Vol. 5(8), pp. 446-454, August 2013
DOI: 10.5897/IJBC12.004
ISSN 2141-243X © 2013 Academic Journals
http://www.academicjournals.org/IJBC
International Journal of Biodiversity and
Conservation
Review
Mangrove forests of river estuaries of Odisha, India
Sitaram Prasad Panda1*, Hatanath Subudhi2 and Hemant Kumar Patra 3
1
Regional Plant Resource Centre, Ekamrakanan, Nayapalli, Bhubaneswar-15, Odisha, India.
2
Crop Improvement Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, India.
3
Post Graduate Department of Botany, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
Accepted 11 June, 2013
A clear and current picture of the mangrove forests extant in different river estuaries of the Odisha state
of the Indian sub-continent have been provided in this communication. Apart from their role in
upgrading the state’s economy, the other features exploited by the local inhabitants have been
highlighted in brief. Effective measures for the conservation of these rare and unique ecosystems have
also been suggested.
Key words: Mangroves, river estuaries, conservation.
INTRODUCTION
Odisha, one of the coastal states of India lying between
17° 48’-22° 94’N latitude and 81°24’ - 87°29’ E longitude
has a coastline of 480 km stretching over districts like
Balasore, Bhadrak, Jagatsinghpur, Kendrapara, Puri and
Ganjam. It extends over an area of 155,707 sq.km
accounting for about 4.87% of the total area of India. The
coastal areas are interrupted by several rivers and
rivulets, the Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarani, Budhabalanga,
Rusikulya and Subarnarekha (Figure 1). Chilika, the
largest brackish water lake located in the east coast,
deserves special mention. All are mixed with the Bay of
Bengal forming deltas, which have thick mangrove
forests. Among those, the tidal and littoral swamp forests
deserve special mention, being one of the conspicuous
and important forest types of the Odisha coast. The tidal
and littoral swamp forests extend from Chandipur coasts
in Balasore district to Gopalpur of Ganjam district, either
as a continuous belt or in scattered patches along the
creeks and channels of estuaries including fringes of the
Chilika. The major mangrove forests of Odisha are mainly
confined to two places namely Kanika and Kujang, the
ex-Zamindari areas of the un-divided Cuttack district, the
former being situated along the river Dhamra (Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary, Figure 2) and the latter in the
Mahanadi delta. Littoral scrub jungles with some specific
plants characteristic of deltaic swamps are distributed
near Chandipur, Astaranga, Gopalpur, rocky faces of
Chilika Lake (Figure 3) and a few other localities. As
compared to the total of 76,500 sq.km forest cover in
Odisha, an area of about 195 sq.km is under mangrove
forest (mangals) according to the Remote Sensing
Agency report, Dehra Dun in 1991, which is quite
insignificant. The mangroves of Odisha are the second
largest mangal formation of the country after the
Sunderbans of India in both area and in respect of
species composition. Unlike the other states of India, the
coastal belt of Odisha has experienced severe vegetational devastations leading to rapid shrinkage of many
rare and endangered plant communities like mangroves.
Due to such devastations, the coastal belt has faced
severe oceanic cyclones with high wind velocity which
costs many lives. The shrinkage of mangroves population
of the coast is mainly due to biotic as well as abiotic
interference.
Due to therapeutic as well as other uses, plants have
been over-exploited ruthlessly. Again, due to the operation of biotic factors such as human population explosion,
and the spread of urbanization and industrialization, the
plant wealth has been destroyed.
In view of these facts, the exploration of the wealth of
*Corresponding author. E-mail: situ.1979@gmail.com. Tel: +91 9776190014.
Panda et al.
447
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Figure 1. Major river system of Odishawith their estuaries and distribution of mangroves.
448
Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv.
Figure 2. Map of Bhitarkania Sanctuary.
Figure 3. Map of Chilika Lake.
Panda et al.
plant species, its documentation, conservation and proper
utilization, is vitally important.
The coastal zone including the mangroves and
associated vegetation types have been severely affected
by the felling of trees for fuels and timbers, the spread of
urbanization, industrialization, aquaculture of prawns, and
settlement of refugees. The mangrove vegetation particularly on the coast of Odisha (the Mahanadi delta, Devi
estuary, Rusikulya estuary, Subarnarekha estuary, Chilika
lagoon, etc.) has been highly denuded due to severe
biotic pressure such as human settlement, construction of
Paradeep port and Paradeep Phosphate factories, prawn
culturing and nowadays only the remnants of the past
vegetation in the form of shrubby elements are seen.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In the past, Odisha had very rich and diverse vegetation
in general and mangroves in particular owing to its peculiar geographic location coupled with various edaphic
factors. However, these rich flora were not explored till
the botanical work of Haines (1921), the pioneer plant
explorer for Bihar and Odisha. From his treatise “The
Botany of Bihar and Orissa” it was found that a majority
of the plants he collected were from Bihar state and only
a few from Odisha. Being aware of these facts, the subsequent worker, Mooney (1950) collected plants mostly
from Western Odisha, Mahanadi delta and mentioned it
in his treatise “Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and
Orissa”. Thus it is evident that information on the flora
and vegetation of this area are very meagre.
Out of the 32 forest types, littoral and tidal swamp
forests are very conspicuous and worth mentioning for
the state of Odisha (Champion and Seth, 1968). The
mangrove forests occur in discontinuous patches in the
districts of Balasore, Bhadrak, Ganjam, Jagatsinghpur,
Kendrapara, Puri and in the fringes of the Chilika lagoon.
Haines (1921), has reported 37 species under 30 genera
belonging to 23 families from Mahanadi delta and Chilika
lake without mentioning the precise locality. He briefly
discussed the mangrove formation under the heading
“Coastal tract” (in which he mentioned some mangrove
species and their associates. He has provided general
information on the coastal flora in the introductory part of
his treatise. Mangroves from the estuaries of Brahmani,
Baitarani, Rusikulya and Devi were not studied by Haines,
although these regions harboured a rich mangrove flora.
Later on realizing this, Narayanswami and Carter (1922)
collected plants extensively from Barakuda, Sanakuda
and Ghantasila islands of Chilika. Mooney (1949) also
made a short trip to Jambu, Hukitola and False point of
Mahanadi delta in the month of June 1949. He added 12
species from these regions to his compendium. Out of
these, 10 species turned out to be new records for the
state of Odisha. Both workers, Haines and Mooney emphasized that further detailed studies of the unexplored
449
and under explored coastal belt will add more species to
the coastal flora. After these works, no further floristic
studies of the Odisha coast in general and mangroves in
particular occurred for quite a long time. More recently,
Rao and Banerjee (1967, 1982), Rao et al. (1970),
Banerjee and Das (1972), Rao and Shastry (1974) and
Banerjee (1986) have studied the coastal vegetation of
Odisha and made a number of new distributional records
for the state of Odisha. After these coastal works, Patnaik
(1973) made an ecological study on the aquatic flora of
the Chilika lake. Thereafter, Banerjee (1984), Choudhury
(1984, 1986, 1987, 1990a, b), Patnaik and Choudhury (1989),
Samal and Patnaik (1989), Biswal and Choudhury (1993)
and Reddy et al. (2006) carried out floristic surveys of the
Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary especially on the
mangrove elements and studied their socio-economic
aspects. Misra and Panigrahi (1984) studied the taxonomy and distribution of the mangroves of Rhizophoraceae
in Odisha. Choudhury et al. (1991) and Choudhury (1994,
1998, 2001) highlighted in detail the diversity and conservational aspects of the mangroves of the Bhitarkanika,
Paradeep and Mahanadi delta. Later on, Panda et al.
(2004, 2005a, b, 2007, 2010), Panda and Patnaik
(1998), Panigrahi (1998) and Choudhury et al. (2004)
studied various aspects of the general flora as well as the
rare mangrove flora of the largest brackish water lagoon,
the Chilika and its likely future. Recently Subudhi and
Choudhury (1989, 1998), Subudhi et al. (2002, 2006),
Nayak and Choudhury (2001), Nayak et al. (2002) and
Panda et al. (2004, 2005a, b, 2007) have studied the
mangroves of Mahanadi delta and Odisha coast and their
conservation as well as utilization. Dhal and Rout (2001)
reported a few rare, endangered, vulnerable and threatened mangrove elements of Odisha coast and emphasized the need for immediate conservation.
From this review of the historical literature, it is quite
clear that no systematic study of the mangrove flora has
been carried out to date. All the workers have focused
their attention on the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, the
Mahanadi delta and Chilika lake of the Odisha coast.
However, attention has not been directed towards the
exploration of the existing mangrove vegetation of the
other river estuaries like Devi, Budhabalanga, Rushikulya,
Subarnarekha, etc., although these regions have a very
rich and diverse mangrove flora and play a pivotal role in
maintaining the ecological balance of the coast as well as
providing protection against environmental hazards. The
work done so far emphasizes the need for a detailed
floristic and vegetational survey of the coastal belt of the
state. Mangrove forests extant in the Mahanadi delta
have been experiencing long-term decline. Consequently,
the luxuriant forests of yore have been degraded to scrub
jungles. The forests extant in other river estuaries of the
Odisha coast are also experiencing severe anthropogenic
pressure coupled with drastic ecological changes leading
to their fast shrinkage. Taking all these facts as well as
the multi-facet socio-economic importance of the coastal
450
Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv.
flora especially the mangrove forests into consideration, a
floristic survey programme in the coastal zone has been
undertaken under the auspices of the Post Graduate
Department of Botany, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.
Mangrove vegetation of different river estuaries
According to Champion and Seth (1968), the coastal
vegetation in Odisha is mainly of littoral and tidal forest
types, which are very conspicuous for the state of
Odisha.
This is a unique and typical type of vegetation especially found in river deltas, where there is admixture of
river water and sea water. In the coastal region of
Odisha, estuarine vegetation is commonly found in the
river deltas of Budhabalanga, Brahmani, Baitarani,
Subarnarekha, Mahanadi and Devi. The vegetation in the
river estuary of Brahmani and Baitarani is very rich and
abundant due to the enforcement of a wildlife protection
act, since the estuary was declared as a sanctuary in
1974. But the vegetation in the Mahanadi delta is
denuded due to the construction of Paradeep Port (1965)
and the Paradeep Phosphate factory and construction of
residential complexes. Many species have been wiped
out and some are on the verge of extinction.
In Bhitarkanika, the mangrove formation is seen along
the creeks, channels and islets. Generally two-storey
system is observed in this mangrove forests since the
ground flora is very poor. The dominant mangrove taxa
constituting the top canopy are Sonneratia apetala,
Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia alba, Excoecaria
agallocha, Heritiera fomes (Figure 4), etc. S. apetala and
A. officinalis are gregarious and luxuriant, colonising the
banks of river and creeks. Xylocarpus granatum is
sometimes observed in this habitat (Figure 5). Pongamia
pinnata is also found in abundance, usually away from
the water bodies. In more elevated areas mixed forest of
Excoecaria agallocha and H. fomes are seen in association with Phoenix paludosa and Tamarix troupii in the
peripheral regions. The second storey is composed of the
shrubby elements and under-trees such as Brownlowia
tersa, Kandelia candel, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophora
mucronata, Ceriops decandra, Cynometra iripa,
Clerodendrum inerme, Aegiceras corniculatum and
Hibiscus tiliaceus (Figure 6 to 9). These elements flourish
where there is tidal influence as well as a high degree of
salinity. B. tersa is plentiful along the fringes of water
bodies and remains half-submerged in water. Like-wise,
R. mucronata trees with their interwoven knee roots are
observed in the muddy flats. In the terrestrial and
swampy areas Flagellaria indica, Salvadora persica,
Phoenix paludosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhyza (Figure 10)
etc. are quite common.
Common climbers of this mangrove forest are
Derristrifoliata, Derris scandens, Finlaysonia obovata and
Mucuna gigantea, etc.
Among the narrow and defuncted creeks usually
Acrosticum aureum (a pteridophytic element), Acanthus
ilicifolius are seen in close association. The spiny
element Caesalpinia crista is also not uncommon in such
localities. The ground flora is rather very poor. Usually in
the muddy flats, Myriostachya wightiana is found in pure
formation. Porteresia coarctata is also found in patches
but less dominant. Other notable herbaceous elements
are Suaeda maritima, S. nudiflora, Salicornia brachiata,
etc. Tylophora tenuissima, Eugenia bracteata, Fimbristylis
spp. etc. are found in more dry and elevated areas.
In the sand dunes and sand bars close to Satavaya
and Gahiramatha, the salt bush formation is generally
found. Along the littoral tract of Satavaya, Gahiramatha
the scattered sand dunes as well as sand bars mostly
sustain xeric herbs, of which extensive patches of
Ipomoea pes-caprae deserves special mention. Other
common xeric elements are Bulbostylis barbata, Cyperus
arenarius, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Pedalium murex.
These elements act as sand binders as well as sand
stabilizers. Soil erosion is considerably checked by the
extensive spread of these species. I. pescaprae,
Hydrophylax maritima, Canavalia rosea, Cayratia trifolia
mostly cover the ground. The herbaceous flora mainly
consists of the species like Rothia indica, B. barbata,
Launaea sarmentosa, Spinifex littoreus, C. arenarius,
Fimbristylis sericea, P. murex, Heliotropium curassavicum,
Trianthema portulacastrum, Giseckia pharnaceoides, etc.
These species are found gregariously in the sandy areas
of the coast. Pure formation of Aegialitis rotundifolia is
found near the Ekakula forest rest house of Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary (Figure 11). I. pes-caprae, an extensive creeper is dominant in such habitat. Other herbaceous elements are H. maritima, L. Sarmentosa, S.
portulacastrum, P. murex, C. arenarius, S. littoreus, G.
pharnaceoides, etc.
In the Devi estuary, a good patch of mangrove
forests is observed. The top canopy consists of A.
officinalis, S. apetala, B. gymnorhyza, E. agallocha, K.
candel and C. decandra, etc. The second storey consists
of shrubby elements like A. corniculatum, A. ilicifolius,
Dalbergia spinosa, P. paludosa, T. troupii, H. tiliaceus,
C. inerme, etc. In the mud-flats, P. coarctata and M.
wightiana are gregarious. The notable climbers are D.
scandens, Derris trifoliata and Ipomoea cymosa. Among
the sand dunes C. crista, S. littoreus, Solanum trilobatum,
I. pes-caprae, S . portulacastrum, E. bracteata etc. are
worth mentioning.
In the Paradeep and the neighbourhood of the
Mahanadi delta, shrubby elements are gregarious
except a few tree species like A. officinalis and S.
apetala. The shrubby elements namely A. ilicifolius, E.
agallocha, C. crista, D. spinosa, T. troupii, A. corniculatum
etc. are commonly seen. Sarcolobus carinatus, D. trifoliata,
D. scandens, S. trilobatum, I. cymosa, S. tiliifolia are the
notable climbers/twiners of Atharabanki area, where the
salinity is comparatively low as the creeks and channels
are completely closed due to the pure formation of P.
paludosa. So, the sea water does not reach these areas
Panda et al.
Figure 4. Heritiera fomes Buch-Ham.
Figure 5. Xylocarpus granatum Koen.
Figure 6.Kandelia candel (L.) Druce.
Figure 7. Rhizophora mucronata Poir.
Figure 8. Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding.-Hou.
Figure 9. Aegiceras corniculatum (L.) Blanco.
451
452
Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv.
Figure 10. Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam.
Figure 11. Aegialitis rotundifolia Roxb.
during tide. In Paradeep area, mostly sandy vegetation is
quite common. The species namely L. sarmentosa, H.
maritima, Capparis brevispina, S. littoreus, C. arenarius,
F. sericea, P. murex, Hedyotis umbellata, F. ferruginea,
Phyllanthus rotundifolia and R. indica are usually found
near the sea coast.
The floristic composition of Hukitola islands, Jambu,
Batighar, etc. are different from Paradeep. These regions
are dominated by the eumangal and semi-mangal species,
there are no sandy communities. Mangroves are the way
to Hukitola. The other mangrove forests are encroached
by the local people. A. corniculatum, K. candel, E. agallocha,
B. tersa, C. decandra and C. tagal are very common
along the margins of creeks and channels. Their associates are I. cymosa, C. inerme, C. crista, etc.
In Jambu, vast areas under mangrove are devastated
for human settlement and piscicultural practices. Mangrove forests are mainly confined to the west side of the
Jambu River. The dominant species are A. rotundifolia,
C. decandra, C. tagal with Rhizophora species. The
other species viz. Azima tetracantha, E. agallocha, A.
ilicifolius, Tamarix troupii, C. inerme, D. spinosa, D.
trifoliata, D. scandens, H. tiliaceus are found
comparatively rarely. On the east side of the river, an
extensive area of mangroves has been converted into
fallow lands due to human settlement and prawn culture.
Near the margin of creeks and channels pure formations
of M. wightiana, P. coarctata and C. malaccensis are
usually found. These species play a significant role in
reducing soil erosion. Similarly, the mangroves of
Hetamundia have been converted to grass lands which
provide fodder to buffaloes/cows. Pure formations of
Paspalum vaginatum and F. ferruginea were observed
in these regions along with some other herbaceous
elements. Hukitola island is encircled by water on all
sides. So the rate of destruction is very low, which
resulted in high species diversity. The dominant elements are A. alba, A. officinalis, C. decandra, K. candel
whereas C. tagal, R. apiculata and R. mucronata are
very rare near the sea. The common associates are L.
racemosa, A. rotundifolia, M. angulata, Premna
corymbosa, T. troupii, C. inerme etc. The herbaceous
species viz. Synostemon bacciformis, S. maritima, S.
nudiflora, Scirpus littoralis, S. brachiata, T. portulacastrum,
Alternanthera pyrocnoides are found to occur in the
mudflats. Most areas of Hukitola island are planted
with Casuarina equisetifolia by the Forest Department. H.
tiliaceus, T. populnea, T. troupii are present away
from the sea coast.
In the Dhamra estuary, degraded mangrove forests are
seen along with some of the associates in small patches.
The true mangroves are A. officinalis, C. decandra, S.
apetala, which exhibited very stunted growth giving the
appearance of small bushy trees. The associates consist
of A. ilicifolius, E. agallocha, D. trifoliata, P. paludosa, T.
populnea, etc. P. coarctata is usually abundant here,
where as M. wightiana is found comparatively in lesser
abundance. Both species have a great role in checking
soil erosion. The ground flora is very poor. But pure
formations of S. portulacastrum and S. maritima are
found in the degraded mangrove lands, on semi-dried
mudflats.
The Subarnarekha estuary is endowed with a few species of C. decandra and B. parviflora. Concurrently, A.
ilicifolius, E. agallocha, D. trifoliata, etc. are found as
associate species. The ground flora and sand dune
vegetation are completely absent in this region except
some herbaceous species like C. arenarius, C. platystylis
and F. ferruginea etc.
The Budhabalanga estuary harbours only the devastated as well as degraded mangrove forests, which consists of the species like A. officinalis and C. decandra.
The shrubby taxa of this area are A. ilicifolius, D. trifoliata,
Panda et al.
D. scandens and T. populnea, etc. This region is completely devoid of ground flora and sand dune vegetation.
In the Rusikulya estuary, no significant mangrove
formation is observed. Only pure stands of S. maritima
are very common. Among the sand dunes, S. littoreus, S.
trilobatum, I. pes-caprae are very common.
In the past, the margin of the Chilika lake and the undisturbed islands like Badokuda, Sanokuda, Ghantasila,
etc. were endowed with the unique eco-system of
mangroves. But in the course of time, the mangroves
have been replaced by tidal scrub jungles and only some
mangrove associates are present due to the change of
the eco-climatic conditions coupled with the ruthless
cutting of trees by the local inhabitants to cater for their
various needs. The vegetation is totally devoid of the true
mangrove species and only a few associates are
encountered in the denuded regions. Such species are S.
persica, C. ceylanica, P. pinnata etc. The other species of
this category are A. corniculatum, A. tetracantha,
Colubrina asiatica, C. inerme, P. aculeata, C. retusa,
Meytinus emarginatus, Carissa spinarum, Opuntia stricta,
P. suberosa etc. C. quadrangularis, P. capensis, C.
roxburghii, C. zeylanica, Tylophora indica, S. acidum, D.
trifoliata and M. oblongifolia are quite abundant. The nonmangrove trees of this region are C. adansonii, L.
tetraphylla and Streblus asper.
The ground flora is rather very poor and represented
by herbaceous elements like C. cretica, I. aspalthoides,
S. bacciformis, S. fruticosa, T. triquetra, H. curassavicum,
C. prostrata and R. indica. S. trilobatum is very common
among the sand dunes. The steep rocks are represented
by the matted growth of Dalbergia rubiginosa. Exotic
shrubs like Lantana camara var. aculeata, Jatropha
gossypifolia, Chromolaena odorata etc. have invaded the
vegetation of the rocky lands. Species like S. maritima,
S. brachiata, S. portulacastrum, P. nodiflora, H.
curassavicum, Diplachne fusca etc. are very common
and worthy of mentioning along the edges of the lake.
The shifting sands as well as salt laden wind on the
beaches near the lake provide an ideal abode for the
growth and development of the psammophytic vegetation
in and around the margin of the lake, which is sandy in
nature. The broad leaved runners like H. maritima, I.
pescaprae, Macrotyloma ciliatum, L. sarmentosa etc. are
found abundantly in this region. The herbaceous flora
consists of the species like C. arenarius, S. littoreus, B.
barbata, Geniosporum tenuiflorum, Hedyotis graminifolia
ssp. arenaria, Brachiaria ramosa, Acalypha lanceolata,
Bacopa monnieri, Vigna sublobata, Crotalaria nana,
Gisekia pharnaceoides, etc. A continuous belt of
Pandanus fascicularis is found along the margins of the
lake. The common associates of this area are Euphorbia
tirucalli, P. capensis, I. obscura and Tinospora cordifolia.
Abutilon hirtum and Abelmoschus ficulneus are very
common among the shrubs. The land stretching in
between the Bay of Bengal and the lake has been planted
with Casuarina equisetifolia which is showing luxuriant
growth.
453
This type of Psammophytic and Sand dune vegetation
is common and generally found in other areas of the
coastal belt of Odisha like Paradeep, Puri-Konark, Devi
estuary and Balasore regions.
Hoya parasitica is the only parasitic species of the
mangrove forests. Though in Odisha, the mangroves are
very rich in species diversity, Nypa fruticans is the only
species, which is not found in the deltas of Odisha. It is
introduced in the Bhitarkanika National Park from
Sundarbans.
CONCLUSION
Many species exhibit considerable shrinkage of distribution and are becoming rare and threatened. So, it is high
time to conserve these vulnerable/rare/threatened elements before further genetic erosion takes place. Interestingly, Cerbera odollam, X. granatum, X. moluccensis, H.
littoralis, I. campanulata, S. indicum, A. cucullata, I.
bijuga, S. brachiata etc. are present only in Bhitarkanika
Wildlife Sanctuary and exhibit very restricted distribution.
These are not present in other mangrove forests of
Odisha. In the Paradeep terrain, the species like Rourea
minor, Finlaysonia obovata, Colubrina asiatica,
Taverniera cuneifolia which had been reported earlier
could not be located during the present survey. Similarly,
the species viz. C. odollam, X. granatum, X. mollucensis,
M. gigantea, I. campanulata and I. bijuga abundantly
found in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary are not found
here. In the Bhitarkanika Mangrove Forests, the species
like Merope angulata, Sarcolobus carinatus, Sonneratia
caseolaris and Acanthus volubilis have shown very
restricted distribution and became very rare and vulnerable which were luxuriantly found in the remote past.
H. kanikensis which was reported by the earlier workers
from the Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, could not be
traced during the present survey. The species like C.
odollam and X. granatum have shown very tangible shrinkage of their population putting them in the group of
vulnerable and threatened category.
Mangroves prevent oceanic cyclones, soil erosion and
sea surges. Due to the destruction of these forest ecosystems in the year 1999, there was severe super
cyclone in the entire Odisha coast. So it is high time to
conserve the existing mangrove forests and reforestation
of the degraded mangrove areas should be taken-up as
priority, so that the ecological balance will be maintained.
The species like P. coarctata and M. angulata are the
wild relatives of rice and citrus, respectively and tolerant
to salinity. The salt tolerant gene can be transferred to
the rice and citrus through biotechnological methods and
these two species should be conserved in situ. Since the
mangals need very specific ecological and physiological
conditions, ex situ conservation is not possible and the
alternative way is the in situ conservation through habitat
preservation. This can be achieved only by identifying
and declaring selected mangrove rich areas as “Sanctua-
454
Int. J. Biodivers. Conserv.
ries”, “Natural Reserves”, “Bio-sphere Reserves”, etc.
Concurrently, rehabilitation of mangroves in the denuded
area may be attempted, for protection and judicious utilization of the economically important mangrove species.
Mass awareness may be generated through organization
of eco-development camps, workshops, seminars, distribution of pamphlets, posters and booklets. Stringent and
immediate measures need to be taken to protect and
maintain this fast disappearing vegetation.
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