items in 11 categories: Systems Architecture; Telecommunications and
Networks; Languages; Knowledge-based Technology; Systems/Software Development Tools;
Databases; Data Storage; Open Systems; User Interfaces; Information Systems/Applications;
Computer-aided Manufacturing.
3. Professional Activities: 21 items in 6 categories: Support; Systems/Software Development;
Training/Education; Integration; Management/Planning.
4. IT Knowledge/Skills: 36 items in 4 categories: Technical Specialist; Technology Management;
Business Functional; Interpersonal and Management Skills.
Table 5: Structure of the Questionnaire
In sections 2, 3, and 4 of the questionnaire respondents were asked to rate the
importance of each item at present and over the next 5 years. These lists of items were
compiled and categorized after reviewing the keywords identified in the national policies (see
Table 1) and items used in previous studies (Athey and Plotnicki, 1998; Cappel, 2002;
Gorgone et al., 2002; Lee et al., 1995; Lee et al., 2001; Lau et al., 1998a, 1998b, 1999a,
1999b; Schwarzkopf et al., 2004; Winley et al., 1999; Wongwuttiwat et al., 2004). The lists
also included items obtained by surveying each day over the period January-March, 2006 the
requirements specified in advertisements for IT professionals in the print and electronic
media in Thailand (Bangkok Post; The Nation; Software Park).
A pilot study was conducted using 2 medium to large sized organizations selected at
random from each of the sectors. Respondents were asked to identify any aspects of the
questionnaire that were not clear and any changes that should be made to the listed items. As
a result some minor changes were made to some of the items in section 1 but there were no
changes suggested for items in sections 2, 3, and 4 which are displayed in Appendix Tables
A1, A2, and A3 together with acronyms and abbreviations which are used throughout this
article.
Using the Thailand IT Directory (2002) a random sample of 25 organizations was
selected from each of the sectors. These samples represented at least 10 percent of the
medium to large sized organizations listed for each sector. The questionnaire was distributed
to these 175 organizations and following a considerable effort 72 usable responses, with 9-12
in each of the sectors, were obtained and analyzed. This represents a response rate of at least
36 percent in each sector and an overall response rate of 41 percent. It is noted that
uncertainty about the future was identified as the main reason why many organizations were
reluctant to respond to the questionnaire.
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4.
9
DEVELOPMENT PLANS IN THE SECTORS
Based on the questionnaire responses the characteristics of the organizations in each sector
are presented followed by the similarities and differences among the sectors related to their
ratings of the technologies, professional activities, and knowledge/ skills items.
4.1
Characteristics of Organizations
Table 6 summarizes the characteristics of the organizations in each sector.
Characteristic
G
10
Number of organizations
0
Percentage international
100
Percentage national
Percentage at more than 1 location in 60
Thailand
Average number IT staff
41
Future IT Budgets:
0
Percentage expecting decreases
50
Percentage expecting increases
(28)
(Av. Percent increase expected)
10
Percentage expecting no change
40
Percentage uncertain about future
Sourcing Strategies
At Present:
10
Percentage totally in-house
10
Percentage totally outsourced
80
Percentage mixed
In the Future:
0
Percentage totally in-house
0
Percentage totally outsourced
30
Percentage mixed
70
Percentage uncertain
B/F
10
30
70
100
ICT
12
33
67
58
Sectors
W/R
12
83
17
83
T/T
9
11
89
67
H
9
22
78
78
M/E
10
60
40
80
All Sectors
Combined
72
36
64
75
165
220
68
28
19
56
90
0
70
(20)
0
30
0
42
(20)
33
25
0
83
(20)
0
17
0
67
(38)
11
22
0
22
(25)
0
78
0
70
(21)
20
10
0
58
(22)
11
31
10
0
80
8
17
75
8
0
92
11
22
67
0
22
78
20
20
60
10
14
76
10
10
60
20
0
16
67
17
0
0
75
25
0
22
22
56
0
22
67
11
10
20
60
10
2
13
56
29
Table 6: Characteristics of the Sectors
From Table 6 it is seen that except for W/R and M/E most of the organizations in each
sector operate only in Thailand and most operate at more than 1 location. Organizations in
ICT and B/F employ relatively large numbers of IT professionals while those in H and T/T
employ much smaller numbers. In most of the organizations IT professionals work in
centralized IT departments servicing the needs of a large number of end-users at different
locations. Although the government provides support for a few organizations in B/F, ICT,
T/T, and H most of the organizations in those sectors are privately owned and operate in
competitive commercial environments.
None of the organizations expects a decrease in IT budget and most of the
organizations are expecting increases. Although only a minority of organizations in ICT
expects an increase 75 percent predict a stable or increasing budget. H is quite different with
only 22 percent of organizations predicting an increase, none expecting a stable budget, and
the remaining 78 percent are uncertain about future budgets. The expected increase is highest
for T/T while in other sectors it is much closer to the overall average increase of 22 percent.
Thirty one percent of all the organizations express uncertainty about future budgets and this
varies from 10 percent in M/E through to 78 percent in H.
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At present the majority of organizations in all sectors prefer a mixed (selective)
sourcing approach to either total outsourcing or no outsourcing and in the future mixed
sourcing continues to be a dominate approach with only a few organizations in B/F and M/E
continuing to favor no outsourcing. At present and in the future total outsourcing is used by
only a small number of organizations in any of the sectors. There is decreasing interest in
total outsourcing in G and increasing interest in B/F. However, there is a considerable amount
of uncertainty about future sourcing strategies in all of the sectors particularly in G and T/T.
The majority of respondents in each sector indicated that they were uncertain as to
future employment levels of IT staff. Consequently, it was not possible to produce present or
future distributions of IT positions for each sector. Tentative conclusions based on only 30
usable responses indicate an increasing demand for network, database, web design, systems
analysis, and security specialists with a decreasing demand for operators, programmers, and
data entry personnel. Demands for end-user support personnel and web masters are likely to
continue at current levels and despite changes the highest demands continue to be for systems
analysts, end-user support personnel, and programmers.
4.2
Similarities and Differences among the Sectors
For the technologies, professional activities, and knowledge/skills items respondents rated the
importance of each item at present and in the future on a 5 point scale (1-unimportant, 5-very
important). For each sector the mean rating and standard deviation were computed for each
item and the means were used to rank the items as shown in Appendix Tables A1, A2, and
A3 where a rank of 1 indicates that the item is the most important. The means and standard
deviations are not shown but all of the standard deviations were less than 1 which indicates
that in each sector the respondents rated each item consistently.
Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W) was used to compare the sectors based on
their present rankings and this was repeated for their future rankings. For each sector a
comparison was made between their present and future rankings using Spearman rank order
correlation coefficients (Siegal, 1998). The results are shown in Tables 7(a) and 7(b),
respectively.
Items
Technologies
Professional Activities
IT Knowledge and Skills
* W is significant at a 0.01 level
Present Rankings (W)
0.784 *
0.510 *
0.640 *
Future Rankings (W)
0.784 *
0.601 *
0.662 *
Table 7(a): A Comparison of the Rankings by Sectors at Present and in the Future
Items
G
Technologies
0.902 *
Professional Activities
0.826 *
IT Knowledge and Skills 0.818 *
* significant at a 0.01 level
B/F
0.848 *
0.823 *
0.678 *
ICT
0.884 *
0.792 *
0.897 *
W/R
0.848 *
0.759 *
0.878 *
T/T
0.689 *
0.821 *
0.800 *
H
0.788 *
0.644 *
0.694 *
M/E
0.736 *
0.680 *
0.788 *
Table 7(b): A Comparison of Present and Future Rankings for Each Sector
From Table 7(a) it is seen that there is statistically significant agreement among the 7
sectors with regard to their rankings of the 3 sets of items at present, and the same is true for
the future. From Table 7(b) it is seen that for each set of items and for each sector there is
significant agreement between the present and future rankings.
In order to identify similarities and differences among the sectors items are defined as
highly (lowly) ranked if they are among the top (bottom) 35 percent and all others are
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considered to be moderately ranked. Also, an item is considered to have changed its relative
importance significantly if its rank position has changed by at least 18 percent of the
available positions on the list and these are labeled with I (increase) or D (decrease)
throughout Appendix Tables A1, A2, and A3. Using these definitions Appendix Tables
A4(a), A5(a), and A6(a) show the items which continue to be ranked in the same manner by
most of the sectors (i.e. by 4 or more of the 7 sectors) and Tables A4(b), A5(b), and A6(b)
show items where the ranking by most of the sectors has changed from the present to the
future as well as items where there is no agreement among most of the sectors at present
and/or in the future. Appendix Table A7 shows items which were ranked in a particular
manner by only 1 of the sectors and these items indicate distinctive features of each sector.
The discussion of similarities and differences among the sectors integrates the results
of the analyses presented in all of the Appendix tables and is organized into subsections: (i)
application portfolios (ii) databases; data modeling, management, and storage (iii) networks
and telecommunications (iv) systems architectures and user-interfaces (v)
applications/systems development and integration (vi) support, training, and education.
4.2.1
Application Portfolios
A range of applications continue to be very important for most of the sectors: TPS; MIS; EIS;
ERP; WWW sites and applications; and electronic commerce. Only G continues to have little
interest in ERP systems and although T/T has ranked DSS and EIS lowly at present they are
important for that sector in the future. However, the need for in-house expertise related to
these applications continues to be ranked lowly by all of the sectors and this suggests that
outsourcing will continue to be used for development and support.
In M/E the importance of WWW sites decreases significantly but for WWW
applications it increases significantly. These changes highlight a trend among other sectors
where WWW development efforts change from establishing informational sites to utilizing
those sites for interactive applications. In particular, electronic commerce technologies
continue to be very important for most of the sectors. At present there is a low demand for inhouse expertise in web development among all the sectors except for G where it is very
important. However, for most of the sectors the need to have this expertise in-house increases
and the current practice of outsourcing aspects of WWW site/application development may
decline as in-house expertise increases.
Expert and AI systems and a range of computer-aided manufacturing applications and
protocols continue to be of little interest to most of the sectors although there is slightly
increased interest in AI systems in B/F and expert systems in ICT, T/T, and M/E. In all of the
sectors there is an ongoing low demand for in-house expertise related to expert/AI systems.
In particular, the lack of interest in computer-aided manufacturing applications and protocols
in M/E confirms that the low level of interest reported by Kini (2002) is continuing.
At present data mining applications are at least moderately important for most of the
sectors but of little interest in T/T and H. In the future they have significantly increased
importance in these sectors and are ranked highly by most of the sectors. At present the
sectors have different views about CRM systems and there is little interest in B/F, T/T, and
M/E. However, in the future all of the sectors, except G, have significantly increased interest
in CRM systems and they are very important. In G these systems continue to be only
moderately important.
At present only H and M/E have little interest in multimedia applications but they
have significantly increased importance for these sectors. In the future they are at least
moderately important for all of the sectors. Interest in these applications is growing as
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organizations expand the collection, integration, and analysis of a wider variety of data types
and broadband services expand beyond the limits of the densely populated Bangkok region.
4.2.2
Databases; Data Modeling, Management, and Storage
Relational databases continue to be the very important for all sectors. For most of the sectors
there is an ongoing high demand for in-house expertise in developing relational databases.
Although this demand decreases significantly in W/R, H, and M/E it is still at least
moderately important for them in the future.
There is a growing interest in object-relational and object-oriented databases
especially in B/F, W/R, H, and M/E and in the future they are moderately important for most
of the sectors. Also, there is a growing interest in multidimensional databases especially in
B/F, W/R, T/T, and M/E and in the future only G has little interest in them. Hierarchical and
network databases continue to be ranked lowly by most of the sectors. Distributed databases
are moderately important for most of the sectors at present but they are of little interest to
most of them in the future. At present data warehouses are at least moderately important in all
of the sectors except for T/T. In the future all of the sectors consider these to be very
important and this reflects an increasing interest in EIS and data mining.
These trends reflect current commitments and intentions to move to database
technologies which support applications using sophisticated data analysis techniques
developed by object oriented methods. At present developing databases is a very important
activity in G, ICT, and T/T but much less important for all of the other sectors. In the future
this activity is less important for ICT and T/T and most of the sectors rank it lowly. Only G
continues to see this as a very important activity.
Data modeling is moderately important for most of the sectors at present and very
important for all of them in the future. Implementing data management procedures and inhouse expertise to perform this activity are ranked lowly by most of the sectors at present but
become much more important in the future. The integration of data types continues to be of
little interest to most of the sectors except for an increased interest in ICT and H which is in
line with their increased interest in multimedia applications.
Among the data storage technologies there is a continuing commitment to current
investments in magnetic, disk based, and CD-ROM data storage. Optical and erasable CD
data storage continue to be less important but there is increased interest in erasable CD.
4.2.3
Networks and Telecommunications
For most of the sectors LANs (cable), intranets, WANs, extranets, and related technologies
including fibre optics, remote access protocols, and gateways continue to be very important.
The integration of networks continues to be a very important activity in most of the sectors.
In-house expertise to develop and manage networks continues to be in high demand in most
of the sectors. The same is true for in-house expertise in telecommunications although in the
future in W/R and H this demand will be satisfied mainly through outsourcing.
TCP/IP protocols continue to be highly ranked by all the sectors. At present the OSI
framework is very important for only G, T/T, and M/E but in the future it is at most only
moderately important in any sector. All of the sectors continue to have little interest in
SNA/DEC Net architectures. The data communications standard ISDN continues to be
moderately important for most of the sectors but it in the future ICT, W/R, and M/E have
little interest in ISDN. At present only M/E regards ADSL lines as very important and only
B/F has an increased interest in them.
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LANs (radio) are of little interest to any of the sectors at present but most of the
sectors indicate significantly increased importance for these networks. Only G, B/F, and W/R
continue to have little interest in them and M/E considers them to be very important in the
future. Although LANs (cable) continue to be very important their importance is significantly
decreased by most of the sectors and in each case there is a significantly increased emphasis
on LANs (radio). At present virtual private networks are at least moderately important in all
of the sectors and in the future they are very important for most of the sectors. The increased
use of public networks to connect organizational LANs at different sites offers an interesting
alternative to a traditional WAN.
There continues to be little interest among the sectors in cellular, microwave,
broadcasting technologies, and satellite communications. For most of the sectors the
importance of groupware technologies decreases from moderate to low but the reverse
applies to voicemail communication. In particular, B/F, ICT, and W/R show significantly
increased interest in voicemail and in the future only G, T/T, and M/E continue to have little
interest.
4.2.4
Systems Architectures and User-interfaces
All of the sectors consider microcomputer operating systems to be very important at present
and although their importance decreases in W/R, T/T, and H they are still at least moderately
important for all of the sectors in the future. All of the sectors have an ongoing low demand
for in-house expertise related to microcomputer operating systems which reflects the reduced
cost, ready availability, and increased reliability of these operating systems and does not
mean that microcomputer operating systems will be used less.
Mainframe operating systems continue to be ranked lowly by all of the sectors except
for a moderate ranking at present by B/F. In all of the sectors the ranking of minicomputer
operating systems changes from moderate to low. There is an ongoing low demand in all of
the sectors for in-house expertise related to both of these types of operating systems. At
present mobile computing operating systems are ranked lowly by all of the sectors except for
a moderate ranking by M/E. In the future there are mixed views among the sectors but they
all express an increased interest in these operating systems and in most cases the increases are
significant.
In most of the sectors RISC microprocessors are moderately important at present but
of little interest in the future. The exception is G which sees them as very important at present
and still moderately important in the future. In most of the sectors parallel architectures are of
little interest at present but become moderately important in the future and B/F and T/T have
a significantly increased interest in these architectures.
Open systems architectures continue to be at least moderately important for all of the
sectors. Most of the sectors consider UNIX to be very important at present and at least
moderately important in the future. Client-server architectures continue to be very important
for most of the sectors despite decreased interest in ICT, W/R, and T/T.
Cooperative/distributed processing technologies continue to be at least moderately important
for most of the sectors. There continues to be a low demand in most of the sectors for inhouse expertise related to these technologies which suggests that outsourcing will continue to
be used for their support.
GUI and keyboard interfaces continue to be very important for all of the sectors.
Scanning technologies continue to be at least moderately important for most of the sectors
and there continues to be little interest in video interfaces except in M/E and T/T. There is
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little interest in speech recognition in any of the sectors except for M/E where it has
significantly increased importance and it is very important in the future.
4.2.5 Applications/Systems Development and Integration
Except in G, in-house development continues to be of little and decreasing interest in most of
the sectors. At present G has little interest in this activity but in the future its importance is
increased significantly. Also, for most of the sectors there are patterns among the rankings of
knowledge and skills items which support this ongoing lack of interest in in-house
development. For example, in most of the sectors there continues to be a low demand for inhouse expertise related to: development tools such as 4GLs, CASE, and knowledge based
tools; and the development of applications such as DSS, EIS, CRM and expert/AI systems.
Consequently, applications/systems development using external sources continues to be a
very important.
Most of the sectors continue to place a low level of importance on purchasing ready to
use or almost ready to use applications/systems. For example, in most of the sectors there is a
low emphasis on evaluating and selecting ready to use software packages and the tailoring of
purchased application software. The only exceptions are G, B/F and W/R where there
continues to be more interest in purchasing and tailoring applications/systems.
Outsourcing is an increasingly important strategy for all of the sectors and it has
implications for the in-house activities and expertise of IT professionals. In most of the
sectors important in-house activities and expertise needed to support outsourcing focus
increasingly on managing, planning, and analysis to ensure that transaction costs are
controlled and that the activities performed by the external provider result in appropriate
solutions. For most of the sectors these very important activities include managing and
planning: corporate strategic IT architectures and applications; the feasibility and approval
process for new IT; and development and implementation. Very important analysis activities
involve analyzing business problems and computer based business processes. There is an
ongoing high demand for in-house expertise to support these activities including the ability
to: use project management to manage the systems life cycle; learn new technologies and
understand trends; focus on IT as a means to achieve an outcome; plan, accomplish projects;
work cooperatively and communicate with others in various team environments; and
maintain productive relationships with users and external providers. Also, for most of the
sectors there is an increasing need for internal IT staff to interpret problems and design
solutions, learn about business functions, and understand business environments. Many of
these requirements which are important in relation to outsourcing are also important for
activities that will continue to be done in-house.
For most of the sectors the integration of existing and new applications/systems
continues to be a very important in-house activity. The only exception is T/T which continues
to assign little importance to integration and the associated skills. Perhaps, in this sector
outsourcing will be used to achieve integration and it is noted that T/T has only a low to
moderate interest in ERP systems.
In most of the sectors at present the use of systems development methodologies is
moderately important but in the future it is very important. Structured approaches are very
important at present but less so in the future as the use of object oriented methods increases.
There continues to be little interest in formal specification methods in most of the sectors.
The demand for in-house programming expertise continues to be high and object oriented
languages continue to be the most important followed by access and procedure oriented
languages. In all of the sectors functional, logic based, rule based, and assembly languages
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are not important at present or in the future and there are ongoing low demands for in-house
expertise related to assembly languages and 3 GLs. The following languages were identified
in decreasing order of importance: Java, Visual Basic, .NET, C, HTML, C++, and XML
which reflects the ongoing interest in WWW sites and the growing importance of WWW
applications.
4.2.6 Support, Training, and Education
Supporting secure access to information for users continues to be a very important activity.
Although it is ranked lowly in G at present its importance is increased significantly and it
becomes moderately important in the future.
At present supporting the portfolio of applications is a very important activity in most
of the sectors but in the future it is very important in only T/T and M/E. For most of the
sectors the support of systems and applications that are developed by external providers will
also be outsourced. For most of the sectors supporting hardware is a very important activity at
present but of little importance in the future and T/T appears to be the only sector that will
not use external sources to support hardware. Supporting user-developed systems continues
to be ranked lowly by all of the sectors except for ICT which regards this activity as
moderately important. This reflects the difficulties in supporting user-developed systems and
confirms a problem associated with end-user computing. However, user support for
enterprise applications and systems is a different matter and it continues to be very important
for all of the sectors.
Training/educating end-users continues to be a very important activity for most of the
sectors. The exceptions are M/E which continues to rank this activity lowly and B/F which
ranks it lowly in the future. At present there are mixed views among the sectors about the
importance of training/educating IT professionals but in the future it is a very important
activity in all of the sectors except for ICT where it is ranked lowly.
At present the sectors express different views about the role of their IT staff in
providing education/training for end-users and other IT staff but in the future most of the
sectors do not see this as an important activity for their IT staff. The exceptions are T/T and
H where teaching others will continue to be a very important activity for their IT staff.
Otherwise, most organizations will rely increasingly on external providers for the
education/training of end-users and their IT staff.
5.
THE ALIGNMENT OF SECTOR PLANS AND NATIONAL POLICY OBJECTIVES
Overall the development plans for the next 5 years in most of the sectors are aligned with
most of the national policy objectives (see Table 1) and in terms of the keywords in Table 1
there is evidence that:
•
In most of the sectors there will be significant investment in infrastructure driven by
the expansion of application portfolios to include applications to support: operations;
supply chain, human resource, and client and customer management; data mining and
analysis for strategic decision making; multimedia; and interactive Internet-based
systems. Technologies supporting these portfolios will include: local and wide area
networks; databases; data warehouses; data modeling; and communications facilities.
•
In relation to organizational and ICT management issues most of the sectors plan to:
selectively outsource hardware support and applications and systems development
and support; integrate networks, applications and systems; emphasize methodologies
for systems development and project management; extend interactive access for users;
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manage customer and client information to provide improved services; train and
educate end-users and IT staff, and broaden the knowledge and understanding of
business functions among IT professionals.
Collectively these planned developments should result in increased affordable use of
ICT-based services across a broader cross-section of the population and the geographical
region and this should help to raise the level of ICT-literacy and have a positive effect in
reducing aspects of the digital divide.
However, despite these areas where there is alignment of development plans with
national policy objectives there are issues of concern:
•
In all of the sectors there are high levels of related uncertainties about future IT
budgets, outsourcing strategies, and levels of employment for IT professionals. These
uncertainties do not align well with policy objectives to improve: IT planning and
policy formulation; technology diffusion and transfer; outsourcing; the number of IT
professionals; and ICT-literacy levels in the workforce.
•
There are aspects of the development plans in particular sectors which appear to be at
odds with policy objectives or the functions of the organizations in those sectors:
o Government places less emphasis than expected on the integration of applications
and systems and the use of ERP systems. CRM systems are not emphasized and
there is little interest in multidimensional databases and the implementation of
data management procedures. In-house development is emphasized when
selective outsourcing is a policy objective for government organizations.
Uncertainty about future IT budgets is high and uncertainty about sourcing
strategies is the highest among any of the sectors.
o Manufacturing/Engineering organizations place a low priority on computeraided manufacturing systems and protocols and this is not compatible with the key
objectives for e-industry.
o Manufacturing/Engineering and Banking/Finance organizations express little
concern for the education/training of end-users and ICT organizations place low
emphasis on educating/training their own IT professionals. In addition, in all of
the sectors, apart from Tourism/Transport and Health, IT staffs are not actively
involved in the education/training of end-users.
o In the Tourism/Transport sector there is a low priority given to managing and
planning for systems development and implementation, and systems integration.
Uncertainty about future sourcing strategies is high compared to most of the other
sectors. These characteristics are surprising since at present compared to the other
sectors organizations in this sector have underdeveloped application portfolios and
plans to expand those portfolios over the next 5 years.
o Wholesale/Retail organizations place a low priority on Web development and this
is not compatible with national policy objectives emphasizing Internet-based
applications and especially e-commerce.
o Health sector organizations place a low emphasis on object-relational databases
and CD-ROM storage and these technologies would seem to be highly relevant to
their activities. Compared to other sectors organizations in this sector express the
highest level of uncertainty about future IT budgets.
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CONCLUSIONS
This study examined and compared development plans for the next 5 years among medium to
large sized organizations representing 7 organizational sectors. These development plans
were compared with the objectives of Thailand’s national ICT policies. It was found that
there is significant agreement among the plans for each sector and the many similarities and
few differences are identified. Also, it was found that overall these plans are aligned
reasonably well with national policy objects and areas of concern relating to particular sectors
are identified. However, for these plans to materialize there are issues affecting all of the
sectors that need to be addressed.
There is a need for further development, using international best practices, in the
provision and regulation of nation wide communications infrastructure and international
Internet gateways. This requires action by government and its agencies and is essential if the
benefits from increased interests among all of the sectors in telecommunications, networks,
and Internet-based applications and services are to be realized.
There is a need to reduce related uncertainties about IT budgets, levels of employment
of IT professionals, and IT sourcing strategies. This is particularly important among
government organizations which are large consumers of IT products and services and
financial planning problems at government level have a strong influence on financial
planning in other sectors. Also, among all of the sectors uncertainty about IT sourcing
strategies is related to a lack of experience with outsourcing, an underdeveloped body of
technology law, and the few experienced outsourcing providers in the market. Many of these
issues need to be addressed at a national level. Government and its agencies together with
industry and business associations can play an important impartial role in facilitating better
informed and productive relationships between organizations and outsourcing providers.
A serious problem concerns the training/education of IT professionals and end-users.
At a national level the curricula in IT and related areas at universities and other educational
institutions need to be examined thoroughly. The main issues concern the number of qualified
graduates entering the IT profession and the quality and relevance of their knowledge and
skills in relation to workplace requirements. Furthermore, any government incentives to
encourage organizations to invest in the education and training of end-users and IT
professionals should apply only to programs that will lead to ICT innovations. Importing IT
expertise requires government action and needs to be considered carefully. It may be a short
to medium term partial solution but efforts need to be intensified in order to ensure that
educational institutions and organizations in Thailand play a significant role in meeting the
future demands and directions set in national policies.
The present study has attempted to assess the alignment of development plans at the
level of organizational sectors with much broader level national policy objectives. Although
this approach has been useful it would be instructive to validate the conclusions by returning
to these organizations and assessing their responses to the conclusions as well as seeking their
direct views as to how they are attempting to react to the specific aspects of national policies.
In addition, there is a need for further study to examine carefully the potential gaps that
appear to exist between the present and future needs of these sectors, the national objectives,
and the knowledge and skills taught in the nation’s education institutions.
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8.
APPENDIX
Technologies
Cooperative/distributed
processing
Mobile computing
operating systems (OS)
Microcomputer OS
Minicomputer OS
Mainframe OS
Parallel architecture
Reduced instruction set
computer (RISC)
A client-server
environment
Open systems
architectures
G
B/F
ICT
W/R
F
P
F
P
F
Systems Architecture
P
F
P
26
25
41.5
53.5
46
55
41
I 79
53.5
I 57
1.5
59
70.5
42
46.5 D 48.5
37
I 69
72
49.5
8.5
23.5 30.5 18.5
29 D 18.5 39.5
71.5 D 34.5 53.5 D 33.5 60.5
58
67
79 D 41.5 73.5 D 61 80.5
82
82
50 I 64.5 49.5 41.5 49.5 48.5 52.5
D 28
43
55.5
62.5
D 49
68.5 D 33.5 59.5
6
17.5
31
42.5
D9
29
14
11
23.5
32.5
24
24.5
D 18.5 43.5
I 41
23
T/T
P
H
F
P
31.5 36.5 24.5
I 74
56
I 79
F
M/E
P
F
36.5
56.5
52
44
42
28.5
D 4 21 D 12
31
60.5 73 D 41.5 67.5
67
77
73
80
I 75 58.5 69
72
5
6
D 49 75
82 81.5
71.5 79.5
54.5
66
51
54
D 49
64
D7
36.5
7
20
6.5
8.5
D 14
36.5
D 31.5 50
I 58 36.5
Telecommunications and Networks
Local area network
(LANs ) (radio)
LANs (cable)
Fibre optic
Asymmetric digital
subscriber line (ADSL)
Integrated services
digital network (ISDN)
Remote access protocols
75
68
73.5
1.5
4.5
8.5
11
D 48
40
31.5
Cellular technology
68
Gateways
17.5
Network management
17.5
Wide are network (WAN) 24
Intranets
8
Extranets
12
73.5 I 69.5
52
I 72.5 54.5 I 60.5 30.5 I 72
42.5 I 61.5 17
2
6
9.5
9.5
D 12
37
29
34
D1
D 31
29
54.5
12.5 D 1.5
8.5 1.5
22.5
1
D2
6.5
21.5
17
65.5
I 68
45.5
54.5
46.5
61.5
52.5
50.5 46.5 41.5
42.5
D 27
46
42
26.5
32.5
64.5
71
42.5 46.5 D 30.5
52
D 37
70
30.5
53.5
23
3
3
20.5
16.5
20
47.5
15.5
2.5
4
9
33.5
22
41
29
4
9
7
29
D 29
I 76
20.5
12
I 29
9
22.5
46
59
30
1.5
14
4.5
12
28
41.5
58.5 I 69.5
17.5 16.5
3.5
4
36
1
3.5
14
23
14
D 33.5 59.5
13
58
15
15
5.5
18.5
I 51
1
7
23
15.5
46.5 70.5
19.5 D 18.5
10.5 12.5
10.5 10.5
19.5 10.5
32
39.5
12.5
68
34
8.5
4
2
40.5
The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries
http://www.ejisdc.org
16.5
5
71
64
D 16.5 34.5
6
2
D 13
31
11
12.5
24.5
26
EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
Virtual private
networks
Satellite communications
Microwave
Broadcasting
Voicemail
Groupware
Access oriented
Object oriented
Procedure oriented
Assembly
Logic based
Functional
Rule based
Rule based tools/systems
Hybrid tools/systems
Frame/object based
tools/systems
23
26
15.5 I 35.5 10.5 21.5
29
37
40
73
75.5
77
79
58.5 69.5
75 I 62.5
50
38.5
69.5
78
75.5
46.5
64
73
77
74
31
62
61.5
76
76
80.5
33
59
75
64
70
33
D 26
17.5
22
77
59
D 36.5
40
45.5
3.5
34.5
81.5
63.5
57
50
65 D 35.5
26
29
43.5 D 31.5
81
67
63
D 52
35 D 31.5
43.5 44.5
59
65
60.5
54.5
45
45.5
72.5
79
72.5
81
57
17.5
34.5
26
18.5
19.5
I 44
79.5
78
75
67.5
81.5
77
76.5 77.5
70
50
39
70
42.5 I 69.5 45 I 67.5
38.5 64.5 62.5 72.5
Languages
D 12
29
61
66
61.5
26.5
23
52
29
33.5
D 21.5 36.5 41.5
37
38.5
71
79.5
82
82
81
47
53.5 64.5 68.5
58
47
53.5
39
49.5
23
50.5 62.5
52
49.5 38.5
Knowledge-based Technology
55.5 60.5 I 58.5 41
64.5
D 49
68
54.5
43
72.5
45
57.5
43
34
64.5
59.5
59.5
D 46 70.5 66
72.5 82
77
70.5 70.5 76
50.5 53.5 36
48
61 D 36
64
26.5
56
80
67
56
64
D 48.5 65
21.5 22.5
40
50
74.5
79
48.5 45.5
D 19.5 51
52.5 45.5
54.5 42 I 63.5 40.5 I 61.5 46
65 53.5 62
57.5
49
43
59.5 I 54.5 39 I 48.5
Systems/Software Development Tools
Fourth generation
51.5 54.5 I 64.5 49.5 D 44.5 60.5
44
35
languages (4GLs)
Computer aided software
62.5
62
66
57.5
75
73.5
58
67
engineering (CASE)
Formal specification
62.5 65.5
32
38.5 58.5
58
44
49.5
Systems development
35
25
8.5
11
24
23
38.5 39.5
methodology/software
Project management
I 51.5 31
8.5
7
12
11.5
23
26
methodology/ software
Databases
Relational
3
3.5
3
3
1
4
5.5
10.5
Hierarchical
68
74 D 38.5 60.5
56
58
76
77
Network
56
45.5 55.5
70
30
41
72.5
74
Object-oriented
31.5 17.5 I 60 34.5
39
34
I 51
23
Object-relational
36.5
22 I 62.5 45.5
24
24.5 I 47
31
Distributed
45
38.5 73.5
70
67.5
71
58
59.5
Multidimensional
65
63.5 I 50.5 26
33.5
37
I 26
7
Data Modeling
40
38.5 I 44 18.5
9
7
I 33.5 15.5
Data warehousing
I 38 17.5 I 29 13.5 I 33.5 11.5
12
3.5
Data Storage
Magnetic storage
D 45 60.5 D 29
48
D 52
71
28.5
29
Disk based database
33.5 34.5
7
13.5 D 33.5 54
D 15
35
Compact disk memory
22
31
29
28
D 24
44 D 28.5 43.5
(CD-ROM)
Optical storage
45
50
55.5
59
61
62.5
44
39.5
Erasable CD
I 51.5 31
I 72 65.5 64.5 49.5
54
49.5
Open Systems
Electronic commerce
I 22
7
16.5
5
I 39 19.5 I 23
3.5
Open systems
D 15
31 D 55.5 73.5 47.5
58
36
39.5
interconnection (OSI)
Systems network
78
78
D 47
77
76
78
77.5 75.5
architectures
(SNA/DEC Net)
UNIX
17.5
25
37
40.5
6
14.5
23
26
Transmission control
11
5
1
2.5
1.5
2.5
10.5
protocol/Internet protocol 4.5
(TCP/IP)
User Interfaces
Keyboard
D 13 38.5 D 21.5 45.5 D 28.5 54
5.5
19.5
Scanning
33.5 45.5 34.5 36.5 44.5
56
23
35
Graphical user interface
10.5 17.5
14
23
6
11.5
2.5
10.5
(GUI)
D 40 59
14
8.5
49 36.5
79 81.5
D 49 75
D 40 66
65.5 78
18
I 71.5 56
39.5 43.5 24.5
39
D 18.5 54
72.5
45.5
48
49
54
D 35.5 58.5 54.5
66
65.5
68
I 42.5 23.5
38
40
28.5
26
I 49
26
69
39
I 27.5 10.5 24.5
7
60.5
48
39.5
39.5
48
I 57
25.5
I 54.5
17
72
61
36.5
43.5
50
36.5
26.5
15
D 15.5 30.5
D 21 50
21
4
48.5
D 43.5
I 57
63.5
52.5
60
I 45.5
I 32.5
18
D8
5
D2
59.5
69
59.5 61.5
40.5 54.5
54 I 61.5
54
37
48
9
26
33
14.5
12
14.5
34.5
D 12
D 16
21.5
75
64
49
40
33
8.5
33
11
46
62
17 D 32.5
61
64
33
48
70
49
33
46
21.5
26.5 I 28.5
3
9
4.5
D 24 46.5 D 57
70
18.5
33
81
67.5 79.5
60.5
25.5
21
69
78
60
70
74.5
D 27.5 61 D 28.5
2
2
56
4
5
D 5 30.5
18.5 19
4
27
12.5
16
12.5
9
7.5
21
The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries
http://www.ejisdc.org
D 16 50.5
D 43.5 67
2
3
D 4 21.5
I 33 1.5
25
14
EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
Speech recognition
Video
Transaction processing
system (TPS)
Management information
systems
(MIS)
Decision support systems
(DSS)
Executive information
system (EIS)
Data mining
Enterprise resource
planning (ERP)
Customer relationship
management (CRM)
Expert systems (ES)
Artificial intelligence (AI)
systems
A WWW site
WWW applications
Multimedia applications
Computer aided design/
manufacturing
(CAD/CAM)
Control system
Manufacturing automation
protocol/ Technical office
protocol (MAP/TOP)
Computer integrated
manufacturing (CIM)
24
68
51.5
71.5
54.5
75.5 73.5
73
64
54
49.5
55.5 45.5 67.5
66
54
67
Information Systems/Applications
80
79 I 78
44.5 40.5 67.5
20
27
10
16.5
12
16.5
9.5
19.5
15.5
17
15
17
16
26
9
6
11
6
14
11.5
5.5
15.5
15.5
2
19.5
9.5
29
17
29.5
17.5
25
13.5
24
16.5
28.5
29
I 60.5 21
I 36
20
I 43.5 21.5
I 29.5
13
19
13.5
15.5
7
18.5
I 30.5
7.5
22.5 21.5
I 51.5
31
61
70
34.5
26
24
29
9.5
3.5
45
50
I 60
34.5
I 24
4
I 38.5
3.5
65
54.5
77
65.5
I 72
54
51
56
70.5
68
I 81
65.5
74
66
75
69.5
82
7
10.5
51.5
17.5
1
38.5
19
18.5
17
19.5
9.5
3.5
19
8
6
1.5
9.5
3.5
52
40.5 28.5 19.5
44
35
Computer-aided Manufacturing
3
9
23
75
76
82
78
79
76.5
64.5
72
75
68
60
65.5
71
73.5
64.5
72
80
80
67
76
81
80.5
79.5
79.5
76.5
82
81.5
79
81.5
80
79
79.5
79.5
81
15.5 I 60.5
I 41.5 20.5 I 33.5 14.5 I 28.5 10.5
6
63 I 61.5 26
75.5 I 25 8.5
I 67 26.5 I 60
20
49
40
10
11
D 25
40
I 36
9.5
I 71.5 50.5
I 78.5 30.5
I 64
14
I 78.5 46.5
75
65
67.5 I 71.5 54
80
75.5
7
36
5 I 43.5
23.5 I 57
76.5
26
26
33
80.5
70
D 20.5 40
I 33 14
I 56.5 33
75
67.5
70
54.5
59
D 35.5 52
54.5
57.5
67.5
59
75
82
82
76
75
81
81
78
76
72
Table A1: Present (P) and Future (F) Rankings of Technologies
Professional
Activities
Support the existing
applications
Support hardware
Support information
access and security
Support end-users
Support user-developed
systems
G
B/F
ICT
P
F
P
F
P
15
15
D2
10
12.5
D 4.5
13
16.5
18
I 14
9.5
4
I6
1
20
21
W/R
F
Support
T/T
H
M/E
P
F
P
F
P
F
P
F
16
D 11
21
5.5
5
D 2.5
10.5
4
4.5
18
20
D7
15.5
D4
8
D1
14
D2
11.5
3.5
3.5
4.5
3.5
2
1
1.5
4.5
2
6.5
4.5
10.5
7.5
5.5
6
7
8.5
2
3.5
6.5
7.5
D1
11.5
19.5
21
10.5
13.5
18
19
19
20.5
19
19
20
19.5
Systems/Software Development
Develop applications
in-house
Analyze business
problems and create
IT solution
Purchase and tailor
application software
Develop databases
Evaluate and select
software packages
I 17
12
D 10.5
20
D 15.5
21
18
19
19
20.5
D 17
21
18
21
I 8.5
4.5
4
3.5
1
1.5
1.5
1
I 11
3.5
2.5
1
9.5
11.5
D 4.5
9.5
16.5
16
19.5
19
7
8.5
D9
16.5
16
18
D 13.5
19.5
2
4.5
16.5
16
D 7.5
16
I 20
15.5
D 5.5
12
20
20
13.5
16.5
D 13
18
7
9
15.5
16
15.5
15.5
19
16.5
13
16.5
13.5
11.5
Training/Education
Train and educate
IT professionals
Train and educate
end-users
I 11
7
14
12
21
18
1.5
4.5
I 13
8
I 14.5
7.5
9.5
8
1
3
10.5
14
12.5
10
3.5
4.5
3
1.5
6.5
4.5
16
14.5
Management/Planning
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EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
Manage/plan development
and implementation
Manage/plan the
feasibility/approval
process for new IT
Manage/plan corporate
strategic IT
architecture/applications
25
3
2
4
3.5
5.5
7.5
I 11
4.5
15
15
D 4.5
10.5
6.5
8
11
14
7
3.5
15.5
13.5
11
12
I 11
6
D 10
15
I 13.5
4.5
16
16.5
7
3.5
I 10.5
4.5
13
12
7.5
10.5
I 18
12
18
14.5
Implementation
Implement new and
changed computer based
business process
Implement data
management procedures
Implement system
evaluation processes
7
9.5
10.5
7.5
7.5
10
I 18
8.5
11
8
I 10
6
I 9.5
2
18.5
16.5
I 16.5
12
3.5
3
14
12
15
13
10
9
D4
8
18.5
19
19.5
16
I 15.5
7.5
15.5
15.5
17
18
14.5
13
18
16.5
Integration
Integrate existing and new
applications
Integrate networks
Integrate data types
8.5
6
1
3.5
2
1.5
7
4.5
15
14
I8
3
I 9.5
4.5
11
9.5
13
12
9
10
7
8.5
7.5
10.5
I 12
4.5
4
1
21
20
21
19
I 19.5
12
21
19
21
19
I 21
16.5
21
18
Table A2: Present (P) and Future (F) Rankings of Professional Activities
IT Knowledge/Skills
G
B/F
ICT
W/R
T/T
H
M/E
F
P
F
P
F
P
F
P
F
P
F
P
F
Technical Specialist
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 35 35 36 36 36 36 35.5
27.5 31 D 3 31 35 35 32.5 34 31 33 33 34 34 34
I 30 20.5 31 30 30.5 33 27 26.5 D 19.5 27.5 23 27 D 11.5 31
D 10 20.5 29 25.5 32 30 29 30.5 28 29 25.5 29 31 29
1.5
1 I 26.5 5.5 I 28 20.5 29 22.5 I 23 1.5 I 30 18 I 27.5 18.5
10 10.5 11.5 15 11 12.5 4.5 6.5 D 12 25 D 1.5 16 20 23
17.5 20.5 17 15 D 15.5 24 4.5 6.5 D 12 19.5 D 14 21 23.5 23
10 10.5 11.5 5.5 11 12.5 4.5 6.5 19.5 16 8.5 5.5 D 9 18.5
D 17.5 24.5 32 28 29 28 29 26.5 25 19.5 28.5 25.5 29.5 28
D 7 16 I 30 12 22.5 24 23 22.5 I 19.5 11.5 25.5 20 I 23.5 14.5
4.5 3.5 I 17 8
2
3.5 D 11.5 22.5 3.5
4 D 1.5 22 D 3 10
3
6
3
2 24.5 20.5 25 25
2
3 20 24
2
2
1.5 3.5
3
2
17 20.5 11.5 18
1
1.5 7 8.5
1
2
35 35 33 34 33.5 34 35 36 31 35 35 35 35 35.5
34 34 28 32 26.5 30 32.5 33 31 33 31 33 29.5 32
4.5 10.5 D 6 18.5 24.5 27 25 29 D 5 16 D 5.5 23 D 5.5 14.5
31 27 26.5 22.5 26.5 24 31 30.5 34 27.5 32 30 27.5 23
33 32 35 33 33.5 32 34 32 36 33 34 32 I 32 23
32 33 17 21 30.5 30 I 20.5 1
33 31 25.5 31 33 33
Technology Management
I 12.5 2
7.5 5.5 18.5 12.5 11.5 6.5 7.5
8 11 8.5 5.5
2
P
Assembly language
Third generation languages (3GL)
Fourth generation languages (4GL)
Structured programming/CASE methods
Web development
System analysis structured analysis
Systems life cycle management
Systems integration
Distributed processing
Data management
Relational databases
Telecommunications
Networks
OS-mainframes
OS-minis
OS-micros
Decision support systems
Expert/AI systems
A specific programming language
Ability to learn new technologies
Ability to focus on IT as a means to
achieve an outcome
Understand technological trends
12.5
6
15
3
5.5 18.5 15.5 4.5
5
7.5
2 I 22.5 15.5 16.5
Business Functional
Knowledge of business functions
24 29 I 25 17 I 15.5 3.5 11.5
Ability to learn about business functions
D 8 17 I 21 12
6
3.5 11.5
Interpret problems and design IT solutions 14.5 10.5 11.5 9.5
6
3.5 16.5
Understand business environments
14.5 13.5 17 12 11 12.5 D 4.5
Interpersonal and Management Skills
Work cooperatively in 1-on-1/teams
I 21.5 7.5 23.5 28 3.5
8 16.5
Deal with ambiguity
29 28 34 35 20.5 17.5 20.5
Maintain productive client relationships
20 13.5 17 15 3.5
8 20.5
Accomplish assignments
23 23 D 17 24 13.5 8
4.5
Teach others
25.5 26 23.5 28 20.5 26 20.5
Plan, organize and lead projects
I 25.5 18
3
9.5 8.5
8
4.5
6.5
7.5
8
8.5 10.5 I 11.5 4.5
18
9.5
8
14
13.5 27 22.5
13.5 22 22.5
13.5 16.5 22.5
13.5 16.5 22.5
5.5
11 16 I 25.5
17.5 13 I 15
I 14 1
8
17.5 13 I 20
18 26 26 I 11
18 29 30 D 19
18 14.5 16 D 5.5
6.5
6 11.5 4
22.5 I 12 5
3
6.5 9.5 16 I 16
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13
4.5
12
8
12
12
4 I 20 8
28 25.5 30
16 15 16.5
7
5.5
8
2.5 D 20 27
2.5 10
6
EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
26
Develop/deliver effective presentations
Write/deliver effective presentations
Be self-directed and proactive
Be aware of organizational culture and
policies
I 27.5 20.5 D 9 18.5 1
1 I 16.5 6.5 I 19.5 11.5 I 21.5 5.5 15 16.5
I 21.5 7.5 D 11.5 20 13.5 17.5 11.5 6.5 I 14.5 6 25.5 19 20 23
D 17.5 24.5 17 22.5 8.5
8
4.5 6.5 I 24 16 I 21.5 10.5 D 15 23
D 17.5 30
22
25.5 D 6 20.5
25
28 D 3.5 11.5 28.5 25.5 D 15 23
Table A3: Present (P) and Future (F) Rankings of IT Knowledge/Skills
High: Microcomputer OS; a client-server environment; LANs (cable); fibre optic; remote access protocols;
gateways; network management; WAN; intranets; extranets; object oriented languages; project management
methodology/software; relational databases; electronic commerce; TCP/IP; GUI interfaces; TPS, MIS, DSS,
EIS, ERP, a WWW site, and WWW applications.
Moderate: Cooperative/distributed processing; ISDN; procedure oriented, and rule based languages; 4GLs;
object-oriented databases.
Low: Mainframe OS; cellular technology; satellite communications; microwave; broadcasting; assembly
languages; hybrid tools/systems; CASE; formal specification; hierarchical, and network databases; SNA/DEC
Net; speech recognition, and video interfaces; expert systems, artificial intelligence systems, CAD/CAM;
control system, MAP/TOP, and CIM applications.
Table A4 (a): Technologies: No change in Importance for Most of the Sectors
Present
Ranking
Future Ranking
High
Moderate
Low
See Table A4 (a)
Open systems architectures;
disk based database, and
CD-ROM data storage
No items
High
Virtual private networks;
systems development
Moderate methodology/software;
data modeling; data mining
Low
No items
No
Data warehousing;
agreement CRM
among most
sectors
Minicomputer OS;
RISC; groupware;
logic based, and
functional languages;
distributed databases
See Table A4 (a)
Mobile computing OS;
parallel architecture;
voicemail; rule based,
tools/systems; optical, and
See Table A4 (a)
erasable CD data storage
ADSL; object-relational
Access oriented
databases; OSI; multimedia languages
applications
No agreement among
most sectors
Magnetic data
storage; UNIX;
keyboard interfaces
Frame/object based
tools/systems;
scanning interfaces
LANs (radio)
Multidimensional
databases
Table A4 (b): Technologies: Changes in Importance for Most of the Sectors
High: Support information access and security; support end-users; analyze business problems and create IT
solutions; train and educate end-users; manage/plan development /implementation; integrate existing and new
applications.
Low: Support user-developed systems; develop applications in-house; purchase and tailor application software;
develop databases; evaluate and select software packages; implement system evaluation processes; integrate
data types.
Table A5 (a): Professional Activities: No change in Importance for Most of the Sectors
Future Ranking
Present
Ranking
High
High
See Table A5 (a)
Implement new/changed
Moderate
Integrate
networks
Low
Support
hardware
No agreement among most
sectors
Support the existing portfolio of
applications
Manage/plan the feasibility and
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EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
Moderate
Low
27
computer based business
processes
No items
No items
No items approval process for new IT
Implement data
management
procedures
No agreement Train and educate IT
among most professionals
sectors
No items
See Table
A5(a)
No items
Manage/plan corporate strategic
No items IT architecture and applications
Table A5 (b): Professional Activities: Changes in Importance for Most of the Sectors
High: Systems integration; relational databases; telecommunications; networks; ability to learn new
technologies; ability to focus on IT as a means to achieve an outcome; understand technological trends;
accomplish assignments; plan, organize and lead projects.
Moderate: Systems life cycle management; maintain productive client relationship.
Low: Assembly language; third generation languages; fourth generation languages; structured
programming/CASE methods; distributed processing; OS- mainframe; OS-minis; decision support systems;
expert/AI systems; a specific programming language; deal with ambiguity.
Table A6 (a): IT Knowledge/Skills: No Change in Importance for Most of the Sectors
Future Ranking
Present
Ranking
High
Moderate
Low
High
See
Table A6 (a)
No items
No items
See
Table A6 (a)
No items
Moderate
Ability to learn about business
functions; interpret problems and
design IT solutions; understand
business environments; develop/
deliver effective presentations
Low
No items
No agreement Work cooperatively in 1-onamong most 1/teams
sectors
Web development;
data management
No items
No agreement
among most
sectors
Systems analysis
/structured
analysis;
OS-micros
Be self-directed
and proactive
Knowledge of
business
functions
Teach others; aware of Write/deliver
organizational culture effective
and policies
presentations
See
Table A6 (a)
Table A6 (b): IT Knowledge/Skills: Changes in Importance for Most of the Sectors
Present
Future
Technologies
Highly Ranked
Highly Ranked
G: Cooperative/distributed processing. B/F: Access
G: RISC. B/F: ISDN. ICT: Object-relational
oriented languages; disk based database storage.
databases; CRM. W/R: Data mining.
T/T: Erasable CD. M/E: ADSL; video interfaces.
H: Frame/object based tools/systems. M/E: Mobile
computing OS; LANs (radio); erasable CD; speech
Moderately Ranked
B/F: Mainframe OS; a client-server environment;
recognition; video.
ERP. ICT: Cellular technology; broadcasting;
Moderately Ranked
G: RISC; access oriented languages; project management
electronic commerce. W/R: Expert systems.
methodology/software. B/F: UNIX. ICT: Broadcasting;
T/T: Satellite communications; control system.
fibre optic. W/R: Speech recognition. T/T: Expert systems.
H: CD -ROM; EIS; a WWW site. M/E: Mobile
computing OS.
H: Logic based languages; CASE. M/E: Virtual private
networks; a WWW site.
Lowly Ranked
B/F: 4GLs. ICT: ISDN. T/T: Data warehousing; DSS;
Lowly Ranked
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EJISDC (2007) 31, 7, 1-28
EIS. M/E: Cooperative /distributed processing; open
systems architectures; rule based languages.
28
G: Multidimensional databases; ERP. ICT: Keyboard;
scanning. W/R: Fibre optic. T/T: Procedure oriented
languages. H: Object-relational databases; CD-ROM.
Professional Activities
Highly Ranked
Highly Ranked
G: Develop databases ICT: Implement system evaluation
B/F: Evaluate and select software packages;
processes. W/R: Purchase and tailor application software.
manage/plan the feasibility process for new IT.
T/T: Support hardware.
Moderately Ranked
B/F: Support end-users; develop applications in-house.
Moderately Ranked
G: Develop applications in-house; purchase and tailor
ICT: Support user-developed systems. W/R:
application software; support information access and
Manage/plan development/implementation. H:
security. B/F: Train and educate IT professionals. ICT:
Implement data management procedures. M/E:
Train and educate end-users; integrate data types. T/T:
Integrate existing and new business applications.
Develop databases. H: Implement system evaluation
Lowly Ranked
processes; manage /plan development/ implementation.
G: Support the existing portfolio of applications;
support information access and security. W/R:
M/E: Support end -users; analyze business problems and
Implement new/changed computer based business
create IT solutions.
processes. T/T: Manage/plan development/
Lowly Ranked
implementation; integrate existing and new business G: Implement data management procedures. ICT: Train
applications.
and educate IT professionals. T/T: Manage/plan
development/implementation; integrate existing and new
M/E: Train and educate end-users.
business applications.
IT Knowledge and Skills
Highly Ranked
Highly Ranked
G: Structured programming/CASE methods; Web
G: OS-micros. W/R: Systems life cycle management; a
development; data management. B/F: Third generation specific programming language. T/T: Be aware of
languages. M/E: Fourth generation languages.
organizational culture and policies.
Moderately Ranked
Moderately Ranked
G: Distributed processing. B/F: Relational databases; G: Fourth generation languages; structured programming
accomplish assignments.
/CASE methods. B/F: A specific programming language.
ICT: Networks; ability to learn new technologies;
ICT: Be aware of organizational culture and policies;
ability to focus on IT as a means to achieve an
telecommunications.
outcome; knowledge of business functions. T/T:
W/R: Relational databases; work cooperatively in 1-onFourth generation languages; systems integration. H: 1/team environments.
Telecommunications; Plan, organize and lead projects. T/T: Distributed processing; interpret problems and design
M/E: Systems analysis/structured analysis.
IT solutions; understand business environments; be selfdirected and proactive.
Lowly Ranked
G: Accomplish assignments; Plan, organize and lead
Lowly Ranked
projects; develop/deliver effective presentations. T/T: G: Knowledge of business functions.
Be self-directed and proactive. H: Write/deliver
W/R: Web development.
effective presentations.
M/E: Write/deliver effective presentations.
M/E: Systems life cycle management.
Table A7: Items Ranked in a Particular Manner by only One of the Sectors
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