When Negative Statements
are Easier
Masaya Yoshida
Cognitive Neuroscience of
Language Laboratory,
Department of Linguistics,
University of Maryland at
College Park
masaya@wam.umd.edu
CUNY Sentence Processing
Conference
March 21-23, 2002
City University of New York
Abstract
In this study I will provide evidence
for a predictive mechanism in Japanese
sentence processing, and show that
negative statements are easy to process
in certain situations.
Goals
• To provide evidence for a predictive
mechanism in Japanese sentence processing.
(Miyamoto and Takahashi 2001)
• To show that in certain situations, negative
statements are easy to process.
Syntactic Dependencies allow for
Predictions
X
Y
PREDICTION
English
Wh-phrase
Ditransitive Verb
Japanese
Wh-Phrase
Two Objects
NPI
Gap
Two Objects
Q-Marker
Ditransitive Verb
Negation
How to Diagnose a Prediction
Observe slowdown in reading
when predictions are not
confirmed
(1) Wh …Aff…QM
X
slow down
(2) Wh …QM…Aff
Aff = Affirmative
QM = Question Marker
(3) Senmu-ga donna-pasokon-o
director-Nom what-kind-computer-Acc
tukatteiru-to kakarichoo-ga itta-no?
using-is-Aff supervisor-Nom said-QM
‘What kind of computer did the
supervisor say the director is using?’
(4) Senmu-ga donna-pasokon-o
director-Nom what-kind-computer-Acc
tukatteiru-ka kakarichoo-ga kiita-no?
using-is-QM supervisor-Nom ask-QM
‘Did the supervisor ask what kind of
computer the director is using?’
Conclusions from M&T
• A wh-phrase is licensed by a Question Marker
(QM).
• A wh-phrase creates a prediction for a
subsequent QM in the course of the processing
of the sentence.
• Readers try to posit the QM as soon as possible.
Negative Polarity Items in
Japanese
English
any, at all, a red cent …
Japanese
-sika, nanimo, sukosimo …
‘only’, ‘at all’ ‘at all’
John did not have any books.
Taroo-wa ringo-sika tabenakatta
apple-NPI
ate-not
*John had any books.
*Taroo-wa ringo-sika tabeta
apple-NPI ate
= ok Taroo-wa ringo-dake tabeta
apple-non-NPI
Parallel between Whphrases and NPIs in
Japanese’
PREDICTION 1
In the course of the processing of
the sentence:
(i)
The reader will predict the
occurrence of negative element
when he/she reads an NPI
(ii)
Based on the prediction, the
reader will try to posit the
negative element as soon as
possible
(iii)
When the negative element does
not come in the first possible
position, the reading time will
slow down. (The TME)
(5) ... [NPI...V-Neg ] ... V-Aff
(6) ...[NPI...V-Aff ] ...V-Neg
X
Neg = Negation
Aff = Affirmative
The Complexity of
Negative Statements
“All things being equal, a
negative sentence takes
longer to process and is less
accurately recalled and
evaluated relative to a fixed
state of affairs than the
corresponding positive
sentence”
(Horn 2001: 168, Glenberg et. al.
1999, Johnson-Laird 1983, Miller
1962, Slobin 1966, among others)
PREDICTION 2
The negative statement is
difficult to process...
However, if the prediction of
negation takes place via NPI, the
processing of a negative sentence
will be easier in the NPI context
than in the non-NPI context.
NPI ... Neg...
... Neg...
(7)a. NPI:Aff:Neg
会社員は/ 喫茶店で/ コーヒーしか/
Kaishain-wa/ kissaten-de/ coffee-sika/
(7)b. non-NPI:Aff:Neg
会社員は/喫茶店で/ コーヒーだけ/
Kaishain-wa/kissaten-de/coffee-dake/
office-worker-Top/ cafeteria-at/ coffee-only/
office-worker-Top/ cafeteria-at/ coffee-only/
飲んだことが/ ない。/
(non-NPI)
nonda-koto-ga/ nai./
drink-fact-Nom/ neg./
‘The office worker doesn’t have an
‘The office worker only drinks coffee at experience to drink coffee at the
cafeteria.’
the cafeteria’
飲んだことが/ ない。/
nonda-koto-ga/ nai./
drink-fact-Nom/ neg./
(NPI)
(8)a. NPI:Neg:Aff1
会社員は/ 喫茶店で/ コーヒーしか/
Kaishain-wa/kissaten-de/coffee-sika/
office-worker-Top/ cafeteria-at/ coffee-only/
飲まなかったことが/ ある。/ (NPI)
nomanakatta-koto-ga/aru./
drink-not-fact-Nom/ aff./
‘The office worker has an experience
not to drink anything other than coffee
at the cafeteria’
(8)b. non-NPI: Neg: Aff2
会社員は/喫茶店で/コーヒーだけ/
Kaishain-wa/kissaten-de/cofee-dake/
office-worker-Top/ cafeteria-at/ coffee-only/
飲まなかったことが/ある。/ (non-NPI)
nomanakatta-koto-ga/aru./
drink-not-fact-Nom/ aff./
‘The office worker doesn’t have an
experience to drink coffee at the cafeteria.’
Self-Paced Reading Task
---- ---- ------ ------ --会社員は
---- ------ ------ ---
---- 喫茶店で ------ ------ ------ ----
コーヒーしか
---- ---- ------
------ ---
飲んだことが
---- ---- ------ ------
---
ない。
Subjects: 28 undergraduate
students, native
speakers of Japanese
Stimuli: 4*24 target sentences
48 fillers
Comprehension questions
Latin Square design
Presentation: Moving
Window presentation
Program: MW ver.1
Comparison of (7a) and (7b)
Graph 1
NPI:Aff:Neg
Non-NPI:Aff:Neg
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
Subj
Adv
sika/dake
V-aff
V-neg
Regions
There is no significant difference in RT
at region 4 (V-aff region). (f1(1,26)=2.46,
p = 0.07, f2(1,23)=2.37, p= 0.1)
The NPI condition is significantly faster
than the non-NPI condition at region 5
(V-neg region). (f1(1,26)=6.14, p < 0.05,
f2(1.23)=3.82, p < 0.05)
Comparison of (8a) and (8b)
Graph 2
NPI:Neg:Aff
Non-NPI:Neg:Aff
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
Subj
Adv
sika/dake
Regions
NPI condition is significantly faster
than Non-NPI condition at the
4th. (V-neg) region.
(f1(1,26)=5.52, p < 0.05, f2(1,23)=3.76
p< 0.05).
V-neg
V-aff
There is no significant difference in
RT in the 5th(V-aff) region.
(f1(1,26)= 4.96, p = 0.09 f2(1, 23)=5.03
p = 0.1)
Conclusions
1. NPI triggers an expectation of negation.
2. Processing of a negative sentence is easier in
the context in which Negation is predicted
via NPI than in the context without any
prediction of negation.
Acknowledgements
Sachiko Aoshima
Robert Fiorentino
Ana Cristina Gouvea
Utako Minai
Edson Miyamoto
Yoshinori Miyazaki
Mitsue Motomura
Yukio Otsu
Leticia Pablos
Colin Phillips
Tetsuya Sano
Takae Tsujioka
Members of Keio Workshop on
Psycholinguistics
This research is supported by:
NSF grant #BCS-0196004
Human Frontiers grant
#RGY01342001