Review of Literature
Instructional Leadership Development (ILD)
Center for Research and Doctoral Studies
in
Educational Leadership
Sam Houston State University
Huntsville, Texas
Dr. Beverly Irby, Director, Center for Research and
Doctoral Studies in Educational Leadership
Dr. Genevieve Brown, Chair, Department of Educational
Leadership and Counseling
Rachel Phelps, Research Assistant
Shana Seeton, Research Assistant
Review of Literature
Instructional Leadership Development (ILD)
Domain I: Ethics and Integrity
The evaluations should function as feedback loops that transmit information about
strengths and weaknesses back to the school organization to be built upon or addressed as
problem areas (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1994;
Worthen, Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1997).
Ethical leaders demonstrate concern for the welfare of students by placing it as the chief
value that influences all decision making (American Association of School
Administrators Code of Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
When making ethical decisions, professional as well as personal considerations must be
taken into account without depending exclusively on one or the other (Nash, 1996).
Through research and continued professional development, leaders can maintain the
ethical principles of education as well as further their effectiveness (American
Association of School Administrators Code of Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English, & Steffy,
1998; Kaiser, 1996).
When teachers adhere to the official school code, students have a positive attitude
towards school life, have increased self-esteem, and are more likely to learn and work
hard while staying enrolled in school (Cheng, 1996).
Those involved in shaping school policy need to be guided by the ethics that prize the
school community and character (Fasching, 1997).
Accredited institutions are the only ethically acceptable sources of leadership degrees and
certification (American Association of School Administrators Code of Ethics, 1981;
Hoyle, English & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
Workplace norms rooted in moral and ethical groundwork are promoters of professional
growth and behavior (Nash, 1996).
Schools that have a sense of mission and incorporate a cohesive set of values provide an
atmosphere that influences administrators, teachers, and students to perform well (Deal &
Peterson, 1991).
An essential ethical guideline that quality school leaders should possess is based on an
acute awareness of ideas that reflect justice and fairness for everyone and the willingness
to stand by that value (Hoyle, English, Steffy, 1998; Kimbrough & Burkett, 1990).
The opportunity for a student to receive a quality education is dependent upon the
principal’s ethical practices (Kimbrough & Burkett, 1990).
1
In order for leaders to remain in the bounds of ethical behavior, they must not receive
personal advantage due to their position (American Association of School Administrators
Code of Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
Effective leaders are able to impart and instill educational values (McCown, Eakin, &
Dusenbery, 1997).
Ethical leaders adhere and put into operation educational board policies and
administrative rules and regulations (American Association of School Administrators
Code of Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
School personnel need to find a balance between ethical and virtuous intentions and
actual decisions and behaviors (Nash, 1996).
Policy authors make decisions based on values that they believe to be significant and
worthwhile (Rud, 1997).
Possessing the spirit to preserve and revere others’ rights to freedom and opportunities for
growth characterizes ethical behavior (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Principals and teachers have a moral obligation to help students succeed by using
whatever means necessary (Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, & Snyder, 1994).
Creating a learning atmosphere that advocates mutual support, trust, and acceptance of
differences must be considered when designing a staff development program (Hoyle,
English, & Steffy, 1998).
Values, skills, and rewards in the school shapes the practice of the teachers and staff
(Nash, 1996).
It is of chief importance for all members of the school staff and administration to consider
all of the dimensions of ethical issues, which demand conceptual and insightful thinking,
before acting (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998; Rud, 1997; Sieber, 1980; Worthen,
Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1997).
An ethical school leader has the responsibility of improving and/or correcting rules and
regulations that do not support sensible educational goals (American Association of
School Administrators Code of Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser,
1996).
School organizations are made up of complex social interactions that require ethical
standards to guide decision making (Liston & Zeichner, 1991; Rud, 1997).
Education as a profession is closely connected to moral character (Nash, 1996).
2
An essential ethical guideline that a school leader should possess is the pledge to making
decisions based on the knowledge gleaned from the finest research data accessible
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Distribution of resources that reflect the ethical foundation of the school are indicative of
the value systems in place within the organization (Rud, 1997).
Ethics is more a function of being responsible than being right (Fasching, 1997).
The principal should be a person of high ethical and moral strength (Kimbrough &
Burkett, 1990).
School leaders must model morality and ethical behavior in order to achieve the same
actions from the rest of the school community (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Schools need to be communities where teachers and administrators model collaboration
and adhere to the responsibilities that bind them together as a team (Fasching, 1997).
Successful 21st century leaders must illustrate and model moral and individual honor in
all situations (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Successful schools dedicate themselves to high standards of ethics (Kimbrough &
Burkett, 1990).
Supporting and protecting every individual’s civil and human rights is a key element of
an ethical leader’s behavior (American Association of School Administrators Code of
Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
Principals who establish themselves as being truthful also establish credibility with
students, teachers, and the community (Kimbrough & Burkett, 1990).
The promotion of democracy via public education is an important duty of successful 21st
century leaders (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Being an effective principal involves self-reflection that evolves into truthfulness,
honesty, and knowledge of the self (Kimbrough & Burkett, 1990).
Studies suggest that virtuous qualities increase school effectiveness and success
(Brookover & Lezotte, 1979; Deal, 1997; Edmonds, 1979; Lipsitz, 1984; Sergiovanni,
1984; Sergiovanni, 1992).
Justice is displayed by principals who express equal treatment of and respect for the
integrity of every parent, teacher, student, and administrator (Sergiovanni, 1992).
A characteristic of an honorable school is the belief in and the facilitation of the learning
potential of each student (Edmonds, 1979).
3
An ethical school leader abides by and carries out the laws set forth on a local, state, and
national level (American Association of School Administrators Code of Ethics, 1981;
Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
Upstanding schools acknowledge and respect teachers’ professional commitment and
their teaching craft (Edmonds, 1979).
Successful 21st century leaders must encourage and display respect and sensitivity for
diverse ethnic and multicultural groups (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
A caring ethic places teachers and administrators in the role of service to others
(Edmonds, 1979).
School organizations need to incorporate information obtained from evaluations into
plans and actions that strive to meet the needs of the complete school community (The
Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1994).
Empathy is the foundation upon which honorability is built (Goleman, 1995).
Extreme care should be taken concerning evaluations of teachers, school programs, or
students in order to minimize harm or threat and protect respect for human dignity and
worth (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1994; Worthen,
Sanders, & Fitzpatrick, 1997).
Individuals, who are in the position to evaluate others, should be cautious not to
knowingly or unknowingly violate the rights of the individuals who are impacted by their
evaluations (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1994).
A component of making ethical decisions is the ability to view the situation from a
phenomenological perspective and it reflects respect for each individual and his or her
ideas (Hiegert, 1997; Peck & Carr, 1997; Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).
Ethical leaders fulfill their contracts and career obligations with honor and virtuosity
(American Association of School Administrators Code of Ethics, 1981; Hoyle, English,
& Steffy, 1998; Kaiser, 1996).
School staff in leadership positions lend themselves to be models of fairness and integrity
when confronted with issues of ethical disparity (Kaiser, 1996; Oran, 1975; Reiman &
Thies-Sprinthall, 1998).
Treating each member of the school community with the same equality, dignity, and fair
play is instrumental in creating an environment grounded in justice and integrity
(Sergiovanni, 1992).
4
Moral leadership is characterized by treating others with respect (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
Honesty requires that leaders be straightforward in their interaction with the school
community, especially when formulating support for site-based decision-making changes
in the school’s current organizational schema (Rud, 1997; Sergiovanni, 1992).
Moral judgment that leads to action often relies on a person’s empathetic nature
(Goleman, 1995).
Domain II: Culture
The culture of an organization reflects the patterns of values, beliefs, rituals, and
expectations that make up the overall atmosphere of the organization (Bolman & Deal,
1991; Brown & Merchant, 1991; Gaziel, 1997; Kaplan & Evans, Sr., 1997; Rutter,
Maughan, Mortimore, & Houston, 1979; Scheurich, 1998).
It is imperative that an organization’s culture nurture tolerance for a diverse work
environment (Goleman, 1995).
Principals can help create a safe environment for students by modeling the principle of
using logic and working through problems as an honorable alternative to violence
(Haberman, 1999).
Culture is a key component that must be considered in any beneficial discussion
concerning changes within a system (Schlechty, 1997).
A school’s culture should facilitate educational empowerment and progress for all ethnic
groups (Banks, 1999).
In order for a school to be able to successfully improve teaching and learning, it must
recognize the importance of organizational culture (Brown & Merchant, 1991; Deal &
Peterson, 1999; Fullan, 1998; Rossman, Corbett, & Firestone, 1988).
In order for an organization to achieve direction and quality work, social and
psychological culture must be the force guiding the goal (Snyder, Anderson, & Johnson,
1991).
To effectively improve school life, its underlying theory of culture must be revamped to
include new ways of thinking about schooling (Sergiovanni, 1996).
Emotional commitment by students, teachers, and administrators is a common feature
often derived from cohesive school cultures (Brown & Merchant, 1991; Deal & Peterson,
1991).
5
Each member influences an organization’s culture, therefore, to achieve a partnership
culture, a “them” focus rather than a “me” focus needs to be established (Brown &
Merchant, 1991; Reitzug & Reeves, 1992; Snyder, Anderson, & Johnson, 1995).
A positively oriented, optimistic, and supportive school culture amplifies the energetic
and motivational attitude that is contagious among students, staff, and the community
(Deal & Peterson, 1999; Scheurich, 1998).
It is the institution’s responsibility to dedicate itself to quality improvement by cultivating
the culture through initiating on going change (Freed & Klugman, 1996; Salisbury &
Conner, 1994).
The school's culture and principal’s leadership are powerful tools that can encourage
school-community dialogue (Deal & Peterson, 1991).
A strong principal leadership is a critical dimension in influencing the school culture
(Cheng, 1996; Deal & Peterson, 1991; Reeves & Reitzug, 1992).
To be an effective leader and influence school culture, a principal must first understand
the culture (Deal & Peterson, 1991).
The perceptions, feelings, and behaviors that shape an organization are based on the
collective assumptions, values, and beliefs of the organization’s members (Brown &
Merchant, 1991; Gaziel, 1997; Sergiovanni, 1996).
An organization’s culture dictates what is considered to be acceptable and unacceptable
behavior based on what is important and valued (Brown & Merchant, 1991; Deal &
Kennedy, 1992; Deal & Peterson, 1999; Schein, 1985; Scheurich, 1998; Sparks, 1996).
Teachers and administrators improve and reform school culture by transforming
established norms, values, beliefs, and assumptions (Deal & Peterson, 1999).
There appears to be a positive correlation between school culture and academic
achievement of minority and disadvantaged students (Fyans & Maehr, 1990; Gaziel,
1997; Meijnen, 1986).
To be an effective leader, one must understand his or her organization’s culture (Bolman
& Deal, 1991).
An organization gains durability and stability from its beliefs, commitments, values, and
traditions, therefore, to produce enduring structural changes, corresponding changes must
occur in the above mentioned areas (Schlechty, 1997).
School cultures that provide an atmosphere of love and support for both the students and
teachers are able to accomplish miraculous student performance transformations
(Scheurich, 1998).
6
Culture fosters school effectiveness and productivity (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Levine &
Lezotte, 1990; Newmann & Associates, 1996; Purkey & Smith, 1983).
School culture is indicative of school effectiveness (Brown & Merchant, 1991; Gaziel,
1997).
The organizational culture of a school is a significant factor in achieving increased
performance and productivity (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Gaziel, 1997).
Test scores, teacher morale, turnover, motivation, collegiality, and public confidence and
support are positively influenced by a productive school culture (Deal & Peterson, 1991).
Commitment and identification of staff, students, and administrators is built through
culture (Brown & Merchant, 1991; Deal & Peterson, 1999; Schein, 1985).
Leaders are critical forces in developing, molding, and shaping the cultural systems of
organizations that set the tone and educational environment of the school (Anderson,
Rungtussanatham, & Schroder, 1994; Goldman, 1998).
To ensure that information gleaned from evaluation procedures is received with support
from school personnel, the administration must be sensitive to the system’s organizational
culture (Rossi & Freeman, 1993).
Principal leadership involves cultivating and nurturing a culture that fosters and stabilizes
curriculum development in the school (Glatthorn, 1994).
It is incredibly beneficial for an organization that is experiencing an extreme certitude
crisis to have as its leader someone who understands and appreciates the power of culture
in order to rebuild disposition and confidence (Bolman & Deal, 1991).
The education of language minority children at all levels is powerfully impacted by
school culture (Baker, 1996).
Leading with Soul is a contemporary parable that chronicles the journey of Steve, a
dispirited leader in search of something deeper and more satisfying than a preoccupation
with the bottom line (Boleman and Deal, 1991).
7
A. Learner-Centered
Effective teachers continually scrutinize, study, and adjust their instruction
practices to meet the needs of their students in order to help them become
skilled learners (Glickman, 1991).
Matching an appropriate method of teaching to a student’s particular type of
intelligence facilitates the student’s mastery of necessary skills and promotes
the progress of his or her development (Gardner, 1993).
It is important for teachers to have a clear understanding of the existing
cultural differences that effect the ways in which children from various ethnic
groups will most effectively learn (Banks, 1999; Nieto, 2000).
Schools in which the entire school community places an emphasis on
students’ academic accomplishments and their personal well-being are able to
achieve high success (Scheurich, 1998).
Developing effective learning environments demands the comprehension of
how learners and learning are alike as well as how they are different (Lipton &
Wellman, 1999).
Students should be informed regarding the basis of their grades and how the
teacher will ascertain them (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Systems can best focus on learner-centered activities by basing policies on
research-based practices that support student learning growth (Hatch &
Hytten, 1997).
A key component of educational planning concentrates on deciding how to
develop a more efficient way of teaching and learning (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
Developing a professional learning community aids in increasing student
achievement (DuFour, 1997).
Successful schools are those that are designed to improve student learning by
participating in on going planning and evaluation (Gaziel, 1997; Louise &
Denter, 1988).
Effective teachers use many different types of classroom materials and
techniques to help students become effective learners (Glickman, 1991).
Assessment guidelines should be focused on progress, standards, and growth
expectations of students (Wiggins, 1994).
8
An organization that agrees upon a common purpose for educational outcomes
and works in a team effort to reach these goals experiences high student
achievement (Kaplan & Evans, Sr., 1997).
Competent teachers understand the ramifications of assessment results in
regard to how students feel about themselves and fit into the academic and
social contexts within the school setting (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
When African American students perceive their teachers and other school
faculty as being helpful and supportive, their level of academic achievement
tends to increase (Nieto, 2000).
Adept teachers are able to add value to information when they teach students
how to understand and apply knowledge instead of just teaching isolated skills
(Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
Teaching for advanced understanding depends on the teacher’s ability to
introduce thought provoking concepts in a way that allows students to
constantly re-examine their points of view and speculations (Wiggins &
McTighe, 1998).
Members of the school community need to redefine learning as it relates to the
type of teaching that is focused on the learner and the learning process rather
than the teacher and the teaching process (Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
Higher student achievement is the main goal of any effective staff
development program (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Environments that are learner centered are composed of teachers and
administrators who display genuine care about the students, are sensitive to
their needs, and are inclined to help them with their problems in and out of the
school setting (Phillips, 1997).
Academic achievement of minority and disadvantaged students is greatly
impacted by the quality of a school’s culture (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Fyans &
Maehr, 1990; Gaziel, 1997; Meijnen, 1986).
When teachers promote a learning environment in which they encourage and
solicit participation, students will more often be actively engaged (Brophy,
1981; Hamacheck, 1995; Harmin, 1994; Lunenburg, 1998; Slavin, 1989;
Smead, 1995).
Research indicates that students are more attentive if they are in an
intellectually stimulating, risk-free, and task-oriented classroom environment
that provides instantaneous feedback (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
9
The aim of the curriculum is for teachers to use it as a guide to help students
master the skills and concepts that are the foundation of the established
curriculum (Cunningham & Rouse, 1992).
Effective staff development programs in successful schools set the standards
for focusing on important student learning (Mendez, 1992).
In a learner-centered environment, teachers and students collaborate together
to connect previous understanding and experiences with insights and
revelations about new concepts (Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require teacher guidance for students to reach their fullest potential (Hoyle,
English, & Steffy, 1998).
Professional growth on the part of the principal is of utmost importance in
developing an environment favorable to student learning and success (Brown
& Irby, 1997).
School leaders must provide a learning environment that maximizes the
potential of each child (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
The principal must provide leadership that conveys to the school community
that student learning is of utmost importance (Brown & Irby, 1997).
A characteristic of an honorable school is the belief in and the facilitation of
the learning potential of each student (Edmonds, 1979).
Assessment systems should track the development of understanding in the
students and give them opportunities to apply their learning to authentic tasks
and receive feedback (Wiggins, 1998).
Teachers should provide opportunities for students to engage with their peers
in applicable tasks, communication, thinking, and problem solving in order to
make learning more authentic and interesting (Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
B. High Expectations
A vision of high quality academic work is important for creating a learning
environment (DuFour, 1997).
All children, regardless of race or socioeconomic status, can benefit from and
should have access to a challenging curriculum and high expectations from
their teachers (Banks, 1999; Nieto, 2000).
10
Effective schools usually have faculty, parents, and students who have
committed themselves to high academic goals (Deal & Peterson, 1991).
If a school culture demands high academic expectations, the school mission is
more easily achieved (Schmieder & Cairns, 1996).
Commitment to high expectations leads to thriving school success (Deal &
Peterson, 1999; Newmann & Associates, 1996).
To increase student achievement, a school’s total environment must first be
examined to assess the student expectations. (Kaplan & Evans, Sr., 1997).
Teachers who believe and are committed to the idea0 that all children have the
ability to achieve academic success facilitate student learning (Lezotte, 1997;
Scheurich, 1998).
An effective teaching skill is the ability to develop high expectations for the
students as well the teachers themselves (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
American education now demands that schools set high expectations and
strive for excellence by implementing research based professional
development programs (Mendez, 1992).
Having high expectations for students as well as faculty members is a
characteristic of successful schools (Deal & Peterson, 1991).
Teacher expectations and student performance are intricately connected
(Banks, 1999; Ladson-Billings, 1994; National Staff Development Council,
1995; Nieto, 2000).
C. Collaboration
High student achievement is most likely to be obtained in an environment that
encourages cooperative team efforts to reach agreed upon goals by the staff
and students alike (Kaplan & Evans, Sr., 1997).
Teacher improvement can best be influenced through peer coaching, group
problem-solving sessions, curriculum work, staff development, and clinical
supervision (Glickman, 1991; National Staff Development Council, 1995).
Principals who have the ability to collaborate and include other faculty and
staff members in organizational leadership facilitate high leadership capacity
within their school (Lambert, 1998).
11
Emotional and instructional support from peers is the most important factor in
teachers’ professional development (Singh & Billingsly, 1998; Singh &
Shifflette, 1996).
To establish work cultures with an allied team spirit, principals must focus on
promoting norms of collegiality that respect individuality and collaboration
among each member of the school community (Fullan, 1992; Fullan &
Hargreaves, 1991; Fullan & Rolheiser, 1990).
Student achievement is greater when the faculty works as a team and shares
most of the planning, implementation, and evaluation of strategies related to
all aspects of teaching (Gaziel, 1997; Lightfoot, 1983).
Implementing school change requires the collaborative support of the entire
school community (Glickman, 1993).
People of diverse backgrounds working together toward a common goal can
help break down damaging stereotypes and prejudices and lead to the
discovery of more suitable and effective solutions to difficult problems
(Goleman, 1995).
Staff members must have the ability to learn and utilize collaborative skills in
order to conduct effective meetings, constructively solve problems,
experience a sense of collegiality, and share in decision-making (National
Staff Development Council, 1995).
School cultures that value collegiality and collaboration create a climate that
advocates the social and professional exchange of ideas, the enhancement and
expansion of effective practices, and widespread professional problem
solving (Armstrong, Bennet, & Grenier, 1997; Deal & Peterson, 1999; Little,
1982; Peterson & Brietzker, 1994).
Teachers’ perceptions of peer support are strongly affected by their
perceptions of principal leadership (Singh & Billingsly, 1998).
Achievement can be measured by the level of cooperative behavior between
faculty and staff (Anderson, Rungtussanatham, & Schroder, 1994; Newmann
& Wehlage, 1995; Schorr, 1997).
Colleague support has been associated with job satisfaction and retention
among teachers (Bloland & Shelby, 1980; Metzke, 1988; Singh & Billingsly,
1998; Theobald, 1989)
When teachers and administrators feel free and safe to disagree with each
other, the school climate is one of collegiality (Barth, 1991; Hultgren &
Riedlinger, 1996).
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Teacher effectiveness is influenced by the degree to which teachers agree on a
central school mission, participate in decision making, and get along well
with colleagues (Phillips, 1997).
People within an organization work together better when the leader takes an
active role in ensuring that the barriers between departments are broken down
(Anderson, Rungtussanatham, & Schroder, 1994).
Interactions between colleagues serve as a powerful tool for professional
stimulation (Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, &
Williams, 1987; Singh & Billingsly, 1998; Yee, 1990).
By sharing knowledge and skills, teams can accomplish much more than an
individual working alone (Goleman, 1995; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Teachers are more likely to enjoy their work if they are a part of a teaching
community in which members share common values, encourage professional
growth, and help each other with problem solving (Loucks-Horsley, Harding,
Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987; Singh & Billingsly, 1996,
1998).
Higher quality instruction can be achieved through promoting team growth
and collaborative team efforts (DuFour, 1997; Gould, Bornstien, &
Florentine, 1997).
Teachers who actively participate in cooperative group efforts enable each
other to reach higher levels of individual performance that is beneficial to all
in the community (Anderson, Rungtussanatham, & Schroder, 1994).
Cooperation and support in instructional and disciplinary matters among
teachers provides greater opportunity for success (Singh & Billingsly, 1996,
1998).
Teachers’ professional communities serve as a catalyst to achieve change in
the classroom (DuFour, 1997).
A high degree of confidence, trust, and open communication are
characteristics that are imperative in order to have effective team
collaboration (Kemp, 1983).
Engaging in collaborative activities is a specific condition needed to achieve a
learning community (DuFour, 1997; Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle,
Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987).
The supervisor’s role in creating a collaborative context for restructuring
schools is to model norms of collegiality and experimentation in their
13
instructions with the school staff process (Grimmett, 1992; Loucks-Horsley,
Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987).
Successful collaboration often relies on the amount of emotional intelligence
that exists within the group as well as an atmosphere that allows for the
sharing of many different ideas and talents (Goleman, 1995).
Morale, trust, cohesiveness, communication, and productivity of groups is
increased by the building of teams (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Assisting each other with activities centered on teaching and learning
enhances teachers’ competency (DuFour, 1997).
When organizational members better understand themselves in relation to
their visions, values, and mental models, they have the ability to enhance
team organization (Masten, 1995).
Commitment to accomplishing goals and objectives is a characteristic of
teams that are considered to be high performing (Hoyle, English, & Steffy,
1998).
Higher achieving schools recognize that a collaborative culture seems to lead
to cooperative learning in the classroom, which in turn, tends to expedite
student learning and success (Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, & Snyder, 1994).
Staff, faculty, and administrators working together to implement change and
achieve a common goal produce powerful schools (Glickman, 1993).
Teamwork is enriched when team members are treated as equals (Armstrong,
Bennet, & Grenier, 1997).
Communities with a collegial spirit create a collaborative environment that
facilitates increased motivation, enthusiasm, and energy, and supports
professional growth (Dorsch, 1998; Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle,
Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987; McLaughlin, 1993).
The school principal and teaching staff should participate in a collaborative
team effort that combines each member of the staff’s expertise, talent, and
care for others (Glickman, 1991).
When teachers’ perception of principal leadership is positive and strong, it is
likely that their perception of peer support will increase, thus allowing them
to work cooperatively and share a common sense of purpose (Singh &
Billingsly, 1996, 1998).
14
Cooperative skills are essential when teachers become members of
improvement teams meant to unite the whole school community (Bey, 1992).
When schools share a common goal of program improvement, staff, faculty,
and the community need to have aligned purposes and interests (Grimmett,
1992).
Teams can become more cohesive through discussing strengths and
weaknesses (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
D. Continuous Improvement
Culture promotes change and improvement in organizations (Deal &
Peterson, 1991, 1999; Little, 1982; Louis & Miles, 1990).
Continuous individual and group improvement is fostered by a staff
development program that focuses on the learning structure, environment,
processes, and strategies (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Schools must be involved in on going change in order to achieve continuous
improvement (Salisbury & Conner, 1994).
The process of acquiring new skills is on going and strongly supported by staff
development (National Staff Development Council, 1995).
The first step in implementing a new intervention or school program is to
carefully examine and clarify the goals that are intended to be achieved
(Gardner, 1993).
Implementing multicultural education into schools can lead to obtaining the
goal of educational success for all students (Nieto, 2000).
Power and wisdom can be gained through listening to community criticism
about new school programs because it could open the door to new alternatives
and innovative ideas for future plans and decisions (Glickman, 1993).
Involving teachers in project decision making is an effective strategy to be
used when schools are attempting to implement new and innovative projects
(Sarason, 1996).
To fashion collaborative work cultures, principals must focus on nurturing
norms of continuous improvement (Fullan, 1992; Fullan, Bennett, &
Rolheiser-Bennett, 1990; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1991; Newmann & Wehlage,
1995; Schorr, 1997).
15
Referring to research-based practices is one way of continuing to improve
student learning and growth (Hatch & Hytten, 1997).
Teacher improvement can best be influenced through peer coaching, group
problem-solving sessions, curriculum work, staff development, and clinical
supervision (Glickman, 1991; National Staff Development Council, 1995).
Surveys can be utilized as effective tools in determining educational
tendencies, viewpoints and thoughts, and comparing present and past
conditions to predict future happenings (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Breaking down the barriers between teachers and administrators and instead
focusing on students creates an environment conducive to continuous
improvement efforts (Gusky, 1997; Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, & Snyder, 1994).
To achieve successful school change and continuous improvement, the target
situations must be regularly assessed while changes are being made (Peck &
Carr, 1997).
Implementing school change requires the collaborative support of the entire
school community (Glickman, 1993).
On going improvement is perpetuated by and results from effective staff
development (National Staff Development Council, 1995).
When school goals are clearly identified, appropriate assessment techniques
can be developed to measure the achievement of those goals and bring any
conflict between them to the forefront, thus allowing for immediate resolution
(Gardner, 1993).
One of the first steps in school improvement is acknowledging what is
ineffective in the current program (Haberman, 1999).
Staff development needs are ascertained through well-developed staff
evaluations and are used to target and promote personal and group betterment
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Constantly evaluating and challenging the changes being implemented will
lead to continuous improvement (Hoffman & Withers, 1995).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require future-oriented preparation (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Leadership and the promotion of continuous learning are essential factors that
reinforce the evolvement and preservation of effective schools (National Staff
Development Council, 1995).
16
Successful schools are those that are designed to improve student learning by
participating in on going planning and evaluation (Gaziel, 1997; Louise &
Denter, 1988).
Success in revamping any educational system involves getting educators,
government, industry, parents, and the community to work together to apply
true and lasting improvement (Krajewski & Cozad, 1992).
When schools share a common goal of program improvement, staff, faculty,
and the community need to have aligned purposes and interests (Grimmett,
1992).
Effective teachers continuously scrutinize, study, and adjust their instruction
practices to meet the needs of their students in order to help them become
skilled learners (Glickman, 1991).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require teacher guidance for students to reach their fullest potential (Hoyle,
English, & Steffy, 1998).
Through continually learning and improving, principals can facilitate on going
change in the school (Brown & Irby, 1997).
Effective school reform should include multicultural education because it
responds to many problematic elements that affect student underachievement
(Nieto, 2000).
Implementing any change within the school culture affects, and is affected by,
the relationship between the teachers, staff, and administration as well as their
relationships with the students and the outside community (Sarason, 1996).
Once educational goals have been identified, the current means of achieving
such goals must be examined (Gardner, 1993).
Staff, faculty, and administrators who work together to implement change and
achieve a common goal produce powerful schools (Glickman, 1993).
Continuous school improvement should begin with a comprehensible
proclamation of the school mission, a strong sense of commitment throughout
the organization to that mission, and an effective management system to
implement the mission (Lezotte, 1997).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require perseverance to achieve established goals (Hoyle, English, & Steffy,
1998; National Staff Development Council, 1995).
17
Research has suggested that children develop different interests at different
ages (i.e., children ages 3 to 7 focus on symbolic play and adolescents focus
on interpersonal relationships and career exploration), therefore it is important
that these interests be taken into account in any educational program (Gardner,
1993).
E. Organizational Commitment
Teachers are more likely to avoid burnout and stress when they receive
support from their administration (Singh & Billingsly, 1998).
Environments that stimulate feelings of loyalty will encourage commitment
and productivity (Sergiovanni, 1996).
Work environments in which leaders display genuine interest and compassion
for employees enjoy lower turn over rates, fewer complaints, and lower
absenteeism (Bolman & Deal, 1991).
School crises serve a valuable purpose: they facilitate clarification of an
organization’s commitment to education as a virtuous endeavor (Glickman,
1993).
Strong principal leadership support is needed for teachers to be more likely to
be professionally committed (Singh & Billingsly, 1998).
A strong, caring, and social culture nurtures commitment (Deal & Peterson,
1999).
An organizational culture that shares common norms and values displays a
higher level of commitment than do these without these qualities (Deal &
Peterson, 1991; Shaw, 1992; Shaw & Reyes, 1992).
Teachers become more committed to the teaching profession, students,
colleagues, and community when the principal supports a collegial
environment (Cheng, 1996; Singh & Billingsly, 1996).
Involving faculty by constructing voluntary work groups is an effective
technique to rally support for commitment to policies and goals
(Hopfengardner & Rafferty, 1992).
Teacher commitment is heightened when principals trust teachers with
discretionary decisions and empower them by offering them learning
opportunities that challenge them and allow growth (Rosenholtz, 1989; Singh
& Billingsly, 1998).
18
Positive work conditions’ such as feedback, autonomy, participation,
collaboration, and learning opportunities, are linked to higher teacher
commitment (Firestone & Pennell, 1993; Singh & Billingsly, 1998).
Organizational commitment is positively correlated to greater job effort and
involvement (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982; Singh & Billingsly, 1996).
Commitment is one essential resource needed within an organization (Bolman
& Deal, 1991).
Favorable school culture conditions form commitment among staff, students,
and administrators (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Schein, 1995).
When implementing a new program, organizations that solicit faculty
involvement from the beginning find that the staff becomes more interested in
the process and helps promote its completion (Freed & Klugman, 1996).
Elements such as shared values, the nature of the reward system, and the
clarity of the organization’s mission and leadership are related to the degree of
faculty and staff commitment (Peterson & Martin, 1990).
Commitment to commonly held values based on organizational symbols helps
institutions work to their best ability (Bolman & Deal, 1991; Gaziel, 1997;
Mells, 1994; Murgatroy, 1991).
The principal should consider collegiality among the faculty, the proficiencies
of the school staff, and the school-wide level of participation in decision
making before deciding on the style of leadership that would be best for a
particular school (Hopfengardner & Rafferty, 1992).
Domain III: Systems Thinking
Systems thinking empowers people by enabling them to escape the sense of hopelessness
fostered by the complexity of the system (Senge, 1990).
Feedback loops provide shared reflection between a system’s members, allowing for
creative responses to issues that can provide significant change (Wheatley, 1992).
A systems thinking approach encourages individual members in an organization to
undertake new responsibilities to aid in the overall success of the organization (AckerHocevar, Snyder, & Wolf, 1995; Snyder, Wolf, & Acker-Hocevar, 1995).
Systems thinking illustrates the idea that small, well-founded courses of action instituted
in the correct place will result in significant, long-lasting improvement (Senge, 1990b).
19
Systems thinking provides a framework and tools from which we can see the patterns and
interrelationships that surround the problems we have in today’s complex society and
helps us solve these problems more effectively (Gray, 1995; Hood & Hutchins, 1996;
Senge, 1990; Wheeler, 1995).
When a system opens itself up to everyone within it, the focus is changed from preventing
acquisition of information to sharing information and discovering what works best for the
system (Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 1996).
The paradigm shift from a bureaucratic model to a systems thinking model has the
potential to rebuild schools into learning organizations and to enhance the working
environment for both the students and the staff (Snyder, Wolf, & Acker-Hocevar, 1995).
The inclination to blame individuals for a systemic problem is negated by systems
thinking, which necessitates every member to accept responsibility for the error (Senge,
1990).
Many people are stressing the idea that organization design must be fluent and penetrable
so that they may be resilient in facing continuous change (Wheatley, 1992, 1996).
Systems thinking has already been proven effective on the corporate level and provides
the greatest possible hope for school reform (McAdams, 1997; Snyder, Wolf, & AckerHocevar, 1995).
Systems thinking is necessary when attempting to find long-term solutions because linear
thinking often results in short-term solutions that eventually worsen the original problem
(National Staff Development Council, 1995; Senge, 1990b).
Systems thinking is an essential skill that must be required for the leaders of the 21st
century (Abbott, 1996; Satterlee, 1997).
The ways in which learning organizations think about their world is built on systems
thinking (Senge, 1990).
For a system to retain life, it is imperative that new information continuously flow
through the system and that people not try to manipulate or control it, instead encourage it
and learn from it (Wheatley, 1992).
By facilitating the understanding of underlying, complex system patterns, systems
thinking provides a point of leverage by which to achieve necessary school reform (Case,
1992; Hood & Hutchins, 1996; National Staff Development Council, 1995).
A systems thinking approach provides for a collaborative environment that allows for a
quick response to an organization’s needs (Snyder, Wolf, & Acker-Hocevar, 1995;
Wolverton, 1995).
20
Opening a system to include everyone involved promotes trust, open communication, and
diverse views, which ultimately leads to a collaborative work environment (Wheatley &
Kellner-Rogers, 1996).
Systems thinking provides a language that consists of links and loops that provide
continuous feedback leading to the better understanding of the complex system that exists
within an organization (Wheeler, 1995; Wolverton, 1995).
Systems thinking is a contemplative option to reductionism, which attempts to find
simple answers to complicated questions (Senge, 1990).
When people step back and look at a system as a whole entity, instead of focusing on
individual parts, there is an opportunity to alleviate the fear of complexity, thus making
the system more manageable (Wheatley, 1992).
Systems thinking examines the whole rather than just the parts, and because reality is
often made up of interconnections, it is necessary to examine the whole system; thinking
in only linear cause and effect is not sufficient, and systems thinking is required (Norland,
1994; Senge, 1990; Wheeler, 1995).
Systems thinking is essential in successfully moving towards and practicing in a quality
system (Acker-Hocevar, Snyder, & Wolf, 1995; Freed & Klugman, 1996).
Systems thinking aids in the prevention of an organization’s break down because it
focuses on the system as a whole instead of basing success on individual talents and
functions (Senge, 1990).
New science is placing emphasis on viewing a system holistically and respecting
interrelationships that exist within that system (Wheatley, 1992).
Systems thinking allows for members of an educational system to work together instead
of competitively, accomplishing optimization (Detert & Mauriel, 1997; Evans, 1996).
Systems thinking helps us break away from the medical model and enables us to use tools
that increase independent, successful thinking and acting, which, in turn, aids in
strengthening classroom instruction (Case, 1992; Wheeler, 1995).
System thinking provides an avenue through which people become aware of the
interconnectedness that exists within our world (Senge, 1990).
The concept of organizations is moving away from a bureaucratic model that focuses on
mechanisms to a more fluid, open systems model (Wheatley, 1992).
The paradigms that have historically been unsuccessful need to be discarded. A move
towards systems thinking is essential to the survival of an organization (Betts, 1992).
21
A system consists of multiple processes occurring simultaneously. Systems thinking
helps keep the focus on all of the key variables and the relationships between them (Case,
1992; Hwang, 1995).
It is impossible to think in a chain-of-events (linear) fashion and be able to understand the
extent of consequences that occur with every action, therefore systems thinking is
imperative to see the whole picture (Senge, 1990).
When analyzing failed attempts of organizational change, it becomes apparent that
individuals have been looking in the wrong places for solutions; they must learn to look
at the organization as a system that is co-evolving (Wheatley & Kellner-Rogers, 1996).
A. Data driven Decision Making
Analyzing student data, such as socioeconomic level, gender, and race,
facilitates the staff’s ability to identify the areas in which improvement is
needed (National Staff Development Council, 1995).
An essential element of successful schools is the use of data to guide shared
decision making (Lambert, 1998).
Surveys can be utilized as effective tools in determining educational
tendencies, viewpoints, and thoughts, and comparing present and past
conditions to predict future happenings (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Successful school reform results from collecting and assessing data about
what is not working within the system (Masten, 1995; Peck & Carr, 1997).
An important skill for the 21st century school leader will be the ability to
utilize research findings to improve student achievement (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
Utilizing the information that data provides in order to make improvements is
a superior approach to discovering the appropriate decision to follow (Masten,
1995).
The ability to interpret and conduct research is an imperative skill needed to
make policy and program decisions that will best benefit the school and its
students (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Analyzed data is very powerful when the reason for its variation is understood
(Masten, 1995).
Systematic research provides the necessary groundwork for program
evaluations, long and short-term planning, and school procedures (Hoyle,
English, & Steffy, 1998).
22
The assessment of research based practices and current standards aids in
creating policies that support student learning, growth, and implementation of
improvement plans (Hatch & Hytten, 1997).
School leaders should have a working knowledge of the key statistical
concepts needed to interpret data in order to make decisions that will improve
students’ lives (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Data gained from evaluation instruments aids in program implementation
(McCown, Eakin, & Dusenbery, 1997).
On going evaluation provides the data needed to develop successful schools
that are designed to improve student learning (Gaziel, 1997; Louise & Denter,
1988).
Effective school reform is not possible without a solid research foundation
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Developing curriculum will always seriously take into account student test
results (English, 1992).
School leaders must master the skills of utilizing and interpreting data to gain
the trust of and initiate more support from the public (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
American education now demands that schools set high expectations and
strive for excellence by implementing research based professional
development programs (Mendez, 1992).
Analyzing the data gathered from staff development program evaluations aids
in determining the effectiveness of the program (Hoyle, English, & Steffy,
1998).
B. Curriculum/Instruction/Assessment
1. Curriculum
Content-based and interdisciplinary experiences should both be a part of
student learning (Lipton & Hubble, 1997; National Staff Development
Council, 1995).
Aside from being conceptual, interdisciplinary, and decision-making
centered, a multicultural curriculum also facilitates students’ ability to
view issues from a diverse ethnic perspective (Banks, 1999).
23
Curriculum should be based upon the information about which students
will be tested (Lezotte, 1997).
Curriculum based on a system design is consistent and balanced, and
systematically improves knowledge, understanding, and the ability to
perform (Erickson, 1998).
A successful curriculum assists the school district in achieving the
educational goals set forth by the staff and administration (English, 1992).
Established curricula permits teachers to convey clear and uniform
messages about what is expected of the students regarding the purpose and
processes of how material is learned (DuFour, 1997).
Successful monitoring of the curriculum identifies the deficiencies within
the plan that prevents intended goals and objectives from being attained
(Rossi & Freeman, 1993).
Curriculum guides need to be easy to communicate to everyone involved
in the school system (e.g., students, teachers, parents, administrators)
(Glatthorn, 1994).
Organizational behavior is molded by curricular structure (Gould,
Bornstien, & Florentine, 1997).
Multicultural curriculum facilitates all students’ understanding that ethnic
diversity should be celebrated and explored (Baker, 1996).
All children, regardless of race or socioeconomic status, can benefit from
and should have access to a challenging curriculum and high expectations
from their teachers (Banks, 1999; Nieto, 2000).
Curriculum is the guiding force that focuses the school district and is a
vehicle for realizing work plans (English, 1992).
Successful school programs partake in continuous professional
development activities that focus on forming and appraising curriculum,
instructional activities, and student assessment (Gusky, 1997).
Student knowledge, understanding, and abilities can be nurtured through a
systems designed curriculum (Erickson, 1998).
In order for a curriculum to be effective, it must consist of three core
requirements: consistency, continuity, and flexibility (English, 1992).
24
Students are better able to access and utilize information that has been
integrated and connected to content areas (Lipton & Hubble, 1997; Lipton
& Wellman, 1999).
The curriculum should be laid out in a uniform and concise manner in
order to be more inviting to those who will utilize it (Glatthorn, 1994).
The aim of the curriculum is for teachers to use it as a guide to help
students master the skills and concepts that are the foundation of the
established curriculum (Cunningham & Rouse, 1992).
It is impossible to “standardize” students therefore a useful curriculum
must be less conformist and more analogous and expressed (English,
1992).
Members of the school community need to redefine learning as it relates to
the type of teaching that is focused on the learner and the learning process
rather than the teacher and the teaching process (Lipton & Wellman,
1999).
The first step in curriculum design is a needs assessment, which evaluates
differences between the current level of student performance and the
desired level of student performance (English, 1992).
During the process of implementing a new curriculum, teachers need to be
offered support through ongoing professional development (Glatthorn,
1994).
Developing curriculum will always seriously take into account student test
results (English, 1992).
Teachers, students, parents, and administrators can use the curriculum as a
springboard for success (Cunningham & Rouse, 1992).
Content knowledge and understanding in respect to more extensive issues
and perspectives are the emphasis of integrated learning (Lipton &
Hubble, 1997; Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
Teachers and administrators are more likely to support changes in the
curriculum if the new curriculum is relevant and of high quality
(Glatthorn, 1994).
A curriculum should be developed that ensures that as students progress
from grade to grade, they accumulate a knowledge base for content and
conceptual understanding (Erickson, 1998).
25
To improve test or assessment performance, the curriculum must be
unified across grade levels and schools in the district (English, 1992).
Curriculum evaluation is based on the assumption that the leadership is
responsible for the design and delivery of the curriculum (English, 1992).
Implementing a systematic approach to constant evaluation of the
curriculum is mandatory to ensure that problems are reconciled by the
revisions process (Glatthorn, 1994).
Learning becomes more meaningful for students when curriculum is
presented through genuine human experience (Lipton & Hubble, 1997;
Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
A well-designed curriculum helps to organize the effort behind focusing
teacher instruction while aligning the instruction among all teachers in the
school (English, 1992).
Schools are more effective when they have been able to design and
implement aligned goals and curriculum (Glatthorn, 1994).
Multicultural education, if it is imaginatively and effectively executed, can
have a powerful and positive effect on children and facilitate their ability
to function competently later in life (Banks, 1997).
Narrowing the scope of curriculum to concentrating on a smaller number
of skills and concepts supports the student learning of problem solving and
critical thinking skills (Brophy, 1990; Glatthorn, 1997; Knapp &
Associates, 1991; McDonnell, 1989).
Quality curriculum plans base the teaching of thinking skills on a problemsolving foundation so as to improve student retention of knowledge
(Glatthorn, 1997; Resnick & Klopfer, 1989).
Student thinking skills are enriched through integrated curriculum (Lipton
& Hubble, 1997).
Teacher improvement can best be influenced through peer coaching, group
problem-solving sessions, curriculum work, staff development, and
clinical supervision (Glickman, 1991).
The goal of an integrated curriculum is to enhance instruction by focusing
on conceptual ideas based on generalizations which helps students reach
beyond specific factual knowledge to practical application of this
knowledge in other areas (Erickson, 1998).
26
Developing effective learning environments demands the comprehension
of how learners and learning are alike as well as how they are different
(Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
Effective curriculum development is evidenced when all levels of the
school system (state, district, school, and classroom) collaborate
(Glatthorn, 1997).
The curriculum should be developed to reconcile the differences in student
ability levels and styles of learning via alternate teaching strategies
(Glatthorn, 1997; Nieto, 2000; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1990)
Educational excellence in the school is dependent upon the establishment
of a sound and quality curriculum (Cotton, 1995; Fraser, Walberg, Welch,
& Hattie, 1987; Glatthorn, 1997).
Principal leadership involves cultivating and nurturing a culture that
fosters and stabilizes curriculum development in the school (Glatthorn,
1994).
2. Instruction
Teachers can help their students achieve academic excellence by keeping
an open mind and trying new and innovative ways of teaching
(Sergiovanni, 1990).
Student achievement is strongly linked to the amount of time spent on task
(Lezotte, 1997).
Teachers who treat students as if they are capable will often see as a result
that students demonstrate proficiency (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Capturing the interest of students results from teaching material that is
engaging and relevant to the lives of the students (Haberman, 1995; Nieto,
2000).
Students will benefit from a teacher’s discovery of and adaptation to
students’ individual learning styles (Banks, 1997, 1999; Schlechty, 1997).
Teachers must acquire multiple roles such as facilitator, mentor, coach,
and advisor to achieve authentic relationships with their students
(Lambert, 1998).
Skillful teachers have the ability to pique students’ interests, engage them
in learning, and instill intrinsic motivation (Haberman, 1999).
27
The idea that being bilingual causes cognitive confusion is a myth; in fact,
bilingualism is more likely to lead to cognitive advantages rather than
disadvantages (Baker, 1996; Nieto, 2000).
Adept teachers are able to add value to information when they teach
students how to understand and apply knowledge instead of just teaching
isolated skills (Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
Teacher’s should model higher-level thinking through instruction that
allows students to expand their existing knowledge base of material and
create new constructs (Erickson, 1983).
Innovative curriculum stimulates changes in teachers’ roles, methods of
teaching, and the way learning activities occur within the classroom
(Mandinach & Cline, 1992).
Teaching for advanced understanding depends on the teacher’s ability to
introduce thought provoking concepts in a way that allows students to
constantly re-examine their points of view and speculations (Wiggins &
McTighe, 1998).
An effective teaching skill is the ability to develop high expectations for
the students as well as for the teachers themselves (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
Modeling the desire for obtaining knowledge is the powerful primary
strategy used by successful teachers educating low-income children
(Haberman, 1995).
It is important for teachers to have a clear understanding of the cultural
differences that exist among children from various ethnic groups that
affect the ways in which they will most effectively learn (Banks, 1997;
Banks, 1999; Nieto, 2000).
Moving into the 21st century, educators must shift old ways of teaching to
new ones that emphasize problem-solving skills, academic honesty,
intellectual stringency, and attentive student performance (Sergiovanni,
1990).
In a learner-centered environment, teachers and students collaborate
connect previous understanding and experiences with insights and
revelations about new concepts (Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
Effective teachers use many different types of classroom materials and
techniques to help students become effective learners (Glickman, 1991;
Haberman, 1995; Nieto, 2000).
28
Supervisors can help promote teachers willingness to try new methods of
teaching by exposing them to various exercises that they can experiment
with in their classrooms (Grimmett, 1992).
Improvements in teaching account for encouraging increased student
involvement in the learning process and creating inventive assessment
strategies (Brandt, 1996).
The key to effective, expedient, and productive instruction is assessment
that focuses on student achievement, growth, and competency (Stiggins,
1994).
Teacher qualities such as efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and commitment
aid tremendously in student achievement (Sergiovanni, 1990).
Deciding how to develop a more efficient manner of teaching and learning
is a key concept of educational planning (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Teachers and instruction should focus on the process of learning
(Mandinach & Cline, 1992; Payne, 1995).
Students from impoverished backgrounds can learn content knowledge
more effectively through associative, rather than linear, activities (Payne,
1995).
Research indicates that students who are in an intellectually stimulating,
risk-free, and task-oriented classroom environment that provides
instantaneous feedback are more attentive (Baker, 1996; Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
Children from impoverished backgrounds will obtain higher levels of
thinking and understanding through solving problems and answering
questions that they view as being significant to their lives (Haberman,
1999).
A requirement for excelling academically is the ability of teachers to adapt
their teaching strategies to accommodate different teaching situations
(Banks, 1997; Nieto, 2000; Sergiovanni, 1990).
Teachers are most productive in facilitating learning when their
techniques and strategies are purposeful, strategic, and definitive (Lipton
& Wellman, 1999).
29
Instructional leaders need to provide professional development on
improving and supporting teachers’ assessment training needs that will, in
turn, support all key aspects of instruction (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Teachers can encourage students’ independent use of higher-level thinking
skills by incorporating strategies such as writing practice, problem solving,
anagrams, and text mapping into their instruction (Erickson, 1983).
Teachers’ strong commitment to educating those students who are a
language minority and their high expectation in students’ ability to learn
increases the chance for high academic achievement (Baker, 1996).
Teachers should provide opportunities for students to engage with their
peers in applicable tasks, communication, thinking, and problem solving
in order to make learning more authentic and interesting (Lipton &
Wellman, 1999; Schlechty, 1997).
Successful school programs partake in continuous professional
development activities that focus on forming and appraising curriculum,
instructional activities, and student assessment (Gusky, 1997).
Effective teachers continuously scrutinize, study, and adjust their
instruction practices to meet the needs of their students in order to help
them become skilled learners (Glickman, 1991; Scheurich, 1998).
It is important for educators teaching minority students to incorporate a
sense of community within the classroom in which each student aids each
other in learning in a collaborative fashion; this practice helps students see
that community building not only works in the classroom but is a life long
practice (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Emotional issues that exist within the classroom and among its students
inevitably reduce the teacher’s instructional effectiveness, therefore he or
she must address these situations (Sarason, 1996).
Teachers ability to waste less time in starting and ending lesson plans aids
them in focusing attention on curriculum that is congruent with what
appeals to the students and their abilities, thus making teachers more
effective (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Successful and focused learning depends on the extent to which authentic
tasks act as a guiding force that influences content, skills, and instruction
(Wiggins, 1997).
30
Student learning will flourish when teachers attend to what is good for
students both academically and developmentally (Sergiovanni, 1990).
Supervisors can assist teachers in becoming more courageous in
attempting new teaching practices by providing a foundation that brings
issues to the forefront regarding teaching dilemmas and intrusive biases,
and by focusing on learner-centered teaching strategies (Grimmett, 1992).
Effective learners formulate a collective knowledge upon which new
knowledge can be organized into patterns that will help them make new
connections and synthesize new understanding (Lipton & Wellman, 1999).
To help students learn, assessment should be used in conjunction with
instruction (Crooks, 1998; National Staff Development Council, 1995;
Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Effective teachers do not berate students for what they do not know; rather
they build upon what the student does know to help the student acquire
more advanced knowledge and skills (Ladson-Billings, 1994).
Alternating between a student’s native language and English facilitates
clarity and a better understanding of the instructional material being taught
(Baker, 1996).
In order to improve academic achievement, teachers must pay attention to
actual learning, which occurs inside a student’s mind, rather than just
teaching, which occurs outside a student’s mind (Payne, 1995).
Outstanding teachers follow their genuine belief that students from
impoverished backgrounds do have the potential to learn and that they
should learn as much as possible about a wide variety of subjects
(Haberman, 1995).
Matching an appropriate method of teaching to a student’s particular type
of intelligence facilitates the student’s mastery of necessary skills and
promotes the progress of his or her development (Gardner, 1993).
3. Assessment
A combination of norm-referenced achievement and standard-referenced
reports is preferred because they compare the students with local, regional,
and national standards (Wiggins, 1994).
31
Competent teachers understand the ramifications of assessment results in
regard to how students feel about themselves and fit into the academic and
social contexts within the school setting (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Assessment strategies should support the true intention of evaluations,
which is to bolster learning through quality instruction (National Staff
Development Council, 1995; Nieto, 2000).
Student assessment should be based upon curriculum and criterion
referenced (Lezotte, 1997).
Improving assessment techniques alters the ways in which students are
tested and the methods by which scores are measured and compared (Peck
& Carr, 1997; Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Standardized tests are more useful when attention is paid to the teaching
and learning of the criteria being assessed (Wiggins, 1989).
Improving assessment techniques influences curriculum and the
viewpoints held by the community concerning the caliber of their schools
(Peck & Carr, 1997).
Through developing assessment standards and through peer review,
districts can facilitate the design of credible performance tasks and
assessments (Wiggins, 1997).
Students should be informed regarding the basis of their grades and how
the teacher will ascertain them (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
For teachers and students to achieve their personal best, continual
assessment of the incongruence between current achievements and desired
goals is necessary (Post, 1997).
Understanding rather than knowledge should be the goal of complex
performance tasks (Wiggins, 1997).
By providing a knowledge foundation that includes current research in
curriculum, performance standards, teaching tactics, and school routines,
schools are best suited to be conducive environments that contribute to
high student achievement (Hatch & Hytten, 1997).
Prudent assessments facilitate feedback that emphasizes student progress
(Stiggins & Conklin, 1992; Crooks, 1988).
32
The purpose of assessment is to determine how the student can use the
knowledge he or she has acquired in the appropriate context (Wiggins,
1997).
Assessment can be viewed as a powerful variable for a wide range of
modifications spanning from curriculum to public relations (Peck & Carr,
1997).
Teachers need to have a professional knowledge base of how assessment
relates to effective instruction, its value in different contexts, and what
assessment information is needed to make a particular decision (Stiggins
& Conklin, 1992).
Students should be considered as customers. In this regard, assessment
tasks should be credible and useful, and reporting assessment results
should adequately explain progress to the customers (Wiggins, 1997).
Part of a principal’s job as instructional leader is to be a leader of
appropriate and functional assessments as well (Stiggins, 1994).
Unconventional assessment methods can bolster cooperative learning
(Carr & Peck, 1997).
Unfortunately, tests given to bilingual students are often used to focus on
alleged disabilities, therefore, it is imperative that assessments are fair and
accurate so that further misconceptions about the students’ ability do not
occur (Baker, 1996; Nieto, 2000).
Assessment guidelines should be focused on progress standards and
growth expectations of students (Wiggins, 1994).
Developing curriculum will always seriously take into account student test
results (English, 1992).
Effective and appropriate school assessment should be aimed at helping
the teacher become a better instructor and helping the students become
better learners (Wiggins, 1997, 1998).
Instructional leaders need to provide professional development on
improving and supporting teachers’ assessment training needs which will,
in turn, support all key aspects of instruction (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Improvements in teaching account for encouraging increased student
involvement in the learning process and creating inventive assessment
strategies (Brandt, 1996).
33
The first step in curriculum design is a needs assessment that evaluates
differences between the current level of student performance and the
desired level of student performance (English, 1992).
The legitimacy and effectiveness of assessment depends on the quality of
the school’s instituted structures and policies that ensure that the skills and
criteria of the test are being effectively taught and learned (Wiggins,
1989).
Tests and test scores not only report educational learning, they also shed
light on the student’s accumulated learning experiences (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998; Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
Developing an on going, credible, and useful assessment system allows the
school to be more responsible in providing for the needs of its students
(Wiggins, 1994).
Successful school programs partake in continuous professional
development activities that focus on forming and appraising curriculum,
instructional activities, and student assessment (Gusky, 1997).
Student assessment should include the identification of the students’
strengths and weaknesses in each subject area (Wiggins, 1994).
Despite the usefulness of standardized tests, the real measure of a school’s
worth is how well student learning can be transferred into nonschool
settings (Glickman, 1991).
The key to effective, expedient, and productive instruction is assessment
that focuses on student achievement, growth, and competency (Stiggins,
1994).
Sound assessment practices demand the use of multiple forms of
evaluation such as portfolios, performances, and self-appraisals (Wiggins,
1994).
To improve test or assessment performance, the curriculum must be
unified across grade levels and across schools in the district (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993).
Assessment systems should track the development of understanding in the
students and give them opportunities to apply their learning to authentic
tasks and receive feedback (Wiggins, 1998).
Assessment should be used in conjunction with instruction to help students
learn (Crooks, 1998; Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
34
C. Supervision
To achieve academic excellence, it is imperative that teachers and
administrators work collaboratively as colleagues (Sergiovanni, 1990).
Supervision that is based on an open, trusting, and collegial relationship
creates climate that reduces fear, anxiety, and tension (Glickman & Esposito,
1979).
Part of a principal’s job as instructional leader is to be a leader of appropriate
and functional assessments as well (Stiggins, 1994).
Researchers have found that teachers who receive support from their
administration experience less stress and burnout than do their counterparts
who receive little or no support (Fiman, 1986; Fiman, Pierson, & McHardy,
1986; Zobel & Zobel, 1982).
The school principal and teaching staff should participate in a collaborative
effort that combines each member of the staff’s expertise, talent, and care for
others (Glickman, 1991).
Leaders are critical forces in developing, molding, and shaping the cultural
systems of organizations that set the tone and educational environment of the
school (Anderson, Rungtussanatham, & Schroder, 1994; Goldman, 1998).
Reward systems that are designed to bring teachers together and share ideas
and support are superior to those that are divisive (Sergiovanni, 1990).
One function of supervision is to serve as an outlet to analyze performance
and offer feedback (Glickman & Esposito, 1979).
Teacher motivation, involvement, and morale are dependent upon
administrative support (Blase, 1987; Sergiovanni, 1990).
Administrative support has a direct, positive impact on job satisfaction and
performance (Blase, Dedrick, & Strathe, 1986).
The leader’s responsibility is to support the employees in an effort to continual
improvement (Anderson, Rungtussanatham, & Schroder, 1994).
Supervision should provide a framework in which school staff and
administrators can grow together to facilitate the accomplishment of district,
school, teacher, and student goals (Glickman & Esposito, 1979).
35
Supervision practices need to be based on collegiality as a fundamental aspect
of professionalism (Sergiovanni, 1992).
The principal’s leadership, the school’s organizational structure, and the
teachers’ social norms are important for effecting school functioning and
teacher performance (Cheng, 1996; Robbins, 1990; Schein, 1991;
Sergiovanni, 1984).
Teachers and administrators should be treated as equals in regard to making
decisions about teaching and learning (Glickman, 1991).
When teachers’ perception of principal leadership is positive and strong, it is
likely that their perception of peer support will increase, thus allowing them to
work cooperatively and share a common sense of purpose (Singh & Billingsly,
1996, 1998).
Cohesiveness and a supportive learning community are likely to result from an
environment in which the principal cultivates shared goals, values, and
professional growth (Singh & Billingsly, 1996, 1998; Wycoff, 1998).
Supervision should help promote collegiality among teachers, which is the
foundation upon which the promotion of better working conditions,
improvement of instruction, and improvement of learning is built
(Sergiovanni, 1992).
School reform is most successful when principals and teachers adopt
resourceful ways to operate together in the work environment (Hultgren &
Riedlinger, 1996; Lieberman & Miller, 1990).
Teacher improvement can best be influenced through peer coaching, group
problem-solving sessions, curriculum work, staff development, and clinical
supervision (Glickman, 1991).
A teacher’s capacity for greater professional commitment can be reached
through the principal’s efforts to communicate clear expectations, provide
objective evaluations, and endow teachers with needed support (Cross &
Billingsly, 1994; Gersten, Gillman, Morvant, & Billingsly, 1995; Singh &
Billingsly, 1996, 1998).
The principal’s responsibility for supervision of instruction is of paramount
importance (Lunenburg, 1995, 1998).
A leader's values are reflected in a school’s environment and therefore serving
as a role model is a crucial leadership skill (Goldman, 1998; McCown, Eakin,
& Dusenbery, 1997).
36
Leaders’ attitudes influence how members of organizations perceive situations
that occur within the organization (Wycoff, 1998).
Auspicious change demands that leaders and teachers must improve together
(Wycoff, 1998).
Successful school districts create expectations of dialogue among all staff and
educators in an effort to spur inventiveness and school wide commitment
(Pajak & Glickman, 1989).
D. Professional Development
A well-constructed principal portfolio promotes administrator growth, which,
in turn, leads to improved leadership (Brown & Irby, 1997).
Instructional leaders need to provide professional development on improving
and supporting teachers’ assessment training needs that will, in turn, support
all key aspects of instruction (Stiggins & Conklin, 1992).
One important aspect of professional development is multicultural awareness
training that teaches empathy and tolerance while opposing biases (Goleman,
1995).
The process of acquiring new skills is on going and strongly supported by staff
development (National Staff Development Council, 1995).
It is important for staff development to be combined with support from the
learning organization so that teachers will feel unimpeded to use their newly
acquired skills to benefit their students (Loucks-Horsley, 1994; Sarason,
1996).
As individuals develop professionally, they discover new potential in
themselves. This expanded knowledge is brought to the organization and
contributes to the evolution of the system (Masten, 1995; Sanford, 1995).
Effective staff development nourishes individual developmental needs as well
as organizational needs; this encourages successful change within the
organization (Hatch & Hytten, 1997; Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; LoucksHorsley, 1994; Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, & Snyder, 1994; Snyder, Wolf, &
Acker-Hocevar, 1995).
Useful staff development programs aid educators in gaining a sense of
confidence in their job abilities (National Staff Development Council, 1995).
37
In order to most effectively implement multicultural curriculum, it is essential
that teachers gain a knowledge base about ethnic diversity through welldesigned staff development programs (Banks, 1999).
Regardless of the size, demographics, or financial resources of a school
district, professional development must be guided by the needs of the students
(Richardson, 1997).
Developing a portfolio benefits principals by providing an opportunity for
self-assessment, professional growth, evaluation, career advancement, and
reflection (Brown & Irby, 1997).
The success of teacher development programs depend on an environment
conducive to teacher learning and accessibility to practical and engaging
activities (Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams,
1987).
Staff development programs are critical to achieve new goals and respond to
the need of those within the district and the schools (Gusky, 1997; LoucksHorsley, 1994; National Staff Development Council, 1995; Russell, 1997;
Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, & Snyder, 1994).
Professional development is imperative in all forms of leadership and collegial
sharing (DuFour, 1997; Gusky, 1997).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require perseverance to reach established goals (Hoyle, English, & Steffy,
1998; National Staff Development Council, 1995).
Teacher portfolios allow for professional growth that consequently enhances
performance standards of students, schools, and whole districts (Brogan, 1995;
Brown & Irby, 1997).
Professional development is a continuous process that must occur in all
learning environments (Gusky, 1997; Loucks-Horsley, 1994).
Successful professional development blends both independent and
interdependent learning techniques, which maximizes growth (National Staff
Development Council, 1995).
Staff development is one of the interdependent functions utilized within high
performing schools (Snyder, Acker-Hocevar, & Snyder, 1994).
Staff development is a potent instrument for school improvement (Hoyle,
English, & Steffy, 1998; Loucks-Horsley, 1994).
38
Staff development that promotes collegiality, collaboration, discovery, and
problem solving fosters the internal motivation needed for lasting
perseverance and change (Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray,
Dubea, & Williams, 1987).
Ongoing improvement is perpetuated by and results from effective staff
development (National Staff Development Council, 1995).
The most important factor of a school’s culture is professional development in
that it promotes the creation of a learning community (DuFour, 1997; LoucksHorsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987).
Teacher portfolios impart the feedback needed to enhance teaching and
teacher professionalism (Brown & Irby, 1997; Doolittle, 1994).
Striving for continual professional development results in significant progress
regarding student learning (Loucks-Horsley, 1994; Richardson, 1997).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require future-oriented preparation (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Staff development is fostered in successful schools that are designed to
improve student learning by participating in ongoing planning and evaluation
(Gaziel, 1997; Louise & Denter, 1988).
Reflective teaching is essential to a flourishing professional development
program (Loucks-Horsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams,
1987).
The reflections derived from composing a professional portfolio encourages
principals to investigate and make necessary changes to their leadership
beliefs, behaviors, and experiences (Brown & Irby, 1997).
The philosophy of staff development needs to be focused on the fact that
communities, parents, children, and families are in a constant state of flux
(Krajewski & Cozad, 1992).
Staff development needs are ascertained through well-developed staff
evaluations and are used to target and promote personal and group betterment
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Continuous professional development provides support for teachers who are in
the process of implementing a new curriculum (Glatthorn, 1994; LoucksHorsley, 1994).
39
Expectations of principals have evolved into necessitating more reflective and
informed practices (Brown & Irby, 1997).
American education now demands that schools set high expectations and
strive for excellence by implementing research based professional
development programs (Mendez, 1992).
True school improvement is promoted by staff development programs that
require teacher guidance for students to reach their fullest potential (Hoyle,
English, & Steffy, 1998).
The extent to which school leaders and administrators validate and sustain
staff development efforts dictates the success of such programs (LoucksHorsley, Harding, Arbuckle, Murray, Dubea, & Williams, 1987).
On going professional development is essential in keeping the teachers
involved in the curriculum development process and to inhibit problems with
thoroughly implementing needed changes (Glatthorn, 1994; Loucks-Horsley,
1994).
Analyzing staff development program evaluations helps determine the
effectiveness of the program (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; National Staff
Development Council, 1995).
The principal portfolio is a valuable asset to principals who want to advance
student achievement through promoting improved practice via self-exploration
and professional development (Brown & Irby, 1997).
In order to foster the relationship between the school and the community, staff
development practices need to indicate changes that impact parents, children,
families, and whole communities (Krajewski & Cozad, 1992).
Effective staff development programs set the standards for focusing on
important student learning in successful schools (Loucks-Horsley, 1994;
Mendez, 1992).
Creating a learning atmosphere that advocates mutual support, trust, and
acceptance of differences must be considered when designing a staff
development program (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Principals with a solid understanding of their personal and professional
strengths and weaknesses are able to be successful staff developers because
they are aware of their beliefs, values, and behaviors (Hopfengardner &
Rafferty, 1992).
40
A staff development program that focuses on the learning structure,
environment, processes, and strategies fosters individual and group
improvement (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Loucks-Horsley, 1994).
Professional growth on the part of the principle is of utmost importance in
developing an environment favorable to student learning and success (Brown
& Irby, 1997).
The absolute objective of an effective staff development program is higher
student accomplishment (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; National Staff
Development Council, 1995).
Being an effective principal involves self-reflection that evolves into
truthfulness, honesty, and self knowledge (Kimbrough & Burkett, 1990).
The change that is fostered during the creation of a portfolio helps principals
be more inclined to improve student achievement and school effectiveness
(Brown & Irby, 1997).
E. Organizational Management
Organizational learning is likely to occur when the learning context is
established and nurtured (Voyt, 1995).
In order for school leaders to successfully implement positive school change,
they must devise a program that is designed to achieve the specified goals of
the school (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Effective managers are able to form and utilize innovative ideas and unique
alternatives based on the needs of their organization (Bolman & Deal, 1991).
Managers who balance praise with criticism, offer solutions to specific
problem areas, and are empathetic to employees practice the art of
constructive criticism, which promotes opportunity for improvement
(Goleman, 1995).
Principals who have the ability to collaborate and include other faculty and
staff members in organizational leadership facilitate high leadership capacity
within their school (Lambert, 1998).
Rewarding members of the organization for their willingness to learn and
invest in each member encourages individual learning (Post, 1997).
School organizational policies provide structure and a framework for teachers
to work cooperatively with others (Cheng, 1996; Gould, Bornstien, &
Florentine, 1997).
41
Elements such as shared values, the nature of the reward system, and the
clarity of the organization’s mission and leadership are related to the degree of
faculty and staff commitment (Peterson & Martin, 1990).
In order for school leaders to successfully administer positive school change,
they must institute a network of open communication that allows for the
supervision of both disagreements and agreements while the changes are being
made (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Professional commitment among teachers is fostered in organizational
management situations in which the principal communicates clear
expectations and provides fair evaluations and support (Cross & Billingsly,
1994; Gersten, Gillman, Morvant, & Billingsly, 1995; Singh & Billingsly,
1996, 1998).
Administrators must learn to listen to teachers, care about their needs, and
create open lines of communication when introducing initiatives for the
change process (Bey, 1992).
In order for school leaders to successfully administer positive school change,
they must be aware of potential problems and the resources needed to reach
the school’s goals (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Commitment to commonly held values based on organizational symbols helps
institutions work to their best ability (Bolman & Deal, 1991; Gaziel, 1997;
Mells, 1994; Murgatroy, 1991).
Culture fosters school effectiveness and productivity (Deal & Peterson, 1999;
Levine & Lezotte, 1990; Newmann & Associates, 1996; Purkey & Smith,
1983).
Management support produces job satisfaction and quality performance
(Russell, 1997).
An organizational management system that focuses on guiding and facilitating
professionals aids in school reform which leads to a more productive learning
environment for students (Hatch & Hytten, 1997).
In order for school leaders to successfully administer positive school change,
they must win the support of all administrators within the school and any other
advisors that may be involved in the process (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
42
When implementing a new program, organizations that solicit faculty
involvement from the beginning find that the staff becomes more interested in
the process and helps promote its completion (Freed & Klugman, 1996).
Helping faculty develop self-managing skills and the ability to see themselves
as learners helps principals shift their focus from efficiency, standards, and
procedures to a more succinct organizational management system (Wood,
1995).
Successful organizational management contributes to finding ways to solve
problems effectively in all areas of proposed change (Post, 1997).
In order for school leaders to successfully administer positive school change,
they must advise key people of the resources that are available to them that aid
in completing the job (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Clear benefits for helping others succeed are an essential part of any
established reward and recognition system (Hoffman & Withers, 1995).
When teachers’ perception of principal leadership is positive and strong, it is
likely that their perception of peer support will increase, thus allowing them to
work cooperatively and share a common sense of purpose (Singh & Billingsly,
1996, 1998).
The principal’s leadership, the school’s organizational structure, and the
teachers’ social norms are important for effecting school functioning and
teacher performance (Cheng, 1996; Robbins, 1990; Schein, 1991;
Sergiovanni, 1984).
Collaboration and teacher satisfaction are the direct result of creating a school
climate where leaders incorporate teachers in the decision-making process
(Bey, 1992).
In order for school leaders to successfully administer positive school change,
they must outline precise intentions and procedures that are influenced by the
district and campus plan, the school’s task, and its objective (Hoyle, English,
& Steffy, 1998).
It is imperative that leaders are committed to their principles, but it is also
important to be able to maintain flexibility when dealing with prevailing
situations (Bolman & Deal, 1991).
Principal leadership involves cultivating and nurturing a culture that fosters
and stabilizes curriculum development in the school (Glatthorn, 1994).
43
F. Partnerships/Communication
Parent-teacher communication provides valuable information for both the
parent and the teacher (Delgado-Gaitan, 1992).
Student achievement is higher in school programs that benefit from strong
parent involvement as compared to programs of the same quality that do not
have access to parent involvement (Nieto, 2000).
Power and wisdom can be gained through listening to community criticism
about new school programs because it could open the door to new alternatives
and innovative ideas for future plans and decisions (Glickman, 1993).
Highly successful schools construct strong community relationships through
respect, caring, inclusiveness, trust, empowerment, and commitment
(Scheurich, 1998).
“Star” teachers not only listen and hear information from students and parents,
they strive to understand the information as well because they see it as a
possible source of valuable knowledge (Haberman, 1995).
Building trust and communication encourages a sense of teamwork, which
ultimately leads to the growth and improvement of a learning organization
(Hoffman & Withers, 1995; Voyt, 1995).
Coordination and communication across all levels (schools, grade,
departments, etc.) is a critical element in the improvement of schools (Freed &
Klugman, 1996; Gould, Bornstien, & Florentine, 1997; Hatch & Hytten,
1997).
Communication between communities and their schools bridges the gap
between the two entities, allowing for shared ideas and goals, which in turn
results in school improvement (Hatch & Hytten, 1997; National Staff
Development Council, 1995; Peck & Carr, 1997).
Teams can become more cohesive through the discussion of strengths and
weaknesses (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Honest and open communication about the serious issues surrounding school
change is imperative if school reform is to be achieved (Peck & Carr, 1997).
Open communication is needed for those who implement curriculum (Kemp,
1983).
A key ability of an effective leader is communication (Satterlee, 1997).
44
Effective learning organizations communicate with each other by exchanging
ideas openly and honestly (Masten, 1995; Ryan, 1995).
Communicating and asking questions results in true learning (Ryan, 1995).
Morale, trust, cohesiveness, communication, and productivity of groups is
increased by the building of teams (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Success in revamping any educational system involves getting educators,
governments, industry, parents, and the community to work together to apply
true and lasting improvements (Krajewski & Cozad, 1992).
Students who are involved with their community tend to accomplish more
than those who are not (Nieto, 2000).
The key to establishing a connection between parents and principals is for the
principal to sincerely believe that parents want what is best for their children
(Haberman, 1999).
Communication leads to a better alliance of individual goals and
organizational goals (Sanford, 1995).
Communication bridges the gap between disciplines and encourages the
exchange of ideas (Kemp, 1983).
When parents are involved in school decision making and there is an open
channel of communication between the school and its students, teachers, and
parents, it is able to be more successful (Gaziel, 1997; Harnish, 1987; National
Staff Development Council, 1995).
A sense of community has been found to be a bifactor in cultivating a sense of
excellence in private schools (Bryk, Lee, & Holland, 1993; Deal & Peterson,
1999).
Communities with a collegial spirit create a collaborative environment that
facilitates increased motivation, enthusiasm, and energy, and supports
professional growth (Dorsch, 1998; McLaughlin, 1993).
Teachers play a fundamental role in informing parents of the latest educational
innovations and need to try to communicate those in layperson’s terms
lessening the use of educational jargon that too often precludes
communication between parents and teachers (Pugach & Johnson, 1995).
Positively oriented school cultures have an optimistic, socially caring,
supportive, and energetic staff that pass this attitude on to staff, students, and
the community (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Scheurich, 1998).
45
In order to foster the relationship between the school and the community, staff
development practices need to indicate changes that impact parents, children,
families, and whole communities (Krajewski & Cozad, 1992).
Parent involvement is vital to school performance because the two are
intricately interconnected (Deal & Peterson, 1999; Delgado-Gaitan, 1992;
Levine & Lezotte 1990; National Staff Development Council, 1995; Payne,
1995).
The energy, motivation, and vitality of school staff, students, and community
are augmented by the school’s organization culture (Deal & Peterson, 1999).
Healthy neighborhoods and healthy schools are inseparable therefore schoolcommunity relationships are imperative (Fullan, 1992, 1998; Newmann &
Wehlage, 1995; Schorr, 1997).
Schools must be responsive to the populations they serve because the
community is a vital part of establishing a partnership in education (Krajewski
& Cozad, 1992)
All students, staff, parents, and community members make up a partnership
culture within the organization (Snyder, Wolf, & Acker-Hocevar , 1995).
An administrator’s ability to initiate and carry out change within the school
organization depends on the level of understanding about the community and
its values (Schmieder & Cairns, 1996).
Trust within the school community context is developed though open and
honest communication (Hiegert, 1997)
When making decisions about school programs, it is imperative that leaders
have the support of both the staff and the community (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
The principal must provide leadership that conveys to the school community
that student learning is of utmost importance (Brown & Irby, 1997).
Schools must provide open communication to families and communities in
order to promote access to essential academic and social resources (DelgadoGaitan, 1992).
46
G. Evaluation
When analyzed, staff development program evaluations are beneficial
instruments in determining the effectiveness of the program (Hoyle, English,
& Steffy, 1998).
An effective principal is able to balance two conflicting roles: being
supportive of the staff and being “judgmental” in reference to evaluations
(Haberman, 1999).
Once the school community has identified the variables that are most relevant
in creating a successful change within the system, it is better able to
implement strategies to revamp those variables in an effort to promote
effective change (Peck & Carr, 1997).
Staff development needs are ascertained through well-developed staff
evaluations and are used to target and promote personal and group betterment
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Data gained from evaluation instruments aids in program implementation
(McCown, Eakin, & Dusenbery, 1997).
Working assessments that are team-oriented improve professional procedure
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Constantly evaluating established procedures and protocols leads to change
and improvement (Hoffman & Withers, 1995; Peck & Carr, 1997).
The improvement of teacher and administrator operation hinges on effective
staff evaluation (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Implementing a systematic approach to constant evaluation of the curriculum
is mandatory to ensure that problems are reconciled by the revisions process
(Glatthorn, 1994).
Evaluations serve as catalysts to higher levels of performance and team
building among school leaders (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Exceptional principals are willing to impose strict evaluation criteria upon
themselves as well as upon the faculty and staff (Haberman, 1999).
Successful monitoring of the curriculum identifies the deficiencies within the
plan that prevents intended goals and objectives from being attained (Rossi &
Freeman, 1993).
47
Evaluations that are handled by competent professionals promote an
atmosphere of trust that encompasses continued communication and support
(Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
To ensure that information gleaned from evaluation procedures is received
with support from school personnel, the administration must be sensitive to
the system’s organizational culture (Rossi & Freeman, 1993).
Surveys can be utilized as effective tools in determining educational
tendencies, viewpoints, and thoughts, and in comparing present and past
conditions to predict future happening’s (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
Evaluation and school improvement go hand-in hand (Hoyle, English, &
Steffy, 1998).
Continual program evaluations must occur in order to provide tangible proof
to the public that its schools are successful (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998).
School organizations need to incorporate information obtained from
evaluations into plans and actions that strive to meet the needs of the complete
school community (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational
Evaluation, 1994).
Schools consisting of a diverse population should develop evaluation criteria
that represents the specific needs for each group within the school community
(Haberman, 1999).
48
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