Drug Use and
Offending:
A Study of Female
Prisoners in South
Australia
DRUG USE CAREERS OF OFFENDERS (DUCO)
IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA
NICK TURNER
OCTOBER 2005
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
DRUG USE AND OFFENDING
A STUDY OF FEMALE
PRISONERS IN SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
Nick Turner
Senior Research and Statistical Officer
Office of Crime Statistics and Research
© Justice Department
Office of Crime Statistics and Research
GPO Box 464, Adelaide, SA 5001
Telephone (08) 8207 1731 – Facsimile (08) 8204 9575
Website: www.ocsar.sa.gov.au
October 2005
CONTENTS
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OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
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Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Contents
Page iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1:
Demographic characteristics of individuals interviewed ........................................................ 6
Table 2:
The questions that were asked in relation to child abuse..................................................... 11
Table 3:
The questions that were asked in relation to abuse as an adult........................................... 12
Table 4:
Number of Individuals who responded positively to dependency items .......................... 25
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1:
Age distribution of individuals interviewed by Indigenous status ........................................ 7
Figure 2:
Individuals’ current marital status .............................................................................................. 7
Figure 3:
Number of children per individual ............................................................................................ 8
Figure 4:
Type of accommodation in which individuals were mainly living during the six
months prior to the offence for which they are were currently imprisoned....................... 8
Figure 5:
Education levels that individuals reported they had completed............................................ 9
Figure 6:
Length of total current sentence ................................................................................................ 9
Figure 7:
Time served on current sentence ............................................................................................. 10
Figure 8:
Main offence for which individuals were currently imprisoned.......................................... 10
Figure 9:
Types of abuse individuals experienced while growing up .................................................. 11
Figure 10: Alleged perpetrators who were involved in incidents of abuse while respondent
was growing up............................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 11: Types of abuse individuals experienced as an adult .............................................................. 13
Figure 12: Alleged perpetrators who were involved in incidents of abuse when respondent
was an adult.................................................................................................................................. 13
Figure 13: Number of Individuals who reported that they ‘often’ had mental health
concerns ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Figure 14: Number of individuals who sought therapy for a mental health problem ........................ 15
Figure 15: Number of individuals who received interventions by the individual’s rating of
the effectiveness of the intervention........................................................................................ 15
Figure 16: Number of drug types used over lifetime ............................................................................... 17
Figure 17: Lifetime prevalence of drug use by drug type ........................................................................18
Figure 18: Number of drug types used in the six months prior to arrest............................................. 18
Figure 19: Drug use in the six months prior to arrest by drug type ...................................................... 19
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page iv
Figure 20: Number of drug types ever used ‘regularly’............................................................................ 20
Figure 21: Ever ‘regularly’ used drugs by drug type ................................................................................. 20
Figure 22: Percentage of individuals who reported use of each drug: the South Australian
sample compared to the national sample................................................................................ 21
Figure 23: Percentage of individuals who reported use of each drug in the six months prior
to arrest: the South Australian sample compared to the national sample.......................... 22
Figure 24: Median age of first use by drug type........................................................................................ 23
Figure 25: Median age of ‘regular’ use by drug type................................................................................. 23
Figure 26: Proportion of money that individuals spent on drugs during the six months prior
to arrest......................................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 27: Drug of choice by whether individual was drug dependent ................................................ 25
Figure 28: Number of individuals who were drug dependent by whether their family
members had a drug or alcohol problem while the respondent was growing up ............ 26
Figure 29: Amphetamines use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever
‘regularly’ used ............................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 30: Amphetamines: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest ......................................... 27
Figure 31 Amphetamines: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use....................................... 28
Figure 32: Amphetamines use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use ............................... 28
Figure 33: Benzodiazepines use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever
‘regularly’ used ............................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 34: Benzodiazepines: Ever used by licit use or illicit use ............................................................ 29
Figure 35: Benzodiazepines: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest ...................................... 30
Figure 36: Benzodiazepines: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use .................................... 30
Figure 37: Benzodiazepines use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use ............................ 31
Figure 38: Cannabis use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever ‘regularly’
used ............................................................................................................................................... 32
Figure 39: Cannabis: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest ................................................... 32
Figure 40: Cannabis: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use ................................................. 33
Figure 41: Cannabis use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use.......................................... 33
Figure 42: Heroin use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever ‘regularly’
used ............................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 43: Heroin: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest ....................................................... 34
Figure 44: Heroin: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use ..................................................... 35
Figure 45: Heroin use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use.............................................. 35
Figure 46: Mean age of first drug use of individuals who had used selected drug types ................... 36
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page v
Figure 47: Mean age of first and ‘regular’ drug use of individuals who had used selected
drug types ‘regularly’................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 48: Alcohol use: ‘ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever ‘regularly’
used ............................................................................................................................................... 38
Figure 49: Alcohol: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest...................................................... 38
Figure 50: Alcohol: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use.................................................... 39
Figure 51: Alcohol use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use ............................................ 39
Figure 52: The number of individuals ‘ever’ or currently in a treatment program.............................. 40
Figure 53: Number of individuals who reported ever buying or ever ‘regularly’ buying illegal
drugs and the number charged, convicted or imprisoned for this offence ....................... 42
Figure 54: Bought illegal drugs: Age of first purchase and age this became a ‘regular’ activity ........ 43
Figure 55: Number of individuals who reported ever selling or ever ‘regularly’ selling drugs
and the number charged, convicted or imprisoned for this offence .................................. 44
Figure 56: Sold illegal drugs: Age of first sale and age this became a ‘regular’ activity....................... 45
Figure 57: Mean age of first and ‘regular’ drug use, drug buying and drug selling.............................. 46
Figure 58: Main offence for which currently imprisoned by whether individual was ‘high’ on
illegal drugs at the time of committing that offence ............................................................. 47
Figure 59: Types of drug that individuals reported that they had been using before
committing the offence for which they were currently imprisoned ................................... 48
Figure 60: Main offence for which currently imprisoned by whether it was related to a drug
problem ........................................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 61: Number of individuals committing property offences in the six months prior to
arrest.............................................................................................................................................. 50
Figure 62: Reasons individuals used to explain why they had ever committed property
offences ........................................................................................................................................ 51
Figure 63: Number of individuals committing property offences in the six months prior to
arrest for individuals who gave specific reasons for committing offences........................ 52
Figure 64: Number of individuals committing violent offences in the six months prior to
arrest.............................................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 65: Reasons individuals used to explain why they had ever committed violent
offences ........................................................................................................................................ 54
Figure 66: Lifetime prevalence of offending by offence type................................................................. 56
Figure 67: Break and enter: Number of individuals who reported ever committing or ever
‘regularly’ committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge, conviction
or prison sentence....................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 68: Break and enter: Age of first offence and age offence became a ‘regular’ activity........... 58
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page vi
Figure 69: Break and enter: Number of offences ever committed by how often the police
found out about it....................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 70: Theft: Number of individuals who reported ever committing, or ever ‘regularly’
committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge, conviction or prison
sentence ........................................................................................................................................ 59
Figure 71: Theft: Age of first offence and age offence became a ‘regular’ activity............................. 60
Figure 72: Theft: Number of offences ever committed by how often the police found out
about it.......................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 73: Handle stolen goods: Number of individuals who reported ever committing or
ever ‘regularly’ committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge,
conviction or prison sentence................................................................................................... 61
Figure 74: Handle stolen goods: Age of first offence and age offence became a ‘regular’
activity........................................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 75: Handle stolen goods: Number of offences ever committed by how often the
police found out about it ........................................................................................................... 62
Figure 76: Armed robbery: Number of individuals who reported ever committing or ever
‘regularly’ committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge, conviction
or prison sentence....................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 77: Armed robbery: Age of first offence ....................................................................................... 64
Figure 78: Armed robbery: Number of offences ever committed by how often the police
found out about it....................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 79: Number of individuals whose family members had a drug or alcohol problem
while the respondent was growing up ..................................................................................... 65
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The DUCO project is funded by the Australian Government Attorney-General’s Department
under the National Illicit Drug Strategy. The data analysed in this publication were made available
by the Australian Institute of Criminology.
DUCO in South Australia would not have been possible without the efforts and assistance of many
people:
the offenders who agreed to participate in the study;
the data collection agencies that conducted the interviews; and
the South Australian Department of Correctional Services who provided access to the
offenders in their care and provided information to assist with the data analysis.
Joy Wundersitz, Director and Paul Thomas, Deputy Director, Office of Crime Statistics and
Research, edited earlier drafts of this document and provided valuable advice concerning the
structure and content of this report.
Nick Turner
Senior Research and Statistical Officer,
Office of Crime Statistics and Research
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page viii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Drug Use Careers of Offenders (DUCO) project seeks to measure lifetime drug use amongst
sentenced prisoners across Australia. Three separate samples were interviewed as part of the
project; namely, adult males in 2001, adult females in 2003/04 and juveniles in 2004/05. Both the
adult female and juvenile components of this study included South Australian respondents. This
report details the results from adult females interviewed in South Australia.
Caution should be exercised when interpreting findings from this report due to the relatively small
number of interviews conducted (n = 42). For this reason, the majority of analyses presented in
this report use frequencies instead of percentages.
Profile of offenders
A total of 42 individuals were interviewed, including nine who were Indigenous. The age of
individuals ranged from 19 years to 55 years, with a median of 33.5 years. Around three quarters
(32 individuals) reported that they had children, including 12 with three or more. Only around one
in five indicated that they had finished Year 12, while a relatively high proportion reported that they
were living in a Housing Trust home prior to arrest. Only seven were working full time prior to
their arrest, while over four in five indicated that they were receiving some form of welfare or
government benefit.
There were 18 individuals who acknowledged that they had previously been in adult detention,
excluding remand, while eight reported that they been in juvenile detention. There were 22
individuals who reported that they were currently imprisoned for a property offence, while 18 were
imprisoned for a violent offence. Around one quarter of individuals reported that they were
currently sentenced to 10 years or more, while the median time served on their current sentence
was just one year.
Two thirds of individuals reported that they had experienced emotional abuse while growing up,
while around half indicated that they had experienced physical abuse. Also, around one third
reported that they had been victims of child sexual abuse and around one in four had been
neglected. In the majority of cases, the perpetrators of this abuse were the individual’s parent(s).
When asked about abuses they had experienced as an adult, over three quarters of individuals had
also been victims of emotional abuse, while around two thirds reported that they had experienced
physical abuse. Also, around one third reported that they had been victims of sexual abuse. The
majority of the perpetrators of these types of abuse were their spouses or partners.
Individuals were asked several questions regarding their mental state while growing up. The
majority of individuals interviewed were regarded as having mental health issues, including nearly
two thirds who reported that they ‘often’ felt very sad, while half reported that they were ‘often’
anxious or stressed or that they had arguments or fights. Over three quarters reported that their
mental health issues significantly interfered with their lives during the six months prior to arrest.
Additionally, around half of the individuals reported that they had been diagnosed with some form
of mental health problem.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 1
Drug use
Individuals were asked a variety of questions in relation to their drug use careers. These questions
covered such topics as frequency of use, regularity of use, age of first and regular use, money spent
on drugs and drug dependence. These questions were asked in relation to specific drug types
including amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cannabis, cocaine, ecstasy, hallucinogens, heroin,
morphine and street methadone.
Cannabis was the drug most likely to have been used by individuals (35), to have been used in the
six months prior to arrest (25) and to have ever been used ‘regularly’ (24). Cannabis was also first
used and regularly used at a younger median age than other drugs (15 years for each). Moreover,
cannabis was also used most frequently, with 19 of the 25 individuals who had used this drug in the
six months prior to arrest reporting that they used it at least once per day. This included 16
respondents who reported using it several times a day.
The second drug most likely to be used by individuals was amphetamines, with 30 of the 42
individuals indicating that they had ever used it, 18 individuals who reported using the drug in the
six months prior to arrest and 24 who reported that they had used the drug ‘regularly’. The median
age of first use of amphetamines was 17.5 years, while the median age for ‘regular’ use was 18.5
years. More individuals reported that they spent money on amphetamines compared to other drugs
(15 individuals, including seven who reported spending half or more of their money on the drug).
Amphetamines was the drug that was most commonly referred to as ‘the drug of choice’ by
individuals (10).
There were 27 individuals who reported that they had used benzodiazepines, including 14 who used
it in the six months prior to arrest and 18 who had ever used it ‘regularly’. Of the 27 individuals
who had ever used benzodiazepines, five had only used the drug licitly and seven had only used it
illicitly. There were 15 individuals who reported that they had been involved in both licit and illicit
use of benzodiazepines. Individuals reported first using and first ‘regularly’ using the drug at a
relatively young age (16 years for both). Of the 14 individuals who reported using the drug in the
six months prior to arrest, nine reported using it at least once per day, including seven who
reported using the drug several times per day.
Around half of the individuals (22) reported using heroin, while 15 reported using it in the six
months prior to arrest and 19 reported that they had used the drug ‘regularly’. The median age of
first heroin use was 18 years, while on average, those who used the drug ‘regularly’ did so at the age
of 16 years. Of the 15 individuals who reported using the drug in the six months prior to arrest, 10
indicated that they used it several times per day and had spent half or more of their money on the
drug. A high number (18 of the 22 individuals) who had ever used heroin became regular users
within one year, while just three reported that they never became regular users.
Comparisons of the South Australian data with the National results are very difficult due to the low
number of individuals interviewed in South Australia. However, the prevalence of drug use
amongst South Australia women prisoners appears to be higher than that of those interviewed
across Australia as part of the DUCO project, in terms of both lifetime use and use in the six
months prior to arrest.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 2
There were 33 individuals who reported that they had used alcohol, while 25 reported that they had
used it in the six months prior to arrest and 15 reported that they had ever used it ‘regularly’.
Individuals were asked a series of questions relating to both alcohol and drug dependence. Based
on these responses, there were six individuals who were regarded as alcohol dependent and 23
individuals who were regarded as drug dependent. Although the type of drug of dependence
cannot be identified precisely due to the high level of multiple drug use, nine of these 23 individuals
who were drug dependent reported that their drug of choice was amphetamines, while eight
indicated that it was heroin.
Over half of the individuals reported that they had ever been in a drug or alcohol treatment
program, including 15 who had been in methadone maintenance, ten who had received counselling
and nine who had been in a rehabilitation program.
Drugs and crime
Around three quarters of the individuals interviewed (30 out of 42) reported that they had bought
drugs at some point in their lives and all of these indicated that they had done so ‘regularly’,
including 26 who reported doing so 500 or more times in their lifetime. All of the individuals
reported that police never or rarely found out about these offences.
Over half of the individuals (22 out of 38 who responded to this question) reported that they were
‘high’ on illegal drugs at the time of committing the offence for which they were presently
imprisoned, while 12 individuals reported that they were suffering from withdrawal effects at the
time. Also, when asked their reasons for committing this offence, 24 individuals cited issues
relating to their drug problem.
Four in five individuals who had ever committed property offences reported that they offended “to
support their drug habit”, while three in five reported that they were “drunk or high at the time”.
Similarly, of those individuals who ever committed violent offences, two thirds reported that they
were “drunk or high at the time”, while over one third reported that they committed the offence to
“to get money for their drug habit”.
Offending history
Individuals were asked about specific offences that they have committed over their lifetimes
regardless of whether the police found out about it. Just under half (18 individuals) reported that
they had ‘ever’ committed break and enter offences, while 15 reported that this became a ‘regular’
activity. Also, there were 24 individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ stolen something,
including 15 who reported that they had done so before the age of 15 years. Around half (23
individuals) reported that they had handled stolen goods, most of whom (21 individuals) reported
that they went on to ‘regularly’ commit this offence. The majority of individuals who committed
these types of offences indicated that they had done so at least one hundred times and that the
police never or rarely found out about them.
While 11 individuals reported that they had committed armed robbery offences, no individuals
progressed to ‘regularly’ committing such offences. The majority of these 11 individuals reported
that they committed the offence less than five times and that the police found out about it most of
the time or always.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 3
INTRODUCTION
This report details the findings from the South Australian component of the Drug Use Careers of
Offenders (DUCO) project. DUCO, a project run by the Australian Institute of Criminology
(AIC), seeks to measure drug use amongst sentenced offenders. Three separate populations were
interviewed as a part of the DUCO project; namely, adult males in 2001, adult females in 2003/04
and juveniles in 2004/05. While South Australia did not participate in the survey of male prisoners,
it was part of the studies that focused on adult female and juvenile prisoners. This report details
the findings from the interviews conducted with female prisoners.
DUCO was implemented to explore lifetime drug use and offending amongst incarcerated
individuals. The data from DUCO are used:
•
to assess the role of treatment both within and outside the correctional system;
•
to examine the intersections between drug use patterns and criminal careers; and
•
to explore issues concerning links between drug use and crime.
There are few studies around drug use and offending conducted specifically on sentenced prisoners
in Australia and these studies have generally focused on a single jurisdiction and have had relatively
small sample sizes. This has hindered the capacity of researchers to explore complex relationships
between drugs and crime, and has affected the availability of reliable data for policy purposes.
DUCO helps to address this gap by providing detailed information on drug use and offending
amongst sentenced prisoners, who comprise persistent repeat offenders, involve substantial
expenditure in terms of policing, court and prison costs, and are characterised by high rates of drug
use.
In 2003, face-to-face interviews were conducted with South Australian women who were
incarcerated in the Adelaide Women’s Prison. Given the small number of inmates at any one time
in this prison (the total capacity is 71), a total census of the prison was attempted. Certain
individuals were screened out due to language barriers or being judged as a potential risk to
themselves or others. Of the 48 individuals who were approached to be interviewed, 42 agreed to
participate and successfully completed the interview. Involvement in the study was entirely
voluntary, and periodically during the interview, interviewers asked permission to continue the
interview and reminded offenders of their rights to terminate their involvement.
Participants were guaranteed confidentiality and a number of steps were taken so that they could
not be identified. For example, unique identifiers were applied to the questionnaires and the data
sets. Questionnaires were kept in a closed container with the interviewer at all times and
correctional staff were not permitted to read either completed or blank questionnaires.
The questionnaire consisted of three main sections. The first section, Demographics, Family
Background and Custodial History, included questions relating to mental health, family violence (as
an adult and while growing up) and parental drug and alcohol problems. The second section,
Offence History, included questions relating to frequency of offending, age of first and regular
offence, and police knowledge of offending for 11 different categories of offences. The final
section of the questionnaire, Drugs, included questions relating to frequency of use, dependence,
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 4
age of first and regular use, together with prior and current treatment programs for alcohol and
nine categories of illicit drugs.
The results of the DUCO project cannot be generalised to all female offenders or all female drug
users in South Australia. The sentenced prisoners interviewed through this project represent a very
select group, which is likely to be biased toward repeat or chronic offenders and have a lower socioeconomic status. They may also differ in their risk-taking behaviour that leads them to come to the
attention of police1.
DUCO is a self-report study and hence, has limitations relating to the willingness of individuals to
report sensitive information. Amongst incarcerated individuals, there may be a perception that
reporting such information would be self-incriminating. Also, as the questionnaire relates to events
that occurred over the individual’s lifetime, accuracy of memory may also be a limiting factor. As
this report focuses on only the South Australian component of DUCO and has a relatively small
sample size (n = 42), the range of statistical analyses outlined in this report are limited. It is difficult
to provide meaningful comparisons of different demographic and offender groups within this
sample. Because of the small sample size, the majority of results are given as raw numbers, rather
than percentages.
The first section of this report details the demographic characteristics of the individuals
interviewed, including a summary of the nature of their current sentence. This section also
examines the offender’s experience of abuse, both as a child and as an adult, and mental health
issues. The second section provides an analysis of lifetime drug use, including use in the six
months prior to imprisonment and ‘regular’ drug use. Topics such as age of drug use and drug
dependence are also explored, with a specific focus on amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cannabis
and heroin. The third section looks at drugs and crime, including individuals’ involvement in both
buying and selling drugs and their drug use while offending. Property and violent offending is also
examined, including the reasons individuals gave for that offending. The age of onset of drug
dealing and ‘regular’ drug dealing is also examined. The final section of this report looks at the
specific offences of break and enter, theft, handle stolen goods and armed robbery.
For further information about the National DUCO sample, please refer to Johnson H., 2004. Drugs and Crime: A Study of Incarcerated
Female Offenders. Research and Public Policy Series No 63. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology
1
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 5
PROFILE OF OFFENDERS
Overview
Table 1 presents an overview of the demographic characteristics of the 42 individuals interviewed,
nine of whom identified themselves as Indigenous. The median age was 33.5 years. Most reported
that they had children (32 individuals), including 12 who reported having three or more children.
Table 1: Demographic characteristics of individuals interviewed
42
Total number interviewed
9
Indigenous
33.5 years
Median age
Have children
32
Have three or more children
12
Currently married or in a defacto relationship
12
Have finished Year 10
28
9
Have finished Year 12
Completed TAFE
16
Lived in Housing Trust home prior to arrest
17
Six months prior to arrest, received money from
Ever been in juvenile detention (not remand)
7
34
10
10
8
Ever prior been in adult detention (not remand)
18
‘High’ on illegal drugs at time of offence for which presently incarcerated
22
Withdrawal symptoms at time of offence for which presently incarcerated
12
Currently incarcerated for a property offence
22
Currently incarcerated for a violent offence
19
Full/ part time work
Welfare/ government benefit
Theft/ burglary
Drug dealing/ other drug crime
11
3
1 year
Currently sentenced for 10 years or more
Currently sentenced to Governor’s Pleasure
Median time served on current sentence
Median total time served in juvenile and adult institutions ever
1 year, 10 months
Received a diagnosis for a mental health problem
22
Parent had a drug or alcohol problem while growing up
19
11
16
7
Mother had a drug or alcohol problem
Father had a drug or alcohol problem
Siblings had a drug or alcohol problem while growing up
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
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Demographics
Figure 1 shows a broad distribution of ages amongst both Indigenous and non-Indigenous
individuals. The peak age for both groups was 25-29 years (11 individuals) followed by 35-39 years
(9).
Figure 1: Age distribution of individuals interviewed by Indigenous status
Number of individuals
Indigenous
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
non-Indigenous
(n = 42)
8
7
5
4
4
4
3
2
2
1
18-19
1
1
40+
45+
0
0
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
Age group (years)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
As shown in Figure 2, about four in ten of the individuals (17 of 42) reported that they were
separated or divorced, while just over one quarter (12) indicated that they were single and had never
been married.
Figure 2: Individuals’ current marital status
Seperated or Divorced
(17)
(n = 42)
Widowed (1)
Married (3)
Single and have never
been married (12)
De Facto (9)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 7
Around three quarters of the individuals interviewed reported that they had children. As shown in
Figure 3, 20 individuals reported having just one or two children, while 12 individuals reporting
having three or more.
Figure 3: Number of children per individual
Number of individuals
12
11
10
(n = 42)
9
10
8
6
4
4
4
2
2
2
0
No
Children
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Number of children
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 4 shows the main type of accommodation in which individuals reportedly lived during the
six months prior to the offence for which they were currently imprisoned. As shown, 25 reported
living in a house that they rented or owned, while eight reported living in somebody else’s house.
Of these 33 individuals, 17 reported that they were living in public housing. Four respondents
reported that they were living on the street with no fixed address, while one was in a shelter or
emergency housing.
Figure 4: Type of accommodation in which individuals were mainly living during the six
months prior to the offence for which they are were currently imprisoned.
Number of individuals
30
25
(n = 42)
25
20
public housing
non-public housing
12
15
8
10
5
0
13
5
3
4
1
1
3
House/ apartment Someone else's Other houshold
rented or owned
house or
location
apartment
Shelter or
energency
housing
On the street
with no fixed
address
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
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Page 8
Other
Figure 5 shows that all but one individual had completed primary school, while 28 had completed
Year 10 and nine completed Year 12. Interestingly, 18 had completed a TAFE or university course.
Figure 5: Education levels that individuals reported they had completed
41
Number of individuals
45
(n = 42)
40
35
28
30
25
16
20
15
9
10
2
5
0
Primary school
Year 10
Year 12
TAFE
University
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Current sentence
As shown in Figure 6, the majority of individuals were serving a total sentence of six years or less
(28 out of 41 individuals), while four had a sentence longer than fifteen years and three were being
held at the Governor’s Pleasure2.
Figure 6: Length of total current sentence2
Number of individuals
6
5
4
5
4
(n = 41)
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
1
0
2
1
0
0
<1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
10
11
12
0
13
1
1
0
14
15
16
17
18 *GP
Total sentence (years)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: There was one individual who did not report the length of their current sentence
2 *Governor's Pleasure refers to an exercise of crown prerogative in relation to the ongoing detention of persons. Detention orders in
such cases are usually indeterminate.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 9
Figure 7 shows the number of years that individuals had actually served on their current sentence.
As shown, 18 individuals had served less than one year, while 11 had served one year. Only eight
individuals had already served three or more years.
Number of individuals
Figure 7: Time served on current sentence
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
18
(n = 41)
11
4
1
<1
1
2
2
1
3
4
5
6
2
1
0
0
7
8
9
0
0
0
10
11
12
1
13
Time served (years)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: There was one individual who did not report how much of their current sentence they had served
Figure 8 details the main offence for which individuals were currently imprisoned. As shown, nine
were imprisoned for robbery and extortion offences, while six were imprisoned for each of the
offences of homicide and theft.
Figure 8: Main offence for which individuals were currently imprisoned
(n = 41)
6
Homicide
4
Acts intended to cause injury
1
Sexual assault
9
Robbery and extortion
3
UEWI/B&E
6
Theft
5
Deception
4
Drug offences
1
Public order
2
Justice procedures
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Number of individuals
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: There was one individual who did not the main offence for which they are currently incarcerated. If individuals listed two offences,
the offence that is higher in the ASOC hierarchy is shown in this analysis.
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Page 10
Experiences of abuse
Individuals were asked a series of questions in relation to both childhood abuse and abuse as an
adult. These questions were asked to measure the difference aspects of abuse that the individuals
had been victim to.
Childhood abuse
Table 2 shows the questions asked of individuals in relation to four different types of childhood
abuse.
Table 2: The questions that were asked in relation to child abuse
Thinking back to when you were growing up, did any of the following things happen to you?
Abuse type
Emotional abuse
Were you ever made to feel very sad, bad or frightened?
Physical abuse
Were you ever pushed around, hit, kicked or beaten?
Were you ever touched or kissed in a way that made you feel uncomfortable or made to
do something sexually that you didn’t want to do?
Sexual abuse
Were you ever left alone as a child, didn’t have enough to eat, or had inadequate
clothing?
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Neglect
Figure 9 shows the number of individuals who reported that they had experienced such forms of
abuse while growing up. As indicated, 28 individuals reported that they had experienced emotional
abuse, while 20 reported that they had experienced physical abuse.
Figure 9: Types of abuse individuals experienced while growing up
28
Type of abuse
Emotional abuse
20
Physical abuse
15
Sexual abuse
10
Neglect
0
5
10
15
20
Number of Individuals
25
30
(n = 41)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: One individual refused to answer this question.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 11
Figure 10 shows the respondent’s relationship to the alleged perpetrators of the incidents of abuse.
As shown, three quarters of those individuals who were abused emotionally and physically reported
that their mother/father was involved in this abuse. Of those 15 individuals who reported that they
had been sexually abused, four reported that this abuse was perpetrated by siblings, while four
reported that it was family friends/acquaintances. Of the 10 individuals who reported that they had
been neglected while growing up, all attributed this neglect to their parents.
Figure 10: Alleged perpetrators who were involved in incidents of abuse while
respondent was growing up
Number of Individuals
25
21
20
15
15
10
10
5
0
Mother/ father
6
5
1
0
Emotional abuse
(n = 28)
4
1
1
Physical abuse
(n = 20)
Brothers/ sisters
3
3
4 4
5
2
0 0
Sexual abuse
(n = 15)
0 0
Neglect
(n = 10)
Type of abuse
Family friend/ acquaintance
Stranger
Other
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Abuse as an adult
Table 3 shows the questions asked of individuals in relation to three different types of abuse that
they may have experienced as an adult.
Table 3: The questions that were asked in relation to abuse as an adult
Abuse type
As an adult, have any of the following things happen to you?
Emotional abuse
Were you ever made to feel very sad, bad or frightened?
Physical abuse
Were you ever pushed around, hit, kicked or beaten?
Were you ever touched or kissed in a way that made you feel uncomfortable or made to
do something sexually that you didn’t want to do?
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Sexual abuse
As Figure 11 shows, 33 individuals reported that they had experienced emotional abuse, while 29
reported that they had experienced physical abuse as an adult.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 12
Figure 11: Types of abuse individuals experienced as an adult
33
Type of abuse
Emotional abuse
29
Physical abuse
15
Sexual abuse
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
(n = 41)
Number of Individuals
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: One individual refused to answer this question.
Of those individuals who had been abused, Figure 12 indicates that nearly all had been abused by
their spouse/partner (31 of the 33 who had experienced emotional abuse, 28 of the 29 who
experienced physical abuse and 13 of the 15 who had experienced sexual abuse).
Figure 12: Alleged perpetrators who were involved in incidents of abuse when
respondent was an adult
Number of Individuals
35
28
25
20
13
15
10
5
0
Spouse/ partner
31
30
4
3
1
3
Emotional abuse
(n = 33)
Other family members
0
1
0
1
0
1
2
1
Physical abuse
Sexual abuse
(n = 29)
(n = 15)
Type of abuse
Family friend/ acquiantance
Stranger
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 13
Other
Emotional and mental health
Individuals were asked a series of questions regarding their mental health while they were growing
up. Possible responses to each of these questions were ‘never’, ‘rarely’, ‘sometimes’ or ‘often’.
Figure 13 shows the number of individuals who reported ‘often’ to each of the questions. As
indicated, 25 individuals reported that they were often very sad while growing up, while 21 reported
that they were often anxious or stressed, or had arguments/fights.
Figure 13: Number of Individuals who reported that they ‘often’ had mental health
concerns
25
Were you very sad
21
How often...
Were you anxious or stressed
21
Did you have arguments/ fights
18
Did you think bad thoughts
18
Were you fearful/ distrustful of people
16
Didn't care what happened to you
15
Did you have nightmares
0
5
10
15
20
Number of Individuals
25
30
Eå=Z=QOF
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
There were 32 individuals who reported that at least one of the items listed in Figure 13 had
significantly interfered with their life at some stage. There were also 33 individuals who reported
that their emotional or mental health status had significantly interfered with their lives during the
six months prior to being arrested for the offences for which they were now in prison.
There were 22 individuals who indicated that they had been diagnosed with a mental health
problem, including 17 who were diagnosed with some form of depression.
There were 38 individuals who reported that they had sought some form of therapy for a mental
health issue. Figure 14 shows that of these 38, 33 individuals reported that they had sought the
services of a psychologist, counsellor or social worker.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 14
Number of
Individuals
Figure 14: Number of individuals who sought therapy for a mental health problem
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
33
Eå=Z=QOF
25
19
12
Psychiatrist/ doctor
Psychologist/
counsellor/ social
worker
Other intervention
Natural/ alternative
therapist
therapies saught
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 15 shows the number of individuals who received various types of interventions for mental
health problems and their rating of its effectiveness. Overall, 34 individuals received intervention
from a psychologist, counsellor or social worker, with 21 of these individuals rating this as effective
or very effective.
Number of Individuals
Figure 15: Number of individuals who received interventions by the individual’s rating of
the effectiveness of the intervention
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
34
bÑÑÉÅíáîÉL=sÉêó=ÉÑÑÉÅíáîÉ
25
24
21
15
10
3
4
11
Psychiatrist/
doctor
9
9
Psychologist/
counsellor/
social worker
6
Other
intervention
kÉáíÜÉê=ÉÑÑÉÅíáîÉ=åçê=áåÉÑÑÉÅíáîÉ
sÉêó=áåÉÑÑÉÅíáîÉL=áåÉÑÑÉÅíáîÉ
12
3
10
Medication
14
8
13
11
4
Hospitalisation
Natural/
alternative
therapist
Interventions received
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 15
Summary
There was a wide range of ages amongst the individuals interviewed, ranging from 19 years to
55 years. The median age was 33.5 years.
Around one in five (9 individuals) were Indigenous, while around three quarters of individuals
reported that they have children, including 12 who reported having three or more children.
Two thirds of individuals reported that their current sentence was six years or less.
Conversely, there were ten individuals who reported that their current sentence was ten years
or more, including three individuals who were being held at the Governor’s Pleasure.
Nine individuals indicated that the main offence for which they were currently imprisoned was
a robbery and extortion offence, while six were imprisoned for homicide and six for theft
offences.
Two thirds of individuals reported that they had experienced emotional abuse while growing
up, while around half indicated that they had experienced physical abuse. Also, around one
third reported that they had been victims of sexual abuse and around one in four had been
neglected. In the majority of cases, the perpetrators of these types of abuse were the
individual’s parent(s).
Over three quarters of individuals had also been victims of emotional abuse, while around two
thirds reported that they had experienced physical abuse as an adult. Also, around one third
reported that they had been victims of sexual abuse as an adult. The overwhelming majority of
the perpetrators of this type of abuse were their spouses or partners.
The majority of individuals interviewed were regarded as having mental health issues while
they were growing up. Nearly two thirds reported that they ‘often’ felt very sad, while half
reported that they were ‘often’ anxious or stressed or that they had arguments or fights. Over
three quarters of individuals reported that their mental health issues significantly interfered
with their lives during the six months prior to arrest.
Around half of the individuals reported that they had been diagnosed with some form of
mental health problem, including over one third who were diagnosed with depression.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 16
DRUG USE
This section analyses data relating to the individuals’ self-reported drug use. Lifetime prevalence,
use in the six months prior to arrest and regular use of drugs are investigated, as well as issues such
as age of first use and drug dependence. Also included are analyses of each type of drug, focusing
on such topics as licit and illicit use, age of first and regular use, and frequency of use. Information
on alcohol use is also included, as well as a section on drug and alcohol treatment programs. The
final section looks at comparisons of drug use between the South Australian sample and the
combined sample from all jurisdictions interviewed as part of the DUCO project.
Overview of drug use
Most individuals reported that they had used drugs at some stage in their lives. As shown in Figure
16, almost nine in ten (37 of the 42 individuals) reported that they had used at least one type of
drug, while 30 individuals reported that they had used at least two types of drugs. More than half
(23 individuals) reported that they had used at least six types of drugs, while one third (14) had used
eight or nine different types.
Figure 16: Number of drug types used over lifetime
(n = 42)
Number of individuals
10
9
8
7
6
5
8
7
6
5
5
4
3
4
3
2
1
0
2
2
0
No drugs
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 17 shows the types of drugs that individuals reported using over their lifetime. As shown,
cannabis was the most common drug used (35 individuals) followed by amphetamines (30). There
were 27 individuals who reported using benzodiazepines, while 26 reported using hallucinogens.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 17
Figure 17: Lifetime prevalence of drug use by drug type
40
35
Number of individuals
(n = 42)
35
30
27
30
26
25
20
22
20
19
19
13
15
10
5
0
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines
Cannabis
Cocaine
Hallucinogens
Morphine
Ecstasy
Heroin
Street
methadone
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Includes licit and illicit drug use
Over three quarters (32 of the 42 individuals surveyed) reported using at least one drug in the six
months prior to arrest. As shown in Figure 18, 22 individuals reported using multiple types of
drugs, while six individuals reported that they had used at least seven or more types of drugs over
this period.
Figure 18: Number of drug types used in the six months prior to arrest
Number of individuals
12
10
10
9
10
(n = 42)
8
6
4
3
2
1
2
0
2
No drugs
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
3
1
1
Six
Seven
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 18
Eight
Nine
Figure 19 shows the number of individuals who reported using each type of drug in the six months
prior to being arrested. As with lifetime prevalence of drug use, cannabis and amphetamines were
reportedly used by the highest number of individuals (25 and 18 respectively). However, the
number of individuals reporting heroin and benzodiazepines use in this period was also quite high
(15 and 14 respectively) while in contrast, use of hallucinogens and cocaine was comparatively low
(five individuals per category).
Figure 19: Drug use in the six months prior to arrest by drug type
Number of individuals
30
(n = 42)
25
25
20
18
15
14
15
7
10
7
5
5
7
5
0
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines
Cannabis
Cocaine
Hallucinogens
Ecstasy
Morphine
Heroin
Street
methadone
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
In addition to lifetime drug use, and drug use in the six months prior to arrest, individuals were
asked whether they used drugs ‘regularly’3. As shown in Figure 20, 31 individuals reported that they
had ever used drugs ‘regularly’, including 28 who reported regular use of two or more types of
drugs. In contrast, around one quarter (11 individuals) reported that they had never used drugs
‘regularly’, while three individuals reported regular use of only one type of drug.
3 There was no set definition of ‘regular’ drug use.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 19
Figure 20: Number of drug types ever used ‘regularly’
11
Number of individuals
12
(n = 42)
10
8
8
8
6
6
4
3
4
1
2
0
1
0
0
No drugs
One
Two
Three
Four
Five
Six
Seven
Eight
Nine
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 21 shows the type of drugs that individuals reported that they had ever ‘regularly’ used.
Amphetamines and cannabis were identified more than other drugs as having been used ‘regularly’
(24 individuals each), followed by heroin (19) and benzodiazepines (18).
Figure 21: Ever ‘regularly’ used drugs by drug type
Number of individuals
30
(n = 42)
24
24
25
20
19
18
15
10
0
5
4
5
4
2
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines
Cannabis
Cocaine
Hallucinogens
Ecstasy
Morphine
Heroin
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 20
4
Street
methadone
National comparisons of reported drug use
As mentioned earlier, the female component of DUCO operated in five other jurisdictions across
Australia, including Queensland, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania and the Northern
Territory4. The following graphs provide a comparison between South Australia and the entire
female DUCO sample. Caution should be exercised when interpreting differences in percentages
due to the relatively small sample size in South Australia.
Figure 22 shows that a higher percentage of individuals interviewed in South Australia reported
having ever used drugs compared to the national DUCO sample. This was the case for each drug
type, with the biggest difference observed for benzodiazepines (52% of South Australian
respondents compared to 31% nationally) and amphetamines (71% compared to 61%).
Figure 22: Percentage of individuals who reported use of each drug: the South Australian
sample compared to the national sample
90
80
Percentage
70
83
71
South Australia (n = 42)
78
National DUCO sample (n = 470)
67
61
60
52
50
40
54
52
45
46
42
31
30
20
10
0
Benzodiazepines*
Amphetamines*
Cocaine
Cannabis
Other**
Heroin
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: National DUCO sample refers to those individuals who were interviewed in any of the six jurisdictions that the female component
of DUCO operated. Note: * Refers to illicit use only ** Includes hallucinogens, ecstasy, street methadone and illicit use of morphine.
Note: Percentages that are calculated using low numbers should be treated with caution
There was a total of 470 females interviewed in the five jurisdictions across Australia in 2003. For further information, refer to Johnson
H., 2004. Drugs and Crime: A Study of Incarcerated Female Offenders. Research and public policy series no 63. Canberra: Australian Institute of
Criminology
4
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 21
Similarly, Figure 23 shows that for each of the six drug categories listed, a higher percentage of
individuals interviewed in South Australia also reported use of illegal drugs in the six months prior
to arrest compared to the national DUCO sample. The size of this difference generally appears to
be greater than that reported for use of drugs ‘ever’. A higher percentage of individuals interviewed
in South Australia reported illegal use of benzodiazepines (33% compared to 15% of the national
sample), cannabis (60% compared to 40%) and heroin (36% compared to 27%).
Figure 23: Percentage of individuals who reported use of each drug in the six months
prior to arrest: the South Australian sample compared to the national sample
60
60
Percentage
50
40
South Australia (n = 42)
National DUCO sample (n = 470)
43
37
40
36
33
27
30
20
15
26
16
12
6
10
0
Benzodiazepines*
Amphetamines*
Cocaine
Cannabis
Other**
Heroin
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: National DUCO sample refers to those individuals who were interviewed in any of the six jurisdictions that the female component
of DUCO operated. Note: * Refers to illicit use only ** Includes hallucinogens, ecstasy, street methadone and illicit use of morphine.
Note: Percentages that are calculated using low numbers should be treated with caution
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 22
Age of drug use
Individuals were asked at what age they first used and first began ‘regularly’ using each type of drug.
As shown in Figure 24, cannabis was first used at the youngest age (15 years), followed by
benzodiazepines and hallucinogens (16 years for each drug). Ecstasy was reportedly first used at
the oldest mean age (26.5 years). This may be because this drug was not as readily available when
this group was at a younger age and that this drug is usually seen as a ‘party’ drug and typically used
by a different demographic of people.
Figure 24: Median age of first use by drug type
26.5
30
Age (years)
25
22
22
17.5
20
16
16
15
18
20
15
10
5
0
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines
Cannabis
(n = 30)
(n = 27)
(n = 33)
Cocaine
(n = 19)
Hallucinogens
Ecstasy
(n = 20)
(n = 26)
Morphine
Heroin
(n = 22)
(n = 18)
Street
methadone
(n = 12)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Individuals who did not provide their age at first use are excluded from this analysis
As shown in Figure 25, cannabis was first ‘regularly’ used at the youngest age (15 years), followed
by benzodiazepines, hallucinogens and heroin (16 years for each drug).
Figure 25: Median age of ‘regular’ use by drug type
30
Age (years)
25
20
24
18.5
16
24.5
21.5
16
15
17
16
15
10
5
0
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines (n = 18)
Cannabis
(n = 24)
(n = 24)
Cocaine
(n = 2)
Ecstasy
(n = 4)
Hallucinogens
(n = 5)
Heroin
(n = 19)
Morphine
Street
(n = 4)
methadone
(n = 4)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 23
Money spent on drugs
Figure 26 shows the number of individuals who reported spending at least some money on drugs in
the six months prior to arrest, with a further disaggregation provided on those who spent ‘some but
less than half’ compared with ‘half or more’. As shown, 15 individuals reported spending at least
some money on amphetamines, while 14 reported spending money on cannabis. Of the 13
individuals who reported spending money on heroin, the majority (10) reported spending half or
more of their money on the drug.
Figure 26: Proportion of money that individuals spent on drugs during the six months
prior to arrest
16
15
14
14
Number
12
(n = 42)
13
1
Half or more
9
7
At least some, less
than half
10
1
8
6
4
10
13
8
8
2
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines
Cannabis
3
2
2
0
5
4
4
Cocaine
2
3
3
3
Hallucinogens
Ecstasy
2
Heroin
1
1
Morphine
Street
methadone
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug dependence
To provide a measure of drug dependency, a set of six questions were asked in relation to both
alcohol and drug use in the six months prior to arrest. Individuals who responded positively to
three or more questions were regarded as being ‘dependent’ on alcohol or drugs. As shown in
Table 4, six individuals were considered alcohol dependent, while over half (23 individuals) were
regarded as drug dependent.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 24
Table 4: Number of Individuals who responded positively to dependency items
Alcohol
Drugs
Have you spent more time using than intended?
7
21
Have you neglected responsibilities because of use?
6
21
Have you wanted to cut down on use?
5
21
Has anyone objected to your use?
5
21
Have you frequently found yourself thinking about using?
5
25
10
24
Have you used to relieve feelings of unhappiness/anger or boredom?
Dependent (‘Yes’ to three or more questions)
Number Interviewed
6
23
42
42
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 27 shows the preferred drug of choice of individuals in the six months prior to arrest by
whether or not they were classified as drug dependent5. As indicated, all but one individual who
reported that amphetamines was their drug of choice were regarded as drug dependent. This was
also the case for heroin, while all four individuals who reported benzodiazepines as their drug of
choice were drug dependent. In contrast, only one of the six individuals who reported that
cannabis was their preferred drug was regarded as dependent.
Figure 27: Drug of choice by whether individual was drug dependent
Number of individuals
12
10
9
Not drug dependent
10
8
6
(n = 32)
Drug dependent
6
4
9
1
8
4
2
0
1
Amphetamines
1
5
4
1
1
Benzodiazepines
Cannabis
Cocaine
Heroin
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Only individuals who reported using drugs in the six months prior to arrest were asked their drug of choice.
5
It was not possible to determine whether the dependency is for the drug of choice due to the high levels of multiple drug use.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 25
There were 22 individuals who reported that while they were growing up, a member of their family
had a drug or alcohol problem. As shown in Figure 28, of these individuals, over three quarters
(18) were regarded as drug dependent. In comparison, of the 19 individuals who reported that no
members of their family had a drug problem while growing up, only one quarter (5) were regarded
as drug dependent.
Figure 28: Number of individuals who were drug dependent by whether their family
members had a drug or alcohol problem while the respondent was growing up
18
(n = 41)
Number of individuals
20
18
16
Not drug
dependent
14
14
Drug dependent
12
10
8
5
6
4
4
2
0
No family members have had drug
or alcohol problem
Family members have had drug or
alcohol problem
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: There was one individual who did not report if a family member had a drug problem while growing up.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 26
Amphetamines
As mentioned earlier, 30 individuals reported using amphetamines ‘ever’, 18 reported using in the
six months prior to arrest and 24 reported that they had ever ‘regularly’ used amphetamines.
Figure 29: Amphetamines use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever
‘regularly’ used
35
n = 42
30
30
24
Number
25
18
20
15
10
5
0
Ever used
Used in six months prior to
arrest
Ever 'regularly' used
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Of those 30 individuals who reported ‘ever’ using amphetamines most indicated only illicit use
while three individuals reported both licit and illicit use.
As shown in Figure 30, of the 18 individuals who reported using amphetamines in the six months
prior to arrest, 11 reported using at least once per day, including six who reported using several
times a day.
Figure 30: Amphetamines: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest
7
6
5
6
4
Number
5
3
4
3
2
1
0
0
Less than
monthly
One to several
times a month
One to several
times a week
Once a day
Several times a
day
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 27
Age of ‘first and ‘regular’ amphetamines use
Figure 31 shows the age at which individuals reported first using and first ‘regularly’ using
amphetamines. As shown, half of the 30 individuals who reported ‘ever’ using this drug first used it
between the ages of 14 and 17 years, while nine individuals who reported using amphetamines
‘regularly’ also did so at this age.
Figure 31 Amphetamines: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use
15
Number
16
14
First use
(n = 30)
12
Regular use
(n = 24)
9
10
7
8
6
6
6
6
4
2
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
2
0
<10
10 - 13
14-17
18-20
21-24
25-29
30+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
As shown in Figure 32, of the 30 individuals who reported ‘ever’ using amphetamines, 21 reported
beginning ‘regular’ use of amphetamines within the same year that they first used the drug. Only
three individuals reported that they began ‘regular’ use of amphetamines a year or more after they
first used, while six individuals reported that they never became a ‘regular’ user of amphetamines.
Figure 32: Amphetamines use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use
25
21
n = 30
Number
20
15
6
10
1
5
0
Same year
1-2 years
2
0
3-5 years
6 years or more
Never a regular user
Number of years until regular use
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 28
Benzodiazepines
As mentioned earlier, 27 individuals reported using amphetamines ‘ever’, while 14 reported using in
the six months prior to arrest and 18 reported that they had ever ‘regularly’ used amphetamines.
Figure 33: Benzodiazepines use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever
‘regularly’ used
27
30
n = 42
Number
25
18
20
14
15
10
5
0
Ever used
Used in six months prior to
arrest
Ever 'regularly' used
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 34 shows that of the 27 individuals who reported ever using benzodiazepines, over half
reported both licit and illicit use of the drug, while five indicated that they had only used it licitly.
Figure 34: Benzodiazepines: Ever used by licit use or illicit use
licit use only (5)
both licit and illicit use
(15)
illicit use only (7)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 29
As shown in Figure 35, of the 14 individuals who reported using benzodiazepines in the six months
prior to arrest, seven reported using it several times a day in that period.
Figure 35: Benzodiazepines: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest
7
8
(n = 14)
7
6
Number
5
3
4
2
2
3
2
0
1
0
Less than
monthly
One to several
times a month
One to several
times a week
F
Once a day
Several times a
day
f
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Age of first and ‘regular’ benzodiazepines use
Figure 36 shows that, of the 27 individuals who indicated ever using benzodiazepines, one third (9
individuals) reported first use of this drug between the ages of 14 and 17 years, while eight of the 18
‘regular’ users also reported using benzodiazepines ‘regularly’ at this age.
Figure 36: Benzodiazepines: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use
10
First use
(n = 27)
Regular use
(n = 18)
9
9
8
8
Number
7
6
6
6
5
5
4
2
2
1
3
3
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
<10
10 - 13
14-17
18-20
21-24
25-29
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 30
30+
0
As shown in Figure 37, of the 27 individuals who reported ‘ever’ using benzodiazepines, almost two
thirds reported beginning ‘regular’ use within the same year as first use. Only one individual
reported that they began ‘regular’ use of benzodiazepines more than a year after they first used,
while nine individuals reported that they never became a ‘regular’ user of benzodiazepines.
Number
Figure 37: Benzodiazepines use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
17
n = 27
9
1
0
Same year
1-2 years
3-5 years
0
6 years or more
Never a regular user
Number of years until regular use
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 31
Cannabis
As shown in Figure 38, 35 individuals reported using cannabis ‘ever’, while 25 reported using it in
the six months prior to arrest and 24 reported that they had ever ‘regularly’ used cannabis.
Figure 38: Cannabis use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever ‘regularly’
used
40
n = 42
35
35
25
Number
30
24
25
20
15
10
5
0
Ever used
Used in six months prior to
arrest
Ever 'regularly' used
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
As shown in Figure 39, of the 25 individuals who reported using cannabis in the six months prior
to arrest, almost two thirds (16) reported using it several times a day.
Number
Figure 39: Cannabis: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
(n = 25)
16
3
1
Less than
monthly
One to several
times a month
F
2
One to several
times a week
f
3
Once a day
Several times a
day
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 32
Age of first and ‘regular’ cannabis use
Figure 40 shows that the majority of individuals reported both first using and first ‘regularly’ using
cannabis before the age of 18 years (28 out of 33 individuals and 19 out of 24, respectively).
Figure 40: Cannabis: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use
25
First use
(n = 33)
20
Number
20
Regular use
(n = 24)
14
15
8
10
5
5
0
3
2
0
<10
0
10 - 13
14-17
3
2
0
0
18-20
21-24
Age group (years)
25-29
0
0
30+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Two individuals did not report the age at which they first used cannabis
As shown in Figure 41, of the individuals who reported ‘ever’ using cannabis, just over half
reported beginning ‘regular’ use of the drug within the same year as first use. Seven individuals
reported that they began ‘regular’ use of cannabis a year or more after they first used, while nine
individuals reported that they never became a ‘regular’ user of cannabis.
Number
Figure 41: Cannabis use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
n = 33
17
9
3
3
1
Same year
1-2 years
3-5 years
6 years or more
Never a regular user
Number of years until regular use
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 33
Heroin
As shown in Figure 42, 22 individuals reported using heroin ‘ever’, 15 reported using in the six
months prior to arrest and 19 reported that they had ‘regularly’ used heroin.
Figure 42: Heroin use: ‘Ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever ‘regularly’
used
n = 42
22
25
19
Number
20
15
15
10
5
0
Ever used
Used in six months prior to
arrest
Ever 'regularly' used
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
As shown in Figure 43, of the 15 individuals who reported using heroin in the six months prior to
arrest, 10 reported using it several times a day.
Figure 43: Heroin: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest
12
10
Number
10
8
6
3
4
2
0
0
Less than
monthly
1
1
One to several
times a month
One to several
times a week
Frquency of use
Once a day
Several times a
day
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 34
(n = 15)
Age of first and ‘regular’ heroin use
Figure 44 shows the age at which individuals reported first using and first ‘regularly’ using heroin.
Of the 22 individuals reported ever using heroin, 10 did so between the ages 14 and 17 years. Ten
of the 19 regular heroin users also reported first regular use at this age.
Figure 44: Heroin: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use
12
10
First use
(n = 22)
Regular use
(n = 19)
10
10
Number
8
6
6
6
4
2
1
2
0
0
<10
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
10 - 13
14-17
18-20
21-24
Age group (years)
25-29
30+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
As shown in Figure 45, of the 22 individuals who reported ‘ever’ using heroin, 18 reported
beginning ‘regular’ use of heroin within the same year of first use, while only three individuals
reported that they never became a ‘regular’ user of heroin.
Number
Figure 45: Heroin use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
n = 33
17
9
3
3
1
Same year
1-2 years
3-5 years
6 years or more
Never a regular user
Number of years until regular use
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 35
Pathways of drug use
Figure 46 shows the mean age of first use for each drug type except street methadone. Only the 11
individuals who reported that they had used all of these eight drugs are included in the calculations
of the mean ages. As shown, on average, cannabis use occurred first, (13.7 years), while ecstasy was
used last (24.6 years).
Figure 46: Mean age of first drug use of individuals who had used selected drug types
24.6
25
17.4
Age (years)
20
15
17.7
18.4
19.0
20.7
n = 11
21.5
13.7
10
5
0
cannabis
benzodiazepines
heroin
hallucinogens
amphetamines
morphine
cocaine
ecstasy
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 47 shows the mean age at which individuals reported that they first used and first ‘regularly’
used cannabis, benzodiazepines and amphetamines. Only those 12 individuals who reported using
each of those drugs ‘regularly’ are included in this analysis. As shown, first use of cannabis
occurred at the youngest age (a mean of 13.7 years), followed by benzodiazepines (17.2 years) and
amphetamines (19.3 years). Among this sample, there was a two year gap between first and regular
use of cannabis, while those who used benzodiazepines and amphetamines began ‘regular’ use of
that drug at the same age as first using it.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 36
Figure 47: Mean age of first and ‘regular’ drug use of individuals who had used selected
drug types ‘regularly’
Age (years)
20
15
15.9
17.2
17.2
19.3
19.3
13.7
10
5
0
First used
cannabis
Regularly used
Regularly used
Regularly used
amphetamines
cannabis
First used benzodiazepines First used
amphetamines
benzodiazepines
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 37
(n = 12)
Alcohol use
As shown in Figure 48, 40 individuals reported that they had used alcohol, while 22 reported using
in the six months prior to arrest. There were 15 individuals who reported that they had ever
‘regularly’ used alcohol.
Number
Figure 48: Alcohol use: ‘ever’ used, used in six months prior to arrest, or ever ‘regularly’
used
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
n = 42
40
22
15
Ever used
Used in six months prior to
arrest
Ever 'regularly' used
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 49 indicates that, of the 22 individuals who reported using alcohol in the six months prior to
arrest, six reported using it several times a day.
Figure 49: Alcohol: Frequency of use in six months prior to arrest
7
6
5
6
5
Number
5
4
3
3
3
2
1
0
Less than
monthly
One to several
times a month
One to several
times a week
Once a day
Several times a
day
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 38
(n = 25)
Age of first and ‘regular’ alcohol use
Figure 50 shows the age at which individuals reported first using and first ‘regularly’ using alcohol.
As shown, the majority of individuals who reported ‘ever’ using or ‘regularly’ using alcohol did so
before the age of 18 years (33 out of 37 individuals who ever used alcohol and 12 out of 15 who
‘regularly’ used alcohol).
Figure 50: Alcohol: Age at first use and age at onset of ‘regular’ use
24
25
First use
(n = 37)
20
Regular use
(n = 15)
Number
15
10
10
6
3
5
2
1
0
0
<10
10 - 13
14-17
3
1
0
18-20
21-24
Age group (years)
0
0
0
25-29
2
30+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Three individuals did not report the age at which they first used alcohol
As shown in Figure 51, of the 37 individuals who reported ‘ever’ using alcohol, six indicating
beginning ‘regular’ use within the same year as first use. There were 22 individuals who reported
that they never became a ‘regular’ user of alcohol.
Figure 51: Alcohol use: Number of years between first and ‘regular’ use
22
25
Number
20
15
10
6
3
3
3
5
0
Same year
1-2 years
3-5 years
6 years or more
Never a regular user
Number of years until regular use
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 39
n = 37
Drug treatment programs
There were 26 individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ been involved in some form of drug or
alcohol treatment program, including 14 who reported that they were currently in such a program.
Figure 52 shows the types of programs that individuals reported that they had been involved with,
as well as the main program that they were currently in. As shown, 15 individuals reported that
they had attended a methadone maintenance program at some stage in their lives, although none
were currently in such a program. A total of 13 individuals reported that they had undergone
detoxification, including 10 who reported that this was the main program that they were currently
involved in. Of the 14 individuals who reported that they were currently in a drug or alcohol
program, 11 reported that they were being treated for heroin or morphine use.
Number of Individuals
Figure 52: The number of individuals ‘ever’ or currently in a treatment program
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
15
13
Main program currently in
9
Ever been in program
10
7
7
10
3
3
4
3
3
Outpatient/
Rehab.
counselling
program/
Therapeutic Counselling
Detoxification
Support
group
Methadone
Maintenance
Naltrexone Buprenorphine GP based
treatment
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
There were 16 individuals who reported that while they were growing up, their father or stepfather
had had either a drug or alcohol problem. This included six individuals who reported that their
father/stepfather had a drug problem, while the remainder had an alcohol problem only. In
addition, 11 individuals reported that their mother/stepmother had a drug or alcohol problem
while they were growing up, including five who reported that their mother/stepmother had a drug
problem.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 40
Summary
The overwhelming majority of individuals interviewed reported that they had used at least one
drug, while around three quarters reported that they had used at least three different types of
drugs over their lifetime.
The most common drugs ‘ever’ used by individuals were cannabis, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines and heroin. These drugs were also most commonly identified to being used
in the six months prior to arrest and being ever used ‘regularly’.
Comparisons of the South Australian data with the National results are very difficult due to the
low number of individuals interviewed in South Australia. However, the prevalence of drug
use amongst South Australia women prisoners appears to be higher than that of those
interviewed across Australia as part of the DUCO project, in terms of both lifetime use and
use in the six months prior to arrest.
Cannabis was the first drug to be used by individuals and the first drug to be ‘regularly’ used.
Benzodiazepines and hallucinogens were the drugs most likely to be used at the next youngest
age. Ecstasy was the drug that was first used at the oldest median age.
Just over one third of individuals reported spending at least some of their money on
amphetamines in the six months prior to arrest, half of whom reported spending at least half
of their money on the drug. Just under one third of individuals reported that they had spent
money on heroin, the majority of whom reported that they spent at least half of their money
on that drug.
Using a six item questionnaire, over half of the individuals were classified as being drug
dependent, including nine of the ten individuals who reported that amphetamines was their
preferred drug and eight out of nine who indicated that heroin was their preferred drug.
The majority of individuals whose parents had a drug or alcohol problem while they were
growing up were regarded as having a drug problem also.
Fifteen of the 42 individuals interviewed reported using heroin in the six months prior to
arrest. Workers in the field suggested that this figure may be an over representation of heroin
use due to individuals being arrested before the heroin drought in Australia occurred. They
noted that heroin use in the six months prior to arrest amongst individuals arrested since 2003
would be expected to be lower.
Nearly all individuals indicated that they had used alcohol at some stage during their lives,
including around half who reported using drugs in the six months prior to arrest. The overwhelming majority indicated that their first use and first ‘regular’ use of alcohol occurred as a
juvenile.
Over half of the individuals reported that they had ever been in a drug or alcohol treatment
program, including 15 who had been in methadone maintenance, ten who had received
counselling and nine who had been in a rehabilitation program. Thirteen individuals had been
in a detoxification program, including ten who were currently receiving that treatment. Also,
seven individuals were on a buprenorphine program as a treatment for heroin dependence,
including four who reported that they were currently in such a program.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 41
DRUGS AND CRIME
This section looks at the relationship between illegal drug use and crime. Although the number of
individuals interviewed in South Australia was too low to do any meaningful comparisons of drug
use and offending between groups within the sample, some interesting indicators of the links
between drugs and crime are presented. The first two parts focus on the individual’s history of
both buying and selling illegal drugs, while the third part looks at drug-related offending. The
fourth and fifth parts look at violent and property offending respectively, including the reasons
individuals attributed to this behaviour. The final part of this section looks at the pathways to drug
dealing, including the age of onset of drug using, and buying and selling drugs.
Bought illegal drugs
Figure 53 details the number of individuals who reported that they had ever bought or regularly
bought illegal drugs and the number who reported that these offences had resulted in police
charges, convictions or prison sentences. As shown, 30 out of the 42 individuals reported that they
had both ever and ‘regularly’ bought illegal drugs. The definition of ‘regular’ was dependent upon
the individual’s perception but when asked, 20 reported that this was at least once per day.
There were nine individuals who reported that they had been charged for buying drugs, while four
individuals reported they had been convicted. There were no individuals who reported that this
had resulted in a prison sentence.
Figure 53: Number of individuals who reported ever buying or ever ‘regularly’ buying
illegal drugs and the number charged, convicted or imprisoned for this offence
35
30
(n = 42)
30
30
Number
25
20
15
9
10
4
0
5
0
ever bought
ever 'regularly'
bought
resulting in charge
resulting in conviction
resulting in prison
sentence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 42
Figure 54 shows the age at which individuals reported that they first bought illegal drugs and the
age at which this became a ‘regular’ activity. As indicated, around one third of individuals reported
that they had purchased their first drugs before they turned 15, while almost three quarters had
done so before the age of 20 years. For two thirds such purchases had become a regular activity
before the age of 20 years.
Figure 54: Bought illegal drugs: Age of first purchase and age this became a ‘regular’
activity
16
13
14
15
First bought
(n = 30)
first bought 'regularly'
(n = 30)
Number
12
9
10
8
6
5
6
4
2
0
5
5
2
0
<10
0
0
10-14
15 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 39
0
40+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
All individuals who had bought drugs reported doing so at least 100 times in their lifetime, while
the overwhelming majority reported doing so 500 or more times. All of these individuals reported
that the police never or rarely found out about these offences.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 43
Sold illegal drugs
Figure 55 shows the number of individuals who reported that they had ever sold illegal drugs and
the number who reported that these offences had resulted in police charges, convictions or prison
sentences. As shown, 21 out of the 42 individuals reported that they had ever sold illegal drugs,
while 15 reported that they had ‘regularly’ done so. The definition of ‘regular’ was dependent upon
the individual’s perception, but when asked, 12 reported that this was at least once per day.
There were six individuals who reported that they had been charged for selling drugs, including
four who reported that this resulted in a conviction and a prison sentence.
Figure 55: Number of individuals who reported ever selling or ever ‘regularly’ selling
drugs and the number charged, convicted or imprisoned for this offence
(n = 42)
25
21
Number
20
15
15
6
10
4
4
5
0
Ever sold
ever 'regularly'
sold
resulting in
charge
resulting in
conviction
resulting in
prison sentence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 56 shows the age at which individuals reported that they first sold and first ‘regularly’ sold
illegal drugs. As shown, the peak age group for both starting to sell and ‘regularly’ selling drugs was
15-19 years.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 44
Figure 56: Sold illegal drugs: Age of first sale and age this became a ‘regular’ activity
12
First sold
(n = 21)
first sold 'regularly'
(n = 15)
10
10
7
Number
8
6
6
4
2
4
3
4
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
<10
10-14
15 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 39
Age group (years)
40+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Of the 21 individuals who reported ever selling illegal drugs, 13 indicated that they had done so at
least 500 times in their lifetime6. All but one of these individuals reported that the police never or
rarely found out about these offences.
6
Three of the 21 individuals did not report how many times they had sold drugs or report if the police found out about the offence.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 45
Pathways to drug dealing
Figure 57 shows the reported mean age of individuals at the time of their first ‘ever’ and first
‘regular’ use of drugs as well as the mean age at which they first started buying and selling drugs.
Only the 13 individuals who reported that they had been involved in all of these activities were
included in this analysis. While caution should be exercised when interpreting these figures because
of the very small numbers involved, it does seem that individuals start with using drugs and then,
once the habit is established, they move on to buying drugs and finally selling drugs.
Figure 57: Mean age of first and ‘regular’ drug use, drug buying and drug selling
25
Age (years)
20
15
13.2
14.8
16.6
17.8
19.7
19.8
10
5
0
First used any First 'regularly'
drug
used any drug
First bought
illegal drugs
First regularly First sold illegal First regularly
drugs
sold illegal drugs
bought illegal
drugs
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 46
n = 13
Drug related offending
Individuals were asked if they were ‘high’ on illegal drugs at the time of committing the offence for
which they were currently in prison. Over half (22 of the 39 individuals7) reported that they were.
Figure 58 shows the type of offence that they had committed by whether they reported that they
were ‘high’ at the time. As indicated, all four individuals who were currently incarcerated for acts
intended to cause injury reported that they were ‘high’ at the time of offence, as were the majority
who committed theft or drug offences.
Number of Individuals
Figure 58: Main offence for which currently imprisoned by whether individual was ‘high’
on illegal drugs at the time of committing that offence
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
(n = 38)
8
6
5
4
1
4
4
1
4
4
1
Homicide
4
3
Acts
Sexual
intended to assault
cause injury
Robbery
and
extortion
High on
illegal drugs
4
5
2
4
1
1
UEWI/
B&E
Theft
3
1
Deception
Drug
offences
2
1
1
Not high on
illegal drugs
1
1
Public
Justice
order procedures
Main offence for which currently imprisonment
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: There was one individual who did not state the main offence for which they are currently incarcerated and three individuals who did
not report if they were ’high’ at the time of committing the offence. If individuals listed two offences, the offence that is higher in the
ASOC hierarchy was used.
Figure 59 shows the types of drugs that individuals reported using before committing the offence
for which they were currently imprisoned. Only the 22 individuals who indicated that they were
‘high’ at the time are included. As shown, 12 individuals reported that they had used cannabis, 10
reported that they had used amphetamines, while eight reported that they had used
benzodiazepines.
7
There were three individuals who did not indicate if they were ‘high’ on illegal drugs at the time of committing the offence.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 47
Figure 59: Types of drug that individuals reported that they had been using before
committing the offence for which they were currently imprisoned
Number of Individuals
14
12
10
8
12
(n = 22)
10
8
7
6
4
2
2
0
Benzodiazepines
Amphetamines
Cannabis
2
2
Cocaine
2
Hallucinogens
Ecstasy
Morphine
Heroin
2
Street
methadone
Type of drug
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Individuals were permitted to list multiple types of drug types.
There were also 12 individuals who reported that they were suffering withdrawal effects at the time
of committing the offences for which they were currently imprisoned.
Individuals were also asked what they thought was the main reason that they had committed the
offences for which they were currently imprisoned. There were 24 individuals who gave reasons
which related to their drug problem.
Figure 60 shows the main offence for which individuals were presently imprisoned by whether they
reported that the offence was related to their drug problem. As shown, seven of the nine
individuals who were imprisoned for a robbery and extortion offence reported that the offence was
related to their drug problem, while all of the six individuals imprisoned for theft reported that this
offence was related to their drug use.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 48
Number of Individuals
Figure 60: Main offence for which currently imprisoned by whether it was related to a
drug problem
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
9
6
2
6
Homicide
5
4
3
2
4
7
4
Drug related
(n = 24)
Not drug related
(n = 17)
2
6
1
2
3
Acts
Sexual Robbery and UEWI/
intended assault extortion B&E
to cause
injury
5
3
2
1
1
2
Theft Deception Drug Public order Justice
offences
procedures
Main offence for current imprisonment
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: There was one individual who did not state the main offence for which they are currently incarcerated. If individuals listed two
offences, the offence that is higher in the ASOC hierarchy was used.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 49
Drugs and property offences
Individuals were asked how often they had committed any property offences in the six months
prior to being arrested for the offence for which they were now in prison. Individuals were asked
to include such offences as break and enter, fraud, forgery, theft and shoplifting. As shown in
Figure 61, around one third (13 of the 42 individuals) reported that they had committed property
offences five to seven days per week in the six months prior to being arrest. Conversely, 11
individuals reported that they had committed no such offences in the past six months, while a
further 11 reported that they had never committed any property offences.
Figure 61: Number of individuals committing property offences in the six months prior to
arrest
Number of Individuals
14
(n = 42)
12
10
8
6
11
13
11
4
2
0
3
1
2
Never in my life none in the six less than once about monthly 1 day a week
months
per month
1
2-4 days a
week
5-7 days a
week
Frequency of property offences in the six months prior to arrest
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Individuals who committed property offences were read a list of reasons that people give to explain
why they do certain things. Individuals were asked how much each reason explained why they
committed property offences. As shown in Figure 62, 24 individuals cited ‘to support drug habit’
as the reason for their offending, including 23 individuals who reported that this was ‘a lot’ like
their reason. The next most common reasons for committing property offences were ‘to support
family/myself’ (20 individuals) and ‘I was drunk or high at the time of offence” (18).
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 50
Figure 62: Reasons individuals used to explain why they had ever committed property
offences
1
Reasons for committing property offence
to support drug habit
drunk or high at the time
10
13
5
3
just wanted money
6
6
unemployed
to repay debts
4
'kicks'
4
2
2
friends did this
3
1
4
lost temper
3
drugs (but I'm not an addict)
1
cannot explain why
4
4
3
2
2
urged to by friends
A lot
5
4
revenge
A little
5
3
1
its what I did as a living
(n = 30)
8
6
4
18
8
6
2
20
9
4
2
wanted to buy something
24
23
10
to support family/myself
3
2
0
5
10
15
20
25
Number of Individuals
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Only individuals who reported that they had ever committed property offences were required to answer this question. There was
one individual who did not report the reasons why they committed property offences
Figure 63 shows the frequency of property offending in the six months prior to arrest broken down
by some of the reasons given for committing those offences. As shown, half of the 24 individuals
who offended ‘to support drug habit’, reported committing property offences five to seven days per
week. The same frequency of offending was observed for at least half of those who said they
committed a property crime ‘to support family/myself’ or who were ‘drunk or high at the time’.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 51
Figure 63: Number of individuals committing property offences in the six months prior to
arrest for individuals who gave specific reasons for committing offences
Number of Individuals
14
10
8
6
6
12 12
to support drug habbit
(n = 24)
to support family/myself
(n = 20)
drunk or high at the time
(n = 18)
12
7
4
4
3
2
2
10
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0 0
0
none in the
six months
less than
once per
month
about
monthly
1 day a week 2-4 days a
week
5-7 days a
week
Frequency of property offences in the six months prior to arrest
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 52
Drugs and violent offences
Individuals were asked how often they had committed any violent offences in the six months prior
to being arrested for the offence for which they were now in prison. Individuals were asked to
include such offences as assault and armed or unarmed robbery. As shown in Figure 64, 19 of the
42 individuals reported that they had never committed a violent offence in their lifetime and a
further 10 reported that they had not committed any such offence in the past six months.
Conversely, four individuals reported that they had committed a violent offence at least weekly in
the six months prior to arrest.
Number of Individuals
Figure 64: Number of individuals committing violent offences in the six months prior to
arrest
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
19
(n = 42)
10
9
1
0
Never in my none in the less than
life
six months once per
month
about
monthly
1 day a
week
2
1
2-4 days a 5-7 days a
week
week
Frequency of violent offences in the six months prior to arrest
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 53
Individuals were given a list of reasons that explain why people do certain things and they were
asked to report if each of the reasons were ‘not at all’, ‘a little’ or ‘a lot’ like the ones that they would
use to explain why they were violent. As shown in Figure 65, 15 of the 23 individuals reported that
being drunk or high at the time was ‘a lot’ like their reason for committing the offence. There were
nine individuals who reported that they committed violent offences to get money for their drug
habit, while eight reported that their offending was due to losing their temper.
Reasons for committing violent
offence
Figure 65: Reasons individuals used to explain why they had ever committed violent
offences
15
Drunk or high at the time
1
To get money for drug habit
2
lost temper
1
revenge
1
A little
3
A lot
2
1
2
2
Friends did this
1
1
Its what I did as a living
1
1
urged to by friends
1
1
0
(n = 23)
6
3
2
Cannot explain why
8
6
3
To get money for other reasons
'kicks'
15
9
8
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Number of Individuals
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Note: Only individuals who reported that they had ever committed property offences were required to answer this question.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 54
16
Summary
All of the 30 individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ bought drugs also reported that they
had done so on a ‘regular’ basis. The majority of individuals reported that they had bought
drugs more than 500 times.
Around half of the individuals reported that they had ‘ever’ sold illegal drugs, while around one
third reported that they had ‘regularly’ sold drugs. The majority of individuals reported that
they began this behaviour between the age of 15 and 19 years.
Around one half of individuals reported that they were ‘high’ on illicit drugs while committing
the offence for which they are currently imprisoned. The most common drugs used prior to
this offending were cannabis, amphetamines, benzodiazepines and heroin.
When individuals were asked about the general reasons for committing the offences, over half
gave reasons relating to their drug use.
Three quarters of individuals reported that they had ‘ever’ committed property offences,
including 13 individuals who reported committing these offences at least five times per week.
Of these individuals, the majority reported that the reason they committed the offence was ‘to
support their drug habit’.
Of the 23 individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ committed violent offences, 15
reported that they were ‘drunk or high at the time’, while nine reported that they committed to
the offence ‘to get money for drug habit’.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 55
OFFENDING HISTORY
This section looks at the self-reported offending history of individuals for selected offence
categories. Although this section is not linked to drug use, it provides an important insight into the
individual’s involvement in criminal activities.
Overview of offending history
Figure 66 shows the number of individuals who reported that they had committed certain offences
regardless of whether the police found out about them. As shown, over half (24 individuals)
reported that they had committed theft, while 23 reported that they had handled stolen goods.
While there were seven individuals who reported that they had engaged in sex work, this is thought
to under-estimate the true level, due to an unwillingness to admit to such offending because of the
stigma attached to it.
Figure 66: Lifetime prevalence of offending by offence type
(n = 42)
Number of individuals
35
30
25
20
24
23
18
18
18
15
11
9
10
7
6
5
0
Break and
enter
Theft
Vandalism
Fraud
Handle
stolen
goods
Assault
Unarmed
robbery
Armed
robbery
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 56
Sex work
Break and enter
Figure 67 shows the number of individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ or ‘ever regularly’
committed a break and enter and the number who reported that these offences had resulted in
police charges, convictions or prison sentences. As shown, 18 out of the 42 individuals reported
that they had ‘ever’ committed break and enter offences, while 15 reported that they had done so
‘regularly’. The definition of ‘regular’ was dependent upon the individual’s perceptions, but when
asked, 12 of the 15 prisoners indicated that this was more than once per week.
Eleven individuals reported that they had committed break and enter offences that had resulted in
charges, convictions and a prison sentence.
Number
Figure 67: Break and enter: Number of individuals who reported ever committing or ever
‘regularly’ committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge,
conviction or prison sentence
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
18
(n = 42)
15
ever committed
ever 'regularly'
committed
11
11
resulting in
charge
resulting in
conviction
11
resulting in
prison sentence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 68 describes the age at which individuals reported that they first committed and began to
‘regularly’ commit break and enter offences. As shown, the peak age group for both first
committing and first ‘regularly’ committing break and enter offences was 15-19 years.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 57
Figure 68: Break and enter: Age of first offence and age offence became a ‘regular’
activity
8
7
7
First committed offence
(n = 18)
Offence became a 'regular' activity
(n = 15)
7
6
5
Number
5
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
0
3
0
0
<10
10-14
15 - 19
20 - 24
0
25 - 39
40+
Age group (years)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 69 shows the number of offences that individuals reported ‘ever’ committing by how often
the police found out who committed the offence. As shown, 11 of the 18 individuals reported that
they had committed 500 or more break and enter offences in their lifetime. All but one of these
individuals reported that the police never or rarely found out who committed the offences.
Figure 69: Break and enter: Number of offences ever committed by how often the police
found out about it
11
12
Most of the time/always
About half of the time
Never/rarely
Number
10
8
6
4
2
3
2
2
0
0
1-4
5 - 19
20 - 99
100 - 499
500+
Number of offences ever committed
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 58
Theft
Figure 70 shows the number of individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ or ‘regularly’ stolen
something from a person or place (including shoplifting) and the number who reported that these
offences had resulted in police charges, convictions or prison sentences. As shown, 24 out of the
42 individuals reported that they had committed theft offences, while 15 reported that they had
done so ‘regularly’. The definition of ‘regular’ was dependent upon the individual’s perception but
when asked, 12 of the 15 prisoners reported that this was at least once per week.
Eighteen of these 24 individuals reported that these offences had resulted in charges and
convictions, while 16 indicated that this had resulted in a prison sentence.
Figure 70: Theft: Number of individuals who reported ever committing, or ever ‘regularly’
committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge, conviction or prison
sentence
24
(n = 42)
25
18
Number
20
18
16
15
15
10
5
0
ever committed
ever 'regularly'
resulting in
charge
resulting in
conviction
resulting in
prison sentence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 71 shows that over half (14 of the 24 individuals) reported committing their first theft before
the age of 15 years, while 10 of the 15 individuals who stole ‘regularly’ reported doing so before the
age of 20 years.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 59
Figure 71: Theft: Age of first offence and age offence became a ‘regular’ activity
First committed offence
(n = 24)
Offence became a 'regular' activity
(n = 15)
9
10
9
8
7
7
7
5
Number
6
5
4
4
3
3
3
2
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
<10
10 - 14
15 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 39
40+
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 72 shows the number of thefts that individuals reported ‘ever’ committing by how often the
police found out who committed the offence. As shown, 10 individuals reported that they had
committed 500 or more theft offences in their lifetime and that the police never or rarely found out
who was responsible. Three of the four individuals who reported that they had only committed
theft on one to four occasions reported that the police found out about these half the time or more
frequently.
Figure 72: Theft: Number of offences ever committed by how often the police found out
about it
12
Number
10
7
8
6
4
3
4
2
0
10
Most of the time/always
About half of the time
Never/rarely
0
1-4
5 - 19
20 - 99
100 - 499
500+
Number of offences ever committed
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 60
Handle stolen goods
Figure 73 shows the number of individuals who reported that they had ‘ever’ or ‘regularly’ handled
stolen goods and the number who reported that these offences resulted in police charges,
convictions or prison sentences. As shown, 23 out of the 42 individuals reported that they had
handled stolen goods, while 21 reported that they had done so ‘regularly’. The definition of
‘regular’ was dependent upon the individual’s perception but when asked, 20 reported that this was
once per week or more.
Ten individuals reported that this offence had resulted in charges and convictions, while eight
reported that this offence had resulted in a prison sentence.
Figure 73: Handle stolen goods: Number of individuals who reported ever committing or
ever ‘regularly’ committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge,
conviction or prison sentence
25
23
(n = 42)
21
Number
20
15
10
10
8
10
5
0
ever committed
ever 'regularly'
resulting in charge
resulting in conviction
resulting in prison
sentence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 74 shows the age at which individuals reported that they first and ‘regularly’ handled stolen
goods. As shown, the peak age group for both first committing and first ‘regularly’ handling stolen
goods was 15-19 years.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 61
Figure 74: Handle stolen goods: Age of first offence and age offence became a ‘regular’
activity
First committed offence
(n = 23)
Offence became a 'regular' activity
(n = 21)
11
12
9
10
Number
8
6
5
6
3
4
2
0
0
4
3
3
0
0
<10
10-14
15 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 39
A
0
40+
(
)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 75 shows the number of handling stolen goods offences ever committed by how often the
police found out who committed the offence. As shown, 18 of the 23 individuals who admitted to
such behaviour reported that they had committed 500 or more such offences in their lifetime. All
but one of the 23 individuals reported that the police never or rarely found out who committed the
offences.
Number
Figure 75: Handle stolen goods: Number of offences ever committed by how often the
police found out about it
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
18
Most of the time/always
About half of the time
Never/rarely
1
1-4
2
5 - 19
2
0
20 - 99
100 - 499
500+
Number of offences ever committed
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 62
Armed robbery
Figure 76 shows that 11 of the 42 individuals reported that they had committed armed robbery
offences, although no individual had done so ‘regularly’. All of these 11 individuals reported that
the offence resulted in charges and convictions, while 10 reported that it resulted in a prison
sentence.
Figure 76: Armed robbery: Number of individuals who reported ever committing or ever
‘regularly’ committing this offence and numbers resulting in a charge,
conviction or prison sentence
12
11
11
resulting in
charge
resulting in
conviction
11
(n = 42)
10
Number
10
8
6
4
0
2
0
ever committed
ever 'regularly'
resulting in
prison sentence
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 63
Figure 77 shows that four individuals were aged 20 to 24 years when they committed their first
armed robbery offence, while three were aged 15 to 19 years.
Figure 77: Armed robbery: Age of first offence
5
4
Number
4
4
3
3
2
1
0
0
0
0
<10
10 - 14
First committed offence
(n = 11)
15 - 19
20 - 24
25 - 39
40+
Age group (years)
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Figure 78 shows the number of armed robberies that individuals reported ever committing by how
often the police found out who committed the offence. As shown, 10 of the 11 individuals
reported that they had committed the offence less than five times in their lifetime and that the
police always or most of the time found out about these offences.
Figure 78: Armed robbery: Number of offences ever committed by how often the police
found out about it
12
10
Most of the time/always
About half of the time
Never/rarely
Number
10
8
6
4
1
2
0
1-4
5 - 19
0
20 - 99
0
100 - 499
0
500+
Number of offences ever committed
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 64
Number of Individuals
Figure 79: Number of individuals whose family members had a drug or alcohol problem
while the respondent was growing up
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
_çíÜ=^äÅçÜçä=~åÇ=ÇêìÖ=éêçÄäÉã
16
aêìÖ=éêçÄäÉã=çåäó
11
2
^äÅçÜçä=éêçÄäÉã=çåäó
4
2
6
3
10
2
6
Mother or
stepmother
4
Father or
stepfather
Brothers or sisters/ step
brothers or sisters
Family member
Source: Australian Institute of Criminology, DUCO female study, 2003 [computer file]
Of the 19 individuals who reported that either their mother/stepmother or their father/stepfather
had a drug or alcohol problem while growing up, 15 reported that they now have children of their
own.
Drug Use and Offending
October 2005
Executive Summary
Page 65
Summary
Just under half (18 individuals) reported that they had ‘ever’ committed break and enter
offences, while 15 reported that this became a ‘regular’ activity. Eleven individuals reported
that this offending resulted in being charged, convicted and given a prison sentence.
Over half (24 individuals) reported that they had ‘ever’ stolen anything. The majority of these
individuals reported that they had done so before the age of 15 years.
Over half (23 individuals) reported that they had handled stolen goods, most of whom (21
individuals) reported that they went on to ‘regularly’ commit this offence. There were ten
individuals who reported that this offending resulted in being charged and convicted, while
eight reported that it resulted in a prison sentence.
The majority of individuals who committed break and enter, theft and handle stolen goods
offences indicated that they had committed these offences at least one hundred times and that
the police never or rarely found out about them.
While 11 individuals reported that they had committed armed robbery offences, no individuals
progressed to ‘regularly’ committing such offences. The majority of these 11 individuals
reported that they committed the offence less than five times and that the police always or
most of the time found out about it.
OFFICE OF CRIME STATISTICS AND RESEARCH
Page 66