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Viet Nam
EnvironmentalProgramand Policy Priorities
for a SocialistEconomyin Transition
Agricultureand EnvironmentOperationsDivision
Country DepartmentI
EastAsiaand PacificRegion
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February27, 1995
Public Disclosure Authorized
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4
CURRENCY EOUIVALENTS
The Vietnamesecurrency is the dong (D)
Calendar 1993
August 1994
US$1.00 = D11,000
D 1,000 US$ 0.09
US$1.00 = D10,640
D 1,000 = US $0.09
Fiscal Year
January 1 - December 31
Weifhts and Measures
Metric System
ACRONYMS
ADB
-
Asian Development Bank
AIDAB
ASEAN
-
Australian InternationalDevelopmentAssistanceBureau
Associationof South East Asian Nations
ASS
BAP
-
Acid Sulphate Soils
Biodiversity Action Plan
CIDA
CEST
CEMA
-
Canadian InternationalDevelopmentAgency
Center for EnvironmentalScience and Technology
Council of Mutual EconomicAssistance
COM
-
Council of Ministers
DFCS
-
Departmentof Fixed Cultivationand Sedenterzation,MOF
EA or EIA
EPZ
-
Environment Assessment
Export Processing Zone
ESCAP
ESMAP
-
Economicand Social Council for Asia and the Pacific
Energy Sector ManagementAssistanceProgram
FAO
-
Food and Agriculture Organization
FINNIDA
FIPI
GDLA
-
Finnish InternationalDevelopmentAgency
Forest Inventory and PlanningInstitute
General Departmentfor Land Administration
GDP
GOV
HCMC
-
Gross Domestic Product
Government of Viet Nam
Ho Chi Minh City
IDA
-
InternationalDevelopmentAssociation
IPM
-
Integrated Pest Management
ACRONYMS(continued)
TUCN
JICA
MAFI
-
InternationalUnion for Conservationand Nature
Japan InternationalCooperationAgency
Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industry
MDMP
-
Mekong Delta
MFAP
-
Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Products
MOC
MOE
MOF
MOFA
MOH
MOHI
MOLI
-
Ministry
Ministry
Ministry
Ministry
Ministry
Ministry
Ministry
MLISA
MOSTE
-
Ministry of Labor, Invalidsand Social Affairs
Ministry of Science, Technologyand Environment
MWVR
NEA
NGO
-
Ministry of Water Resources
National Environment Agency
Non-governmental Organization
NIAPP
NLEP
NPEB
NPESD
NPV
OOG
PPC
SCCI
SCP
SIDA
-
National Institutefor AgriculturalPlanningand Projections,MAFI
National Law on EnvironmentProtection
National Project EvaluationBoard
National Plan for Enviromnentand SustainableDevelopment
-
Net Present Value
Office of the Government
Provincial Peoples Committee
-
State Commissionon Cooperationand Investment
-
State Commission on Prices
-
SwedishInternationalDevelopmentAgency
SPC
TA
-
State Planning Committee
Technical Assistance
UNCED
UNDP
UNEP
-
United Nations Council for Environmentand Development
United Nations DevelopmentProgram
United Nations EnvironmentProgram
VND
-
Viet Nam Dong (currency)
World Food Program
WFP
WHO
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
Construction
Energy
Forestry
Finance
Health
Heavy Industry
Light Industry
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALISTECONOMYIN TRANSITION
CONTENTS
VolumeII
Page No.
Annex 1
StatisticalAnnex .................................
Annex 2
Index of Susceptibilityto Deterioration .......
Annex 3
Forest Degradationand the Evolution
of Barren Lands .................................
Annex 4
Viet Nam War Damnagesand the Environment ......
Annex 5
Hill Area Programs with Environmental
Implications: A Review ..............................
Annex 6
Decree of the Council of Minister - No 327 .......
Annex 7
Watershed Erosion Impact and Costs:
The Da Watershed ..................................
I
..............
49
57
...........
70
78
...........
86
Annex 8
The Cost of Mangrove Destructionin Viet Nam .....
Annex 9
Law on EnvironmentalProtection ........
Annex 10
Environment-RelatedInstitutionaland
Regulatory System .153
92
..........
...............
103
136
Annex 1
Figures l.a - l.c
Page I of 48
VIET NAM: INTERACTIONS OF INSECTICIDE AND
FERTILIZER USE ON PLANTHPPER DENSITIES, TIEN GIANG
NUMBER OF BPH/W8PH ECGS
UNrr (0.05 M2.11EN
PER SAMPLING
a)
ClANG
1200
1000
8o0
400
200I
0.
IS 22 25 29 22 36 39 43 46
DOnotnse_ddm.
noiameudde,.
m
nonmal
53
f(rulm
57 6064 67 71 74 76 SI 6s
h4h
fulrm
-laSdde
treated.
nolms
SertuJw
NUMBER OF YOUNG BPH/VBPH NYPtHS
PER SMtPLtNC UNIT (0.05MM)N.
MEN ClNG
")
4000
3500
3000
2300
1500
1000
500
0
18
|
2:22529
no
aeCUddes.
normal (ertdzaer
32
3839
43
4850
sa3
ano
Inccdee.
507 60 64
hslh h
f(lw
67 71
7478
81 85
tmecudde
troted.
nren
G1eUlzer
NUMBER OF OLDBPH/WBPH NYMPHS
PER SAMPLINGUNrr (0.05 M23.TIENGlANG
C)
1000-
soo900
700
500400
300
200
0
18 22 25 29 32 36394346
*
InacctAdde.
nora
khut=e
Onno
50 53 57 60 64 67 71 74 78 81 85
des.
a
high
- Wtctdde
norml
trated.
krdlime
Planthopperdensitl atdaysafte rplanting3tmtmentL
Fanret. fields Tien Clang Mekong Deta.Vieman 1991.
Figuze3na
SOURCE:
FAO:
InterCountry
IPM Progam
-2Annex
Figures
VIET NAM INTERACTIONS OF INSECTICIDE AND
FERTILIZER USE ON BPH PREDATOR DENSITIES
NUMBER OF CYRrORHINUS
PER SAMPUNG UNrr 10.05 M2). TIEN CLANG
d)
120
100
so
o6
40
20
18 22 25 29 32 36 39 43 46 50 53 57 60 64 67 71 74 78 81 S5
nin
ctcides.
non-l
fetzr
Ono inrsecades.
-hraecddce
high fer,duhz
tm.t:d.
femilzer
nornal
NUMBER or wATERSuS
PER SAMPLING UNrr (0.05 M2). nEN CLANG
e)
s0
so
40.
30
20
0
18 22 25 29 32 36 39 43 46
norm
fel iuer
50 53 57
0064
67 71 74 7861
normal
uhih fertlizer
TOTAL NU?ABER OFr SPIDERS
PER SAMAPLING UNIT (0.05 M21. TIEN
s0
t°o S)
85
(raler
IANG
I
70.
s0
On
stsdes.
nc
so
40
nalnzect3cd-f. Phor
snetcdes.
ltnaectiet
dea.fe
~
Inactdcce tre
3
*biaetidde
td
etd
30
20
10
18 222529032
30
lnaecticlde,.
norna I farUiljwc
'no
39 43 46
50-5357
0 no Insecticide,.
high fertlizer
60 6467
85
71 74 7881t
.Inaecactde
P,
normal fertilb
ted.
at days after planttng
3 tretuwmes.
Figure
3 d-f. PmedatorDensitas
Vietnam1991.
Farmersaeies TlenGlang,Mekong Delta,
SOURCE:
FAO:
InterCountry
1PM Program
1
1.d - 1.f
Page 2 of 48
-3An*ex 1
Table 1
Page 3 of 48
Land Susceptibility Classes (in thousand ha)
Province
Total Area
Ha Giang
Tuycn Quang
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Bac Thai
Lai Chau
Son La
Yen Bai
Lao Cai
Guang Ninh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
i{ai Phong
Ha Tay
Hoa Binh
Hai Hung
Thai Binh
Nam fia
Ninh Binh
Thanh l{os
Nghe An
Hsalinh
Guang Binh
Quang Tri
Thua Thien-ilue
Qang Nam Da-Na
Quang Ngai
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan lloa
Ninh Thuan
Binh Thuan
Gia Lai
I;onTum
I)ac Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nai
Son Be
Tay Ninh
llo Chi Nlinh
Vung Tau- Ba Ri
Long An
Tien Giang
Ben Tre
Dong Thap
Vinh Long
Tra Vinh
Can Tho
Soc Trang
An Giang
Kien Giang
Minh llai
Totals I/
Class I
(least)
739
643
850
791
660
1733
1440
770
690
516
451
492
99
123
252
428
267
151
186
168
1145
1684
607
847
496
466
1200
520
634
521
484
356
815
1489
1086
1879
1024
594
936
400
190
190
446
227
212
316
154
202
302
327
331
582
792
383
40
736
249
688
1084
2721
7528
8093
944
6723
2483
5935
8828
4004
1897
1901
4455
2274
2119
3158
1543
2017
3016
3271
3305
5824
7919
32903
95918
241
593
503
348
1095
Class2
Class3
Class4
267
1828
958
3070
2661
5961
3737
4617
1592
3318
4225
4971
3953
2685
4709
2691
3628
173
1157
496
2336
2388
512
11316
9427
2778
3410
599
799
23
1593
1159
817
1047
1268
733
2452
1507
1540
72
2728
2950
1973
3240
1318
596
1446
2903
2871
1528
765
1146
2022
217
192
1448
4141
5372
3660
5042
1710
324
7957
387
1187
620
814
843
620
6798
9911
11899
7752
128
352
113
1793
374
425
230
130
194
3436
6393
186
110
1333
127
154
800
1027
438
187
1927
3358
2560
1172
2035
2374
2180
167
535
44711
120857
59933
Notcs:1/ Area totals not equal to those of the General Department of Land Management
Source: Aldrick 1993
Clas 5
(most)
7590
Annex I
Table 2
Fire Damage 1990-1992 (in ha)
Province
Ha Tuyen
Ha GClng
Tuyen Quing
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Bac Thai
LJi Cbau
Son La
Hoang Lieng Son
Yen Bai
Lao Cai
GuangNinh
Vinb Phu
Ha Brc
lis Nol
Hai Phong
lb SonBinh
fin Tay
Hon Binh
lIai [lung
Thai Binh
HIa Nam Ninh
Nam fia
Ninh Binh
Thanh boa
NgbeTinh
NgheAn
fin Tinh
Binh Tri Thicn
Guang Binb
Quang Tri
Thus Thien-llue
Qang Nam Da-Ns
Quang Binh
Quang Ngai
Binh Dinh
Phu Khan
Phu Yen
Khan lIor
Thuan liii
Ninh Thuan
Binh Thuen
Gin iai-Kon Tum
Gin Lai
Kon Tum
Dac Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nai
Son Be
Tny Nich
llo Chli linh
Vung Tau- En Rim
Long An
Tien Giang
BenTre
DongThap
Cuu Long
Vian Long
Tra Vinh
Ibu Glang
Can Tho
SocTrang
An Glang
Kien Gibng
Minh Hal
Totals
Source: FIPI, I992
Page 4 of 48
Natural Forest Planted Forest Naturnl Forest Planted Forest Natural Forest Planted Forest
1992
1992
1991
19 191991
1990
35
0
3
0
6
18
1000
73
6
4
134
10
10
60
6
0
3
13
220
0
0
16
35
420
29
lie
5
0
276
3
9
9
47
30
9
257
21
34
210
56
27
244
12
S4
37
483
117
70
3210
98
0
62
417
1159
209
1401
121
647
IS0
6l
43
379
1700
0
57
543
3561
3087
1919
too
1563
407
330
10348
69S2
3379
524
316
519
26
53
22
2300
43
1130
1652
427
2400
6531
566s
20S7
Abnex 1
Table 3
Page 5 of 46
Total Forest Area (in thousand ha)
Province
1943
1973
1985
Ha Giang
Tuyen Quang
Cao Bang
LAng Son
Bac Thai
LAlChau
Son La
Yen Bai
Lao Cai
Guang Ninh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
li Phong
Ha Toy
Hoa Binh
Hai Hung
Thai Binh
Nam Ha
Ninb Binb
Thanh Hon
Nghe An
Ha Tinh
Guang Binb
Quang Tri
Thus Thien-liuc
Qang Nam Da-Nang
Quang Ngal
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan Hoa
Ninh Thuan
Binb Thuan
Gin Lai-Kon Tum
Dac LAc
Lam Dong
Dong Nai
Son Be
Tay Ninh
la Chi Iinh
Vung Tau- Ba Rir
Long An
Tien Giang
Ben Tre
Dong Thap
Vinh Long
Tra Vinb
Can Tho
SocTrang
An Giang
Kien Giang
Minh lali
730
591
848
753
543
1447
1407
765
690
371
122
66
0
0
0
197
22
0
0
5
874
1006
393
537
381
333
879
170
202
402
412
320
444
2286
1865
996
378
610
157
0
119
0
0
48
0
0
65
4
41
40
288
437
i18
161
301
165
297
111
336
388
390
239
123
138
110
0
11
112
4
0
0
4
582
1024
293
259
210
275
707
125
221
284
266
63
209
1458
l00l
582
318
536
126
35
93
0
IS
12
0
0
17
0
19
7
128
216
159
159
46
146
127
230
125
103
75
82
51
47
I
0
3
81
3
0
0
0
295
732
272
208
52
219
327
103
157
116
13S
124
259
1331
907
755
247
226
75
39
27
19
16
7
0
0
18
0
4
0
4
157
22244
11889
8272
Totals
Sources: Niourand, 1943.Forest Inventory and Planning Instiste, 1973, 1987.
-6Annex 1
Table 4 (p.1)
Table 6 of 48
Land Use and Land Cover 1985 (in thousand ha)
Province
Total
Area
Agriculture
Land
Annual
Agriculture
Land
Perennial
Agriculture
Land
Pasture
Water
Bodiesfor
Irrigation
Total
Forest
6
12
27
12
22
37
52
16
7
0
3
0
15
0
0
4
36
23
7
2
2
2
3
26
12
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
IS
2
5
5
7
6
6
11
6
13
8
8
1
4
3
2
1
3
0
1
1
0
20
1
2
1
0
3
2
477
209
148
220
64
129
259
229
108
87
8
5
189
12
1
12
308
825
552
469
206
422
348
1472
1294
630
267
255
65
32
2
16
17
3
8
Natural
Forest
V
Ha Tuyen
Cao Bang
LangSon
Bsc Thai
LaiChau
SonLa
HoangLiengSon
GuangNinh
Vinh Phu
Hl Bac
Ila Noi
HaiPhong
lIkSon Binh
llai Hung
Tbai Binh
Ila NamNinh
Thanh Hon
NgheTinh
Binh Tri Thien
QangNam Da-Nang
QuangBinh
PhuKhan
Thuan lizi
Gia Lai-KonTum
DacLac
Lam Dong
DongNai
SonBe
Tay Ninh
llo Chi Ntinh
VungTau- Ba Ri
LongAn
Tien Giang
BenTre
DongThap
1363
844
819
650
1714
1421
1485
594
457
462
215
ISO
579
255
153
380
1114
2249
1756
1198
1190
980
1137
2560
1980
1017
759
955
403
206
24
434
234
225
328
145
75
96
88
108
143
187
59
154
155
107
62
149
161
105
224
259
321
170
117
179
120
128
181
135
61
291
202
207
93
4
194
169
152
222
115
56
51
60
78
100
99
34
117
145
96
56
124
148
98
199
200
252
154
107
168
110
114
130
86
44
195
88
176
84
1
188
127
103
210
23
6
17
13
7
6
20
7
24
5
2
1
4
2
1
8
16
38
8
4
6
6
10
21
36
15
95
112
11
8
1
5
41
46
9
Cuu Long
386
277
230
47
0
0
2
0
Hsu Giang
As Giang
lIen Gisng
Nlinh hai
616
342
624
777
491
245
282
404
442
239
251
340
48
3
29
44
0
0
0
0
1
3
2
20
7
16
92
180
4
0
57
176
33034
6919
5616
805
329
170
9642
9022
Totalis
Source:GeneralDepartmentof Land Management,
1985.
426
196
115
207
61
122
219
188
89
70
2
3
176
3
0
10
249
768
510
459
195
418
345
1467
1284
621
246
253
64
15
2
0
0
3
0
AnMex I
Table 4 (p.2)
Page 7 of 48
Land Use and Land Cover 1985 (in thousand ha)
Planted
Forest
Total
Unused
Land
Flat
Unused
Land
Upland
Unused
Land
Other
Land
Ha Tuyen
CaoBang
LangSon
BacThai
LAiCbhu
SonLA
HoangLlengS
GuangNinh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
lial
Phong
Ha SonBinh
HliHung
ThaiBinh
IlaNam Ninh
Thanh lion
NgheTinh
Binh Tri Thien
QangNamDaQuangBinh
PhuKhan
Thuanllai
GinLai-Kon T
Dae Lac
LAm Dong
DongNai
SonDe
Tay Ninh
llo Chi IHinh
VungTau- Ba
LongAn
Tien Giang
BenTre
DongThap
Cuu Long
llau Giang
An Giang
Kien Giang
hlinh hai
51
12
33
13
4
7
39
41
19
17
6
1
13
9
I
2
59
57
42
10
12
4
3
6
10
9
21
2
1
17
0
16
17
0
8
2
3
16
35
4
534
326
507
233
1452
1086
861
175
113
55
23
3
136
4
I
12
408
863
686
484
686
220
550
827
499
217
122
445
98
10
10
178
13
14
43
20
19
28
201
106
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
11
2
4
4
2
1
1
1
3
11
23
21
10
23
9
47
0
0
0
32
21
53
10
3
178
13
14
43
20
19
27
175
106
534
326
507
229
1452
1086
861
163
111
Sl
20
2
135
2
0
9
397
840
665
474
663
211
503
827
499
217
91
424
45
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
25
0
208
235
68
110
90
63
179
131
83
165
76
80
106
79
46
132
139
240
349
128
118
219
III
79
52
110
78
52
33
71
8
46
36
56
55
87
100
53
50
87
Totals
619
12266
888
11378
4207
Province
Sourcc:GeneralDepartmentof LandNianagemcnt,1985.
- 8 -
Annex 1
TaIble 5 (p.1 )
Page 8 of 48
LAND USE AND LAND COVER 1991 (IN THOUSAND HA)
PROVINCE
Totl
Area
AgEIcuJtuY
Land
Annal
Agriculture
LAnd
Paddy Rice
Perennid
Agriculture
Pasture
Wter Bodies
for Irrigation
Total Forest
Ha Glng
Tayen Q
g
Cao Bag
LangSou
B cThai
LaiCh a
Son LA
Yen Bal
LaoCa
Guang Nbh
VinhPhu
Ha Bac
Ha Nol
HalPhong
Ha Tay
Hoa Binh
Ha Hung
ThI Binh
Nmn Ha
Ninh Bbinh
Thanh Hoa
NgheAn
Ha Tinh
Guang Bbh
Quang Tri
ThuaThien-Hue
Q:2 Nf Da-Nang
Qung Ngal
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan Hoa
NinhThum
BinhThan
Gia Lad-Kon Tun
Doc Lsc
Lan Dong
Dong Na
Son Be
Tay Nnh
Ho Chl Mlnh
Vng Tau- BRla
Long An
TienGlang
Ben Tre
DongThap
Vibh Long
Tr Viah
CanTho
SocTraug
An Gbyg
KlenGCng
Mbh hal
733
530
844
817
650
1714
1421
680
805
594
484
461
92
150
215
461
255
152
242
139
1117
1638
605
793
459
501
1199
S86
608
522
526
343
799
2560
1980
1017
586
955
402
209
1%
434
234
225
328
149
237
305
311
342
624
769
130
90
73
35
75
107
174
71
39
51
146
147
44
68
122
72
160
104
158
64
255
133
106
Ss
51
49
114
37
97
60
52
42
as
197
174
33
228
202
206
93
30
211
166
153
212
115
159
231
214
235
271
493
88
45
56
50
61
81
126
41
60
33
118
137
41
56
110
54
145
96
143
55
197
136
38
47
42
46
97
30
79
53
42
33
79
130
34
42
138
88
174
82
44
205
117
102
193
39
135
197
133
229
216
296
26
30
30
37
49
43
52
24
24
28
96
124
35
54
95
29
134
89
130
49
151
104
74
34
29
34
57
45
55
34
22
15
45
75
33
22
41
43
106
62
15
133
103
36
1U4
K6
126
179
175
208
205
282
a
a
6
16
11
6
7
15
5
5
19
5
0
5
3
2
5
1
3
4
16
43
18
5
6
1
15
6
10
3
7
2
7
38
31
39
38
112
32
10
32
6
48
48
16
26
24
34
22
3
50
71
33
35
11
13
0
20
37
21
22
7
2
0
0
0
1
15
0
0
0
2
35
5
0
5
3
1
1
0
5
2
1
1
2
26
8
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
4
1
1
6
7
5
3
7
a
2
10
6
11
3
7
3
1
0
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
0
3
2
1
2
0
0
2
3
1
1
3
2
0
0
0
4
3
5
126
207
143
1K6
142
196
132
1"
178
124
236
75
75
7
4
9
221
11
1
1
12
297
594
229
309
93
188
4U
63
167
136
154
97
3S4
1472
1227
630
172
235
43
34
37
58
11
a
17
Total
33104
7008
5363
4101
1058
326
256
9617
Source: General Depazunent of Lnd Mmganent,
199l
19
11
5
7
98
108
Annex 1
Table 5 (p. 2 )j
Page 9 of 48
LAND USE AND LAND COVER 1991 (IN THOUSAND HA)
PROVINCE
Planted
Forest
Nat"lForest
Total
Unused
Flat Unused Lau
Upnd Unused
Land
OtherLd
5
17
0
17
0
0
0
78
108
381
292
326
511
251
1333
970
330
439
93
170
125
3
17
12
113
6
6
6
13
394
716
205
235
259
212
490
279
264
235
212
150
252
313
473
167
36
416
33
10
S0
104
13
12
29
1
14
2
19
54
174
79
1
1
0
0
0
23
9
0
S
11
3
6
1
15
2
0
2
6
5
6
14
17
24
11
4
28
95
16
24
7
14
7
41
7
8
0
22
21
64
10
17
104
18
12
29
1
14
2
19
44
166
79
330
291
326
511
251
1360
961
330
434
31
167
119
2
2
10
113
4
0
2
7
330
699
131
224
254
134
395
263
240
273
199
143
211
311
470
167
64
394
19
0
33
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
a
0
65
55
260
79
128
91
78
95
103
164
93
115
38
62
72
55
78
28
76
49
170
140
66
196
56
52
111
156
30
42
107
54
105
270
100
137
101
52
71
72
29
61
39
52
69
33
44
62
73
46
82
a
3915
12062
1032
11030
4600
HeGiang
TuyenQuang
CaoBang
Lang Son
Bc Thal
LeiChau
Son La
Yen Bai
Lao Cai
Guang Nibh
Vlnh Pbu
Ha BaC
Ha Noi
HaiPhong
Ha Tay
Hoa Blab
Ha Hung
Thai Binh
NanHa
Ninh Binh
ThanhHoa
Nghe An
Ha Tlnh
GuangBinh
Qung Trl
Thua Thlen-Hue
Qang Non Da-Nang
Quang Ng[
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan Hoa
NhinlThumn
Blnh Thuan
Gba Lal-Kon Tum
Dac Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nal
Son Be
Toy Nlnh
Ho Chi Minh
VungTsu-BaRix
Long An
Tlen Glang
Ben Tre
Dong Thap
Vinh Long
Tra Vinh
Cm Tho
Soc Trang
An Gang
Kien Glang
Minh hal
15
22
7
31
7
S
12
27
7
63
16
16
7
1
7
13
11
1
1
2
55
27
29
28
16
6
25
10
25
2
1
0
1
6
14
9
32
2
2
13
17
48
10
3
0
0
2
11
5
7
20
0
192
121
179
112
190
127
137
150
117
224
S3
58
0
3
2
208
0
0
0
10
242
567
200
281
78
181
459
53
142
134
154
97
353
1467
1213
621
140
2U3
41
16
19
10
Total
702
1
Source: General Deparbment of Land Management 1991
-10-
Annex 1
Table 6 (p.1)
Page 10 of 48
LAND USE AND LAND COVER 1993 (In Thousand Ha)
Province
Total
Area
Ha Giang
Tuyen Qug
CaoBang
Lang Son
Bac Tha
LaiChan
Son LA
Yen Ba
LAoCai
Guang Ninh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
Ha Phong
Ha Tay
Ho Binh
Hal Hung
Thd Binh
Nan Ha
Ninh Bbih
ThanhHos
Nghe An
Ha Tinh
G'eg Binh
Quang TH
Thus Tbien-Hue
Qng Nam Ds-Nag
Q(ungNoa
Binh Dinh
PhuYen
Khan Hoa
Ninh Thumn
Binh Thuan
GiaLal
Kon Tmn
Doc LAc
Lan Dong
Doug Nd
Son Be
Tay Ninh
Ho Chi Mitb
Vung Tau- B Ris
Long An
Tien Gang
Ben Tre
DongThap
Vinh Long
Tra Vinh
CanTho
Soc Trang
AnGiang
Kien Glag
Minhhda
783
S8D
344
319
650
1713
1421
631
805
594
483
462
92
IS0
215
461
255
151
249
139
1117
1637
605
798
459
501
1198
S1
607
528
525
343
79g
1621
93
1980
1017
S86
952
402
209
197
434
234
225
327
149
237
296
319
342
624
769
33098
Toetl
Annual
Agriculture
Land
Paddy
Rice
Perennia
Agrculture
Pasture
Water
Bodies for
Irr4Letion
130
71
73
84
75
109
174
73
31
57
140
147
44
63
174
72
1S3
104
153
64
243
179
105
59
60
47
113
36
98
60
52
35
89
132
108
10
103
258
287
203
92
91
237
169
153
212
117
159
244
241
242
287
536
88
38
56
49
61
84
124
40
54
33
114
136
41
56
109
54
143
96
143
55
192
132
37
48
50
43
96
79
31
53
42
31
79
113
34
91
54
150
37
174
s0
41
231
119
102
193
94
135
216
219
237
243
316
27
26
29
37
49
43
51
24
26
28
94
123
35
54
95
29
133
39
130
49
148
103
74
33
31
32
57
41
54
34
22
15
45
64
23
38
30
46
61
106
61
19
212
104
86
184
91
126
202
175
221
236
305
8
10
6
16
11
6
8
11
4
5
19
5
0
5
6
6
6
1
4
4
16
42
17
5
7
2
16
6
12
4
8
1
8
40
60
80
47
107
199
34
10
45
6
49
48
16
24
24
28
22
2
35
85
33
21
11
13
0
19
37
25
23
7
2
0
0
0
1
10
0
0
0
2
29
2
0
5
2
1
1
0
4
2
1
1
2
21
12
a
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
1
3
0
4
1
1
12
6
5
3
6
8
1
9
6
11
3
7
3
1
0
0
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
0
6
0
2
1
1
0
0
2
4
1
1
3
2
0
0
0
2
8
135
7393
5520
4250
1247
306
270
Agricultre
Land
Source:
General Departent ofLAnd Mangement, 1991.
-
11
-
Annex 1
Table 6 (p.2)
Page 11 of 48
LAND USE AND LAND COVER 1993 (In Thousand Ha)
Province
Total
Forest
Planned
Forest
Natural
Forest
Total
Unused
Land
Flat
Unused
Land
Upland
Unuted
Land
Other
Land
Ha Glang
Tuyen Quang
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Bac Thal
Lai Chau
Son La
Yen Bal
Lao Cai
GuangNinh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
HaiPhong
Ha Toy
Hoa Blnh
HaiHung
ThalBinh
Nam Ha
Ninh Binh
Thanh Hoa
Nghe An
Ha Tlnh
Guang Blnh
Quang Tri
Thua Thien-Hue
Qang Nan Ds-Nan
Quang Ngal
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan Hos
Ninh Thuan
Binh Thuan
Gin Ld
Kon Tum
Dac Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nai
Son Be
Tay Nlnh
Ho Chi Mlnh
Vung Tau- Ba Ra
Long An
Tlen Glang
Ben Tre
Dong Thap
Vinh Long
Tra Vlnh
Can Tho
SocTrang
An Glang
Kien Gang
Minh hal
212
178
91
151
135
174
152
159
162
153
151
140
7
5
10
148
I1
2
4
14
418
584
187
412
98
170
159
139
181
164
158
181
435
791
671
1268
564
151
250
43
24
59
48
11
3
15
33
2
39
7
6
13
36
10
27
38
29
7
1
8
35
9
2
4
3
66
29
24
24
17
15
16
20
31
6
2
1
1
8
3
15
11
30
10
2
17
14
48
11
3
197
145
89
112
126
168
139
123
152
126
113
111
6
0
0
0
21
9
0
0
13
3
6
1
9
3
0
2
4
14
5
15
17
21
12
22
10
22
15
23
3
15
27
91
368
267
356
504
314
1318
1010
360
412
237
95
53
2
2
7
149
4
2
3
3
9
77
23
2
3
1
9
24
16
0
2
0
55
7
368
273
356
504
314
1339
1019
360
412
250
98
59
3
11
10
149
6
4
16
12
282
738
253
130
274
209
521
244
159
230
196
49
220
540
172
419
262
78
174
32
19
14
aS
IS
16
47
1
32
3
23
28
180
124
63
10
9
85
15
16
47
1
32
3
23
28
163
124
17
0
73
58
324
80
128
91
76
34
IS0
134
94
116
38
66
71
92
80
41
71
49
174
136
60
197
27
75
105
49
169
74
119
78
55
108
42
113
38
99
241
70
74
33
64
39
53
68
31
44
46
52
63
30
36
Total
9345
803
8844
11382
1075
10194
4729
4
2
113
2
0
11
352
555
163
388
81
155
443
119
150
158
156
180
434
785
668
1253
553
121
240
41
7
45
0
Source: General Departnent
of Land Managemest, 1991.
10
29
27
2
7
267
721
232
118
252
199
499
220
136
222
181
22
29
540
172
409
233
51
174
19
9
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
- 12-
Annex 1
Table 7
Page 12 of 48
LAND UNDERTHE MINISTRY OF FORESTRY1991 (INTHOUSAND HA)
PROVINCE
Area of Land
Land ith
Forest
Land w/o
Forest
Production
Forest
Protection
Forest
Special Forest
Natural
Production
Foretl
Planted
Production Forest
Ha Tuven
CaoBang
LangSon
BacThai
Lai Chou
Son La
Hoang Lleng Son
Guang Ninh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha.Nol
HadPhong
Ha Son Binh
Hal Hug
Thai Binh
Ha Nan Ninh
Thanh Ho.
N*gheTlnh
Guang Bih
Quang Ti
Thua Thkn-Hue
Qang Nwn, De-Nang
QungNgd
N,
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan Hoe
Thuan Hal
Gin Lad-Kon Turn
Dac Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nai
Son Be
Tay Nblh
Ho Chi Minh
Vung Tau- RiaRs11
Long An
TienGiang
Ben Tre
DongThap
Cuu Long
Hau Glang
An Giang
Kien Giang
NIlnh hal
1004
564
634
404
1509
963
1062
39S
179
152
23
16
309
13
5
28
649
1472
497
308
351
m8
397
413
216
300
774
1953
1384
701
250
454
102
36
350
183
142
196
135
133
223
193
71
75
9
4
151
S
1
13
297
764
309
9°
137
484
117
167
74
219
564
1496
1204
630
217
284
46
20
16
14
12
21
24
22
61
125
192
5
11
3
12
4
7
10
57
1I1
654
331
492
203
1374
325
834
202
108
77
14
12
158
S
4
15
352
708
IS
209
164
404
230
246
142
81
210
457
180
71
33
170
56
16
3
11
3
4
9
20
IS
Sl
6S
74
147
103
37
122
52
62
119
148
31
64
6.2
0
62
4.7
0
0.6
192
496
201
55
92
287
77
131
70
174
421
1070
923
411
170
227
24
17
0
4.7
35
7.8
&I
4.3
3.6
10.1
25.5
1O05
1S5
65
49
68
55
61
104
31
27
8
1.7
2.8
76
0
1.4
1.7
32
247
102
42
69
173
40
30
1.7
34
126
302
179
131
7.7
22
13
0.3
1.3
0
2.2
0.1
0
0
3A
0
7.4
4
18
46
7
7
23
14
5
15
13
3
1.3
1.2
13
0.3
0
10.5
23
21
6
2
27
24
0.2
6.5
1.7
12
17
125
102
78
40
36
10
2.7
6.2
0
0
0.4
3.7
0
0
0.1
24.6
6.3
111
97
56
113
47
54
90
106
17
48
-1.8
-1
53
2.7
-1
-I.J
137
454
173
35
76
262
56
106
68
168
419
1059
903
402
113
225
22
-2
-1
-0.3
0.5
0.3
-3.9
0.3
-0.4
1.1
23.5
108.5
36
6
31
9
5
8
29
42
14
16
8
1
9
2
1
2
55
42
28
20
16
25
21
25
2
6
2
11
20
9
52
2
2
19
1
5
S
7
12
4
4
9
2
0
Totals
I903
9312
9591
6227.6
2357.2
757.7
5599.6
628
Source: Warfvinge (1992), An Introductory Gulde to Forestry In Viet Nun, Foretry
Notes: Negative numbers appear because thisI Production mdnu planted
Sector Ravew. Tropcal
Forest.)
Action Plan, FAO, Rome
-
13 -
Atnel 1
Table 8
Page 13 of 49
Land Allocated by the Ministry of Forestry 1991 (in thousand ha)
Provlce
Ha Tuyen
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Bac Thai
LaiChau
Son La
Hloang Lieng Son
Gusng Ninh
Vinh Phu
la Bac
Ha Noi
Hai Phong
Ha Son Binh
Hai Hung
Thal Binh
Ha Nam Ninh
Thanh lion
Nghe Tnh
Guang Binh
QuangTri
Thua Thien-Hue
Qang Nam Da-Nan
QuangNgai
Blnh Dinh
Phu Yen
Van lloa
Thuan llal
Gia Lai-Kon Tum
Doc Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nai
Son Be
Tay Nlnh
lilo Chl Minh
Vung Tau- Ba Ria
Long An
Tien Glang
Ben Tre
Dong Thap
Cuu Long
IlauCGiang
An Giang
VIenGlang
Minh hai
Totals
Aflocated Land Allocated Land Allocated Land AvailableLnd
as of 191
with Forest
w/o Forest
w/o Forest
261
247
207
235
204
291
155
123
69
74
5
2
106
I
0
I1
313
343
131
67
66
179
169
179
141
153
236
36
48
15
70
102
0
15
0
0
13
0
0
2
0
0
74
44
4392
78
101
83
44
9
31
38
54
29
33
0
2
32
0
0
2
135
157
31
23
44
51
15
14
86
99
89
34
44
4
58
67
0
6
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
8
21
151
193
146
124
191
195
260
117
69
40
36
5
0
74
1
0
9
178
186
100
44
22
128
154
165
55
64
147
2
4
11
12
35
0
9
0
0
18
0
-1
2
0
0
66
23
2874
Source: Warfvinge 1992.
Notes: Negative numbers appear because this Is Production minus Planted.
471
235
368
17
1179
565
717
133
68
41
9
12
S4
7
4
6
174
522
88
165
142
276
126
S1
87
17
63
455
176
60
21
135
56
7
3
11
-is
4
10
18
15
51
2
51
6717
-14Page
NIAPP Estimate of Unused Land 1993 (in thousand ha)
Province
Ha Giang
Tuyen Quang
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Bac Thai
Lai Chau
Son La
Yen Bal
Leo Cii
Guang Nnh
Vinh Phu
HaaBac
Ha Noi
HaiPhong
Ha Tay
Hoa Binh
HalIHung
Thai Binh
Nam Ha
Ninh Binh
Thanh lloa
Nghe An
lla Tinh
Quang Binh
Quang Tri
Thua Thien-Iluc
Qang Nam Ds-Nan
Quang Ngal
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khan Iloa
Ninh Thuan
Binh Thuan
Gin Lai
Kon Tum
Dac Lac
Lam Dong
Dong Nal
Son Be
Tay Ninh
lio Chi Minh
Vung Tau- Ba Ra
Long An
Tien Glang
BenTre
Dong Thap
Vinh Long
Tra Vinh
CanTho
SocTrang
AnGlang
Kien Gang
Minh had
Totals
Unuwd Land
Unused Land
with Potentbi
with Potential
for Agric. Dev. for Forestry
Dev.
Total
Area
Unused
Land
783
580
845
819
650
1714
1421
663
750
594
457
462
100
IS0
217
470
255
153
242
139
1117
1645
605
794
459
501
1199
585
608
518
463
353
789
1200
1300
1980
1017
759
955
402
203
205
438
234
225
328
149
236
302
314
342
624
767
392
274
431
496
235
1346
1002
431
5S3
206
119
112
10
20
22
143
22
24
39
26
405
792
173
268
290
201
593
251
272
333
217
153
380
604
432
411
250
207
3S6
123
4
16
149
32
17
47
7
11
27
29
18
196
273
62
102
24
76
40
86
75
88
103
11
49
15
0
2
1
14
1
6
7
5
58
81
53
37
51
31
27
4
19
21
13
29
73
323
85
228
72
96
147
66
1
2
77
6
10
39
4
7
15
11
7
89
164
263
149
231
388
178
1202
856
317
406
185
66
88
6
6
12
120
14
15
16
5
276
633
58
32
185
164
553
236
223
215
192
122
263
243
309
180
145
101
209
57
1
14
72
25
7
6
3
4
6
11
8
95
103
13440
2713
9324
33080
Source: National Institute of Agricultural Planning and Projectons
1993.
Other
Unused
Land
67
23
176
32
17
58
71
26
44
10
4
9
4
12
9
9
7
3
16
16
71
78
62
149
54
6
13
11
30
97
12
2
44
38
38
3
33
10
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
6
7
3
12
6
1403
Annex 1
Ta.ble 9
14 of 48
- 15
-
Ahnex 1
Table 10
Page 15 of 4B
Fuelwood Stock (in thousand steres)
Province
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
Ha Tuyen
1339
1261
1189
1197
1191
1546
CaoBang
LangSon
BacThai
Lai Chau
SonLa
HoangLiengSon
GuangNinh
Vinh Phu
2039
1496
434
531
1016
1064
940
618
2918
1721
523
1261
1248
1507
902
450
2166
1838
572
1189
1098
1277
715
700
2299
1541
771
1197
1183
1395
847
960
2054
1376
674
1191
1102
1649
864
990
2173
1585
672
1192
1128
1440
809
883
Ha Bac
650
727
652
573
628
618
137
1219
1187
1184
1125
1165
3454
2570
1407
3071
2320
980
3128
2031
976
2938
3129
3017
3683
3028
2948
296
206
376
1698
566
832
1819
703
337
700
277
201
247
1449
556
868
1554
705
337
721
Ha Noi
Hai Phong
HaSonfBinh
Hal Hung
Thai Binh
Ha Nam Ninh
Thanh Hoa
NgheTinh
Binh Tri Thien
GuangBinh
QuangTri
Tbus Thien-Hlue
QangNamDa-Na
Thuanlai
Gia Lai-Kon Tum
DacLac
Lam Dong
DongNai
SonBe
1243
680
1076
598
581
407
125
1112
417
1076
876
608
496
659
915
577
990
1318
669
497
741
257
197
364
1733
524
783
1525
743
176
722
Tay Ninh
541
364
479
181
293
318
Ho Chi Mlinh
LongAn
Minh hai
Northern Mlountai
RedRiver Delta
North CentralCo
SouthCentral Cos
SouthernHighlan
North EastMekon
MekongDelta
89
48
74
51
50
58
9477
3246
7437
2938
2255
1162
1880
11791
3842
6374
2829
2560
1567
2058
10744
2836
6137
2772
2977
1791
2261
11389
2391
6902
3284
3051
1130
2687
11091
2436
7576
3323
3354
1381
2898
11428
2210
6700
3126
3127
1434
2615
Totals
28395
31021
29518
30833
32059
30640
Source:GovernmentStatisticsOffice, 1992.
Notes:Firewodis in thousandsteersandwoodcuttingis in thousandcubicmeters.
-16Annox 1
Table tl
Page 16 of 48
Wood
Cutting
Production
(in thousand
m3)
1991
Province
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Ha Tuyen
CaoBang
LAng Son
BacThai
LaiChau
Son La
200
32
82
62
115
63
228
89
56
60
142
104
162
64
58
87
120
68
149
58
60
91
117
94
175
55
S0
100
115
91
162
59
56
92
117
84
Hoang Lieng Son
192
181
194
143
136
158
GuangNinh
97
94
81
66
69
Vinh Phu
103
70
72
90
81
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
Hai Phong
91
42
30
105
40
29
101
38
28
61
82
73
42
25
72
43
28
lia Son Binh
85
87
87
79
75
HaiHung
60
53
49
52
65
82
41
27
80
55
Thai Binh
Ha Nam Ninh
56
93
30
41
34
25
68
32
71
30
74
ThenhHoe
Nghe Tinh
128
131
125
134
101
164
104
294
107
214
Binh Tri Thien
Guang Binh
Quang Tri
Thua Thien-Hue
Qang Nam Ds-No
96
106
49
43
18
56
73
37
16
39
128
Thuan lisi
24
31
31
53
70
17
39
107
52
Gia Lai-Kon Tum
94
137
150
176
161
162
DacLac
Lam Dong
DongNai
SonBe
212
120
112
148
.259
131
95
IS0
191
154
87
142
l18
95
77
126
368
187
72
108
247
145
79
125
LongAn
Nlinh hai
25
45
243
78
54
82
154
127
145
113
117
107
Northern Mountai
947
1024
904
854
877
878
Red River Delta
545
North Central Co
South Central Cox
Southern llighlan
North East Mekon
489
194
658
357
465
501
496
S00 -
424
397
384
505
423
459
195
745
310
200
695
312
237
648
229
298
716
213
245
704
251
MlekongDelta
203
470
277
474
462
403
Totals
3393
3709
3383
3262
3455
3363
84
115
182
103
70
39
122
Tay Ninh
lle Chi Nlinh
Source: Government Statistics Office, 1992.
Notes: Firewod Is in thousand steers and wood cutting is in thousand eubic meters
-
17 Annex 1
Table 12
Page 17 of 48
Vietnam: 1992 Estimated Share of Cooking Services
(incl. Boiling Pig Food) Provided by Each Fuel
Region
Crop
Fuelwood
Charcoal
Coal
Kerosene
Electricity
48.50%
48.50%
42.00%
60.20%
60.20%
60.20%
22.80%
22.80%
49.10%
49.10%
20.00%
39.80%
39.80%
39.80%
72.70%
72.70%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
3.50%
3.50%
2.40%
2.40%
37.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
1.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
1.00%
1.00%
17.70%
17.70%
1.90%
17.70%
17.70%
17.70%
0.00%
0.00%
51.00%
51.00%
27.00%
51.00%
51.00%
57.00%
57.00%
57.00%
2.10%
2.10%
0.00%
13.50%
13.50%
13.50%
24.70%
24.70%
25.00%
25.00%
54.10%
13.60%
13.60%
13.60%
0.00%
0.00%
4.20%
4.20%
8.70%
4.20%
4.20%
4.20%
17.10%
17.10%
0.00%
0.00%
8.20%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
1.20%
1.20%
Residue
Rural
NorthernHighlands
North Midlands
Red River Delta
North Central
SouthernHighlands
South Central
N.E. of Mekong Delta
Mekong Delta
Urban
Northern Highlands
North Midlands
Red River Delta
North Central
SouthernHighlands
South Central
N.E. of Mekong Delta
Mekong Delta
Source: 1993UNDP/ESMAPStudy
-
18 Mnex 1
Table 13
Page 18 of 48
Vietnam: 1992 Estimated Quantity of Residential Fuel
Consumption for Cooking and Boiling Pig Food
Region
Crop
Residue
('000 tons)
Fuelwood
Charcoal
Coal
Kerosene
Electricity
('000 tons)
('000 tons)
('000 tons)
('000 m3)
(GWh)
NorthernHighlands
North Midlands
Red River Delta
North Central
SouthernHighlands
South Central
N.E. of Mekong Delta
Mekong Delta
6829
1972
2522
6875
2973
4524
1364
3991
4118
1189
1140
2707
1171
1781
2591
7579
0
0
0
0
0
0
45
132
108
31
730
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
48
0
0
0
26
75
Rural Totals
31050
22276
177
869
0
149
Urban
NorthernHighlands
North Midlands
RedRiverDelta
North Central
SouthernHighlands
South Central
N.E. of Mekong Delta
Mekong Delta
193
54
37
147
96
255
0
0
332
97
313
253
165
438
1142
710
5
1
0
24
16
42
180
112
87
24
336
36
24
63
0
0
5
1
17
4
2
6
59
37
0
0
102
0
0
0
26
16
Urban Totals
782
3450
380
570
131
114
Vietnam Total
31832
25726
557
1439
131
263
Vietnam ('000 tons
of Oil Equivalent)
11934
9526
387
767
107
24
Rural
Source: 1993UNDP/ESMAPStudy
-
19
-
Annex I
Table 14
Page 19 of 48
Population
and Other Variables
1979
Ha Tuyen
CaoBang
LangSon
BacThai
Lai Chau
SonLa
Hoang Lieng Son
GuangNinh
Vinh Phu
Ha Bac
Ha Noi
Hai Phong
Ha SonBinh
Hai Hung
Thai Binh
Ha NamNinh
Thanh Hoa
NgheTinh
Binh Tri Thien
QangNamDa-Na
QuangBinh
Phu Khan
Thuanimi
Gia Lai-Kon Tum
DacLac
Lam Dong
DongNai
SonBe
Tay Ninh
Ho Chi Minh
Population
Growth Rate
Total
Population
Total
Population
Province
--
1989
774
1026
471
478
316
771
809
482
661
1376
1562
2456
1150
1426
1959
1382
2595
2348
2870
1759
1458
1985
1177
917
585
482
388
3293
651
676
1292
565
611
438
1032
1030
682
813
1807
2064
3056
1447
1839
2445
1632
3157
2993
3583
1997
1738
2287
1460
1170
876
976
639
3924
938
793
2007
(population
1979-89
3
.
1.9
2.6
2.6
3.5
3.7
3.1
2.2
2.9
3
2.3
2.4
2.7
2.4
1.8
2.1
2.6
2.4
1.3
1.9
1.6
2.3
2.6
4.3
7.7
5.4
1.9
3.9
1.7
4.7
and area figures in thousands)
Rural
Population
939
Rural
Households
1989
Net
Mligration
1939
Non-h inh
Percent of
Population
1992
930
160
-14
67
509
530
377
861
833
585
454
1583
1937
1960
989
1630
2264
1526
2817
2760
3273
1638
1211
1965
1036
906
695
793
426
764
U87
700
IS26
91
94
56
151
161
87
94
339
423
431
233
346
572
396
699
609
705
343
271
429
204
173
130
156
91
149
181
137
285
-28
-27
*5
-7
.5
-1
3
1
5
-34
-2
20
-1
-30
-67
-22
-44
-28
-16
-40
3
-I
27
116
78
62
41
9
91
96
85
81
55
32
82
11
9
7
1
0.2
25
0.2
0.1
0.5
I5
8
13
4
13
9
12
51
30
24
11
9
2
8
135
4.1
11
2
16
LongAn
Tien Giang
BenTre
DongThap
Cuu Long
Hau Giang
An Giang
KienGiang
Mlinhhai
949
1173
1475
1258
1034
1497
2226
986
1213
1120
1337
1774
1483
1214
1809
2681
1198
2555
1.8
1.4
2
1.7
1.7
2
2
2.1
2.6
930
1281
1330
1296
1120
1632
2194
941
1226
180
217
236
253
226
312
390
169
218
-8
8
-1
-11
-12
0
-9
10
1
0.3
0.4
6
0.6
0.6
16
16
16
7
Totals
50452
63331
107.9
50266
10402
80
825.9
VungTau- Ba Ria
Sources: tealth
92
2
Sector Report, World Bank 1992,Warvinge 1992,Gray 1992,Government Statistics OMce, 1992.
-
20
-
Annex 1
Table 15
Page 20 of 4-
Changes in Crop Area between 1985-90 (in thousand ha)
Province
He Tnyen
Coo8 ang
LangSon
aeThaI
LAIChau
So LA
HoangLUengSon
Gaag Nlnh
VlushPu
Ha Bac
Ha Nol
Hal Phong
Ha SonBinh
Hai Hong
Thal Binb
Ha NaNlnh
ThumhHoz
NgheTinb
Bih Tri Thlen
Qang NamDs-Nang
Quang Bibh
Phu Khan
Thuan Hli
GCaLai-Kon Tum
DncLae
Lam Dong
DoagNnl
SonBe
Tay Ninh
lio Cb IMink
V.ngTau- BaR
Long An
Tien Gang
BenTre
DongThop
Cuu Long
HsuG
Gng
An Gang
KIen Gibng
Minh hal
Maize
Casavz
Tea
Coffee
Rubber
Mulberry
-u.1
-4u.
-U54
u
u
u
03
-1
4.1
0.2
1.6
0.3
1
7.5
4.9
11
0.4
2.4
10.1
5.7
6
5
2.2
-0.6
-1
4.1
4.4
-1.3
-1.9
-1.2
-4.5
-6.9
-0.2
-0.4
-1
0
0.09
0.2
-0.3
-0.2
0.5
0
-O0
0
0.2
-0.2
1.1
-0.7
-08
O0
412
-0.2
-4
-2
0
0
-4.1
0
0
0
-6.7
-5.9
4.3
-54.4
2.7
-12.4
-12.2
-7.6
-7.7
-2.3
48S
-5.6
-116
-1.1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-0.06
0.06
0
-0.11
-1.14
0
-1.77
0.58
0
0
-0.03
0
0
0
03S
0.24
0
0
0
0
0
03S
0
336
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-696
0
0
0
0
160
S858
14922
9801
IS338
195
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-39
0
0
77
0
23
1915
257
0
9369
5679
140
-14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
54
-558
-99
0
-251
-36
297
428
-13
14
-11
867
48
-581
70
0
S
4509
202
0
0
0
0
0
O
0
0
0
0
-165
0
0
-156.5
1.29
45578
17407
4514
37.79
-
Totals
Sources:HealthSectorReport,World Benk 1992,Warvinge1992,Gray 1"2, GovernmentStatisticsOffe. I992.
-
21 -
Annex 1
Table 16
Page 21 of 48
Shifting Cultivation Area 1990, By Province (in 1000 ha)
PROVINCE
Ha Tuyen
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Bac Thai
Lai Chau
Son La
Hoang Lieng Son
Guang Ninh
Vinh Phu
Ha Son Binh
Thanh Hoa
Nghe Tinh
Quang Binh
Quang Tri
Thuan Thien Hue
Qang Nam Da-Nang
Quang Ngai
Binh Dinh
Phu Yen
Khanh Hoa
Thuan Hai
Gia Lai-Kon Tum
Dac Lac
Lam Dong
Son Be
Totals
Shifting
10.4
5.4
1.3
0.7
6.2
3.2
10.6
4.4
0.8
1.9
4.4
2.2
1.1
0.9
1.3
3.2
1.5
1.6
1.8
2
5
52.4
34.8
7.7
12.7
177.5
Source: Forest Inventory and Planning Institute, 1990
- 22 Summaryof Mineral
Resourcesin Vietnamr
Minerals and Rocks
Coal
Oil
Uranium
Black metals
Bauxite
Chrome
Annex 1
Page 22 of 48
EstimatedReserve
(tons)
Annualoutput (tons) Remarks
3,500 M
Peaked 6.9M in 1988, 3,600M tons in Quang Ninh, 80M tons in Thai
currently3M
Nguyen. Total design capacity 14.5M
tons/year.
Nearly 10,OOOM 2.7M (1990)
In northern lowlands, southern deltas and
continentalshelves
N.D.
none
In CaoBang, Lai Chau, Quang Nam
Proven 3,OOOM limited
12M
limited
Good quality (ore content 40-439%)
Only in Thanh Hoa, cobalt and nickel exist in
ore
In Bac Thai, Ha Tuyen, Cao Bang, 700M tons
at Thach Khe mine. Also in Quang Ngai.
Iron
1,000M
0.5M
Manganese
3.5M
1,000
In Cao Bank, Ha Giang, Nghe An, Khanh Hoa
Titaniura
7.2M
Colored and Precious
Metals
Antimony
not significant
N.D.
In coastal regions
limited
Bauxite, laterite
Bauxite, sediment
Copper
1,OOOM
95M
637,000
limited
limited
low
Chromite
Gold
12M
170,000
potential 20,000
limited
Molybdenum
Mercury
Nickel
Silver
Tin and wolfram
N.D.
N.D.
158,000
N.D.
225,000
Zinc and lead
2M
none
none
none
limited
low, 1995 target:
1,000
Limited, by
individuals
In Tuyen Quang, Quang Ninh, Hoa Binh,
Thanh Hoa, Nghe An
In the south
In Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Lang Son
In Lao Cai, Son La, Cao Bang, 550,000 tons
of good quality exist at a single mine
Relatively low quality, only in Thanh Ho.
In 53 areas: Cao Bang, Bac Thai, Lang Son,
Quang Ninh, Bong Mieu, Thanh Hoa, Nghe
An, Binh
Thuan, Lam Dong, Dong Nai...
In Lai Chau, Lao Cai, An Giang
In Bac Thai, Ha Giang, Ha Ninh Binh
In Bong Mieu
In Tinh Tuc, Pia Oac, Tam Dao, Quy Hop,
Lam Dong, Kontum, Nghe An, Bao Loc
Bac Thai, Tuyen Quang, Cao Bang, Ha Giang,
Yen Bai, Lai Chau, Nghe An
Fertilizers
Apatite
Barite
2,000-3,OOOM
3M
600,000
limited
Limestone
Phosphorite
Pyrite
41M
low
8.7M
N.D.
17,800
none
Serpentinite
40M
none
408M tons in Lao Cai
15 sites in Ha Bac, Bac Thai, Lai Chau, Nghe
An
In many regions
Smal scattered reserves
Small scattered reserves in Vinh Phu, Ha Tay,
Tuyen Quang, Thua Thien
31M tons in Lao Cai, SM tons in Thanh Ho.
-23-
Minerals and Rocks
Building Materials
Cement clay
Granite
Annex 1
Table 17 (p. 2 )
Page 23 of 48
EstimatedReserve
(tons)
Annual output (tons) Remarks
290M
very large
Materials for Pottery
and Chinaware
13M
Dolomite
N.D.
limited
In Hoang Thach, Co Dam, Ha Tien
In Bac Thai, Ha Tay, Thanh Hoa, Binh Dinh,
An Giang... rich in varieties
N.D.
In La Giang (8M tons), Ngoc Long (5M tons)
In Vinh Phu, Lao Cai
In CaoBang, Lai Chau, Phu Yen
In Red River, Bac Thai, Quang Ninh, Da Lat,
Dong Nai
In KhanlhHoa, Quang Ninh, Quang Nam-Da
Nang
In coastal areas, high quality
Feldspar
Fluorite
Kaolinite
9.5M
6.2M
196M
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
Sand, quartz
90M
N.D.
Sand, silicate
Precious and SemiPrecious Stones
Ruby, sapphire
large
N.D.
N.D.
limited
N.D.
Topaz, beryls,
nephrytes, zircon,
jadeite, garnet, spinel,
amethyst,
tournaline....
Note: N.D.: No Data
limited
In Luc Yen, Quy Chau, Di Linb, Phan Thiet,
Xuan Loc. Ruby has high quality
In Thanh Hoa, Nghe An, Vinh Phu, Quang
Ninh, Cao Bang, Di Linh, Phu Yen...
Source: Asian DevelopmentBank, Vietnam EnvironmentSector Study, December 1992.
- 24 -
Annex 1
Table 18
Page
VIETNAM:
1991
PESTICIDK.
Quantative
(Mt)
'000)
D-scription
24 of
48
USE
Value
USS
Crop/
P-vte
In the North and Center
1.
Total of technical
arade
1.121.00
- Insecticies
)
- Fungicides
- Other & solvant &
additive
2.
Insecticides
Fungicides
-
II.
On three main crops: rice,
industrial crops and other.
620.90
4.96
495.17
Total of finished groduct
-
10,000
3.540.40
EC.D
EC
Unavailable
2,694.60
706.48
-Herbicides
EC
123.91
- Other
EC
15.38
* Leaf eating insects, stem
borer, sucking insects
0 Sheath blight, rice blast.
In the South
1.
Total of technical
arade
2.741.10
Insecticides
- Fungicides
- Herbicides
- Solvent and additive
1,487.77
14.00
20.24
17.92
1,201.22
Total of finished
4.356.40
-
Other
-
2.
-
product
Insecticides
Fungicides
Herbicides
Other
EC WP
EC
EC
EC WP
13,000
3,406.60
286.59
471.71
185.85
*
*
*
*
Leaf eating insects
Sucking and stem borer
Sheath blight, rice blast
Nemathodes
TOTAL
Technical
grade
3 ,8 6 2 . 1 0 a
Finished products
A/
Source:
7,896.80
Equivalent to about 13,000
Plant Protection
tons in finished product
Material Supply Companies
23,000
Unavailable
equivalent.
I and 11and Department
of Plant Production and Protection in Viet Nam.
Problem
Agro-EcologicalZone
Soils
and Their Development
Parent Rock
Constraints
by Agro-ecological
Soils
Technical Constraints
DevelopmentOptions
Zone
Main Development
Constrafnts
Mountain Region and
Midland of the North
Acid schist, mica
schist & Liparitic
tuff with limestone
outcropping
Lithosols,Orthic
Acrisols, Ferric
AcrisoLs & Limestone
based Chromic Luvisols
and Calcic Cambisols
Sheet erosion with
resultantsurface
stoniness. Soils
derived from acid
parent material and
the degraded (leached)
soils of the midlands
and lowlands (176,000
ha), have low pH, CEC
and organic matter and
in some cases Al
toxicity. Soil
properties Improve
with depth on degraded
soils
Erosion control
through integrated
watershed management
on sloping land; deep
ploughing of degraded
soils; imprdved
cycifng of organic
matter
Lack of food
security; poor
communicationand
infrastructure;
traditionof shifting
cultivation;
insufficienttesting
of appropriate
technology.
Red River Delta
Riverine, brackish
water and marine
alluvium
Gleylc Acrisols,
Eutric Gleysols (inct.
saline phase, Eutric
Fluvisols and Thiomic
Fluvisols
Saline soils (350,000
ha), acid sulphate
soils (50-60,000ha)
and waterloggedpeat
soils (10,000 ha) and
increasingacidity of
alluvial soils
Delta master plan to
develop saline soils;
increasedcropping
intensity on alluvial
soils; reduction of
acidificationprocess;
integrated
crop/Iivestock/aquacul
ture; improvedcycling
of organic matter
Overpopulation
necessitating
resettlement;lack of
funding for required
water control and
infrastructure
development.
Inadequate
infrastructure,
market opportunities
and finance for water
________________________
Northern Central
Coast
Uplands: Acid and
mica schist with
limestoneoutcrops.
Lowlands: Rivermne,
Uplands: Orthic
Acrisols, Ferric
Acrisols Lowlands:
Chronic Luvisols and
Sheet erosion, surface
stoniness in uplands;
low pH, CEC and
organic matter in both
Integratedwatershed
management in uplands.
dune stabilizationin
lowlands combined with
brackishwaterand
mrine alluvium
EutricRegasols(dune
sands)
uplandsoilsand
coastalsands. Flash
floodingin saline
lowlands.Dune
encroachment
improvedsoil organic control. Poor upland
mattercontent
technology.
(particularly
to raise
soil moisture
retention)
and
I__fertility.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __ ___ _ _ _ _
3
x
X
o
¢
-
_
00
-
Agro-ecological Zones
Parent Rock
Soils
Technical Constraints
DevelopmentOptions
Main Development
Constraints
Southern Central
Coast
Uplands: Acid and
mica schist with
Limestone outcrops.
Lowlands: Riverine,
brackish water and
marine alluviun
Uplands: Orthic and
Ferric Acrisols &
Chromic Luvisols.
Lowlands: Chromic
Luvisols, Dystric and
Eutric Gleysols,
Pellic vertisols and a
Eutric Regasols.
Sheet erosion, surface
stoniness low ph and
CEC, Al toxicity in
upland soils.
Flash
flooding in saline
lowlands. Dune drift
covering 320,000 ha.
Low soil organic
Integrated watershed
managementin uplands.
Dune stabilization
in
lowlands.
Lack of finance for
water control.
Inadequate technical
base for upland
development.
matter
Central Highlands
Hainly basalt,
porphyritic and
diabase parent
material.
Someacidic
parent material
Rhodic, Orthic and
Acidic Ferralsols,
Pellic Vertisols and
Ferric and Orthic
Acrisols.
Includes
approx. 420,000 ha of
degraded soils.
content.
Deforestation and
erosion on steeper
slopes; low
groundwater reserves;
low fertility
of some
acidic soils.
Low
organic matter
l
Agro-forestry;
Livestock grazing;
resettlement with
rainfed agriculture.
Uncontrolled economic
migration into
region; inadequate
infrastructure
content.
Northeast of Mekong
Delta
Old alluvium
MekongDelta
Riverine, brackish
water and marine
altIviun
Ferric and Gleyic
Acrisols and some
Rhodic Ferralsols
soil degradation;
acidity with
associated low CECand
high AL; Legacy of
chemical defoliation;
low fertility
(leaching) and soil
organic matter.
_
Agro-forestry
and fruit)
(rubber
Dystric Gleysols,
Saline soils (650,000
Water control.
Eutric Fluvisols
ha), acid sulphate
(alluvial soils) and
soils (1.48 mitlion
their saline phases
ha) and tropical peat
(saline soils);
soils (170,000 ha) and
Dystric Histosols
increasing acidity of
(peat soils) and
river alluvial soils.
Thionic Fluvisols
(acid sulphate soils)
I
Source: VIE/86/024 Agriculture Planning and Projection, Back-to-Office report,Dent,F.J.,RAPA,1988.
VIET IAM: Proceedings of the National Workshopon Investigations of Lands with Declining and Stagnating Productivity;
|
Irrigation
development (Dau
Tieng dam). Legume
cover crops.
Financing of water
control and
conservation.
Coordination with
MekongSecretariat
members.
FAO,Bangkok, 1986
q
-
C")x
EstimatedSupplyand Demandof RouhangeFeedsby Agro-EcologicalZone and Animal Types
Livestock Roughage Requirements
LivestockPopulation
Agro EcologicalZone
Cattle
Buffalo
DM)
l'oOtontes
000 head
Sows
Fattening
Pigs
Cattle/I
Sulffao/2
Total
Ruminants
Sow/3
Fattening
Plgs/4
Total
Pigs
Total Roughage
Requirements
3758.1
93.2
417
510.2
572
957.7
44.7
230.3
275
1232.7
982.5
1225.8
2208.3
46.4
276.7
324.1
2532.4
1197.2
1302.9
327.6
1630.5
38.7
179.6
218.3
1848.8
93.5
505.3
552.5
134.2
686.7
18.7
75.8
94.5
781.2
138.9
U.3
473.5
311.1
291.5
602.6
13.7
71
84.7
687.3
223.5
251.2
215.4
1521.4
335.3
527.5
862.8
32.3
152.1
184.5
3135.6
2858.6
10618.3
4703.6
289.7
1401.5
1691.3
Northern Mountain
and Mkdlands
555.7
1392.6
486
2780
833.8
RedRiver Delta
257.1
272.4
297.7
2303
385.7
Central Coat of
Northlands
655
583.7
241.9
1837.9
Central Coast of
Southlands
868.6
16
193.5
Centrel Hlghada
368.3
83.9
North-Eastof
207.4
2924.5
4268.3
Southand
MekongRivr Deta
TOTAL
I/
2/
3/
4/
1576.3
6003.1
10706.7
1047.3
12398
at 1.5 ton DM per year.
Cattle roughag rquirtmnl estnimated
lull fto rougth go requiernent estimatedat 2.1 ton DU per yner.
Sow toughs ge trequkemnt conges forn 0.1 ton OM In dolet zonesto 0.2 ton DM In mountainu zones.
Fattenn pig roughs go requirementrangesfront 0.1 ton OM in delta zones to00.1i ton DM In mountainouszones.
OQ
oq Plot
3
0-hl
W
cr.OS
Ealimeled Supply and nemand of nofucmaij Fpods by Ago-Ecological
Zone./I
Pasdue Psodadlon
Agro-EwobgoglZon
----------------NorCwn Ul'bouhs
ondJMdIncs
red flv
Def
Cvio*l Coest of
HortsIonos
Cent mlCoastd
Sou"nas
Centoallkjbncb
Ntrvh-Easl of
Saum3nas
ikowinFlvwODef
TOTAL.
.
foareo Rodudlon Aeas
Frusl
Ba.nLancCweh1Oop%2
P* kra
---p.
--------
Parluc
-
Forest fwenLanc
M IonsDX
Pasft,e
Total
(M In-DI
Dop
-
otl
Oop
fluglvag
Total Gati
AvestlJb
PVo0jDJAn Slov814
(Dmlo)
tEXDIonDls(aXflon
lobla
rtit
read
rq*tli
wuid Okncea5
fr1)l
D onL LIO (U Ion D4
7G30
190.6
151Z6
5512.0
67Z.
571.e
065.0
16536
43.6
2874.1
2M7.4
1t57.2
4531.2
42GS2
2ls
2065
Z2L0
7td.3
56.3
61.4
68.4
35.5
241.6
3456.?
2419.7
266.3
U1226
1549.5
2024.0
556.7
162.5
619.6
607.2
27.t
1417.3
2010.5
1206.3
2M1.6
2St23
1406.0
1903.0
4706
2J3
5CZ4
570.9
23.5
1179.1
2027.3
12164
23D 5
1o84U
eS6/
39.0
3306.o
14561
2494
1t7.0
13232
439.7
125
12.4
C06.9
3X4.1
2256.6
71.1
14/54
2.6
510Q
672.4
509.7
7.0
200.6
201.7
25.5
4350
105G.7
634.0
Ioc0.0
6613
318e
0.0
241.5
497.2
1909.6
0.0
96.6
149.2
06.5
344.3
10464.0
7324.6
7XG91
04r.2
5J19.0
936.8
-83.7
2199.5
650
14266
91.3
I
6.9
320.8
867211I1234
3489.2
30.7
267.0
14622.5
2JQet2
I
CQII
IMY2S
123976
1i PaltsuenrrdopreslllWa podrdonbksnedon esIhuabduUlratp ForoCC
rI endmclle.
aopb
wLsownsr tdombwUla
2/ Cwam
aI G6$of anvaoptaepea
Urdeswaeled
3J Prostra be"Cn aop
1a muev use of aop slow. aspedalyas a fuel hInhe dere Donw.
41 No aoavenc aon fir
hUsaonly ions lssizus pastue.
fnodcalead quay. Theceu*lVlSh
6t feed sutfus s
"
-3
20
0
I-
I
Annex 1
Table 22
Page 29 of 48
-29-
Projected Production and Demand Balance for Mleat
Region
Northern Mountain
Category
1995
2000
( 000 rnt!
(t00Omt)
Production
141.7
162.7
205.1
Domestic demand
Meat exoorti
146.4
174.3
233.0
2.7
Borcer trade
(7~.4)
SurokmW"efidt
Red River Delta
2005
1992
( OCOmt)
3.1
(14.7)
(000 m:U
255.7
311.6
4.0
5.1
(31.!n
:57.9.
Prooucuon
157.8
186.7
248.3
331.7
Domesuc demand
Meat exoorts
129.0
6.4
153.1
6.4
203.6
6.4
270.9
6.4
si 5lusdeflct
2.4
27.2
38.3
54.4
Proucuton
97.9
112.5
142.0
179.5
Domestic demand
83.4
90.7
130.7
173.0
Bofder trade
North CenitralCoast
Meat exoorts
Border wade
South Central Coast
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.5
SlAw"elltl
13.7
12.9
10.2
5.0
Procuction
70.3
81.0
102.5
130.4
Domestic demand
50.9
5.0
60.1
5.0
79.2
5.0
104.3
5.0
14.3
15.9
1t6
Production
27.5
32.3
42.1
55.2
Domestic demand
39.4
51.9
81.0
126.4
(12.3)
(19.7)
(369)
(712
Meat exOorts
Border trade
Sulua_
Central Hightands
eliil
<21.1
Meat exnorts
Borger trade
9
S&,pl
Southeast
ieI
Production
Domestic demand
Meat egoorts
54.0
67.0
96.0
141.0
135.0
162.6
221.7
302.3
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Border tade
S
Mekong River Delta
Vietnam
(6OI0)
~
9rPAd
(100.6
(129)
(166.2
Production
171.9
211.3
296.8
423.5
Domestic demand
113.1
133.4
175.a
231.6
5.0
(2.2)
5.0
(2.81
Meat export5
Borcertfade
5.0
(1.5)
5.0
(1.7)
Surpkad Illeflt
55.3
74.6
120.2
1a8.7
Producuon
721.1
653.6
1.136.0
1.519.9
Domestlc demand
Meat exports
Bodrertrade
697.6
21.4
2.0
a34.1
21.4
2.3
1,125.0
21.4
10
1.520.0
21.4
(13.4)
(25.2
Sia:Me~
0.D
(4.3)
3.8
Source: Draft FmnalReport, Vietnam Meat Industry Market Development Study, Lincoln International Ltd.
- 30 -
Annex 1
Table 24
Page 30 of 48
Officially SponsoredMigration
(1,000 Persons)
1981-89
Total Migration
Within Province
North
South
Outside Province
North to North
North to South
South to South
1990
1981-90
2253
1662
521
1141
591
14
441
136
168
151
n.a.
n.a.
17
1
8
8
2421
1813
n.a.
n.a.
608
15
449
144
Midlands and Mountains
Within Province
Outside Province (N-S)
200
194
6
15
15
215
209
6
Red River Delta
Within Province
Outside Province
(N-N)
(N-S)
356
88
268
14
254
11
6
5
367
94
273
North Central Coast
Within Province
Outside Province (N-SO
420
238
182
29
n.a.
n.a.
449
n.a.
n.a.
South Central Coast
Within Province
Outside Province (S-S)
320
220
100
9
n.a
n.a
329
n.a.
n.a.
Central Highlands
Within Province
Outside Province
164
164
3
3
167
167
Northeast of Mekong
Within Province
Outside Province (S-S)
343
309
34
9
n.a.
n.a.
352
n.a.
n.a.
Mekong Delta
Within Province
Outside Province (S-S)
450
448
2
91
n.a.
n.a.
541
n.a.
n.a.
Source: Center For Population and Human ResourceStudies
- 31
-
Annex
VILLAGE PROFILE
I
Table 25
Page 31 of 48
VILLAGE NAME
Po Nhang
PROVINCE
Son La
DATE VISITED
31/3/93
No. PEOPLE
600
No. HOUSES
80
YEAR ESTABLISHED
1954
CROP AREA (Ha.)
60
No. MOTORCYCLES
15
REPLANTING PROGRAM ?
No
EXTENSION PROGRAM ?
No
TYPICAL HOUSE DATA ( 9 persons) AND VILLAGE (80 households) AGGREGATION:
YIELD
(t/Ha)
--- ------ --- -----VALUE OF ON-FARM PRODUCTION:
PADDY RICE
1.20
UPLAND RICE
0.75
MAIZE
2.00
GRAZING/FALLOW
CATTLE
CHICKEN
PIGS
Sub-totals:
ITEM
No. Ha.
---…---
---
0.21
1.00
0.50
1.29
*
DOLLAR I HOUSEHOLDBUDGET I WHOLE VILLAGE
HARVEST
VALUE I-------------------I---------------(Kg.)
/ UNIT ICONSUMEDI CASH
ICONSUMEDI CASH
--- ------ --- I______
I---------I--------I------I
I
I
I
252
0.25 I
63.00 I
1 5,040
750
0.25 I 187.50 I
I 15,000
1000
0.25 1 25Q.00 I
I 20,000 I
I
l
1
30.0 I
30.00 I
I 1,200
15
1.50 I
22.50 i
I 1,800
4
20.0 1
80.00 1
I 4,000
I 633.00 I
I 50,640 I
~
VALUE OF OFF-FARM PRODUCTION:
OPIUM
0.01
0.30
FIREWOOD
60 Days 4 Bun/Day
FOREST FOOD (3-6 mth) 150 day @ 5 Kg/day
Sub-totals:
3
240
750
OFF FARM INCOME:
OPIUM
0.01
0.20
FIREWOOD
30 Days 4 Bun/Day
LABOUR
CHICKEN
CATTLE
Sub-totals:
-----------------------
-----------
e
_
2
120
6
1
5 Kg/day
_----
750
-----
~l
~
l
~l
~
~~~~~~I
I
l
1
1
I
l
3,600
4,800 1
I 6,000
I 14,400 I
11,128.00 1
I 65,040 1
l
l
I
I
l
l
l
l
120 I
0.25 1
0.1 I
I
TOTAL VALUE OF HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTION:
OFF FARM COSTS:
RICE (for 3-6 months) 150 day
OIL, CLOTHES, SALT, ASPRIN
OTHER (incl. savings)
Sub-totals:
~
l
120 I
0.25 I
I
1.5I
30
I
360.00
60.00
75.00
495.00
I
I
I
I 240.00 I
I 20,400
I
I
1
I
30.00
0.00
1
9.00
I
30.00
I 309.00
I
I
I
I
2,400
50
I
720
I 1,200
I 24,770
I
l
I
I
l
l
0.25 1
I
I
I
I
I
X
I
-----------------------
I
l
187.50 1
100.00 I
21.50 I
309.00 I
----------------------
l
1 15,000
I 8,000
I 1,770
I 24,770
Priorities for Action In Major Forest Reserves of Vietnam
.
Name
Province
.
I
Biodiv
value:.
Mgmt Plan
..(Year)
. Year
NR 1986
Status
Infrastructure
Buffer
JZone(hal
| Tourism
Potential
Scaleof
Urgency
of Action THREATS threat
Survey
Priority
FH
High
HF
Medium
x
H
High
x
HL M
High
x
HE
Medium
HL
Low
HP
Medium
High
H EF
High
10,000
High
HL
High
HLS
Medium
HL C
Medium
HP
Hioh
x
H
Low
x
H LF
High
F
Low
HL M
High
EH
Medium
LH
High
H
Medium
None
100,000
None
10.000
x
MuongNhe
Lai Chau
B
1993
TrungKhanh
Cao Bang
B
-
Na Hang
Tuyen Ouano
B
.
.
None
PuMat
NgheAn
A
1993
-
None
20,000
HoangLienSon
YenBal/LaoCal
A
Pan
NR 1986
None
20,000
HuuLien
LangSon
a
1991
NR 1986
None
5,000
BaBe
Cao Bang
A
1991
NP 1986
Little
2.000
High
Ba Vi
Ha Tay
C
1991
NP 1986
Yes
4,000
Tam Dao
Vinh Phu/BacThai/
a
1993
NP 1986
Yes
.
V
Scientific
V
-
x
Tuyen Ouang
Cat 8a
Haiphong
A
1991
NP 1986
Yes
4,000
High
Cuc Phuong
Ninh BinhlThanh
B
1991
NP 1962
Yes *
5.000
High
x
Hoa/Hoa Binih
Thanh Hoa
C
1991
NP 1986
Little
5,000
Vu Ouang
Ha Tinh
A
1993
NP 1986
None
15,000
Ho Ke Go
Ha Tinh
A
-
-
None
10,000
Phong Nha
Ouang Binh
8
1993
NR 1986
None
5,000
High
BachMa
ThuaThien-Hue
A
1992
NP 1986
Yes
20,000
High
NgocLUnh
KonTum
B
1994
NR 1986
None
5.000
MomRay
Kon Tum
C
Prov.
NR 1986
None
5S000
Kon Cha Rang
Kon Tum
B
-
NR 1986
None
2,000
ulFor acronyms and source informnation,see page 2 of this table.
.
.
Ben En
Scientific
-
_
.
x
x
_
.
_
_
.
-d.,..it
oI-
W
| Kon Tum
Kon Ka Kinh
|
B
| NR 1986
|
J
2,0001
-
Uttle
5,000
.
None
|
j
| H
_
Medium
x
H
High
x
H
High
Medium
x
FH
Low
2000
.
x
7
Low
Nonre
5.000
Medium
V
x
EH
Medium
NP 1986
None
5,000
.
V
LC
High
1993
NP 1986
Yes
EH L
High
C
1991
NP 1986
None
5,000
Medium
EH M
High
Kien Giang
B
Prov.
NR 1986
None
5,000
.
E
Medium
Tram Chim
Dong Thap
B
-
Yes
ED
Medium
U Minh
Kien Giang
B
NR 1986
Yes
F
Medium
Minh Hal Mangroves
Minh Hal
B1
NR 1986
None
EH L C D
High
Nam Ka
Dac Lac
A
1991
Thuong Dong Nal
Lam Dong
B
-
-
None
5,000
Yok Don
Dac Lac
A
1992
NP 1986
Yes
5,000
Chu Yang Sinh
Dac Lac
A
1994
NR 1986
None
Bl Dup
Lam Dong
A
1994
.
Bien Lac Nul Ong
Binh Thuan
B
Cat Tien
Dong Nai
A
Con Dao
Ba RiaNung Tau
Phu Quoc
Threats:
C
D
E
F
H
L
M
S
Cutting fuel
Drainage
Encroachment
Fishing
Hunting
Logging
Mining
Sedimentation
Source: Biodiversity Action Plan, 1994.
Biodiversity value:
(Bio-value)
A =
8 C-
x
High
10000
_
-
V
Scientific
-
x
very Important
important
low value
11*
a.
'N
~~~~~~~~~~
w
Reviewof WetlandsSitesin Viet Nam
Name
Province
j Type j
Area (hal
Location
J
Speclal features
Raserve
Survey
Threat [ Bio
J
Recommendutions
Only large montane lake
in N Vietnam
NP
_
P
A
L
Strengthen protection of
21°32'N.106°34'E
Local fish and some
wintering birds
NR
PH
C
L
Maintain as nature
reserve
21-35'N,105°42'E
10 spp of fish and
wintering birds
NR
PH
C
M
Extend to include
catchment forest
21 42'-22°05'N,
104°45'-10503'E
Waterfowl in winter
NR
PH
8
M
Relforest islets and surrounding hills
300
21°36'N.104054'E
Freshwater vegetation
and waterfowl
RH
8
H
Survey to assess
protection needs
72.800
20-48'-21 45N.
104005'-105015'E
Long deep lake in valley.
PC
8
H
Survey to assess
protection needs
400
21 31'N.10505'E
Fish, waterfowl and
freshwatervegetion
RH
B
H
Should be given local
protection
FL
2
22025'N,105"35'E
Several small ponds
with endemic newt
D
C
L
Apply better protection
to ponds
Vinh Phu
FS
250
21018'N.105038'E
Swamp vegetion
R
C
H
Give local protection
Suol Hal Lake
Ha Tay
R
700
21 010'N,105025'E
Reservoir lotus beds
D H
C
H
Survey for assessment
Dong Mo Lake
Ha Tay
R
700
21003'N.105050'E
Reservoir with birds
0 H
C
H
Survey for assessment
West Lake
Hanoi
FL
413
21803'N.105050'E
Reservoir fish and
I migrant waterfowl
RDH P
A
L
Clean up pollution, ban
reclaimation
Ouang Ha Saids
Ouang Ninh
S
4.000
21 20'N.107052'E
Coastal sandllats
D H
C
M
Survey to assess needs
0
450 22 45'N.105037'E
__________________
__________
Ba Be Laka
Cao Bang
FL
Cam Son Reservolr
Ha Bac
R
2,620
Nul Coc Reservoir
Thai Nguyen
R
2.580
Thac Ba Reservolr
Yen Bai
R
23.400
Chu Lake
Vinh Phu
FL
Hoa Blnh Reservoir
Hoa Binh,
Son La
R
Chinh Cong
Vinh Phu
FL
Tam Dao Ponds
Vinh Phu
Vac Swanp
fish
NP
N.R.
w
a/For acronymsandsourceinformation,seepage5of thistable.
10
0
.
Name
Cai Rau
Province
Type
Location
Area (hal
Haiphong/Cat Ba
Recommendations
M
500
0
21 10'N,107°25'E
Best example of northen
mangroves
C H
8
M
Protect as example of
provincial reserve
Ouang Ninh
R
600
0
21 0 05'N,106 50'E
8rackish reservoir
H
C
H
Survey 6 ban hunting
Mangroves and mudllats
HC
C
L
Try to protect example
Haiphong
M
0
20050'N,106 52'E
2,300
Small lake and fauna
NP
D
C
L
Protect fragile site
Mangrove, mudliats,
wintering birds
PR
HC
A
L
Protect fragile site
_
Coastal mud and sand
H
A
L
Combine into RAMSAR
Swamp vegetation in
limestone area
FD
B
H
Should be given local
protection
0
19059'N,105 28'E
Freshwater swamp
veetation
R
C
H
Survey to assess
protiection needs
0
19 42'N,105033'E
Orioinal lake enlarged as
reservoir
FP
a
M
Control destructive
fshingmethods
19030'N,105041'E
Reservoir wilt fish and
birds
D
C
H
Survey to assess
protection needs
2.500
18°13'N.105°55'E
Fish and waterfowl
Duckl
(White-winged
H
B
L
Include reservoir in
nature reserve
8,000
1635'N,10730E
Large coastal lagoon
llish and migrant birds
H F
B
H
Manaoe with Dam Cau
Largest coastal lagoon
fish and'migrant birds
H F
B
H
Protect part as reserve
and apply no-hunting
M
Stricter protection of
coastline needed
20 0 45'N,107
2
0
00'E
Cat Ba Lake
Haiphong
FL
Xuan Thuy Delta
Ha Nam Ninh
SM
Cue Day Flats
Ha Nam Ninh
S
1,000
0
19055'N,106 05'E
Hoe Lu Swamp
Ninh Binh
FS
1,000
20018'N.105
8a Thuang
Swamp
Thanh Hoa
FS
200
Song Muc Lake
IBanEn)
Thanh Hoa
R
700
Yen My Reservoir
Thanh Hoa
R
300
Ke Go Reservoir
Nghe An
R
Phe Tem Giang
Lagoon
Thua Thien-Hue
L
0
20010'N,106 35'E
4,000
0
55'E
I
12,000
Thua Thien-Hue
L
Son Tra
Ouang NamDanang
Ro
200
Cu Lao Chem
ON-Danang
Ro
50
Phu Nlnh Lake
ON-Danang
R
Dam Cau Hal
Survey
RIo
Threat
Ouang Ninh
Mangroves
Yen Lap Lake
Reserve
Special features
16°20'N,107
0
50'E
Lagoon
1.000
_
NP
16°05'N,106°15'E
Reserve has marine
sector with rocky coast
NR
DH
C
0
15S57'N,106 30'E
Rocky shoreline
NR
H
C
15026'N,108°30'E
neservoir and waterfowl
H
C
IL
M
Hai
Ban hunting
Assess protection
_needs
_
IP
V.o
w
Name
Type
Province
Dam Tra 0
Binh Dinh
L
Vinh Nuoc Ngol
Binh Dinh
L
2,000
Bien Lake
Kon Tum
Gia Lai
_____
______________
_______
Nul Mot Reservoir
Binh Dinh
2,000
Binh Dinh
1,000
R
600
VL
1,500
R
Phu Yen
5,000
PhiuYen
2,000
L
C
HF
C
0
140 03'N.108 01'E
Volcanic lake.3 endemic spp of
F
A
Assess protection
M
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~needs
Should be nature
M
fish
reserve
F
Smaller Reservoir
_ _
bird
____________
FH
__
_
________ __________________ _________
13035'N.109°15'E
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_
_
M
B
H
Survey to assessim-
portannccerta
Survey to assess
_
__
F
Brackish water fowl lagoon
13°34'N,109015'E
C
_________
________
Brackish water tidal lagoon fish,
13052'N,109°15'E
_ ___ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ __
Survey to assessImM
____ _ portance
__________
f
____________
0
13°45'N.10 59'E
______
3,000
L
HF
Reservoir In Mekong drainage
_______ ________ _
Xuan Del Lagoon
Recommendations
Assess protection
__________
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
______________________
____________
______
Cu Mong Lagoon
Survey
M
C
13059'N,107'35'E
_______
_____
L
Brackish lagoon, birds
14°10'N,109°10'E
____________
___________________
Ouy Nhon Lagoon
HF
Brackish lagoon, birds
14°20'N.109007'E
Blo
needs
__________________
Ye Li Reservoir
Threat
Resarve
Special teatures
Location
Area (hal
_
_
H
7
H
Saltwater lagoon
M
C
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _
needs
Survey to assess
needs
_________________protection
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
protection
Assess importance or
n
protectiono
B
H
Survey to assessimpoftance
HF P
B
M
Establish small provincial reservoir
Small lagoon, migratino
waterfowl
0 Loan Lagoon
Phu Yen
L
1,500
13°17'N.109°17'E
Be River Estuary
Phu Yen
E
1,000
1305'N,100
0
20'E
Most important estuary on easten seaboard
Tay Son
Phu Yen
FL
80
1303'N.108
0
41'E
Oxbow lake with crocodile and
waterfowl
Pr
F
C
H
Improve reserve
managment
8uon Me Thuot
Dac Lac
FL
100
12°40'N.108°01'E
Small lake with crocodite and
NR
H
EC
M
Make no hunting area
Ninh Hoe
Ninh Thuan
S
11 037'N.101 °02'E
Salt pans
waders
C
M
Seasonal ban on hun-
M
Redesign Reserveto
South 1/3 of lake
H
Add these lakes to
unit
save management
1,000
waterfowl
+
H
lagoon used by
Leh Lake
Dac Lac
FL
500
12°25'N,108011'E
Scenic lake with fish, birds and
crocodiles
Nam KaC
Dac Lac
FL
1,000
12°20'N,107°58'E
Lakes and swimps with
valuable fauna and flora
on smalllake
____ting
NR
F
A
FH
A
_
ed M
°Q
04
I.-
t°o 1
Name
Dan Kia Lake
Don Duong Lake
Province
200
R
Lam Dong
1,000
R
Lam Dong
Location
Area (hal
Type
0
12 00'N.108022'E
0
11 50'N,108°35'E
Cam Ranh Bay
Khanh Hoa
L
3,000
1 150'N,109
0
Dam Ninh Bay
Ninh Thuan
L
2,000
11°30'N.109
0
Cat Tian
Dong Nai
FS
2,500
11°30'N.107°20'E
Dau Tieng
Reservoir
Tay Ninh
R
5,000
Bien Lac Swamp
Binh Thuan
FS
2,000
10'E
02'E
1,000
Binh Thuan
S
Phan Thiet
Binh Thuan
Sa
Tri An
Dong Nai
R
Duymn Hal
Ho Chi Minh
M
Mekong Estuary
Ben Tre
Vinh
U Minh
D
C
L
Preserveas scenic area
Scenic lake In pine forest
D
C
L
Preserveas scenic area
Extensive brackish
lagoon, waterlowl
H
C
H
Make no hunting area on
small lake
Small brackish lagoon,
salt flats, waterfowl
H
C
M
Seasonal no hunting
area on lagoon
NP
H
A
M
Routine monitoring
1 1°15'-11 32'N,
0
1060lO'E-106 30'E
Large reservoir close to
Carnbodian wetland
-
HI F
C
H
Survey to assess importance for waterfowl
11°10'N.107040'E
Lake and seasonal
CB
B
L
Improve protection of
0
0
11 00N, 108 25'E
NR
reserve
swamp forest
+
0
11°OO'N.108 25'E
Minh Hai
Seasonal no hunting
PF
B
_
L
Conlrol lishing levels
2,000
100 20'N,106°55'E
Dong Nai Estuary and
mangroves
SC
B
H
Create reserve on
seaward edge
300,000
10035'. 1 °OO'N.
105020'-106°00'E
Peaty Swamp. flain of
Reeds, rare birds
Pr
DR
A
L
Limit replantino. avoid
draining, ban hunting
mnaintaintprotection
-
HC
B
M
Seasonalno hunting
area
A
L
Maintain fire protection
rigorously
_
PS
Seasonal no hunting
- -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~area
I
Large reservoir, fish,
some waterlowl
20,000
E
M
C
H
Sandy shiorelinelwaders
11i10'NN,1070 10'E
10,000
FS
Tra
M
B
HD
Sandy shore linelwaders
_area
I
Dong Thap
Recommandatlons
Scenic lake in pine forest
I
Tram Chim
Survey
Blo
Threat
Fresh water swamps and
takes, white wing duck
and watertowl
._____________________
Mu( Ne/Mul Gle
Reserve
Special feettures
4,000
0
9°25'-10 30'N,
0
106°25'-106 30'E
Nipa palm estuary water
birds
0
9015-N,104 55'E
Peaty swamp best
malaleuca in Vietnam
_
Pr
B
rD1.
.0
,,o t
_
mD
Naern
Area Ihal
Type
Provcea
Bird Sanctuary
Minh Hai
F
180
Ca Mau
Minh Hai
M
4,000
Con Dao
Oa RiaNung
Tau
AS
=
Bio -
Biodiversity rating
A - very imponant
B - important
C - minor value
100
I
Reserve:
:
Location
Specidl features
Reserve
Threat
Bb
Reommendatlons
Survey
11 °5'-1 132'N.
106tm10'-106030'E
Waterfowl colony in
Phoenix mangrove
NR
DH
B
H
Routine maintenance &
protection
0
8 0 35'N,104 41'E
Best Mangrove in Viet
Nam
NR
C
A
H
Find new location for
representative reserve
8°40'N.106038'E
Sea bird breeding
colonies
NP
D
B
H
Routine maintenance &
protection
Threat: P = pollution or poisoning of fish
NP - National Park
H - hunting
NA = Nature Reserve
land reclaimation
R
Provincial Reserve
Prov
C a cutting
D = disturbance of wildlife
S - shrimp ponds
F - overfishing F
overfishing
Survey: H = high
M = medium
L = low
Type:
FL = freshwater lake
FS = freshwater swamp
R = reservoir
M - mangroves
L - lagoon
Ro = rocky coast
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SaVL
volcanic
salt panslake
co
Source: Biodiversity Action Plan, 1994.
tD zD
0,
0
Wlr^
° o1;¢
Annex 1
Table 28
Page 39 of 48
- 39 -
GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT BY INDUSTRIAL ORIGIN AT MARKET PRICES, 1989-1993
(Billions of Dong)
1989
1990
1991
1992
Rev.
1993
(in 1989 Prices)
Goods
AgricultureandForesry
Industry
Construction
Other Production
Scrvices
Transport andCommunications
Trade
Finance, Inurance,
andBanklng
State Sector
Oher Services
)
)
)
11471
5366
1077
347
11641
5499
1128
360
11894
6042
1186
370
12751
6925
1317
381
13235
7766
1558
399
709
3311
743
3485
368
2627
3667
792
3654
448
2841
4059
842
3877
496
3040
4362
897
4109
578
3322
4871
29529
5.0%
31286
6.0%
33991
8.6%
36735
8.1%
5855
28135
8.0%
Grou Domestic Product
GrowthRate
(Billions of Current Dong)
Goods
Agriculturc and Forestry
Industry
Construction
Other Production
Services
Transport and Communications
Trade
Finance, Insurance, and Banking
State
Sector
Other Services
GrossDomesic Product
)
)
)
11471
5366
1077
347
16589
9183
2534
385
30314
15193
3059
744
36468
23956
6179
1045
39998
29371
9423
1476
709
3311
1434
6149
766
4389
4732
2860
9742
1108
6807
6880
4662
15281
1567
9718
11659
6036
17549
2318
14402
15998
45969
63.4%
76707
66.9%
110535
44.1%
136571
23.6%
..
5855
..
28133
Note: In 1919,theGearl Statisticsl
Offie (GSO)instiuzsed
the UnitedNatio' System of NationalAccoutu (SNA).
TheSNAseies
prewnted
he amr
baed Onthemostcurrentofficislversion.Sincethem cries crenew,
they
have
beengoingthrughscveal etimates andare still being revisedand improved.
This
is theeries
asof Msy 12, 1994
Source: OGaeralStatisical Office andBnk Staff estimates.
-
40 Annex 1
Table 29
Page 40 of 48
POPULATION,1975-93
Year
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
Population
('000; mid-year)
48,030
49,158
50,295
51,436
52,574
53,700
54,722
55,687
56,655
57,692
58,868
60,249
61,750
63,263
64,774
66,233
67,774
69,405
70,918
GrowthRate
(°/O)
2.57
2.35
2.31
2.27
2.21
2.14
1.90
1.76
1.74
1.83
2.04
2.35
2.49
2.45
2.39
2.25
2.33
2.41
2.18
Source: WorldBank, Populationand HealthDcpartment
Revisedbased on the 1988/89Ccnsusand most recentdata
General StatisticalOffice, StatisticalData of the SocialistRepublic
of Viet Nam, 1986-1991,StatisticalPublishingHouse,1992.
General StatisticalOffice,Economyand Financeof Viet Nam, 1986-92,
StatisticalPublishingHousc, 1994.
-
41
-
Page
Annex 1
Table 30
41 of 48
TOTAL EMPLOYMNT BY SECTOR, 1986-92
(Thousands of Persons)
Total Employed Labor Force
State Sector
Cooperatives
Private
State Sector Employment
(by unit)
Govemment
Central
Local
State Enterprises
Central
Local
Employment by Sector
Productive Sector
Industry
Construction
Agriculture
Forestry
Transportation
Telecommunications
TradeandSupply
Olher
Non-Productive Sector
of which:
Science
Education
Arts and Culture
Public Health
State Management
Note: Figures are rounded.
Source: General Statistical Office.
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
Rev.
1992
27,399
4,028
19,730
3,641
27,968
4,091
20,283
3,594
28,477
4,052
20,658
3,768
28,940
3,801
19,750
5,389
30,286
3,419
20,414
6,453
30,974
3,144
18,071
9,759
31,815
2,975
18,629
10,211
4,028
4,091
4,052
3,801
3,419
3,144
2,975
1,369
343
1,026
2,659
1,278
1,380
1,383
337
1,046
2,708
1,226
1,482
1,359
327
1032
2,693
1236
1457
1,455
1,341
1,296
1,242
2,346
2,078
1,848
1,733
25,553
2,918
883
19,798
178
450
38
1,259
31
26,054
3,047
825
20,246
173
429
42
1,268
24
26,497
3,150
856
20,446
211
443
40
1,331
21
27,061
3,241
795
20,698
197
455
40
1,606
29
28,320
3,392
818
21,683
206
476
35
1,681
30
28,972
3,394
820
22,276
207
480
46
1,719
30
29,780
3,450
826
22,998
210
484
47
1,735
30
1,846
1,915
1,980
1,880
1,966
2,001
2,036
64
706
38
300
273
57
750
46
297
289
60
830
45
305
247
60
768
43
288
233
51
803
45
303
240
49
804
46
309
240
48
825
46
318
240
..
..
-42-
Annex
Page
Table 31
42 of 48
Proposed modified land use criterion (Shanna 1990)
Soil
Depth
(cM)
Slope
(Percent
Degree)
Land Use Class
m
la
lb
0-3.5
3.5-12
12-27
0-2
2-7
>90
Ag
35-90
20-35
IV
v
IVa
NVb
27-33
33-47
47-65
>65
7-15
15-18
18-25
25-35
>35
Agc
Agbc
Agic
Agic or
P or FT
or CC/IP
CF+P/C
PF
Ag
Agc
Agbc
Agic
Agic or P
or FT or
CC/IP
CF+P/C
PF
P,PT
CF+P
CF+P/C
CF+P/C
CF+PIC
CF+P/C
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
PF
+IP
<20
Legend:
PF
Ag
Agc
Agbc
Agic
P
FT
CC
IP
CF
PIC
PP
1
Agriculturewith life fence or boundaryplantation
Agricultureon irrigatedbasinpaddy terracesor rainfedagriculturewithminorconservationworks
like graded channelterracesor grass strips interspacedat 0.75-1m verticalinterval (approx)
Agriculturewith basin terracesor alley croppingor benchterraces
Agriculturewith intensiveconservationmeasureslike reverse slopingbench terraces withgrassed
raisers and trees on raisers, or alley cropping with nitrogen fixing trees but knittedon base by
branches for soil conservationor hedge row cropping with base knittedby branches of nitrogen
fixing trees for soil conservation
Pasture mixedwith leguminousshrubsand nitrogenfixingbushes
Fruit trees withappropriatesoil conservationmethods
Cash crops with nitrogenfixingtrees, grsses
Multi-storiedmixedindustrialplantationand grasseson the base for soil conservation
Conmmunity
forestryfor local needs(fast growingnitrogenfixingtrees preferred with mixedbroad
leaf multi-storiedtrees)
Pasture mixedwith leguminouscover crops
Completelyprotectedforestwith naturalregenerationof all flora
Annex 1
Figure 2
43
Page 43 of 48
Figure3.: MajorFishingGrounds
Haiphoni
Bach
N1i
I \~VS
Vn
|I
fCe|
vi
Haman
Central
HoFi Gio - Thuan
An
Hae - Danang
Afajor fishing
grounds
Offshzore
Fish
_
Sea mo-nu-
.
Shr-imnp
II
QtIy
NThon;~'Cu
Lao Xanh
Nhatrang'
Ho Chi
FPhu
Chuoi
-Phu
Quoc -
_
MBinh
JI
Quy
~~~~~~~~~Islc~ands
CLU
Son
~~~Con
P(1
1.I
S&eOVIR:
Phom nThatC(1.985;
-
44&
-
Annex 1
Table 32
Page 44 of 48
FDEDINVESMENT. 1986-92
19S6
19t7
GrourFixedIvastmnent
(Pecent of NationI Income)
20.56
12.1
16.02
9.2
By Typc of Mangement
A. Central
B. Local
12.10
3.46
By Type of Outlay
A. ContructionAssmbly Works
B. Machinery& Equipenent
C. Other
By Sector
A. ProductiveSector
a. ndwustry
- HeavyIndustry
-Light Industry
b. Agriculture& Forestry
c. Transprttion & Commeunicat
d. Other
B. Non-Productive
Sector
a. Housing nd CommunityServi
b. Science,Education,PublicHealth
and SocialWelfare
c. Other
1939
1990
1991
1992
16.30
9.1
17.53
9.0
19.60
9.9
21.76
30.46
9.40
6.62
10.30
6.00
12.31
5.22
11.60
6.50
13.07
8.69
19.96
10.50
14.98
2.96
2.62
11.97
2.43
1.62
12.59
2.60
1.60
12.19
3.04
2.31
14.32
2.3S
1.90
14.53
5.51
1.72
21.69
5.76
3.01
16.70
7.34
5.47
14.33
7.77
14.32
1.30
15.36
7.53
13.06
9.57
25.73
14.67
..
..
..
..
5.03
3.32
1.01
3.36
1.76
12.79
6.93
5.25
1.72
3.21
1.35
0.75
3.23
1.32
3.32
2.27
0.52
2.41
0.95
2.73
2.30
0.49
2.71
1.10
3.35
3.92
0.57
5.63
1.68
3.41
4.47
0.61
3.71
1.03
3.36
6.77
0.43
4.73
1.33
1.32
0.79
1.29
0.62
1.24
0.22
1.32
0.28
Z12
0.44
2.04
0.59
0.96
2.44
1.86
1933
(Billionsof Dong)
(Percentage)
Grou Fixed Investment
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
By Typeof Management:
A. Central
B. Local
53.9
41.1
53.7
41.3
64.3
35.7
70.2
29.3
59.2
33.2
60.1
39.9
65.5
34.5
By Type of Outlay:
A. ConstructionAssemblyWorks
B.MachineryAEquipment
C. Other
72.9
14.4
12.8
74.7
15.1
10.1
75.0
15.5
9.5
69.5
17.3
13.2
75.6
14.7
9.7
66.3
25.3
7.9
71.2
1I.9
9.9
35.7
26.6
9.1
24.5
16.2
4.9
43.5
32.3 ..
10.3
20.1
11.6
4.7
46.3
50.2
33.4
44.0
43.2
By Sector:
A. ProductiveSector.
a. Industry:
- HcavyIndustry
- Light Indutry
b. Agriculture& Forestry
c. Transportation
& Communiect
d. Other
B. Non-Productive
Sector:
a. Housingand ConmunitySevi
b. Scienee,Education,PublicHealth
and SocialWelfare
c. Other
..
..
..
2238
13.5
3.1
15.6
16.0
2.3
17.1
20.0
2.9
15.6
20.5
2.8
12.7
22.2
1.4
3.5
8.2
5.7
6.3
3.6
5.0
4.4
6.4
3.3
3.1
3.9
7.4
1.3
7.5
1.6
10.3
2.2
9.4
2.7
3.2
3.0
Note: a/ Offieial pricesat which investment
expceditures
arecalculated.Thescarcsomewhat
higherthanthe 1932fixed priesr.
but do notfully reflectpricedevelopments
in theeconomy.Figures re rounded.
Source:GeneralStatisticalOffice andGSO,Statitical Dataof theSocialistRqcpblicof Victnam,1976-1990,1991,1992.
STATE INVESTMENTOUTLAYS IN AGRICULTURE,1976-91
-
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
(Billions ofDong at 1982 Prices)
Gross Fixed Investment
2.857 4.301 4.560 3.919 3.478 3.253 2.622 3.548
5.121 5.395 4.533 3.213 3.823 2.734 3.352 3.406
Detailed Composition
Agriculture
Irrigation
Forestry
1.360 1.736 1.956 1.885 1.814 1.699 1.278 1.591 2.341 2.325 1.535 1.574 1.595 2.176 2.966 2.974
..
..
1.202 2.056 2.015 1.548 1.224 1.240 1.112 1.510 2.086 2.284 2.515 1.346 1.631
0.295 0.508 0.588 0.485 0.439 0.314 0.232 0.447 0.694 0.786 0.483 0.293 0.597 0.559 0.386 0.432
1
Note: For 1988 and 1989, there is no data in 1982prices, so shares from current price data are used.
Sourcc: Gcncral Statistical Office and Statistical Data of thc Socialist Republicof Victnam, 1976-1990,1991, and 1992.
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
0
m
oo
0
&
COI-
- 46
-
Annex 1
Table 34
Page 46 of 48
AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTION,
1986-93.
1986
<
1987
-
1988
1989
1990
1991
(Millionsof Dongat 1982prices)
<-(1989
Prel.
1993
1992
MillionDong)->
96,044
96,383
96,383
96,383
96,383 15,358,792 1,560,475 17,059,197
CropCultivation
FoodCrops
IndustrialCrops
72,342
49,702
22,640
70,628
47,701
22,927
70,628
50,890
19,738
70,628
52,047
18,581
70,628 11,511,701 12,331,464 12,597,516
..
7,541,957 8,280,914
..
1,913,293 1,903,383
AnimalHusbandry
of which:
Livestocka/
23,702
25,755
25,755
25,755
25,755
3,847,091 4,276,311
14,067
15,420
13,879
13,976
-
2,000,186 2,261,195
GrossOutput
4,461,681
(Thousandsofmetrictons)
18,379
16,003
2,376
17,529
15,103
2,426
19,583
17,000
2,583
21,516
18,996
2,519
21,488
19,225
2,263
ArcaCultivatcd(000ha) c/
6,812
6,710
6,968
7,090
7,111
Fcrtilizcr
Availability
(000 tons)
1,631
1,542
1,833
1,985
..
Foodgrain
OutputperCapita(kg
301
281
307
332
323
Foodgrainsb/
Paddy
Other
*
21,989
19,622
2,367
24,214
212,590
2,624
25,000
22,300
2,700
7,448
7,707
7,692
323
346
357
Mcmorandum
Itcms:
Notc: a/ Excluding
poultry.
b/ Paddyequivalcnt.
c/ Foodgrains.
Source:GeneralStatistical
Office.
- 47
-
Annex 1
Table 35
Page 47 of 48
INDUSTRiML CROP PRODUCTION AND YIELDS, 1986-93
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
Prel.
1993
54.5
57.5
36.8
97.5
104.2
83.7
34.3
81.2
29.0
78.0
25.2
54.0
25.6
77.0
28.0
75.0
1986
Production (000 metic tons)
lute
Rush
Mulberry
Sugarcane
Peanuts
56.9
53.9
45.7
56.9
99.0
103.0
143.0
160.0
4964.6
5470.3
5700.4
5344.6
5400.0
6130.9
6437.0
6656.0
211.1
231.6
213.9
205.8
218.0
234.8
226.7
240.3
Soybeans
84.7
95.8
85.3
82.0
85.0
80.1
80.0
81.3
Tobacco
33.4
33.4
35.5
23.9
17.6
40.4
27.0
32.0
Tea
Coffee
30.1
18.8
29.0
20.5
29.7
31.3
30.2
40.8
30.9
45.2
33.1
67.0
36.2
71.8
39.0
73.5
Rubber
50.1
51.7
49.7
50.6
52.0
64.6
67.0
70.0
1207.0
12.0
10.4
711.4
790.9
856.5
922.1
894.4
1052.5
1139.8
Jute
26.1
32.0
17.1
Rush
16.9
17.0
17.5
15.7
14.4
13.0
11.4
10.4
9.4
11.6
11.0
Coconut
Area Cultivated (000 ha)
Mulberry
6.7
6.7
5.7
6.5
11.0
13.9
20.2
22.0
Sugarcane
125.2
136.9
142.1
131.3
135.0
141.1
146.5
149.0
Peanuts
224.5
237.8
224.4
208.6
210.0
196.2
217.3
224.0
Soybeans
106.5
118.1,
103.0
100.2
105.0
115.4
97.3
98.5
Tobacco
36.2
38.8
39.5
28.0
22.0
30.8
31.4
36.0
Tea
58.1
59.2
59.1
58.3
60.0
60.0
62.9
Coffee
Rubber
65.6
202.0
92.3
203.7
111.9
210.5
123.1
215.6
119.3
221.7
115.0
220.6
103.7
212.4
Coconut
157.7
199.3
210.6
206.3
212.3
214.2
204.1
2.1
5.8
8.5
39.7
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.2
4.5
1.8
6.1
8.0
40.0
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.5
0.2
0.3
4.0
2.2
4.8
8.0
40.1
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.2
4.1
2.2
5.6
8.8
40.7
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.5
0.3
0.2
4.5
2.2
2.4
5.7
7.4
43.5
1.2
0.7
1.3
0.6
0.6
0.3
4.9
2.2
7.0
7.0
43.9
1.0
0.8
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.3
5.6
Averaie Yield (Metric ton/Ha)
Jute
Rush
Mulberry
Sugarcane
Peanuts
Soybeans
Tobacco
Tea
Coffee
Rubber
Coconut
..
9.0
40.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
..
..
..
..
Source; General Statistical Office, Statistical Data of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 1991.
2.3
7.2
7.3
44.7
1.1
0.8
0.9
Annex 1
-48-
Tabl e 36
FOODGRAIN
1986
PRODUCTION
AND YIELDS,
1987
1988
1989
1986-93
1990
Page
1991
1992
48
of
48
Est.
1993
Production (000 metic tons)
18,379
17,529
19,583
21,516
21,488
21,989
24,214
25,000
By Product
Paddy
Spring and Summer Crop
Winter Crop
Subsidiary Crops al
16,003
9,127
6,876
2,376
15,103
8,029
7,074
2,426
17,000
10,353
6,647
2,583
18,996
11,603
7,394
2,519
19,225
11,956
7,269
2,263
19,622
11,506
8,116
2,367
21,590
14,063
7,527
2,624
22,300
14,272
8,028
2,700
By Region
North b/
South
Mekong Delta
7,688
10,691
8,203
7,620
9,909
6,576
8,369
11,214
7,743
8,955
12,561
9,024
8,448
13,040
9,608
7,835
14,154
10,464
9,701
14,513
11,067
10,640
14,360
10,840
Area Cultivated (000 ha)
6,812
6,709
6,968
7,090
7,111
7448
7,707
7,692
By Product
Paddy c/
Spring and Summer Crop
Winter Crop
Subsidiary Crops a/
5,689
2,743
2,946
1,123
5,588
2,732
2,856
1,121
5,726
2,876
2,850
1,241
5,896
3,133
2,763
1,194
6,028
3,290
2,738
1,083
6,303
3,543
- 2,760
1,145
6,475
3,727
2,748
1,232
6,466
3,896
2,660
1,226
By Region
North b/
South
Mekong Delta
2,442
3,247
2,291
3,170
3,540
2,254
2,465
3,262
2,314
2,481
3,415
2,445
3,224
3,887
2,625
3,301
4,147
2,846
3,398
4,309
2,966
3,390
4,302
2,962
Average Yield (Metric ton/Ha)
2.70
2.61
2.81
3.03
3.02
2.95
3.14
3.25
By Product
Paddy
Spring and Summer Crop
Winter Crop
Subsidiary Crops a/
2.81
3.33
2.33
2.12
2.70
2.94
2.48
2.16
2.97
3.60
2.33
2.08
3.22
3.70
2.68
2.11
3.19
3.63
2.65
2.09
3.11
3.25
2.94
2.07
3.33
3.77
2.74
2.13
3.45
3.66
3.02
2.20
By Region
North b/
South
Mekong Delta
3.15
3.29
3.58
2.40
2.80
2.92
3.40
3.44
3.35
3.61
3.68
3.69
2.62
3.35
3.66
2.37
3.41
3.68
2.85
3.37
3.73
3.14
3.34
3.66
Fcrtilizer Availability d/
Quantity (000metric tons)
Average per Ha (Kg/Ha)
1631
239
1542
230
1833
263
1985
280
2511
3026
3089
3100
Note: a/
b/
c/
d/
..
In paddy equivalent.
The North is defined as comprising the 17 provinces north of Da-Nang.
Pertaining to "sown' area, taking into account multiple cropping.
Nitrogenous fertilizer, ammonium sulphate (SA) equivalent. Not all the available fertilizer is used
for foodgrain production. For 1990, figures include nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers.
Sourcc: General Statistical Office, Statistical Data of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, 1976-90, 1991.
-49
-
Annex 2
Page 1 of 8
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALIST
ECONOMYIN TRANSITION
Index of Susceptibilityto Deterioration
Introduction
1.
To increasethe understandingof the process of land degradationand facilitatedevelopment
planning, it is helpful to identify areas potentially susceptible to degradation. For this purpose a
"pronenessto erosion" indexfor land in Viet Nam was developed.Ideally, a GIS approachwould be used
in the compilation of this index. This would allow periodic updatingof the result as new information
becomesavailable.However, much of the requiredinput data (especiallythe soils data) are only presently
available in hard copy at about 1:3,000,000 scale. Consequently,a decision was made to prepare an
initial document from whateverinformationwas available by manual means.
2.
The susceptibilitymap was prepared as an overlay to allow comparisonsand conclusions
on a per-provincebasis. Thus the "basemap"was a transparencyshowingonly the coastlineof Viet Nam;
all other input data were superimposedmanuallyupon this and the resultant boundarieswere rationalized
as necessary afterwards.
Indicatorsof Instability
3.
The inherent stability of an area is best measured by its susceptibilityto deterioration if
disturbed. Highly susceptible areas will show evidence of deterioration following relatively minor
impacts, but less susceptibleones will not.
4.
No direct measurementof an area's susceptibilityto deterioration is availableand evidence
must be sought from a range of indicators. These include climaticand seismic factors, slope, and the
intrinsic susceptibilityof the soil and geologicalmaterialsto erosion or structural failure.
5.
In the first stage of this classificationthe land is divided into two categories: (a) areas that
are inherentlystable, and (b) areas that have a relativelyhigh rate of natural baselineerosion. Slope, soil
and geologicalcategories were considered.
6.
Slope. No slope class map for Viet Nam is yet available. As an interim measure a
topographic map at 1:1,000,000 scale obtainedfrom the HydrometeorologicalService of Viet Nam was
used. Based upon geomorphologicaland climaticdata plus informationprovided by FIPI, NIAPP, the
GeologicalSurvey of Viet Nam, and personalobservationsit was concludedthat most land above 500m
elevationwould be sloping, much of it relatively steeplysloping. The steeper slopes would occur in the
mountains,but even at 500m many areas were finely dissectedwith steep (but shorter) slopes.
7.
Thus two categoriesof slope (relatively steep and relativelygentle) were derived from the
-50
-
Annex 2
Page 2 of 8
topographic map, and transferred photographicallyto the basemap. The resultant categories accorded
well with those presented in an "EcologicalAnd TopographicZoning Map Of Viet Nam" obtained from
NIAPP, except for an area between 12.5 and 14degrees north which comprisesthe catchmentsof the Da
Rang River (which flowseast) and two tributariesof the Mekong;the Xre Poc and Tong Le Cong Rivers.
They also align with Sharma's (1990) estimatethat about 70% of the country is steeply sloping.
Geoloay. Geologicalmaps at 1:1,000,000 scale (GeologicalSurvey Of Viet Nam, 1991),
8.
and at 1:1,500,000 scale (United Nations, 1990) plus their respectiveexplanatorynotes, in addition to
information provided by the Geological Survey Of Viet Nam were used to identify weak geological
formations. These were considered likely to be relatively erodible, subject to structural failure, or to
produce deep clay regoliths subject to landslide activity. Based on the United Nations (1990) map the
followingstructures were classifiedas being within these categories:
*
*
*
*
UpperNeorne.Quasenry b4lt. pwvd. day;
Mildle Trianic manme, skaleiem;
sluek-cosl, I m_;
Carbnifraus.-Prin
Caeoc Gsbbro.nrte, pbbro.olerie
9.
Soils. The interim soils map provided by NIAPP was a 1:3,000,000 scale photocopyof a
reducedversion of the 1:1,000,000scale soils map of Viet Nam. Thi; map was initiallycompiledin two
parts: one for Northern Viet Nam at 1:500,000scale by the RussianDr. Friedland,and one for Southern
Viet Nam at the same scale by the Dutchman Dr. Mockman. Different approaches and methods were
used. After 1975NIAPP recompiledand combinedthese maps, but the result is acknowledgedby NIAPP
as not entirely satisfactory.
10.
Using information provided by NIAPP the following soils were identified as relatively
susceptible to erosion:
Grey DegradedSoils:
* Greyderadedsoib
* Grey ndeed sail an ad atkivm
rachs
* Gteydegraded
sibsan _smam
Red And Yellow Soils:
* Brwnor prpc soil annmeunl
mWng
* Brown-red
soisannoArilnugs
* Bmwnyellow
Sl aSneMAl aga
* Riddsh soilson hinesre
* Red ad yellow sagsan tlmepllthic
* Ydkwuh red soils on cWimagm
* Ug& yelow sis an mAtAa
* Ydlow4rown oils an oldalkuviwn
Humus Red And Yellow Soils On Mountains
11.
As a second step in deriving the susceptibilityindex, seismicand climaticfactors were taken
into account. These factors impinge very broadly upon the land rather than in the site-specific way that
slope, soil and geology do, and should be seen as erosion-precipitatingagents rather than aspects of
inherent susceptibility. Where seismic and/or climatic impacts are relatively strong, the inherent
susceptibilitiesof the land are more likely to be enabled.
12.
Seismicity. Most of Viet Nam is formed on the Indo-Chinacrustal plate, but the portion
North of the Red River Valley is on the South China crustal plate and an area in the North-west is on the
Burmese-Thaicrustal plate (United Nations, 1990). The GeologicalSurvey Of Viet Nam has detailed,
but so far unpublished, information on the activity of the plate boundaries and the location of other
fracture zones in Viet Nam.
- 51 -
Annex 2
Page 3 of 8
Published informationis in the explanatorybrochures for the Atlas Of Mineral Resources
13.
Of The ESCAP Region (United Nations, 1990), The Geology Of Cambodia, Laos And Viet Nam
(Geological Survey Of Viet Nam, 1991), and the Proceedings Of The Regional Seminar On
EnvironmentalGeology(GeologicalAssociationOf Viet Nam, 1992).In the latterof these, NguyenDinh
Uy and Dam Ngoc, both of the GeologicalSurvey Of Viet Nam, present a map showing earthquake
zonation for the north-west of Northern Viet Nam.
A map showingareas of relativelyhigh and relativelylow seismicactivityhas beenprepared
14.
from these data taking intoaccount the dip of the activezone (whichdetermineswhich side of it will have
the most severe earth tremors), and the depth at which most activity takes place (deeper activitysuch as
under the Red River Delta has less effect at the surface).
Climate. A total of 121 rain-gaugestationshave been placed across Viet Nam, 93 or 77%
15.
of them north of the 17th parallel. Only seven occur in the upland areas in Southern Viet Nam. A map
of these and average monthlyand annual rainfallfigures for 119 of them over varying recordingperiods
up to 1984 were obtainedfrom the HydrometeorologyService for Viet Nam. Many stationshave 30 or
40 years of records, but some have only about 10. The rainfall records have not been translated into
isohyets by the HydrometeorologicalService and a map of average annual rainfall is not yet available
from Hanoi.
Sargent (1991) has includedan annual rainfall map in her review. Her map shows annual
16.
rainfalls in excess of 3000mm in the Central Highlands and around Lam Dong province. This appears
plausible because in highlandareas near a coast with a landwardwet season, windsare likely to receive
orographic rainfall. Sargent's map was not sourced and its accuracy cannotbe ascertained.
However, for the purposesof land susceptibilityassessment,especiallywith respect to soil
17.
erosion, rainfall intensity figures are more important than annual rainfall. The Hydrometeorological
Service of Viet Nam has daily rainfall intensity figures for all 121 rainfall stations and have now
processed them to give an average daily intensity, a maximum value, and probability of occurrence
figures on a 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 percentile basis. Sharma(1990)records that intensitiesof 200 - 400mm
per hour are common in some areas, which are very high figures.
has been used as a
18.
In this assessment, a 20% probabilitydaily rainfall intensityof 150mmn
threshold in identifyingstationswith rainfallintensitieslikely to be significantlyerosive. All such stations
were enclosed in a hand-drawn isopleth. Most of them occur in coastal areas, but this may be a biased
result because of the scarcity of recording stations in upland areas. However, typhoons and tropical
depressions commonly affect coastal areas and bring high intensityrains.
Relative SusceptibilityTo Deterioration
In this section the evidence from all indicators of the susceptibility of the land to
19.
deterioration is drawn together, and the mappingunits are classifiedas having either a relatively high or
a relatively low degree of susceptibility.
Initially, the inherent susceptibilityfactor (derivedfrom assessmentsof slope, geologyand
20.
soils) was weighted as doubly important. Next, rainfall intensity and seismic activity were considered.
Three susceptibilityzones were then generated: one with a relativelyerosive climate or a relatively high
seismic activity (consideredto be roughly equal in terms of their contributionto susceptibility),one with
both factors present together, and one with neither factor. These factors are recorded in Table 1.
-52
Annex 2
Page 4 of8
-
21.
Of the three factors included in Table 1, the inherent susceptibility one represents a
predisposingcondition, residual in the nature of the land. The other two (seismicityand rainfall intensity)
are the executing agents of erosion, and could be regardedas an index of the likelihoodthat degradation
of the land will occur, or as a "probability" factor.
22.
Thus five classes of susceptibilityto deterioration were derived, and these are shown in
Table 2 and the accompanyingsusceptibilitymap.
Table 1: Deriasi
Map
of acdbiy
y
IbIl
(eubility
Inhm
snceptbility of lad systenmw
deweroratimn(hiSh-jlow-)
Dqreeci
of amnic atvity (h-,
low-)
Erosivity
of dinme (Io-.
low-)
2
2
3
3
4
*
S.
4
M:
I -km
t
S
cibl
5
(mns sabc) and 5- most
ccptilc.
23.
Results. A list of the regions most likely to be severely degraded was compiled by
overlaying the susceptibility map on the provinces map. Regions containing significant areas with
susceptibility rating four or five and only very small areas (if any) with a rating less than three were
consideredto be highly susceptibleto deterioration. Other regionspredominantlyrating three were likely
to be in a degraded conditionand considered if medium susceptibility.These are shown in Table 2
Table2: Percena of lan uuAepAdbiiy
by clas
Region
Cba 2
Clm 3
clan 4
Cis 5
291
14%
371
15%
2%
2%
10%
41%
44%
3%
IS
26S
55S
IIS
iS
0
75S
201
0
5%
NanhCm
uzuCeaza
4%
25%
39S
29%
4%
Smdt Cetral Coasu
29%
21
27S
23%
0%
S9admnH
33S
0S
66S
0%
0%
98%
0
2S
0%
0%
01
0S
0
0
Css
Toml
Nard,e
Mountain
Nrdiem Midlimds
Red River Dela
_baad
Nah EmuMebang
Meklg Deks
NOa: I - eambl
(nmt Yabk) a
I
I00%
5-mast .sweuIbc.
24.
A list of the most importantprovincesfor watershedprotectionwas providedby FIPI. Most
of these were also selected by the susceptibilitymapping and these ones are identified in Table 3 by
underlining. Provinces identified by Mr. Phuong that were not selected by the susceptibilitymapping
include Lang Son (because of low overall topographyand low rainfall intensity)and Dong Nai (because
of low topography, rainfall intensity and seismic activity).
-
Map
Land
C>'SS
X
Susceptibility
53
Annex 2
Page 5 of 8
-
Classes
(LEAST)
*Cn
-mE'
P
Cl~~~~~~
X
jfj
'-
.
0
20Km
0
10oo
00o
54
Annex 2
Page 6 of 8
25.
In a study of sediment problems in Viet Nam, Cao Dang Du (1992) produced a map of
suspendedsediment yield which also supports the susceptibilitymapping. A 'forest types' map of Viet
Nam produced by FIPI at 1:1,000,000 scale also supportsthe mapping.
Tablc3: Provinces
minstsueptible to deterioraiion
Highly msuceptibleprovirces
Mediumaipt
Nhe
, Yen Bai.CaoBmg. HacD
Binh.Lai Chau.SonLa. HaGims,,Thril
ioa, Ninh Binh, Lao Cai
Notes:wuderlind provnces alsoxdelired by [RIl
provkbe
use
Q
Nirh Vin Ph.
ujte
Quaq TriLBidhDind. KanhHoa.KoaTum,
&m Dea.1
ThiesaHue.
DacLac,Qw4 Nam-DaNai
26.
Sharma (1990) identifiedsix priority watershedsfor urgent action due to their "immediate
effect on nationalwell being". Thesesix were chosen becausethey all had large dams or large dams were
plannedfor them, and becausethe dam catchmentswere in a degradedconditionand siltationof the dams
was likely to be serious. Sharma acknowledgesthat "there are many other watersheds in the country
which are also in similar conditionsas far as their status in uplandconservation is concerned".
Of Sharma's six catchments, the Da, Chay, and Chu River catchments lie within areas
27.
mapped as highly susceptible to deterioration, and the Da Nhim / Dong Nai catchment is moderately
susceptible. The Tra Khuc River is in Quang Ngai province, which has mainly susceptibilitycategories
one and two, and hence was not selectedas being (overall) susceptible.However, the outer parts of the
province have susceptibilityratings three and four which agrees with Sharna's assessment.
The Saigon River watershed (Tay Ninh and Song Be provinces) has been mapped as
28.
category one, because of low relief, low seismicactivity, and low rainfall intensity. Sharmaverifies the
relief category (he cites maximumslopes of four to seven degrees). However, this area was very heavily
disturbed by bombing (5 - 10 bomb holes per ha), and also large areas of forest have been destroyedby
"uncontrolledagricultural expansion".
29.
Other areas close to major towns and cities may also be in a badly degradedcondition due
to population pressure, which has not been included as a factor in the susceptibilitymapping. This
anthropogenic factor may cause land degradation even in areas not classified as susceptible to
deterioration. The area close to the edges of the Red River Delta is an example(IIED, 1991)but in that
case the land is very susceptible to deterioration.
Issues to be resolved
30.
The land susceptibilitymap accompanyingthis report is a first approximationonly, based
on whatever infornation was available at the time. A revised map needs to be producedin GIS format.
The existing soils map at 1:1,000,000 scale could be used as a basis once it is converted to FAO
standards (see Sehgal, 1989) and digitized. Until then, it is not entirely reliable. A better choice would
be the new integrated, ecosystem- based land resources maps at 1:250,000 scalethat are currently being
produced by NIAPP.
31.
Other input data also need to be revised, for example, a map of slope class at 1:1,000,000
scale or better needs to be prepared and digitized, and there is a need for a more precise definitionof
seismically active areas, geologicalformations susceptibleto failure, climatic factors, and soils that are
erodible. In the case of climate, rainfall amountand seasonalityneed to be incorporatedwith the intensity
data to produce an overall index of erosivityof climate. In the longer term, these data could be updated
if more climate recording stations were placed in the upland areas, especiallyin Southern Viet Nam.
-
5
Annex 2
Page 7 of 8
Proximity to large centers of population could also be includedas a factor threateningthe stability of
land.
32.
Another issue is forms of land degradationother than soil erosion. Nutrient depletion,soil
structure decline and other impacts result from repeated cycles of shifting cultivation, but also from
continueduse of good quality agricultural land. In recent years with increasedpopulationpressure these
soils are being used more and more intensively.It is very importantthat the productivityof these better
soils be at least maintainedso that the nationas a whole maintainsfood security. The same could be said
for the nation's water resources and reserves of biodiversity.
33.
Other importantissues includethe need to re-assessland suitabilityfor use based on the new
land resources mapping that is being done, and to use the results for improved land use planning (long
term),
to upgrade the existing soils map and convert it to FAO format (shorter termn),and to progressively
implementthe research needs describedby Sargent (in IIED, 1991).
-
56
2
-Aex
Page 8 of 8
Land Susceptibility Classes, By Provinces (in ha)
Province Name
Total Area
HaGlang
Tuyen Quang
Cao Bang
Lang Son
Sac Thai
Lal Chau
Son La
Yen Sal
Lao Cal
7385
6430
8S04
7905
6604
17334
14398
7704
6894
Class I
(least)
Class2
241
693
603
267
1628
958
3070
2661
S9
799
Class 3
6961
3737
4617
1592
3318
4225
4971
3953
2685
Guang Nlnh
5167
23
4709
Vlnh Phu
HaBac
4514
4917
1593
1169
2691
3628
Ha Nol
Hal Phong
990
1233
817
1047
173
Ha Tay
Hoa Blnh
HalHung
2524
4282
2669
1268
733
2452
1146
2022
217
Thai Blnh
1507
1607
1859
1674
11453
16837
6071
8469
49SS
1540
72
2728
2960
1973
3240
1318
Nam Ha
NlnhBlnh
Thanh Hoa
Nghe An
HaTnh
Guang Blnh
QuangTrl
Thua Thlen-Hue
348
1015
4661
383
596
12003
6198
6342
6210
4843
40
736
249
688
1084
1446
2303
2671
1628
768
3564
2721
Gla Lal
Kon Tum
8148
14891
10855
7528
8093
944
D.c Lac
179
6723
Lam Dong
10235
2483
Qang NamDa-Na
QuangNgal
Binh Dlnh
Phu Yen
Khan Hoa
Nlnh Thuan
Binh Thusn
,
Dong nal
5935
8935
Son Be
9363
8828
Tay Nlnh
Ho Chi Minh
Vung Tau- Ba RI
Long An
TienGlang
Ben Tre
Dong Thap
Vlnh Long
Tra Vinh
Can Tho
Soc Trang
An Glang
Kien Glang
Mlnh hal
4004
1897
1901
4004
1897
1901
4455
2274
2119
31S8
1643
2017
3016
3271
Totalsil
4456
2274
2119
3168
1643
2017
3016
3271
3306
5824
7919
329009
192
1448
4141
6372
360
6042
1710
Class 4
1157
496
2336
2388
512
11316
9427
2778
3410
Class 5
(most)
128
352
113
1793
374
425
230
130
194
3436
6393
196
110
1333
127
164
800
1027
438
187
1927
324
33S8
7967
387
1187
620
814
843
620
6798
9911
1189
7762
2560
1172
2035
2374
2180
167
635
3306
5824
7919
95918
Notes: 11 Area totals
not equal to those of
the General Department of Land Management
Source: Aldrick 1993
44711
120867
59933
7590
Annex 3
Page 1 of 13
57
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALIST
ECONOMYIN TRANSITION
Forest Degradationand the Evolutionof Barren Lands
1.
This annexanalyzesthe changesin forest landuse in Viet Nam, reconcilingoften conflicting
land use and forestry statistics. It then analyzesthe sourcesof deforestationand their relativecontribution
to land degradation, and concludeswith the resultingphysicalimpactof upland forest areas degradation.
A. DeforestationTrends and Changes in Land Use
2.
Forest cover I/ in Viet Nam decreased from 67 percent of total land area to 29 percent
between 1943 and 1991 (Table 1). This includesthe loss of at least 12.6 millionha of forest, of which
8.0 million ha were in NorthemViet Nam and 4.6 millionha were in SouthernViet Nain. The Northern
Mountainsexperiencedthe greatest decline, with forest cover dropping from 95 percent to 17 percent in
48 years. The decrease in this region was caused by the rapidlygrowing population's demand for forest
products and agricultural land. The result was the formation of large areas of unproductivebarren land.
The remaining forests in the Northern Mountains are degraded, poorly stocked, and scattered in small
non-contiguousplots.
Table 1: Forest Cover, Deforestation,and Unused Land
Region
Land Area
(1000 ha)
Forest cover
(% of land area)
1991
1943
Barren land
(% of area)
1991
1943-73
1973-85
1985-91
1993
1) Northem Mountains
7645
95%
17%
2.4%
3.9%
(0.3%)
60%-65%
2) Northem Midlands
3982
55%
29%
1.0%
4.5%
(0.3%)
27%-33%
3) Red River Delta
1030
3%
3%
0.9%
6.7%
0.2%
5%-14%
4) North Central Coast
4002
66%
35%
0.7%
2.3%
(0.4%)
40%-44%
5) South Central Coast
4582
62%
32%
1.4%
2.3%
(0.1%)
42%-49%
6) Central Highlands
5557
93%
60%
1.4%
0.1%
0.3%
25%-32%
7) N.E. of Mekong
2348
54%
24%
0.4%
3.7%
1.4%
23%-34%
8) Mekong Delta
3957
23%
9%
1.8%
3.0%
(0.1%)
12%-21%
Totals
33104
67%
29%
1.6%
2.5%
0.0%
35%-42%
Note: Numbers in parentheses indicate net reforestation.
Source: Annex 1.
I/
Annual Rate of deforestation
(% of total forest cover per year)
Forest cover includes both natural and planted forest.
- 58 -
Annex 3
Page 2 of 13
3.
Fuelwoodspresently constituteover a third of all traded energy, two-thirdsof household
cooking energy use (including straw, and are estimated to account for 87 percent of all wood demand
(which includes non-energyuse).
4.
The overall rate of net deforestation(deforestationlessafforestation)in VietNam from 1943
to 1973 was equivalent to 1.6 percent per year. Uncontrolled logging in the Northern Mountains and
extensive conversion of forest to coffee, rubber and banana plantations in the Mekong delta and North
East of Mekong regions were the primary contributorsto forest loss. The annual rate of deforestation
increased by a third from 1973to 1985, with the highest rates of loss occurring in the Red River Delta,
Northern Midlands, Northern Mountains,and North East of Mekong. Increaseddeforestationwas driven
by the high demand for timber necessaryfor the post-war reconstructionof the country, and an exportdriven expansion in logging to raise foreign exchange.
5.
Duringthe six years from 1985to 1991, deforestationpersisted in the North East of Mekong
and Central Highlands regions as GOV continued logging and encouraged settlement. In five other
regions, official statistics indicatethat the 42 year deforestationtrend has been reversed. This reversal
may, however, be regarded with skepticism for two reasons: (a) the forest cover figures mask the
replacementof natural forest with planted forest, and (b) during the mid-eighties the GOV redefined
natural forests from being areas with over 30 percent crown cover to areas with over 10 percent crown
cover. Disaggregatingforest cover into natural and planted forest indicatesthat, whilenatural forest area
decreased by 0.1 million ha between 1985 and 1991, planted forest increasedby about 80 thousand ha
(Table 2). The redefinition,which is particularlyrelevantfor the Northern Mountainsand North Central
Coast, combined marginally forested (formerly defined) "barren land" with "natural forest" to produce
an increase (or smaller decline) in the natural forest category.
Table 2: Change in Land Use 1985 to 1991 (in 1,000 ha)
Region Name
Change in
Natural
Forest
Change in
Planted
Forest
Change in
Barren
Lands
Change in
Annual
Agriculture
Change in
Perennial
Agriculture
1985-1991
1985-1991
1985-1991
1985-1991
1985-1991
2
16
40
27
(7)
3) Red River Delta
(5)
4
8
(60)
6
4) North Central Coast
29
7
78
(46)
26
5) South Central Coast
(25)
36
(7)
(30)
26
6) Central Highlands
(71)
5
(80)
(4)
86
7) North East Mekong
(80)
30
(42)
(18)
47
(3)
5
(116)
(164)
75
(108)
83
(204)
(248)
253
2) Northem Midlands
8) Mekong Delta
Totals
Notes: Numbers in parenthesis indicate a decrease.
Source: Annex 1.
59 -
Annex 3
Page 3 of 13
6.
Despite the abovedata bias, an analysisof the reduction in natural forest at the provincial
level in Northern Viet Nam (see para 9 below) reveals that it has come largely at the expenseof annual
crop expansion. Another effect of the redefinitionwas to understate the true rate of deforestationin the
Central Highlandsand North East of Mekongregions between 1985and 1991, where there was pressure
by loggers and settlers who planted mainly tree crops (coffee, cashew nuts etc.). By re-categorizing
barren lands as natural forest though, GOV is implicitly increasing its emphasis to protect critical
watersheds from degradation. However, it is questionableto what degree the barren lands will be able
to recover their natural form or become productivewithoutthe support of protection and replenishment
programs.
7.
Barren land, also referred
to as the 'bare hills' or 'unused land' in
.
,
,
,.niui
*&1
.*.~
"
various
hz'other'
pgj
Figure 1: Change in land cover from 1985 to 1990 (units in 1,000 ha).
statistical
sources,
is
characterizedas grass or shrub covered
hills of generally low agricultural
productivity. The majority of barren
land existed as far back as 1960, when
the FAO identified 9.3 million ha of
land in Viet Nam. In 1993, GOV
classified between 35 percent and 42
percent of the country,approximately12
to 13 imillion
ha, as barren land 2/.
Barren land formation is closely linked
to deforestation. From sub-provincial
observations,correlation analysis of the
change in land use and land cover from
1985 to 1990 indicates there is a
1
t ines
relatisheteen
significant inverse relationship between
barren land and natural forest (Figure
1). In this relationship most of the
observationsare clustered about the origin, suggestingthat there has been little overall change in area
of barren land and natural forest. Barren land formation is closely linked to natural forest patterns
because agricultural activity on forest soils is responsiblefor depletion of soil nutrients, decline in soil
organic matter and structure, soil erosion, weed invasion,and hydrologicalchangesthat result in serious
off-site impacts.
8.
The physical process of degradationstarts with clear-cut logging. The cleared land, made
accessibleto farmers as a result of logging, is cultivateduntil soil fertility is exhausted. The exhausted
land is then abandonedto extendedperiods of fallow, interruptedby occasionalcropping, grazing, and
fuelwood collection. These extensive activities, combined with a fire prone regime, prevent forest
regeneration. Soil erosion and weed invasionare part of the process of land degradation. Most of the
logging and subsequentagricultural production, especiallyin recent years, is on steep slopes which are
highly susceptibleto erosion once the protectivevegetativecover has been removed. In terms of weed
invasion,up to 200 speciesof weeds can be found on barren land, especiallyEchinonchloaand Imperata,
which competedirectly with crops for soil nutrients. In this way barren land is created. The extent of
barren land in the upland areas is also relatedto the practice of shiftingcultivation. Thus a substantial
2/
This estimateof barren land includesonly the areas that can be developedfor agricultureor forestry. Other estimates
of barren land are larger (13-14 millionha) becausethey includerockymountains,riverbanks, waterways,and marshes.
-60-
Annex 3
Page 4 of 13
portion of barren or idle land may be consideredto be utilized within traditional, extensive agricultural
production systems and may thus not be readily "available."
9.
As shown in Table 1, regions with large areas of barren land include the Northern
Mountains (60-65 percent), the North Central Coast (40-44percent), and the South Central Coast (42-49
percent). The critical dynamics of barren land evolution involve human pressure on land that is
inherentlysusceptibleto deterioration. In areas of high populationdensity, there is relatively less barren
land, reflecting the presence of property rights and active competitionfor available resources. In areas
of low populationdensity there is usually plenty of barren land, revealingthe open access nature of the
resource. The northern half of the country, specificallythe Northern Midlands, contains the highest
proportion of highly susceptible land. By comparisonthe Southern part of the country, excluding the
Central Highlands, is relativelystable in terms of erosion prone characteristics. Regionswith large areas
of degraded barren land are the Northern Mountain and Northem Midlands. (See Annex 2 for an
analysis of the factors contributingto erosion proneness by regions and for the construction of a land
susceptibilityindex.)
10.
A closer look at the regionaldifferencesin the factorsaccountingfor changesin barren land
areas reveals a number of noteworthyimplications. From 1985to 1990, four of the six provinces with
an increase in over 27,000 ha of barren land and 11 of the 19 provinces which experienced an increase
in over 2,000 ha of barren land were in the Northern Mountains, Northern Midlands, and North Central
Coast. In all of these provincesthere was a decrease in natural forest and an increase in annual crops.
This is explainedby a large populationtrying to subsist on severely degraded land. Thus, withoutother
sources of income improvement,the people are being forced into the remainingforest to produce food
crops 3/.
11.
In the SouthCentral Coast and the Central highlands,barren land increasedwhere perennial
crops increased. The GOV resettlement programnhas been encouraging cash cropping (coffee, tea,
rubber) by providing subsidies to immigrants primarily from the Red River Delta. While lower
population density and longer crop rotations slow the process of degradation, perennial agriculture is
leading directly to the loss of old growth forest in the provincesof Gia Lai and Dac Lac.
12.
The Mekong Delta provinces of Tien Giang and Hau Giang, where barren land has
increased, are characterized as having acid sulphate and/or saline soils. These soils were probably
disturbed by agricultural expansion in response to increased demand by Ho Chi Minh City. Eventually
the soils become unproductiveand were abandoned.
B. Sources of Forest Loss
13.
There are many causes of deforestationin Viet Nam, the most imnportantof which include
arable land expansion, fuelwood consumption,logging, shiftingcultivation, and fire damage. If data on
these variables were to be converted to area equivalents,there is an estimated loss of 131 million ha of
forest per year (Table 3). This number is much higher than the government-reportedtotal loss of 184
million ha over six years. This difference is explainedby: (a) overlap and double-countingin attributing
the causes of forest loss, and (b) the previouslymentionedredefinitionof natural forests. Despite these
shortcomings the informationis useful in illustrating the relative importanceof the different sources of
degradation.
31
On a regionallevel this trend is masked by the large increase in natural forest in Son La and Lai Chauprovinces. This
increase is due to a GOV redefinitionof what constitutesnaturalforest.
- 61 -
Annex 3
Page 5 of 13
14.
Sourcesof forest degradationare discussedbelow under the followingsub-headings:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Arable Land Expansion
FuelwoodConsumption
Logging
Fire Damage
ShiftingAgriculture
Other Causes
Table 3: ImputedAnnual Deforestation(in 1,000 ha)
Region Name
Fire
Damage
Itinerant
Shifting
CultivationfV
Fuelwood
Logging
Total w/o
fuelwood
1990-'
1991,'
1992-'
1) Northem Mountains
0
35
115
17
52
2) Northem Midlands
0
10
11
23
33
3) Red River Delta
0
0
33
5
5
4) North Central Coast
1
7
96
4
12
5) South Central Coast
0
15
46
4
19
6) Central Highlands
4
95
69
8
107
7) North East Mekong
2
15
78
4
21
8) Mekong Delta
11
3
32
13
27
Totals
18
180
480
78
276
1991k-
Note: a/ Data on sedentaryshiftingcultivation(estimatedat up to one millionha) is not availableby region.
b/ Year of estirmate.
Sources: FIPI 1990, 1991. TFAP 1991..WorldBankestimates1992.
Arable Land Expansion
15.
Expansionof agricultureintoforest areashas both direct and indirectenvironmentalimpacts.
Direct environmentalimpactsinclude erosion, loss of topsoil, watersheddegradation,and changes in the
distribution of both plant and animal species. The indirect environmental effects include the
sedimentationof rivers, lakes, dams and harbors as well as the loss of the carbon sequestrationfunctions
of the forest. In Viet Nam there was less than a one percent increase in agriculturalland from 1985 to
1991. Closer examination reveals that overall the area of annual crops contracted while the area of
perennial crops expanded (Table 2). The expansionof perennials was largely at the expense of annuals
(especiallymaize) in the central coastal regions, but at the expenseof natural forests and barren lands in
the Central Highlands and the North East of Mekong regions. Available statistics do not, however,
permit an assessment of the extent to which arable land expansionhas directly reduced forest areas or
reduced the extent of barren lands countrywide. The poorest (food deficit) provinces in the Northem
Mountains and Northem Midlandssaw an attemptedexpansionof annual cropping even at the expense
of perennialcrops. The areas sufferingthe most chronicmalnutrition(NorthemMidlandsand Mountains)
are also the poorest in the country, and in these areas the expansionof arable land for food subsistence
(often as shifting agriculture) is an important source of degradation pressure. Crop expansion and
replacement are closely linked to the evolution of barren lands (paras. 6-8 above).
Annex 3
- 62 -
Page 6 of 13
16.
Sixty-six percent of the 250,000 ha decline in the annual crop area from 1985 to 1991
occurred in the Mekong Delta. This decrease, withouta comparabledrop in rice production, signals an
increase in productivity. The increase in productivitymay be attributed to the initial backyard private
plot/responsibility system and later to the freeing of prices and the shift to private production systems
allowed under further liberalizationin 1989. The expansionof annual crops (primarilyat the expense
of barren land) in the Northern Mountainshas largely been driven by the allocationof land rights to the
barren lands.
Table 4: 1992 PercentageShare of Primary Cooking Fuel
North"
Red River
Delta
Hanoi'
Central"
Mekong
Delta
Leaves,
Straw, etc.
49.1
98.5
70.0
60.2
7.8
Wood
49.7
1.0
8.7
39.8
90.7
Primary Cooking Fuel
Ho Chi
Minh City
Rural:
1.0
Charcoal
Coal (3)
1.2
0.5
20.7
Kerosene
0.5
Electricity
0.7
Urban:
Leaves,
Straw, etc.
17.7
3.3
Wood
51.0
38.3
17.7
12.5
51.0
Charcoal
3.1
Coal (3)
25.0
55.0
53.1
13.6
Kerosene
4.2
3.3
15.6
4.2
Electricity
98.4
13.5
18.8
30.2
40.6
28.1
1.6
1.0
Notes:
a/ Comprising the Northem Midlands and Highlands.
b/ Comprising Hanoi Province and adjacent communes.
c/ Comprising North and South Central and Central Highlands.
Source:
UNDP/ESMAP (World Bank) Report, Viet Nam: Rural and Household Energy Issues and Options,
September 1993, Table 2.2.
17.
The remaining areas of robust contiguousold growth forest are rapidly being converted to
perennial crops and planted forests. Over 90 percent of the increase in perennial crops occurred in the
southern half of the country, particularlythe Central Highlands. This is the only region with a plentiful
supply of unclaimed, relatively stable productive land. The availabilityof this resource has encouraged
high rates of GOV-sponsored(and in recent years, spontaneous)immigrationfrom the Red River Delta
and the North Central coast 4/. Immigrationwill continue while available land can be claimed (see
Annex 5).
4/
Until 1989 all migration and agricultural expansion was under the direction of the central and provincial governments.
- 63 -
Annex 3
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FuelwoodConsumption
18.
Fuelwooddemandrepresentsan importantburdenon VietNam's remainingforest resources.
If converted to area equivalents, the demand for fuelwood would have accounted for 6 times as much
forest destruction as commerciallogging(Table 3). However, this does not mean that the degradation
effects are equivalent since a significantportion of fuelwood needs are derived from scattered trees
(estimatesrange from 4.5 to 8 million tons/year) which are also included in the estimate. In agrarian
areas, wood is the fuel of choice for householduse. Wood also provides heat for formal and infomial
rural industries. However, in rural areas of high populationdensityand where wood is relativelyscarce,
such as the Red River Deltaand the coastal central regions, rice straw and other crop residuesare critical
substitutes. Recent analysis,5/ based on the 1992 situation abstracted from the living standards
measurementstudy (LSMS), are summarizedbelow for sources of cooking fuel by regions.
19.
Locallycollectedbiomass residues(leaves, straw, etc.) appear to be the primary household
fuel source in rural areas except for the Mekong Delta, where wood predominates. Wood is also
important in the Northem Uplands (i.e. both the Midlandsand Mountainareas). In urban areas, wood
is important for the Mekong Delta (especiallyNortheastMekong Delta subregion), Northem Uplands,
and the Central region (including the Central Highland).
20.
An examinationof the supply/demandbalanceprepared by the 1993 UNDP/ESMAPstudy
(see Table 5 below) gives a picture of fuelwood supply shortages by regions and an indicationof the
pressure on existing forest resources. The estimatefor wood-relatedbiomass excludes those for straw,
leaves, and grass which are highlylocalized and effectivelyuntransportableand thus unmarketable. The
nationalconsumptionestimateof about 28 milliontons closelymatches equivalentestimatesof about 31
milliontons of the Tropical Forestry ActionPlan (TFAP). The study shows that present supplyof wood
biomassfor fuel (about 38 milliontons) gives a surplus for the countryas a whole, but identifiestwo sets
of regions which are experiencinglarge deficits: (a) the North Midlandsand Red River Delta regions,
and (b) the Mekong Delta and N.E. of Mekong regions. These areas would presumablyexperiencethe
greatest stress on their forest resources. If, however, the TFAP estimate of sustainablesupply of 25
million tons (not available by region) were to be used, the relative fuelwooddeficit situation would be
even more serious.
21.
A number of implicationsare worth noting. First, although the fuelwood depleted North
Midlandsand the Red River Delta are substantiallydeficit, becausethe fuelwoodmarketingzone extends
to the surplus Northern Highlands,part of the latter's surplus can be (and is) used to fulfill the formers'
needs. This means that fuelwood in the more accessibleareas of the Northern Highlands provides an
importantsource of cash incomefor the inhabitants,mitigatingthe food productiondeficitproblem there.
However, this also means that the forest capital in the Northern mountain areas could come under even
greater depletionthreat if the market for commercialfuelwood continuesto expand. Second, part of the
deficit of the Mekong Delta/N.E. of Mekongregions can similarlybe mitigatedby the surplus Central
Highlands (and to a lesser extent the South Central region). However, because these regions are
relatively inaccessible,they are not likely to be under as muchpressure as the remainingwetland forests
in the Mekong Delta where transport is facilitatedby barges in the densely inter-connectedwaterways.
In the Mekong Delta, particularly in the coastal mangrove and Melaleucaforests, extensive areas are
being cut over to meet commercialurban and rural fuelwood demands, and (to a much smaller extent)
industrial raw material (pulp and paper) export demand.
5/
UNDP/ESMAP,Viet Nam: Rural and HouseholdEnerpv Issues and Options. September1993 (henceforthcalled the
UNDP/ESMAPstudy).
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Annex 3
Page 8 of 13
Table 5: Demand, Supply and Balancefor Fuelwoodand Charcoal, 1992
(in 1000 tons, air dry wood equivalent)
Region
1) Northern
Highlands
2) North Midlands
3) Red River Delta
4) North Central
5) Central
Highlands
6) South Central
7) N.E. of Mekong
8) Mekong Delta
Totals
Demand
Supply
Surplus
Urban
Rural
Total
Total
(Deficit)
357
4,118
4,474
9,166
4,692
97
313
373
245
1,189
1,140
2,707
1,171
1,286
1,453
3,080
1,416
747
424
6,079
8,807
(539)
(1,029)
2,999
7,391
648
2,042
1,270
5,345
1,781
2,816
8,239
23,161
2,429
4,858
9,509
28,505
5,457
3,546
4,114
38,340
3,028
(1,312)
(5,395)
9,834
Source: UNDP/ESMAPStudy, Table 4.4.
GOV has had an ambitious tree planting program in place since 1975 to attenuate the
22.
fuelwood shortage situation, particularly in the South Central Coast, North East Mekong, and Northern
Mountains regions. However, the success rate in the upland areas has been reported to be between 30
percent and 60 percent of total seedlingsplanted. One of the main reasons is that, in their current state,
fuelwood plantationsare uneconomical--havingto competedirectly with an open access forest resource.
Other reasons for failure are poor soils, lack of skills and motivation, and inappropriatetree species
choice. The need is to improve and extend areas of fuelwood or mixed forest plantationsand encourage
more economical and ecologicallymore sustainablealternatives, taking into account the problems and
constraintsthat have to be addressedand the need for farmingsystemsthat are consistentwith the farming
family profile. This is needed despite medium term trends which point to a possible decline (or at least
a reduction in the increase) in the demand for fuelwood 6/.
23.
While tree planting efforts are important,a case can be made for continuedemphasison the
standing stock in terms of improved management of existing forests, plantations plus scattered tree
resources, and ensuring that there is or will be a market for the trees that have been planted already. The
TFAP states that pure fuelwood plantationsare uneconomicalbecause they are competing with a free
wood resource which is collected from the natural forests, degradedforest land, and miscellaneousareas.
While this statementis true for plantationwoodfrom the same area where open accessopportunitiesexist,
it may not hold if plantationsare grown closer to market compared with sources of collected wood in
natural forests. In the latter case, plantationwood couldcompetewith a "free" remote resource. As has
been pointed out in the UNDP/ESMAPstudy, possible savings in transport costs could well be invested
6/
Such trends project that as fuelwoodsources get more scarce, its price differential vis-a-visother sources like coal is
expected to worsen. Also. as kerosene (a conveniencefuel for urban cooking)becomesmore affordableand available,
the share of fuelwood(includingcharcoal) is expected to decline further.
-
65
-
Annex 3
Page 9 of 13
in a fuelwoodplantation and be competitivewith "free firewood" 7/. The need is therefore to find land
with limited alternative use near fuelwood demand centers for concentration of plantation efforts.
However, the problem may well be that even for barren lands in such locations,alternativeuses may be
more profitable (e.g., for industrial estates).
24.
Another need is the reduction of demand for fuelwoodsthrough the improvementof cook
stoves. Substantialdevelopmentand demonstrationwork has been undertaken in Viet Nam. The need
is to focus the Government's ImprovedCook Stoves Program in resource stressed areas. Another issue
on the demand for fuelwood is the situationwith respect to inter-fuelsubstitutionand the extent relative
price incentives affected by Government policy play a role in increasing fuelwood demand and
consequentlyforest degradation.
Commercial Loggin,
25.
Historic accounts show the role of forest degradation from logging followed from the
collectivizationof land resources in the 1950s. State organizations,in particular the forest enterprises,
were given the mandateto intensifyloggingof valuabletimber from the hills. Prices set by the state for
the timber covered little more than logging and transportationcosts and recurrent expenditure. Little
direct reinvestmentin reforestationtook place. This establisheda pattern of extractionto meet external
needs, after which many communesseeminglylost their traditionalcollectivemechanismsfor protecting
and managing the forests. The absence of any effective property rights to hill land led to a situation
where land becameliableto short-termexploitativepracticesand randomclearance of the remainingtrees
for fuel or construction purposesand agricultural cultivationthen occurred 8/. This process was aided
by the fact that many enterprises had control over areas of land that were too large for them to manage
effectively.
26.
From 1986to 1991,GOVreported thatforest industriesharvestedapproximately3.5 million
3
m of wood annually(with an additional30 percent to 50 percent be added for illegal logging). The total
standingvolume is 525 million m3. Conversionto area equivalentsindicatesthat legal loggingaccounted
for the loss of perhaps 80,000 ha of forest in 1991 (Table 3.3). Although extraction is highest in the
Central Highlands, the higher natural stockof these forestsmeansthat proportionatelyless area is affected
than in the Northern Mountains. However, it is in the Central Highlandsthat large quantitiesof logs are
smuggled across Laos and Cambodia to Thailand 9/. This illegal trade explains the disproportionate
loss of forest land comparedto official log extractionfigures in the region. Demandfor paper, of which
less than 100,000 tons is produced annually, may appear not to contributeto substantialdeforestationas
plantation grown wood and bamboo are its main sources of raw materials. However, in localized hill
areas within the zone of influence of the pulp and paper mills, growth of fast growing species on
7/
For example,if the distancebetweena naturalforest and a plantationlocatedat the point of demandis 80 km and
transportcostsequalDong 1,000per ton per km (USS0.1 per ton/km),then(all elseequal)plantationwoodcanbe
grownat a costof upto Dong80,000per ton(USS8/ton)andstill compete
with a 'free' (openaccess)
supplyof wood
that is 80 km or furtherfrom the market. If the modeof transportis by boatthenthis break-even
distancewouldbe
about240 km, due to boattransportcostsbeingroughlyone-thirdof truckingcostsper ton/km.
8/
A. Forde,'Cooperatives, FamiliesandDevelopment
in NorthernViet Nam- someexperiences
from theForest,Trees
and PeopleProject,1989".
9/
Thereis alsoconsiderable
smugglingof LaotianandCambodian
logs into Viet Nam. Since1991,with theban of log
and lumberexportsfrom Viet Nam,'inward flows" (includinglocal 'leakages')havebeenreportedto haveincreased
substantially.
- 66 -
Annex 3
Page 10 of 13
commercial plantationshas displaced traditional sources and may thus have increased the degradation
pressure on forests.
27.
Official logging occurs in natural production forest, but unofficiallyit also takes place in
protectedand special use forest, albeitat a much smaller scale. Until 1991, the volumeof logs extracted
from natural forest for the wood industrieshas been estimatedto have surpassedthe sustainable yield.
Since the ban on the export of logs and lumber in 1991, loggingactivities by the state enterprises have
been substantiallyreduceddue to depressed log prices and a processingbottleneck. Depressedprices are
a consequenceof log exportrestrictions.The bottleneckis the underdevelopedprocessing industry, which
consists of a few hundred small mechanicalmills and a few thousand manual shops.
Fire Damage
28.
Fire damage is both natural and anthropogenic. Nearly half of Viet Nain's 9 million ha of
forests are regarded as fire prone in the dry season when the hot west winds are the strongest. Before
planting each crop, itinerant and sedentary farmers use fire as a tool for clearing and claiming land,
controlling weeds and insects, and producingash that acts as fertilizer. Also, the initial regrowth after
burning woody grasses makessuitable grazing. Uncontrolledfires often burn 10 to 20 twentytimes the
intended area. The result is not only the destruction of protectivevegetative cover, but also the loss of
soil organic matter and associated soil structure decline.
29.
The incidenceof officiallyreported forest fires has declined from about 20 thousand ha in
1990 to 8 thousand ha in 1992. This figure does not include unreported fires or fires on unused land.
The greatest forest losses occur in the Mekong Delta because the lower rainfall, the distinct dry season,
and the peat conditionsof the soil in SouthernViet Nam makes the vegetationreadily combustible. The
impactof forest fires on forest ecosystemshas not been measured,but knowledgeableexperts suggestthat
the system under greatest threat is the lower-montagneevergreen forests of the central highlands.
ShiftingCultivation Damage
30.
In Viet Nam shifting cultivators can be divided into two groups, itinerant and sedentary.
The itinerant (swidden) cultivators, numbering slightly less than a million people (about 120,000
households), are made up almost exclusivelyof members of a few ethnic minorities. Their land use is
extensive, covering large areas although actual cultivationat any one time may be just a fraction of the
"used" area. Families live away from each other, each clearingplots around their homes and cultivating
them for a number of years, until fertilitybecomestoo lowor weed growth becomestoo vigorous. When
the distance to the plots becomes too long, they move to a new site. This kind of shifting cultivationis
responsiblefor some loss of forest in the highlands.Given the fast regrowthof the vegetationand if given
enough fallow time, there is usually relatively little erosion resultingfrom this activity. Becauseof their
nomadic nature there is little informationavailableabouttheir farming systems. In 1990, their cultivated
holdings were estimatedto cover about 180,000ha, the majorityoccurring in the Central Highlandsand
the Northern Mountains, where the minority populationsare concentrated.
31.
The sedentary shifting cultivatorsincludemost of the rural population outside of the deltas
(mission estimate is perhaps 15-16millionpeople or nearly 70 percent of non-itinerantpopulation in the
hill/mountain areas). They have fixed households and shift cultivation sites. Some members of this
group have access to small lowlandpaddy holdings. Cultivationgenerallyincludes portions of the open
access barren lands. Probably relativelylittle direct loss of natural forest can be attributedto this activity.
However, it has caused serious land degradationproblems due to over-cultivation,and is the primary
factor preventing regeneration of natural forest on the barren lands. Over-cultivationis a particularly
- 67 -
Annex 3
Page 11 of 13
acute problem in the Northern Highlands, Northern Midlands, and North Central Coast becauseof the
high percentage of unstable land. The extent of sedentary shifting cultivationis estimatedto cover as
much as one million ha (i.e., one million ha/year is abandonedby shiftingcultivatorswith a comparable
area of fallow land being brought back into production) 10/.
32.
Crop husbandrypracticesused by the itinerantshiftingcultivatorsand by sedentaryshifting
cultivators are similar: both use hoe cultivationand plant in jab holes without use of fertilizers. The
difference lies in their respective areas of concentration, with itinerant shifting cultivators linked to
commerciallylogged areas and sedentary shiftingcultivatorsutilizing so-calledbarren (degradedforest)
land. Crops grown on hill-sides include primarily upland rice, maize, and cassava with some soybean
and peanut, mainly in the central uplandplateau. While shiftingcultivationusing a 5-6 year crop cycle
followed by around 10 years of fallow may represent the primary use of barren land, the mission
observed that along most major and some minor roads and close to rural towns, much hill-side farming
had changedto continuouscroppingsystems due to populationpressure on the land resource. In several
relatively isolated areas of Northwesternand Central Viet Nam, villagers reported that a day's trek was
needed to reach land spare for shiftingcultivation.
33.
It is unclear to what extent the itinerantshiftingcultivatorsare the victims of deforestation
rather than the culprits because they lack the technology and therefore the option to change what they
have been doing for generations. Sedentary shifting cultivators are in effect behaving rationally in
'mining' the abundant open access barren lands. In general, both methods of shifting cultivation are
deemed sustainable at population densities below 50-70 persons per km2 . This threshold depends on
factors such as the susceptibilityof the land to deterioration,previous farming history, crops grown, and
population density. Once the population densitygrows beyond the threshold level it will be necessary
to modify one of these factors determiningsustainability. It is therefore in the Northern Highlands and
Midlands and the North Central Coast that sedentary shifting cultivatorscause the most extensive land
degradation.
Other Causes
34.
Other causes of upland forest degradation have been attributed to over-grazing, the
construction of dams, and war damages. Over-grazing is not critical except in localized sites.
Constructionof dams results in the floodingof large areas of forest. It has been estimatedthat as much
as 30,000 ha of forest is lost per year due to the creation of reservoirs. (This estimate is not included
in the calculation of deforestation because reservoirs are usually logged before they are flooded.)
However, no new large reservoirs are currently filling up. To a lesser extent, flooding increases
deforestationby creating new navigablewaterways for transporting logs. The effects of the war on
upland forest, as elaborated in Annex 4, have been largely mitigatedover time and are not considered
to be so serious as to warrant priority consideration.
10/
See Bo Ohisson, Forestry and Rural Development,TFAP, 1990; and J. Aldrick, Land Use Assessments(mission
background paper), 1993. This one million ha/year of degradationcannot be interpretedas one million ha of forest
loss/year as some fallow land brought to such use are not classifiedas forests.
68 -
Annex 3
Page 12 of 13
C. The PhysicalImpactof Upland Forest and Land Degradation
Erosion Effects
35.
The net effect of the sources of degradation/erosion(as reflectedin the resulting loss of
agriculturalproductivity,reductionof waterquality, and sedimentationof streams, lakesand reservoirs)
is of increasingconcern in Viet Nam. Deforestationalone, as the discussionabove makes clear, does
not necessarilyresult in severeerosion problems. The causeof erosionis deforestationcloselyfollowed
by cultivation of soils that are inherently susceptible to deterioration. Natural factors facilitating
deteriorationinclude climaticand seismicfactors, slope, and the inherentsusceptibilityof the soils and
geologicmaterialsto structural failure. A more detailedexplanationof these relationshipsis provided
in Annex 2, which attempts to set up an index of susceptibility. This section summarizesthe data
availableon erosion impact.
36.
In terms of on-siteeffects,the multi-storiedcanopyof uplandforest interceptsrainfalland
reduceserosion. Under closed canopy(70-80percent)conditionsestimatesof natural soil loss are 1.0
tons/ha/year. When the forest canopy is completelyremoved, and the land is cultivated, this loss
increases to 100-150tons/ha/yr on slopesof 5-6 percent, and up to 350 tons/ha/yr on over 30 percent
slope. Soil loss is generallyhighestin the first year and then declinesat a decliningrate in following
years. Agriculturalyields mirror this trend. Among annual crops, cultivationof cassavaand maize
results in the greatest soil loss. Perennialcrops cause less erosion than annual crops becausethe soil
surfacein not disturbedas frequentlyin the cultivationprocess. Geographically,soil loss is most acute
in the Northern Mountainswhere a high degreeof inherentsusceptibilityto erosion is combinedwith the
productionof annual crops such as uplandrice, maize, and cassava. Land productivitystudies of Son
La Province, for example, show that upland rice yields on barren land can decline on average by 50
percent per year. The farmer can only cultivatethe land for three years before the yield drops so low
that they no longer warrantthe effort put into plantingand weeding.(See Annex2 for further details.)
37.
In terms of off-site effects, under natural conditions,the soil fertility that is lost in the
erosion process runs-off into the rivers and eventuallymakes its way down to the deltas where it is
distributedby floods. The sedimentload in the 40 main rivers in Viet Nam is high, starting at 0.2-0.4
kg/im up-stream,and reaching 1-3 kg/m3 of run-offin the middleand downstreamsectionsof the rivers.
Eighty to ninety percent of this sediment load occurs during the rainy season. The constructionof
reservoirs, dams, and flood control systemshas resulted in the trappingof this fertile sediment,which
essentiallymeans a loss of contributionto agriculturalproductivity. Increasedfloodingand bed buildup has led to the requirementof continuallyraising downstreamline banks and increasingthe risk of
widespreadfloodingeven more should the leveesburst.
38.
lands".
A more dramaticoff-siteeffect is the floodingand landslidesresultingfrom bare "barren
"Nature has wreakeda fierce revengefor the wholesaledestructionof forests in NorthernViet
Nam, devastatingan entire valley with a sudden flood that surged down the barren hills.
Accordingto officialaccounts, 80 people were drownedor are missingafter a wall of water
smashedthrough MuongLay, about 300 km northwestof Hanoi on an upper tributary of the
Red River. The delugesweptaway four of the town's fivebridges and flattenedhomes,schools
and offices. Fourteendays after the tragedy, roads throughthe barren hills, which lost tonnes
of topsoil, were still blockedand authoritieswere unable to deliver 50,000 tonnes of rice to
hungry survivors,despite army help" (BangkokPost, July 16, 1990).
"The provincesof Quang Binh, Ha Tinh, and Quang Tri, all in the NorthCentral Coast, were
recentlyhit by the worstfloods in 42 years--withhundredsof personsreported deador missing
Annex 3
Page 13of13
- 69 -
and damage to property estimatedat over 70 million dong. Quang Ninh alone had more than
30 dead and 12,000 houses destroyedor damaged. In particular, two of its villages, Truong
Xuan and Truong Son, were completelydevastatedand more than 4,000 villagers had to take
refuge. Most observers believethat it was mainly due to the deforestationat the headwatersof
the Gianh River" (Viet Nam News, December 13, 1992).
39.
The most critical watershedsare characterizedby a high rate of sedimentation,a torrential
flow due to high elevationand short course, and the occurrenceof intensiveagriculturalactivities. These
circumstancesare found in the Red and Da rivers in Northern Viet Nam, the main rivers in Central Viet
Nam, and the Dong Nai river in Southern Viet Nam. On the basis of silt load per km2 , the relative
importancein soil erosion of the main river systemsmay be summarizedas follows (in tons/km2 /year):
*
*
*
*
Red River and Da River
Thao River
Ngan San, Ngan Pho
Dong Nai, Da Nhim, Tra Khu
450
300
200-300
150-200
The 40 main river systems are estimatedto transport about one million tons of nitrogen and about half
a million tons of phosphorusper year. The Da river watershedis estimatedto have an average soil loss
rate of 50 tons/ha/year. The estimatedsilt load being depositedin the Hoa Binh power station reservoir
(one of the Da River dams) is 40-50 million m3 (or about 110 million tons) per year. Accordingto the
National Institute of Energy, despite an original capacity of 20 billion ml the power station's effective
life has been re-estimated at between 50 and 70 years comparedto the planned 250 years.
40.
Sedimentationis also a problem in port cities in the deltas. Remote sensing data indicates
that the deltas are extendinginto the sea at a rate of about 50 m per year. The most pressing issue is the
port of Hai Phong, which is seriously threateneddue to the high cost of frequent dredging,and plans are
being consideredto construct a new port about 70 km north of the city.
Loss of BiologicalDiversity
41.
Deforestationmay be the most importantcontributorto the loss of biodiversity in Vietnam
today, both at the ecosystem-and species-levels. However, the precise rate and magnitudeof the loss
of biodiversity is difficult to ascertaingiven the patchinessof data collection, some of which have been
disrupted by the war, and the lack of time-seriesdata. In more qualitativeor non-valueterms, experts
indicate that forest fires and human settlement have seriously degraded the lower-montagneevergreen
forests of the central highland. In addition, coastal marine ecosystemshave been seriously threatened
by municipal and industrial wastewater, over-fishing,and the use of dynamiteto extract coral for lime
manufacturing.
42.
Current rates of extinctionamongboth flora and fauna in Viet Nam are estimatedto be 100
to 1,000 times what they would be under natural conditions. It is widely believedthat Pongo pygmaeus
was the first speciesto have becomeextinctsincethe PleistoceneEra. In 1904, Dicerorhinussumatrensis
vanished. Since then four other species of ungulate (Cervis nippon pseudaxis, C. eldi, Bos sauveli and
Bubalus arnee have followedthe path to extinction. In addition, at least five species of large waterbird
have become extinct as breeding species while one species, Lophura edwarsi, is believed to be extinct.
With a present populationbelievedto be fewer than 50, Bos bantenRand Rhinocerossondaicus(the latter
is estimated to have only ten survivors) are the next two species of large mammalsto become extinct.
In time, these species will be followedby Panthera tigris and Elaphasmaximus.
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VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALISTECONOMYIN TRANSITION
Viet Nam War Damagesand the Environment
Overview
1.
Environmental damage was an important tactic used against Viet Nam in the Second
Indochina War of 1961 to 1975. The strategy involved the destruction of the natural resource base
essential to the agrarian society of Viet Nam. The theater of these operationswas mainly Southern Viet
Nam. The result was not only heavydirect casualtiesand continuingmedicalcomplications,but also the
widespread disruption and degradationof productive ecosystems.
2.
Almost two decades have elapsed since the end of the Second Indochina War. The
Vietnamesehave put the war behind them and are eagerly rebuildingtheir country. At the same time,
various estimates have been made conceming the extent of land damaged by the war, ranging from
100,000 ha to 2 million ha. The environment has not completely recovered from these damages.
However, with the passage of time it is becoming more difficult to separate war damages from the
pressures of population expansionand rapid development. This annex quantifies the extent of damage
to inland forest, mangroves, and agricultural land caused by the war, and evaluates its long term
ecological effects. In doing so it attemptsto rationalizedivergent estimatesof the damage. It concludes
that the environmentaldamages caused by the war are often sensationalizedand sometimesmistakenly
identifiedas the current cause of ecosystemdegradation.
3.
Bombs,herbicides, and heavymachinerywere responsiblefor the majorityof environmental
damage caused by the war. These means of damage were targeted against upland forest, mangrove
forest, and agricultural land. Areas that warrant further investigation into the costs and benefits of
reclamationare bomb damaged agricultural land, the 51,000 ha of upland forest that were defoliated 4
or more times, and the 27,000 ha of Melaluca dominatedmangrovethat were completelydestroyed. One
of the least understood and potentially most detrimentalaspects of the war is how the modification in
species distribution that it caused may have permanentlychanged the biodiversity of Viet Nam.
4.
The health consequencesof the war include the increase in mosquitos from bomb craters,
which is partially responsiblefor preventablemalaria, encephalitis,and dengue fever, and has led to the
very high levels of DDT measured in humans. Medical complications include the likely increase in
dioxins in Southern Vietnamesewhich will probably lead, on a population basis, to increased rates of
cancer, immune deficiency, congenital malformations,and neurologicaldamage including IQ reduction
and endocrine disorders.
Weapons Used Against the Environment
5.
Beginning in 1965 and ending in 1973, Viet Nam was bombed on an almost daily basis.
The most severe damage was caused by B-52 Stratofortresses. For each flight, these planes usually
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Annex 4
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released 108 five hundred pound bombs, which scattered over an area of 55 ha. Each bomb created a
crater roughly 10 m in diameter and 5 m deep.'
The UnitedStatedexpendedsome 14 milliontonnes of bombs, shells, and the like in its war
6.
in Indochina.2 The result was 25 million bomb craters displacing 3 billion m3 of earth and topsoil,
causing health hazards, disruptingwater flow, and increasingerosion.3 Seventy-onepercent of the highexplosive munitions were targeted against former South Viet Nam.4 The bombingeffort was directed
against the forests that sheltered both the Ho Chi Minh trail and the armed forces of the National Front.
7.
Three major herbicides were employed during the war. These agents were color coded
"Orange", "White", and "Blue" (Table 1). Agents "Orange" and "White" killed plants by interfering
with their metabolism. Agent "Blue" killed by desiccating. Dioxin contaminationin Agent "Orange"
was about 3.83 mg/I, leadingto an estimated170 kg dioxin(2,3,7,8-tetrachloro-p-dioxin)being deposited
in the environment.5
Table 1: Major herbicidesused in the Second IndochinaWar
Name
(byweight)
Composition
Application
Orange
A 1.124:1mixtureof the n-butylesters of 2,4,5trichlorophenoxyacetic
acid (2,4,5-T)and 2,4dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid(2,4-D). Also containing
2,3,7,8 - tetrachloro-p-dioxin.
Appliedundilutedat 28.06 lhectare,thereby
supplying15.31 kglhectare
of 2,4,5-T and 13.61
kg/hectare
of 2,4-D in terTns
of acidequivalent;
alsoanestimated107mglhectareof dioxin.
White
Appliedundilutedat 28.06 IJhectare,thereby
saltsof
A 3.882:1 mixtureof tri-iso-propanolamine
2,4-dichlorophenoxy-acetic
acid(2,4-D)and4-amino- supplying
6.73 kglhectare
of 2,4-Dand 1.82
3,5,6-trichloropicolinic
acid(picloram)
kg/hectare
of picloramin termsof acidequivalent.
Blue
(Na
A 2.663:1mixtureof Nadimethylarsenate
cacodylate)
anddimethylarsinic(cacodylic)acid.
Appliedundilutedat 28.06Lihectare,thereby
supplying10.42kg/hectare
in termns
of acid
is elemental
(of which5.66kg/hectarc
equivalent
arsenic).
source:
SIPRI,1984
Ninetyfive percent of the defoliantswere dispensedfrom C-123 transport aircraftequipped
8.
to deliver 3,000 L onto 130 ha. A mission usuallyconsistedof three-to-fiveaircraft flying side by side,
with one aircraft spraying a strip roughly 150 m wide and 8.7 km long (Vietnamesesources estimate an
average contaminated strip at 300 m wide6 , while US sources estimate it at 100 m wide7 ). Drift
occurred at wind speeds greater than 5 m/s. KnownherbicideexpendituresagainstSouthViet Nam from
1961to 1971were 70.72 million L (discrepanciesin total herbicidequantitydiffer betweensources based
on the assumptions used in calculating herbicide volume), of which approximately 60% was agent
"Orange"8
9.
Agents "Orange" and "White" were used primarily for forest destruction, whereas agent
"Blue" was used mostly for crop destruction. About 86% of the missions were targetedagainst forest
and woody vegetation and 14% against agricultural crops.9 Roughly 34% of the target areas were
attacked more than once."' Defoliationmissions were restrictedalmost entirely to the Southern part of
the country. For example, many roadsideareas in Dac Lac Province(especiallyalong segments in the
old Highway 14) were defoliated in 1,000 meter-widestrips on either side of the road. Some of these
strips have yet to fully recover from the chemicaldamage.
10.
Fire was used to keep defoliatedareas clear of vegetation. There is no record available of
the volume or type of incendiarydevices used during the war. Amongthe targets were the roadsteads
and riverbanks of the routes frequently travelled by US forces. Another tactic to increase the
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effectivenessof incendiarydevices is to "seed" vast areas with imperatacylindricaso that more effective
burning could take place. If this is true, the indirect impact of this tactic (given the persistency of
rhizome roots of this grass which proliferates after fire) may well constitutethe most persistent negative
effect on crop productivity. Quantitativeestimatesof the impactof imperatagrass ranges from 1.0-1.5
million hectares.
11.
The US forces began employing200 twentyton D7E caterpillartractors to clear forest and
level paddy fields in 1965." The purpose of this activity was to deny the oppositioncover and food.
Typically these vehicles were outfitted with a 2'h ton "Rome Plough" blade and a one meter "treesplitter". These tractors levelled 325,000 ha of forest.'2 The locations of this destruction are not well
documented.
Ecological Effects on Inland Forest
12.
The Inland forests most often hit by bombingand munitionswere the stands in Tay Ninh,
Song Be, and Dong Nai provinces." If the craters that evidence farmer forest were added up, they
would cover an area of perhaps 104,000 ha. About 4.9 million ha of forest were subject to shrapnel
damage.'4 It is estimated that 19% of the total or 1.1 million ha of dense inland forest was sprayed at
least once.'5 This activitywas most intensein the provincesof Tay Ninh, Song Be, and the Ma Da forest
in Dong Nai. Upland forest tree mortality increasedexponentiallywith each repeatedspraying. About
51,000 ha of upland forest were sprayed 4 or more times and experienced80-100%tree mortality. The
remaining 1.05 million ha of uplandforest was sprayed one to three times and experienced 10-50%tree
mortality.
13.
The abundanceof craters in the forest makes loggingmore difficultthan normal. The logs
must be cut shorter for maneuverabilityduring skidding. Shrapneldamaged trees are unlikely to have
maintainedany commercialvalue. Managementof bomb damaged forest costs about twice as much as
undamaged forest. Rehabilitation,which involvesopening the canopy for young trees and re-seeding
valuable timber species, costs about US$ 100 per hectare'6 . The spraying of Viet Namn'sdense inland
forest, which supports over 200 conmmercialtree species of which a dozen are high quality timber,
resulted in a one time loss of 20 million m3 of merchantabletimber, equivalentto a financialloss of US$
8.0 billion at 1993 prices."
14.
Inland forest recovery from herbicide damage is estimated at 40 years, not taking into
account the areas taken over semi-perrnanentlyby grasses. The 51,000 ha where vegetation was
completely destroyed rapidly became occupied with pioneer woody (Bambusa, Thyrsostachys, and
Oxytenanthera)and herbaceousgrasses (Imperatacylindrica). The tenure of these species is prolonged
by fire. Recovery of grass infested lands by harrowing or disking followedby planting with Acacia or
Eucalyptus costs about US$ 500 per hectare in 1992." At the Ma Da Forest Enterprise in Dong Nai
province, natural re-invasionby native tree species is encouragedby first establishingplantationsof fast
growing trees to provide a shade canopy. It is unknown how long these disturbed forests take to reestablish their former species diversity, if they do at all. Mixed planting of Acacia or Eucalyptus and
Dipterocarps costs US$ 1,000 to 1,500 per hectare in 1992, including the cost of clearing unexploded
bombs and land leveling."'
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73
Annex 4
Page 4 of 8
EcologicalEffects on Terrestrial Animal Ecology
For wildlife, the principal impactof bombingand spraying was the destruction of the food
15.
and cover provided by the forest. Many animals probablymigrated to eastern Cambodiain response to
the military activity. However, these areas were most likely already populatedto carrying capacity, and
thus were unable to provide substantialrefuge. In 1968, five animalspecies were listed as being on the
verge of extinction in Southern Viet Nam: a tapir (Tapirusindicus), a bear (Ursus tibetanus), a gibbon
(Hylobatespileatus), a pheasant (Lophura imperialis),and the kouprey (Bos sauveli).3' These species
were probablyalready endangereddue to the extensiveloggingactivitiesthat took place in the 1940's and
1950's. Wildlife re-colonizationof damaged areas after the war was slowed by the change in habitat.
There was a modestlevel of direct damage to wildlife from the toxic effect of herbicides16.
particularly in the bird population. Pfeiffer(1970)describestouringdefoliatedmangrovesin Duyen Hai
district for 2'/2 hours without observing a single species of insectivorousor frugivorous bird.2 ' From
1985 to 1987elevated levels of dioxin were measured in food and wildlife samples collectedat markets
in Southern Viet Nam.22 Overall, it appears that the war was only a minor factor in the degradation
of biodiversity when comparedto the prolongedimpactsof logging,hunting, and agriculturalexpansion.
EcologicalEffects on Coastal, Aquatic and Marine Ecologv
Bombingand herbicide attacks on mangrove forest were concentratedon the delta of the
17.
Saigon River. The river channels were cleared of vegetationto facilitate supply ships entering Ho Chi
Minh City. The second most severely damaged areas were the U-Minh forest and the Cau Mau
peninsula. There is no record of the extent of bomb damage directly incurred by the mangrove
ecosystem. The bomb craters disruptedwater flow and filled permanentlywith water, becomingbreeding
grounds for malaria bearing mosquitoes.
The mangrove ecosystem is particularly susceptible to defoliants, with a single spraying
18.
destroying the entire plant community. Destructionwas exacerbatedby salvage harvesting of the dead
trees and/or application of incendiarydevices. About 124,000 ha of true mangrove and 27,000 ha of
Melaluca mangrove forest were completelydestroyed;' representing about 30% of all mangroves in
Viet Nam.
Mangrovesgrow along deltasand in estuariesand are a pioneer species on newly accreted
19.
coastline. The first species to colonizean area are Sonneratiaand Avicennia, followedby Rhizophora,
and then later by Bruguiera. Over time, as the soil builds and the land grows out of reach of the high
tide, the forest becomes dominatedby trees of the speciesMelaleuca.
20.
Natural regenerationof mangrovesis related to the accessibilityof seed bearing tidal waters
to damaged areas. In the early 1980s, 5-10% of the mangroves were still barren, the rest had either
regeneratedwith a compositionof 10% Rhizophora(the economicallymost importantof the species)and
85% other species, or had been converted to agriculture and aquaculture. Where mangrovespecies are
established, a crop of firewoodcan be harvestedin 5 years. Officialsat the Duyen Hai Forest Enterprise
cite that in 1992, costs of replantingRhizophorawere about US$ 70 per hectare, excludingbomb crater
reclamation.
24
The mangrove and wetland ecosystem support a rich variety of aquatic and avian fauna.
21.
The latter were decimated with the loss of the forest, and are only just beginning to recover through
74
Annex 4
Page 5 of 8
efforts such as the establishment of the Tram Chin Reserve in the Plain of Reeds, to which the
endangered Eastern Sarus Crane (Grus antigonesharpii) recently returned.
22.
There appears to be a decline in Southern Viet Nam's offshore fisheries due to the loss of
estuary habitat as a breeding and nursery ground. Hong (1986)estimatesthat between2.7 to 4.5 million
kg of shrimp per year have been lost due to the defoliation of the Ca Mau peninsula.' At a
conservativeprice of US$ 1/kg (1993constantprice terms), the cost of wetlanddeforestationmay be very
roughly estimated at US$ 2.7-4.5 million per year or US$ 162-270per ha/year from the approximately
150,000 ha destroyed over 9 years (16,700 ha/yr). However, despite the 74,000 ha of forest that were
replanted after the war, an additional 100,000ha were subsequentlycut for fuelwood, and cleared for
agriculture and shrimp farming.2 6
Ecological Effects on Agriculture
23.
The exact locationof the agriculturalareas targeted by US bombingactivities has not been
released. However, extensive damage exists in selected areas of Quang Tri, Tay Ninh, and Gia Lai
provinces. The persistent damage consists of unexplodedmines and bombs and bomb craters. It was
estimated in 1976 that some 400,000 unexplodedbombs and 2 millionunexplodedshells remain buried
just below the surface of Indochina.27
24.
The process of land recovery involves clearing the land of unexploded munitions and
levelling the bomb craters. It can take up to 500 hours of labor to fill a typical crater created by a 500
pound bomb.28
Disrupted irrigation systems and bomb destroyed sea-walls also necessitate
reconstructionand soil reclamation. In Ben Hai district, QuangTri province, the removal of unexploded
bombs and levelling of craters cost US$ 1,000per hectare in 1990.29
25.
Fourteen percent of the herbicidemissionswere directedagainst cropland. These missions
targeted the area between Ho Chi Minh City and Hui, concentratingon the provinces of Quang Tri,
Quang Ngai, and Kon Tum. A single applicationusually resulted in completecrop failure. A total of
177,000 ha of upland crops and 59,000 ha of paddy rice were sprayed once or more.' In addition,
perhaps 30% of Viet Nam's rubber plantationswere damaged by herbicides.
26.
Longer term considerationin herbicideeffect on agricultureis its persistenceand mobility
in the soil. Environmental insignificance (lack of effect on all but the most highly sensitive of
subsequentlyplanted subspecies)was reached within2 months for the active ingredients in all herbicides
used during the war."
27.
There are several examples of completedestruction of agricultural lands and communities
with land clearing tractors, althoughthere is no inventoryof the extent and locationof this land clearing.
Specific examples can be found in the areas around Duc Hue (Long An province), Ben Suc (Binh Duong
province), and also in the provincesof DongThap and Vinh Long. The current conditionof these areas
is unknown. However, it is assumed that any regrowth is dominatedby Imperata cylindricaand, on
higher ground, Pennesitum.
Effects on Human Health
28.
The wholesale bombingof the countrysidecaused many casualtiesand deaths. Long-term
effects include loss of limbs and psychologicalcomplications. The most important and destructive
herbicidal effect may have come from the occasionaldumping of entire payloads of herbicides, which
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Annex 4
Page 6 of 8
exposed limited areas to high dosages. This occurred some 50 times during the war, about 30 of which
would have been agent "Orange".32 Vietnamesesources estimate that close to 2 million people were
33 Bomb and herbicide damage also led to a marked
contaminated during the spraying operations.
decrease in food resulting in increasedmalnutrition.
Agent "Orange" accountedfor 60% of the wartimeherbicide spray operations. Its dioxin
29.
content averaged 3.83 g/m3 , althoughcertainlots containedbetween 10 and 20 times this amount.4 The
dioxin was more persistent than its carrier, having a half life of at least 3.5 years. If 170 kg of dioxir?'
were introduced into former South Viet Nam in 1968, 1 kg of it would have been present in 1990(US
estimatesof the volume of dioxin released over Viet Nam are range from 100 to 136 kg36). Dioxin can
be conveyedto the food chain in other chemicals,through water, and through the air. The action of wind
and water is expandingthe area of contamination. However, the severity of contaminationis declining
through scatteringand decomposition. Elevatedlevels of dioxin are still measured in the Ailtin Southern
Viet Nam.
Persons exposed to agent "Orange" are thought to be at higher risk of cancer, adverse
30.
reproductive outcome, immune deficiency,endocrine disorders of several types, neurologicaldamage,
skin disease, and other health damage.3 ' Although there is documentedevidence of increased dioxin
levels in Vietnamesefrom many parts of the country, no definitiveassociationhas been shown with the
wartime application of herbicides. The process of testing human blood or milk for dioxin costs US$
1,000 to 2,000 per analysis in 1993, making research prohibitivelyexpensive. In addition to cost, less
than 15 laboratories worldwide have demonstratedability to perform dioxin analyses in human tissue.
Unfortunately, as of yet, there is no clinical means for reducingbody burden of dioxins. Other than
continuing to support research, there is little that can be done specificallyfor this problem.
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76
Annex 4
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Endnotes:
1. Pfeiffer, E.W. Degreening Viet Nam. Natural History. November 1990. p. 38.
2. Warfare in a Fragile World. Military Impact on the Human Environment. SIPRI 1980.p. 79.
3. Dr. Vo Quy. CRES/FAO.March/April1992.
4. Warfare in a Fragile World. MilitaryImpacton the HumanEnvironment.SIPRI 1980.p.79
5. Westing,A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 7.
6. Mr. Boi, SilviculturalExpert. Forest Inventoryand PlanningInstitute.Personalcommunication.Dec.
1993.
7. Harrigan,E.T. CalibrationTestof the UC-123MA/A45Y-1
SparySystem.TechnicalReportADTC-TR70-36. ArmamentDevelopmentand Test Center, Eglin AFB, Florida.p. 160.
8. Westing,A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland HumanConsequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 5. The most commonlyquotedfigure is 72 mil. L, which includesCambodianand Laos missions.
9. Westing,A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 6.
10. Westing,A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland HumanConsequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 6.
11. Kemf, E. The Monthof Pure Light, The Regreeningof Viet Nam. London. 1990.p. 81.
12. Kemf, E. The Monthof Pure Light, The Regreeningof Viet Nam. London. 1990.p. 81.
13. Warfare in a FragileWorld. MilitaryImpacton the HumanEnvironment.SIPRI 1980.p. 79.
14. Warfare in a FragileWorld. MilitaryImpacton the HumanEnvironment.SIPRI 1980.p. 80.
15. Westing,A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland HumanConsequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 9.
16. Dr. Khai, Vice Director of Ma Da Forest Enterprise.Personalcommunication.December1993.
17. Warfare in a Fragile World. Military Impacton the HumanEnvironment.SIPRI 19 8 0.p. 82.
18. Dr. Khai, Vice Director of Ma Da Forest Enterprise.Personalcommunication.December1993.
19. Dr. Khai, Vice Directorof Ma Da Forest Enterprise.Personalconmmunication.
December1993.
20. Nghan,PhungTrung, 1968.Statusof Conservationin SouthViet Nan. In: Talbot, L.M. and Talbot,
M.H. (eds), Conservationin TropicalSE Asia. (InternationalUnionof ConservationNatureand Natural
ResourcesPublicationN.S. No. 10, Morges,Switz.), 550 pp. 2 pl.:pp. 519-522.
21. Pfeiffer,E.W. EcologicalEffectsof the Warin VietNam. Science, Vol. 168. May 1970.p. 518.
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77
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Annex 4
Page 8 of 8
22. Schecter et al. ChlorinatedDioxin and DibenzofuranLevels in Food and Wildlife Samples in the
North and South of Viet Nam. Chemosphere,Vol. 19, Nos.1-6, pp 493-496, 1989.
23. Westing, A. Herbicides in War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 11.
24. Hoang Dung. Forestry Ecology and Planning Expert. FIPI-HCMC. Personal commnunication.
December 1993.
25. Hong, Phan Nguyen. Effects of Herbicides on Mangrove Forests in the Ca Mau peninsula.
Conmmittee10-80. Proceedingsof the Ilnd NationalSymposium.April 1986. p. 88.
26. O'Neill, T. The Mekong. National Geographic.Vol. 183, No.2. February 1993.p. 34.
27. Warfare in a Fragile World. Military Impact on the Human Environment.SIPRI 1980, p. 96.
28. Times, New York, 1972. Text of intelligencereport on bombingof dikes in North Viet Nam issued
by State Department. New York Times (29 July 1972),p. 2.
29. Mr. Ha. National Institute of Agricultural Planning and Projections. Personal communication.
December 1993.
30. Westing, A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 11.
31. Westing, A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 16.
32. Westing, A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 15.
33. Dr. Dinh Quang Minh. Committee 10-80. Personal communication,December 1993.
34. Westing, A. Herbicides in War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 14.
35. Westing, A. Herbicidesin War, The Long-termEcologicaland Human Consequences.SIPRI 1984.
p. 16.
36. Conmmitteeon the Effects of Herbicides in South Viet Nam. Part A. Summary and conclusions.
National Academy of Science, Washington,D.C. 1974. p. 398.
37. Dr. Arnold Schecter. Personal communication.February 1993.
Annex 5
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Page 1 of 8
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALISTECONOMYIN TRANSITION
Hill Area Programs with EnvironmentalIMplications:A Review
1.
The governmentof Vietnam (GOV) has been implementinga number of programs in the
Hill areas of Viet Nam. Theseprograms were designedto address GOV's concern for land degradation
in the Highlands, the poverty level of ethnic minoritypopulationslocatedin this region, and the security
status of inhabitants bordering Cambodia, Laos, and China. This annex reviews the following three
interrelatedprograms which have importantimplicationsfor the government:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Governmentsponsoredresettlement;
Reforestation;
Developmentof "barren hills."
The lessons learned would be important for the design of projects to ameliorate the severe land
degradationsituation in susceptiblehill areas.
A: GovernmentSponsoredSettlementPrograms
Background
2.
Since 1961, GOV has encouraged the official resettlementof 4.8 million persons. This
population redistributionprogram has four objectives: (a) to match human resources with agricultural
resources, (b) to develop the agricultural sector of the economy, (c) to create opportunities for
employmentin the agriculturalsector, and (d) to strengthennationaldefense. In the 1960sthe Democratic
Republicof Viet Nam encouragedapproximately1.0 millionpeople to migrate from the Red River Delta
to the Northern Midlandsand Highlands. Inexperiencecoupledwith inadequatepreparationforced many
of the migrants to return to their former areas of residence. After reunification in 1975, and up until
1989, all migration was controlled by the GOV. The GOV population redistributionprogram can be
separated into three distinctphases that met with varyingsuccess in comparisonwith its expressedtargets
(see Table 1).
Table 1: OfficiallySponsoredPopulation Redistribution- Planned and Actual
Planned
Actual
(millions)
(millions)
Area Settled
(1,000 ha)
1976-1990
6.6
3.9
752
1976-1980
4.0
1.5
709
1981-1985
1.0
1.3
6
1986-1990
1.6
1.1
38
Year
Source: Center for Populationand HumanResourceStudies.
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Annex 5
Page 2 of 8
3.
Of the 2.4 millionpeople who were officiallyresettledfrom 1981through 1990, about 75
percent moved within their own provinces. Of the approximately590,000 people who moved outside
their provinces(1981-89), 75 percent moved from the North to the South. The origin of this North-South
sponsoredprovincial out-migrationwere essentiallyfrom two population-surplusregions: (a) Red River
Delta Region (accountingfor about 58 percent), and (b) the North Central CoastalRegion (41 percent).
For the former region, the primary destinationswere the Central Highland Provinces of Gia-Lai Kon
Tum, Dac Lac and LamnDong; for the latter primary destinationsincludedGia-Lai Kon Tum, Dak Lac,
(Central Highlands Region) and Song Be (Northeast of Mekong Region). The Northern Midland
Mountain Regions, the Central Highlands, and the Mekong Delta had sponsored settlements almost
exclusivelywithin their own provinces(see Table 2).
Table 2: OfficiallySponsoredSettlement, 1981-89('000 Persons)
Region of Origin
Total
North:
Midlands and Mountains
Within
Province
Outside
Province
200
194
6
Red River Delta
356
88
268a/
North Central Coast
420
238
182a/
North Subtotal
976
520
456
South:
South Central Coast
320
220
lOOb/
Central Highlands
164
164
Northeast of Mekong
343
309
34b/
Mekong Delta
450
448
2b/
South Subtotal
1,277
1,141
136
Viet Nam Totals
2,253
1,661
592
a/ Predominantly North-South.
b/ Predominantly South-South.
Source: Annex 1, Table 24.
4.
In terms of balancinggrowth and envirornental impact, controlled migrationcan be said
to have been quite successful. Pressure in the overcrowdedprovinces in the North was partly relieved;
new settlers, especiallythose who movedto the agriculturallywell-endowedCentral Highlands, improved
their standard of living; and the production of exportabletree-crop products (tea, coffee, cashew nuts)
increased. On the other side of the balance sheet was the destruction of forests. During this period,
however, most of the forest destruction was in better, level or less-sloped, hill areas which are suitable
for agriculture. With the liberalizationof controlledmigrationsince 1988, however, the situation could
change drastically.
5.
Of the 3.92 millionofficiallyresettledVietnamesebetween 1976-90,about 46,000 families
(207,000people) migrated "spontaneously". Sincepopulationmovementhad beentightly controlledprior
to Doi Moi, most of this spontaneousmigration took place after 1988. This meant that perhaps about
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Annex 5
Page 3 of 8
20 percent of the resettlementwhich took place at the end of the decade of the 1980swas not officially
sanctioned. These involvedprimarilythe movementof ethnicminoritiesfrom the Northem Midlandsand
MountainRegion to the Central HighlandRegion.
6.
From 1986through 1992,about 13,000primarilyethnicfamilies(65,000 people)comprising
mainly Tay, Nung, and Yao from the North, illegallysettled onto about 13,000 ha in Dac Lac Province.
According to provincial authorities, 6,000 ha of forests were destroyed for settlement in 1992 alone.
Although the destruction of protection forests was quite limited, such trends clearly cannot continue
withoutadverse environmentaleffects. Such movement,while uncontrolled,is usually not spontaneous.
Most are relativesor friends from the home villages of existing residentsin the destructionareas. These
residents either migrated formally in the past or, more commonly, came as laborers of state enterprises,
in road construction, or through military postings. As word is sent back on "land availability" in these
relatively more favorable areas, more unofficialmigrants are thus encouraged. The able bodied adults
stake a claim by starting to cultivate "unused" land by gradually cutting down existing trees and, if
possible, manuallyconstructingsmall irrigationworks. These activitiesare, in effect, undertakenby tacit
agreement of the local authorities. If such a trend were therefore to continue, the pressures of
deforestationon the remainingbiologicalresources would be devastating. Delineatingpriority areas for
demarcation and protectionmust begin immediatelyand settlementin theseareas will have to be carefully
planned to ensure that both developmentand joint protectionmeasuresare implemented.
The Programs
7.
Among the programs or sub-programsin support of Government'sresettlementpolicy, the
one with the largest implicationfor forest degradationand soil erosion is GOV's Fixed Cultivationand
Sedentarization Program. This program, administered by a Department for Fixed Cultivation and
Sedentarization (DFCS) in the Ministry of Forestry [established in 1968 under Council of Ministers
(COM) Decree 38/CP], is essentiallyreflected in the intra-provincialmigration given in Table 2 above.
This is one of the most important programs targeted towards assisting the approximatelythree million
population of shifting cultivators in the hill and mountain areas. The main objective of the program,
which began in 1968, is to stabilize("fix" in one place) the cultivationof ethnic minoritiesand encourage
socio-economicdevelopmentand improvedincomeactivities(includingthe provision of education,water
supply, and health support services).
8.
Other parallel sub-programsadministeredthrough the Provinces, state enterprises, and the
Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs pertain to the North-Southsponsoredresettlementto the
plateaus of the Central Highland Region (given in Table 2 above). These are primarily the result of a
"guided migration" drive which began in 1977 (COM Decree 272/CP) and were intended primarily to
promote the establishmentof "new economiczones" for permanentsettlement of householdsfrom labor
surplus provinces in the Northern Regionand provide financialsupport for cooperativesand state farms
to invest in infrastructureconstructionand productionservices. The programalso providedopportunities
for ethnic minorities to adopt permnanentsettlement, and additionalfinancial support was provided for
their productive agricultural activities. The approach adopted was for GOV to first identify the low
population density areas with good potential agricultural land (mainly in the plateaus of the Central
Highlands) and target populationsurplus areas for promotionof resettlement. Mass media and notices
at the provincial and district offices of the Ministry of Labor, Invalids, and Social Affairs set out the
requirementsin terms of types of settlers needed. Preferencewas givento younger, able-bodiedmarried
couples that: (a) were willing to face the difficultfrontier life, (b) had the backgroundor training which
could fit the agricultural enterprisesthat were to be promoted, and (c) had some of their own savings to
start a new life. Selectedfamiliesare given a payment for moving their household, a lot at the reception
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site and supervision to establish their agricultural enterprise 1/. In the earlier years (prior to the
1980's), return rates to the cities and as a proportionof refugee outflow was reported to be as high as
50%.
9.
Elementsof the settlementprograms were modifiedas Governmentpolicy evolvedover the
years--firstin 1982(COM Decree 184/HDBT)and especiallyafter 1989(COD Decree No. 72/HDBT)-when the program introduced land allocation to the population (usuallystarting with workers of state
enterprises). They were given long term use rights (30-50 years) for agro-forestry and were also
provided initial exemptionfrom agricultural taxes if they were practicing agro-forestry. Grants were
given for up to two thirds of the cost of developinga new blockof land (up to a maximumof one million
dong/settler family). Half of this cash grant must be used to purchase nursery items, tree seedlings,and
"technical services" from the enterprise.
The Results
10.
Data for 1981-89 indicated that, with assistance from GOV, about 380,000 people
voluntarily moved from the Red River Delta and Central CoastalRegions and 111,000 from Northeast
of Mekong Region to the new economiczones in the high plateauof the Central Highlands2/. Forest,
much of which is suitable for agriculture, was destroyed to grow cash crops (tea, coffee, pepper,
sericulture/mulberry)and some subsistencecrops like rice and vegetables. Many settlers to Lam Dong
province, for example, were chosen from the Red River Delta Provincesbecauseof their backgroundin
sericulture. A numberupon resettlement,however, chose to grow coffee(which was less labor intensive
and thus able to be tended by the women and children) while the able-bodiedmale members of the
household made charcoal from nearby natural forests for more lucrative cash incomes. By and large,
however, cash cropping in the settlementsin the Central Highlandplateaus took place on agriculturally
suitable land and improved the livelihoodof the settlers. However, in the Northem hill areas, where
natural forest areas are limitedand holdingsare more steeplyslopedand relativelysmaller in size because
of populationpressure, commercialsuccesshas beenencounteredonly in some settlementareas (primarily
the more accessibleNorthern Midlands)with the cultivationof trees yielding valuablenon-woodproducts
(includingshellac, cinnamon,gum resins). Overall, based on the assessmentof the fixed cultivationand
sedentarizationprograms, the predominiantproblem existing in the Northern hill areas continues to be
unsustainableland use/farming practices.
11.
From more than 20 years of implementationof the Fixed Cultivation and Sedentarization
Program, 66 percent (1.9 million persons)of the original resettlementtarget (2.9 million)have adopted
permanentsettlement,of which: (a) 30 percent (nearly0.6 million)may be consideredto be "successful"
in that they are sedentarizedand cultivatingpermanentcash crops with "stable" income and little need
for Governmentsupport, (b) 40 percent (about0.8 million)maybe consideredto be marginallysuccessful
in that Government support for productionactivities is still needed, and (c) the remainderhave proved
to be unsustainableeven with Governmentsupport (i.e., they continue to destroy the forest and practice
slash-and-burnagriculture)3/. The unsustainableones tendedto be in the Northern Midlands/Mountain
1/
See Do Dinh Sam, NationalBackgroundPaperon ShiftingAgriculturein VietNam presentedat a workshopon 'Shifting
Agriculture in Laos and Viet Nam, its social, economicand environmentalvalues to AlternativeLand Uses", Chiang
Mai (Thailand),August 1992.
2/
Caroline Sargent, Land Use Issues, TechnicalReport No. 1 of the TFAP, Viet Nam (VIE/881037)1991.
3/
Do Dinh Sam, (or cit); 1992.
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region, while the "successful"ones tended to be in the "basaltic soil" areas of the Central Highlands
where production conditionsare more favorable. The main lesson is that new settlementscannot be
started in productivelyunsustainableareas. Choice of areas with good chances of success and
careful planning for the developmentof prospectiveenterprisesmust first be undertaken.
B: ReforestationPrograms
The Vinh Phu Pulp and Paper Mill
12.
Externally assisted forest development programs began in the late 1970s with the
construction of the large Vinh Phu Pulp and Paper mill in Bai Bang, Northern Viet Nam under SIDA
assistance. The mill initiallyused standingstocks of raw material includingbamboofrom home gardens
and plantationsof "quick" growing trees (Stvrax and Mangletiaspps.) harvested from the mountainous
areas fringing the Red River Delta. Since the early 1980s,however, the state enterprise responsiblefor
procuring raw materials for the mill began establishingnew plantationsin the more accessiblelowlands
and along transport arteries to ensure future supplies close to the mill 4/. The conflict in land use
resulting from this move reduced the area of open access firewood gathering areas in the midlands,
increased the pressure on more vulnerablehill land, and resulted in the illicit cutting of trees in the newly
reforested plantations. Thus, trade-offs between industrial developmentand household use have to be
taken into account in designingany commnercial
reforestationprogram. Allocationshould be given to the
loss of use of what is ostensibly "unused" barren land; otherwise, the success of the commercial
reforestationprogram would be compromised.
13.
SIDA's mill support program included the establishment of a Plantation and Soil
Conservation(PSC) Project and, withinit, an FAO-assistedsubprojecton Forest, Trees and People(FTP)
to focus on the socio-economicforestry aspects with greater emphasison the role of rural households.
14.
Evaluationsin the late 1980sfound that the PSC project was still biasedtowards maximizing
production from intensive forest plantationsto the detriment of the restorationof longer term fertility of
the soil 51. The PSC project succeeded, however, in providing tree seedlings over and above the
industrial program requirementsto enable the populace in need of tree products to grow their own trees
instead of "plundering"the industrial plantations,but the concerns of the affected householdswere not
fully taken into account. The promotion of reforestation remained focused on a specific technology
transfer approach (monocroppingwith primarily Eucalyptusand Acacia spps.) on specific sites ("barren
hills" on the lower Midlands)rather than on identifyingand helping farmer groupsto tackletheir problem
of fuelwood shortages. This rather modest impact in successfullyreaching rural householdsstems from
the close association of social forestry activities with the large scale industrial program and the rigidity
of planting guidelines set at central, provincial,and project level. Without a program that explicitlytakes
into account the interest of affectedstakeholders,commercialagroforestrymay not be sustainablein these
resource-poor areas.
15.
Unrealistictechnologyrigidities in the system are also counterproductive. The FTP project
for reforestation of denuded high areas worked essentially with cooperatives. Despite the potential
4/
See Julian GayfarandEdwinShanks,'Northem Viet Nam Farmers, Collectivesand the Rehabilitationof Recently
ReallocatedHill Land", ODI Social Forestry Network Paper No. 12a, Summer/Winter1991.
5/
See SEFDA, Viet Nam - Plantation and Soil ConservationProject, Review Mission Report, November 1988.
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opportunityfor a diversity of farmer actions, uniformityby and large prevailed--determinedprimarilyby
the interest of the cooperatives. Besides the required mono-croppedtree species (eucalyptus), guinea
grass was planted by all farmers (even those withoutcattle). It tested modelson agro-forestry and soil
conservation (e.g., Fanya Juu from East Africa) which required terrace run-off construction involving
substantial earth moving. The FTP project experienced difficulties in implementationbecause the
approach was totally new, highly managementintensive(by local standards)and, where successful, has
proved to be difficult to sustain. Also, local innovationswhich could be more successful(e.g., based
on elephant grass and other vegetative stabilizationtechniquewith bamboo run-offs, the excess being
channeledto fishponds)were not adequatelyexploited. Furthermore, the extensionsupport and training
to be provided by Governmentwere insufficientwith project tasks added on to district staffs' regular
duties.
16.
While it was not possibleto far exceed its original mandateunder limitedbudgetconstraints,
SIDA has, since 1989, been movingin the right directionwith focus on land use/land management,farrn
level forestry support and improved forestry research and training (including the training of extension
workers in participatory rural appraisal, which permits the project to better appreciate the different
conditions faced or enunciated by the farmers). Land allocation, security of tenure, and appropriate
technology transfer remain the primary challengesto be faced in these projects.
The World Food Program Hill Area ReforestationProjects
17.
The project activitiesof the World Food Program (WFP) in the hill areas, which beganin
1976, (a US$ 17.1 million project) faced similar logisticaland farm level difficulties which have been
taken into account in its present phase which began in 1989. The project's primary objective is to
establish 70,000 ha of concentrated forest plantationsand 11,000 ha of dispersed plantations in the
midland areas of Bac Thai, Hanoi, Ha Son Binh, and Vin Phu provinceswhere, in general, the ethnic
minoritiesare integratedwith the Kinhs. It is essentiallya reforestation/afforestationproject emphasizing
the replantation of eucalyptus, acacia, manglieta, melia, styrax, and bambooon severely eroded areas
to provide additionalfuel and pole wood, reduce the stress on natural forests, and providefor subsistence
and local market needs. It's main advantageis that it is being implementedin an environmentthat will
facilitate the reallocationof forestry land from state entitiesto individualfarmers. In principle, this type
of land allocation should address one of the most important constraints to successful reforestation
programs--thelack of incentivesto increase efficiencyand to protect and adequatelymanage established
plantations. Project participantsobtain long-term leaseholdswhich are officiallyrecorded as land tenure
deeds. Some problems have been encountered with these issues, especially with respect to ethnic
minorities. Because of the chronic structural food deficitsituation in the project areas, and with project
beneficiaries comprising poor householdswith very limited capacity to buy additional food, WFP food
distribution is a key ingredient for project success. Project proponents contend that the WFP food
distributed would not only have little effect on food productionincentives,but would providethe stability
which would enable the household to take the risk of adopting the cash cropping systems or erosion
control measures being promoted.
18.
A number of local governmentinitiated programs have also been implementedin parallel
with foreign assisted programs, often in the same villages and in a number of instances covering
duplicating beneficiaries. Households were often confused by the differences in obligations and
conditionsrequired by each of the projects. Provincialauthoritiesshouldensure consistencyin programs,
especially if they are being implementedin the same villages or districts.
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The "Barren Lands" Regreenin, (Decree 327) Program
19.
A reflection of the high priority accorded to the developmentof barren lands in Viet Nam
is the promulgation by the Council of Ministers, of a Decree (COM Decree 327) in September 1992
which sets out "Major Guidelinesand PoliciesTo UtilizeUnoccupiedLand, Barren Hilly Areas, Forests,
Denuded Beaches and Waterfronts". A ten year program, coordinatedby the State PlanningCommittee
(SPC), was launchedin 1993to implementthis decree. The provinces,oftenjointly with centralagencies
(essentiallyfrom the Ministriesof Agricultureand Food Industries, Forestry, and AquaticProducts)have
proposed about 1,800 projects for implementation.
20.
The primary goals of the highland portion of the Decree 327 program are to "stabilize"
settlement villages and sedentarize itinerant shifting agricultural population by developing the
underutilized barren uplands throughoutthe country with emphasison linking agriculture, livestock, and
forestry and on increasing the protection of reserved forests and head watersheds. The focus would be
on households as the basic production units with particular emphasis to be given to production
technologiesor products for manufacturingindustries,and on environmentalprotection. Guidelineswere
given for size of projects and plots to be allocatedto householdsby subsector (e.g., industrial tree crops,
agro-forestry enterprise, livestockenterprises),investmentfunding,and organizationalstructure, including
the role of the key agenciesto plan, approveand implementprojectsto be supported. Annual commercial
timber production quotas/targetswere reduced from about 1.0-1.3 million m3 /year to 800,000 m3 . (See
Annex 6 which sets out the decree).
21.
From initial observationsof this program in mid-1993, a number of concerns are worth
noting. The first relates to the appropriatenessof the stated goal of increasing 'the production of raw
materials and commoditiesfor industries' in an environmentwith inadequate infrastructure and which
presently provides, at best, marginal food security for a still rapidly growing population. This, in turn,
raises the questionof land suitability,and more importantly,land availabilityfor the envisagedexpansion
of industrial cropping. With planners working from clearly inadequateland resource data bases it is
possible, even probable, that the assumed barren land resource is already extensively utilized within
traditional agricultural production systems for which few alternativeshave been successfullydeveloped,
at least within Viet Nam. A clearef understandingof the constraintsto successfulimplementationat both
the program administrationand affected household levels should first be sought before technology or
investmentmeasures are contemplated.
22.
The second major concerninvolvesthe level of farmerparticipationin resourceuse planning
under the decree. While such intent is indicated in the decree, particularly Articles 2 and 3, it is
contradicted by Article 7 which states that "in the immediatefuture, projects of this kind (i.e. agroforestry) should be based on agro-forestry services directed by the state", and by Article 12, which
intimates that the program (now being finalizedby SPC and planned largely withoutfarmer participation)
would be "from now to the Year 2000... to plant and reforest the unoccupiedcoastal lands, hilly areas
and mountains", which may leave little scope for additional investment planned by and with rural
communities.
23.
These perceived "hooks" in the programwere bome out to a considerabledegree by mission
discussions with provincial staff and national planners. Although a detailed breakdown of the 1993
Decree 327 program was not available to the mission, infornation collected from a variety of sources
indicates that the projects, apart from those involvingNew EconomicZones, are:
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*
typically linked to state enterprise managed programs with rural families mainly working
under share farming agreements;
*
directed to a considerable degree toward the refinancing of ongoing, though possibly
reoriented, state enterprise projects;
*
focused mainly on production investment(70 percent in the case of MOF projects and
possibly more with MAFI livestock projects) with only limited investment in rural
infrastructure;
*
managed largely by state enterprise employees transferred to Decree 327 project
managementwith its associated incentivepaymentsand performance bonuses.
A "zero-based" budgeting approach, whereby all projects have to be rejustified on the basis of clear
criteria for selectionand adequatejudgment on feasibility,should be introduced.
24.
The 1993 Decree 327 investmentprogram was budgeted at US$ 68 million with US$ 45
million allocated as of May 1993, and approximatelyUS$ 7 million disbursed across the countries 53
provinces. The budget is about 8 percent of governments' greatly expanded 1993 budget deficit,
estimated at US$ 857 million. The 1993 Decree 327 program budget allocationto the three principally
concerned Ministries, namely Agricultureand Food Industry, Forestry, and Fisheries (AquaticProducts)
representsabout40 percent of their total annual budget. The other principalparticipantis the Committee
for Ethnic Affairs and Mountain People, working through the Department of Fixed Cultivation and
Settlement(DFCS). DFCS has already settled 500 of the estimated2000 itinerant communitiesinvolved
in shifting cultivation and had planned to commencesettlementof 400 additionalcommunitiesin 1993.
Their 1993 Decree 327 budget allocation of D 100 billion (US$ 9.5 million)provides around 6 percent
of their estimated requirementof US$ 2,000 per familyfor effectivesettlement. While full details of the
investmentprogram were not availableto the mission, it was evident from discussionswith DFCS and
provincial authorities that budget allocations fell well short of estimated requirements without
correspondingreductions in planned outputs. By the end of 1993, however, about D 520 billion (nearly
US$ 50 million)were spent as follows: (a) roughly D400billion on capitalinvestment--for1122projects
comprising400 projects (about D130billion) in forestry, 258 projects (aboutD 90 billion) in agriculture,
30 projects (D 40 billion) in fisheries,434 projects (about D 90 billion) in sedentarizationand settlement
support; and (b) D 120 billion on administrativeand operating costs.
25.
In summary,these projects, mostlyplanned withoutsufficientinformationfor prioritization
on the basis of land use and capabilityclassificationor enterpriseprofitability,are typicallyongoing ones
that had completiondates set years ahead. Eventhen, with widespreadcoverageto virtuallyall provinces
and insufficientresources (both financialand human), a lot of the critical input deliveries(e.g., seedlings
for trees) were short and initial investmentsremain uncompleted. Becauseimplementationhad not been
linked to priority needs and to fulfillingprerequisitesfor success(both technicaland organizational)there
is a risk of resource wastage as resources are spread too thinly to achievethe stated objectives. There
is a very real risk that the 1993and 1994ongoingprograms will absorb a growingamount of Decree 327
finances in coming years, thereby reducingopportunitiesfor financingnew and better plannedprograms.
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86 -
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Annex 6
Page 1 of 6
ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAM AND POLICY PRIORITIES
A SOCIALIST ECONOMY IN TRANSITION
DECREE OF THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS . No 327
Master guidelines and policies to utilize unoccupied land, "barren" hilly areas,
forests, denuded, Beaches and Waterfront
PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
With reference to the laws to form the Council
of Ministers, dated July 4, 1981
The plan for the next 10-15 years lays the groundwork to restore denuded or
"barren" hills and mountains, to protect the environment and forests and to
exploit the potential of unoccupied land in the hilly regions, denuded beaches
and waterfronts in order to increase the production of raw materials and
commodities for industries. It will also lay the groundwork to divide the land,
settle the population, link social and economic needs, as well as stabilize and
raise the material and spiritual standard of living in the new economic zones,
in order
to stimulate
the
residents
to
increase
their
production
efforts
and
consolidate the national security.
HEREBY DECIDED:
Master
Guidelines:
Article
1.
According
to the strategy for economic and social development
to the year 2000, all government levels and branches must mobilize their efforts
and financial resources to participate in the projects using the unoccupied
lands, denuded hills and mountains, forests, beaches and waterfronts. The
provinces in which these are found must develop projects to fully utilize the
land within their territories;s the others must mobilize their inhabitants to
participate in the projects in the neighboring provinces.
Article 2.
Projects must correspond to the investment capacity of
the people and must be related to dividing the land and settling the population
in the frontiers. These must have priority, along with those that can have an
impact in the near future. Projects for existing forests and farmlands, including
those of the military, must be of a scope similar to that of the undeveloped
areas. The forest, livestock and agriculture projects must include a production
structure and be closely linked to the forest, agriculture, industrial and
service sectors, as well as to commodity production, the processing industries
and domestic and external markets. Further, it is necessary to increase the area
of protected and reserved forests and head watersheds, and to clearly define
where exploitation of lumber, firewood, or other forest products is prohibited
or permitted.
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6
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Article 3. Households are considered the basic production units; state
enterprises or collective economic units are supports on which to build; the
"garden economy" must be developed for households. Close links must be made
between households and the community, as well as between collective and state-run
enterprises so as to expand production, protect the interests of each household;
the Government and collective units must carry out their obligations; economic
development must be linked to expanding social welfare; national defense and
security must be ensured; and rural areas must be developed.
Article 4. It is important to stabilize villages where the land has been
divided and the population settled as well as to undertake this process where it
has not yet occurred. Where the populations are still nomadic and burn and
destroy the forests for cultivation, they must be encouraged to develop farming
settlements, plant trees, raise cash and food crops and livestock.
Article 5. The design and implementation of projects that focus on
production should incorporate technical advances with manufacturing industries,
consumption (of the products manufactured) and environmental protection.
POLICIES
A. Land and forests
Policy to hand over the land and forest
Article 6. Afforestation schemes: These are designed to preserve and
exploit (for production) the hilly areas, mountains and beaches, and protect,
care for and replant forests of all types. Each household (including those
already settled) will be given a certain area of land/forest to replant, protect
and tend. This will occur according to priority orders, on the funding available
for land, on the capacity of each household to work the land, on local living
conditions (including those of newly settled families), on the investment
capacity of the State, and on the labor and capital available from the economic
entities. The total area for each project is 5,000-10,000 hectares, depending on
the type of project envisioned, and will be equal to a commune or village in the
highlands, in order to form the basic administrative, economic, social and
national defense unit that would be suited to the investment capability of the
Government and people.
With regard to projects to extract resin from pine forests (both from forest and
industrial trees), each should be 3,500 hectares. Each household will be given
a certain area of land (according to its capacity to work it and the availability
of investment capital) to replant, manage, protect, and prepare for productive
use.
In addition to these areas, each household (according to its labor potential)
will be given additional arable land on which to plant short and long-tern
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industrial crops, as well as food crops, out of which each household is allowed
to farm up to 5,000m2 for its own use and a piece of pasture land for breeding
purposes.
Article 7
With regard to the projects to plant industrial crops
such as rubber, mulberry (for silk), and fruit trees, as well as coffee, tea,
sugar cane and cotton, the size of each project will be based on the size of the
new commune. Each household will be given areas to plant the crops (mentioned
above), the size of which will depend on its capabilitiesand the availability
of investment capital. Households will have the use of these areas for a long
period and can appropriate 3000m2 for their own agriculturaluse.
In the immediate future, projects of this kind should be based on agro-forestry
services directed by the State . In unoccupiedbarren, land, there is potential
to expand such projects, but they should first be carefully formulated and
prepared.
Article 8
Within the livestockbreeding projects developed at the
commune level, each household will be given land to plant fodder or to raise
animals. At the same time, each household will be given land on which to develop
short- and long-term industrial crops, food crops and to cultivate a garden.
Article 9
For projects involving the use of barren beaches and
those devoted to fish farming in areas of about 700 hectares (which could hold
a commune), each household is given some land to raise shrimp, crabs and seaweed
and 700m2 to cultivate. The State will invest in and assist the building of
infrastructure, and will be reimbursed in discounted installments . Each
household will finance the infrastructure for the fish farming through its
savings or with bank loans. The investment needed to reclaim small beaches and
waterfronts of less than 700 hectares will come from the local authorities or be
given to households.
Investment Policy
Article 10 The investment capital provided by the Government to develop
vacant beaches and hilly areas (forafforestation,farming,human settlementsand
development of new economic zones) is from the following sources: (a) the
Government budget, (b) forest resource taxes, foreign aid and loans, and private
investment from entities and individuals.In particular, the forest resource tax
will be targeted for investment in forestry programs. Of the total funds
provided, 60% will be spent for the construction of infrastructure, for
scientific and technical facilities, for public welfare services, for
afforestation,for the planting of the reserve and special use forests, for the
national genetic gardens, for resettlement of original residents, and for the
first six months after land clearing.This capital will be directly invested with
the project recipients and need not be reimbursed. The remaining 40% will be
loaned to households without interest. Households will be expected to begin
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repaying the loans when the items are produced; terms of the loans will be
defined according to the type of crops being produced.
Households entering new economic zones will be allowed to transfer the rights to
the cultivated land and the residences being left behind in order to accumulate
more capital to invest in the new locale.
The works of the new projects will not be obligated to keep aside 10% of the
investment capital (for use by Government) . However Ministries managing the
projects will be allowed to take 5t-6t of the total investment capital to use for
extension services, technology transfers and management efforts.
Article 11 The Government strongly encourages the development of
commercial businesses, stockholding companies, corporations and private companies
including joint ventures between companies or individuals and foreign entities,
to invest in agricultural cultivation and livestock breeding in newly developed
lands. These economic units will use undeveloped lands, hilly areas, beaches and
waterfronts
in a manner that is suitable to the land in each area and the
investment capacity of each business (whether plantations, farms, etc.).
Organizing, carrying out:
Article 12 From now until the year 2000, the Government has reserved a
certain amount of capital to be invested each year for a program to plant and
reforest the unoccupied coastal land, hilly areas and mountains. The program will
begin in 1993, so as to actively prepare for 1994. SPC will determine in the near
future the investment level for this program and will submit it to the Council
of Ministers and National Assembly by the end of 1992.
Article 13 The Ministry of Labor and the Ministry of Social Affairs are
assigned the task of studying and making an early report to the President of the
COM on the subsidy policies for transporting the households to be moved,
temporary lodging, food and the cost of clearing the land in the first six
months, to encourage the process (moving the households) and build the new
economic zone.
The policy to cut or exempt taxes must be carried out according to existing laws.
The Ministry of Finance will prepare the necessary amendments and additions to
the draft version of the Agricultural Tax Laws to be submitted to the douncil of
Ministers and the Congress.
Article 14 Scientific and technical cadres, as well as managerial cadres
who execute the projects, extension services and technology transfers will be
given incentive salaries, especially if located in the highlands. If the projects
are effective, they will be awarded bonuses. The Ministry of Labor and the
Ministry of Social Welfare are mandated to meet with other ministries to report
to the Chairman of the Council of Ministers this matter.
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Article 15 The primary ministries, in conjunction with the related
ministries and agencies, must complete by the end of January, 1993 the
organization plan up to the year 2000 for the agricultural, forest and maritime
programs that will be the basis of the development plan of the projects described
above. These ministries will also directly assist the provinces, districts and
forest and farm camps to develop a number of pilot projects related to
agriculture and forests by the end of 1992, so as to be ready to invest in 1993.
The projects described above must be considered carefully and be economic. But
projects with an-Qfficial plan and those that entail simple repairs under the
technical cadres approval authority need not be designed again.
Article 16. The Ministries of Agriculture, Forestry and Aquatic Products,
along with the Provincial People's Committees and Central Cities' People's
Committees should select the project directors and managers and transfer some
existing agriculture and forest camps to the nationalized businesses based on
Decree NO. 388-HDBT of the Council of Ministers. This task must be completed in
the first quarter of 1993 so it can be used as a guide for the family units'
production efforts.
Article 17.
examine the projects.
The following authorities have the responsibility
to
The chairman of the Council of Ministers will evaluate and approve largescale projects in many provinces.
Ministers of authorized ministries will evaluate and approve projects
related to their ministries, and the projects to raise the marine products in the
areas of over 700 hectares. The chairman of the Provincial People's Committee
will be responsible for examining the important aspects of the projects.
-
The chairman of the People's Committee of Provinces and Cities that belong
to the central authority will be responsible for approving the project (in that
province) and the projects related to the existing agricultural and forest camps
which are under the provincial management. The chairman will also assume the
management of all projects to be carried out within the province.
-
Two national science centers and the State Science Committee are
responsible for inspecting the details of the projects that relate to science.
Article 18 The State Planning Committee(SPC) will coordinate with the
Ministry of Finance to examine the projects that need to be approved by the
president of the Council of Ministers and to inspect the important aspects of
some projects to be examined by the ministries and the People's Committee of
provinces and cities. SPC will put together all policies and investment plans of
the projects for 1993 to be submitted to the COM. It will also prepare the plan
for 1994. Once the plans are approved, the responsible ministries and localities
will distribute the funds for the projects. The Ministry of Finance will inform
-
91
-
Annex 6
Page 6 of 6
the treasury to issue the funds directly to the project managers and to provide
loans to the project managers and households, based on the plan for each project.
Article 19 In order to meet the needs of the projects, The Ministry of
Labor, Veterans and Social Affairs is responsible for developing the policy to
move workers and the population, for the policy with regard to the cadre and for
the policy to manage and distribute the investment capital, in order to meet the
needs of the projects.
Article 20 The ministries and Government committees that are related to
the projects are responsible for selecting the expert cadres to undertake the
projects, to promulgate (on time) the policies and guidance and give orders to
agencies and those who work under them,
The Comrade Special Correspondent to the Council of Ministers is responsible for
helping the Council and the President coordinate the effort between the branches
and localities to inspect, direct and suggest the measures to carry out this
resolution.
- 92 -
Annex 7
Page 1 of 11
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICYPRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALISTECONOMYIN TRANSITION
WatershedErosionImpact and Costs:The Da Watershed
Summary
1.
This analysis examinespotentialsoil conservationprojects in the Da watershedof Northem Viet
Nam. The Government of Viet Nam (GOV) is eagerly promoting soil conservation projects for two
reasons: (a) there is an abundanceof degradedland in the watershed,and (b) there is mountingconcem
about the high sedimentationrate of the Hoa Binh reservoirat the base of the watershed.The economic
impact of introducing four soil conservation measures (grass strips, earth bunds, agroforestry, and
terracing)is simulatedwith a computermodel.Results indicatethat over the next 30 years, erosion from
upland farming activities will imposecosts of about 70 milliondollars on lowlandfarmers and reservoir
users. All of these conservationmeasures increasetotal net benefits of the affected parties. Because of
their high initial cost, it is unlikelythat any of these soil conservationinitiatives-with the exceptionof
possibly vegetativemeasures--willbe adoptedwhilethere is an abundantsupply of 'openaccess' land.
Introduction
2.
Investmentsin soil conservationare particularly importantin the context of the GOV's recently
promulgateddecree 327. The decree sets out "MajorGuidelinesAnd PoliciesTo UtilizeUnoccupiedLand,
Barren HillyAreas, Forests,DenudedBeaches,and Waterfronts."The State PlanningCommittee(SPC) is
coordinatinga 10 year program to implementdecree 327. The budget allocation, although equivalentto
nearly 40% of the total budgets of the Ministryof Agricultureand Food Industries(MAFI), Ministry Of
Forestry (MOF), and the Ministry of Aquatic Products, amountsto only US$ 70 million.About 1,800
projects have been proposed for implementation.Given the financial constraints currently faced by the
GOV, cost effectivepoliciesand projectsfor supportmust be identified.
Background& Methods
3.
The computermodelused to examinethe soil conservationmeasuresin the Da watershedhas three
interlinkedmodules:(a) a core which simulatesuplandagriculture,(b) a lowlandmodulewhich simulates
runoff damages, and (c) a reservoir module which simulates sedimentation.Constructionof an erosion
simulation model requires extensive specific informationabout the relationshipand interaction of the
system's components. For Viet Nam, much of this information is either unavailable or inaccessible.
Thereforethe modelis createdfrom missionobservationand secondarydata. Where necessary,'best guess'
estimatesare made.
4.
The core of the modelis based on upland croppingpatterns in the Da watershed,which includes2
millionhectares of fallow,250 thousandhectares of upland rice, 150thousand hectares of maize, and 100
thousand hectares of cassava. The croppingrotation is typically 8 years of fallowfollowedby three years
of upland rice, and then 3 years of maize or cassava. Fallow land is an importantsource of pasture and
fuelwood.Initial yieldsaverage 1000 kilogramsper hectarefor rice, 850 kilogramsper hectare for maize,
and 12 tons per hectare for cassava. Yields decline by roughly a third with each successive year of
-
932
93
Annex 7
Page2 of II
cultivation.Upland rice cultivationexpands at the rate of populationgrowth. Erosion in rice and maize
fieldsis 100 tons of soil per hectareper year,and 200 tons of soil per hectareper year for cassava.
5.
Runoff feeds into the lowland component of the model. Lowland farmers control runoff by
constructingsilt traps at the foot of slopes (Truc, 1990).In narrow valleysthe upper most paddy is left to
impoundrunoffand sediments.The accumulatedsedimentsare dug out and carried back uphill in shoulder
basketsto spread on the fields.This is done,despitethe heavyhumanlabor involved,becausethe mud adds
fertilityto the depleteduplandsoils. Since littlegeneralizableinformationis availableabout the amount of
lowlandcrops destroyedby waterrunoff or the volumeof soil that is capturedin silt traps and carriedback
uphill, two assumptionsare made: (a) one hectareof lowlandrice is destroyedfor every 5,000 tons of soil
eroded,(b) silt traps capture 10% of the soil lossesand one manday of labor is requiredto dig up one ton
of sedimentand carry it back uphill.The opportunitycost of one hectareof lowlandpaddy is US$ 200 per
year.
6.
Sedimentationoccurs when runoff reaches the Hoa Binh reservoir. The reservoir has three
purposes: (a) flood control, (b) electricityproduction,and (c) irrigation.The major benefitsfrom the Hoa
Binh hydroelectricfacility are an increase in downstreamwater flows in the dry season and a decreasein
them in the wet season. Prior to dam completion,floodingdestroyed 1,800 hectares of lowland crops
annually. The Hoa Binh hydroelectricplant is expectedto have a capacity of 1,920 megawatts upon
completionat the end of 1993.Annual power productionis 8,402 gigawatt hours and the load factor is
50% (The World Bank, 1993). The cost of electricityis US$ 0.06 per kilowatt hour (The World Bank,
1993). Forecasts indicatepower demand for the regionwill increase 1% to 2% per year. The command
area irrigatedby the reservoiris estimatedto be 1000hectares.
7.
Identificationof the precisesource of sedimentis impossiblebecauseapproximately45% of the Da
wvatershed
is in China.Studiesshow that 70 to 80% of the total sedimentflow originateswithinChina(The
WorldBank, 1993).The averagesedimentdeliveryratio in Viet Nam is 20%, meaningthat out of 100tons
of eroded soil, 20 tons makes it into the river system. Reservoircapacityis 9 billion m3 and the trapping
efficiency is 80%. Sediment deposition into the reservoir is 42 million m3 annually. This estimate,
althoughcrudc, providesa baseline for calculatingthe volume of sedimententeringthe reservoir due to
barren landagriculturalactivities.
8.
A general lack of informationabout the reservoirmakes it is necessaryto assume a relationship
between reservoirbenefitsand reservoircapacity. This relationshippresumesthat a decrease in reservoir
capacity leads to an equivalentdecrease in reservoirbenefits.This assumptioncan be changed as more
informationis gatheredabout the designand shape of the reservoir.
9.
Each componentof the model has a cash flow modulethat is discountedat 10% over 30 years.
Crop budgets for uplandrice, maize,and cassavawere preparedon a per hectare basis (Table I). The cost
of unskilledlabor in Hanoi is about US$ 0.75 per day. Althougha near zero shadowpricefor labor may be
justified in the typical upland areas of the Da watershed,the opportunitycost of labor in Son La and Lai
Chau is assumed to be US$ 0.25. Labor utilization rates are a function of yields and declineas yields
decline.Crop expensesare assumedto remainfixedthroughoutthe croppingcycle. Pricesare US$ 0.1 1/kg
for uplandrice, US$ 0.I0/kg for maize, US$ 0.034/kgfor fresh cassava(NIAPP, 1993).
-
94
Annex 7
-
Page3 of 11
The cash flow modulestake the followingform for the status quo situation:
(a)Farmnernet benefits =30
1=I
Rie
zc.
=l t=l 11 .=,
30
(b)Lowland farmer benefits= E
t,,
(revenues- expenses)
(where d = discount rate, t = periods)
(1 + d)
(soil x %trapped x wage) + ( soil ) x avg darnaged production
tons / ha
(1+ d)'
(C)Reservoiruser benefits E (hpower.+irrigation+fld. control)x (-(factorx(l-rsvr.
,-I
capacity)))
(I +d)
These results are used to calculatetotal net benefitswiththe followingequation:1
(d) Total net benefits= Farmernet benefits+ Lowlandfarmerbenefits+ Reservoiruser benefits)
10.
In terms of mitigationmeasuresat the upland farmer level,this analysis restricts itself to four soil
conservationalternatives:(a) grass strips with mulching,(b) earth bunds, (c) terraces, and (d) agroforestry.
Since no informationwas available at the time of this study on the impact of conservationmeasureson
erosion rates and yield levels in Viet Nam, a literaturereviewwas conductedto identifyresearch findings
from other countries with similar climates and soil conditions.The results from the review are used to
estimatebaselineparametersfor the impactof conservationmeasureson soil loss and agriculturalyields.
11.
When compared to clean cultivation,grass strips with mulching reduces erosion rates anywhere
from 8-96%, dependingon slope and land use. In additionto reducingerosion, mulching increases crop
yields from 24-31% for upland rice, 10-188%for corn, 33% for cassava. Vegetativestrips and mulching
are almostas effectiveas structural approachesin controllingerosion.A conscrvativeestimatefor the Da is
that vegetativestrips and mulchingreduceerosionrates by 20%, and increaseyields35%.
12.
Earthen bundshavconly a limitedlifcspan of 3 to 5 years (Humi, 1982 and Marston, 1983).They
decreasesedimentyields46% on wcll-structuredsoils in comparisonto un-bundedplots (Sheng, 1981)and
have been shown to decrease erosion rates 32% in Indonesia.Constructionof banks alone has failed to
show any significantor stable increase in yieldsat ICRISAT,however,at other locationsin India yieldsof
com increased65%. As a base case for the Da, earth bunds are assumed to reduce erosion rates by 30%
and to increaseyieldsby 25%.
13.
Terraces havebeen foundto decreaseerosionrates on slopesfrom 9% to 25% anywherefrom 20%
to 91%. In Indonesiaterraces have been found to increase corn yields 34-38% and rice yields 18%. The
base case assumptionsfor the Da are that terracesdecreaseerosionrates 40% and increaseyields 15%.
14.
Agroforestryexperimentsin VietNam have shownthat this measureincreasesyields in coffeeand
tea plantationsan average of 18-25%.Agroforestryis excellentat reducingerosion with field experiments
in Vietnamshowinga decreaseof soil loss of 62-77%under coffeeand tea. For the purposesof the model,
it was assumedthat this measureincreasesyieldsby 20% and reducederosion60%.
l
Pleasenotethat incremental
benefitof a conservation
measureis the totalnet benefitwiththe releventmeasure
minus total net benefits of the status quo situtation(see table 3).
95
Annex 7
Page4 of 11
15.
Soil conservationcost estimates are presented in Table 2 These estimates are separated into
constructioncosts and labor costs. Grass strips and mulching,with an initial cost of US$ 88, are less
expensivethan the structural measures.Expensesincludethe additionallabor spent cutting the grass strips
and using them for mulching.In the initial year, constructionand labor costs are high for both earth bunds
and terracing because of the need to build the retainingstructures. Outlays range around US$ 300 per
hectare for bunding, US$ 375 for agroforestry,and US$ 500 per hectare for terracing. These figures
accord well with the costs of these measures in World Bank projects. Mulchingand grass strips require
US$ 15, and earth bunds,which are unstable,requireUS$ 25 in annualmaintenanceand replacementevery
5 years. Terraces requireUS$ 50 and agroforestryUS$ 40 in annualmaintenance.
Results and discussion
16.
The modelis most sensitiveto changesin the assumptionof the wage rate. The residentsof the Da
are subsistencefarmers and have little opportunityto eam cash wages. The greatest uncertainties in
assessing reservoir user costs are sediment yield, bulk density, and suspendedsediment trapped by the
reservoir.Since the capacity of the reservoiris large comparedto the rate of sedimentation,sedimentation
has a relativelysmall overall effect on reservoirbenefits.This findingis inconsistentwith the alarm being
soundedby GOV officials.
17.
All of the conservationaltemativesincreasestotal net benefitsof the parties using the watershed.
Of the four management altematives modeled, agroforestry provides the greatest benefits to lowland
farmers and reservoirusers. Grass strips and mulchingprovide the greatest benefitsto upland farmers.
Results (in millions of 1994 US$) from three simulationsof the managementaltematives are presented
below:
AffectedParties
ExistingCasc
.____________
Incremental
Ou comcof anaeententAltemniatives
GrassStrips
EarthBunds
Terraces
and Mulchine
FarmersNet Bcncfias
LowlandFarmerBenefit
RcscrvoirUsersBcnefits
695
-66
-t.6
131
8
0.2
93
12
0.3
56
16
0-.3
TotalNetBcncfits
629
139
105
72
Sourcc:Table3.
Conclusions
18.
The introductionof soil conservationtechniquesto the upland famers of the Da watershed is a
'win-win'policy because all three of the affected parties benefit.The greatest benefitscome from the grass
strips and mulchingaltemative.This is also the most likelyaltemativeto be adoptedby the uplandfarmers
because it has the lowest initialstart-up costs.
19.
The lowlandfarmersand the reservoirusers are inequitablybearingthe costs of erosion.Therefore
they should, in theory, be compensatedby the perpetrators of the damage. However,since the farmers do
not bear the costs of the damage, they have little incentiveto take them into account in decidingerosion
controlmeasures.The lack of informationon the source of erosionand the distance sedimenttravels means
that it is unlikelythe perpetratorsof the damagecan be identifiedin practical or operationalterms.
-
96
-
Annex 7
Page5 of 11
20.
An analysis of soil conservationalternativesis not completewithouta discussionof land tenure
and property rights. Land tenure issues are of concern for three reasons: (a) tenure effects technology
adoption rates and profitability,and consequentlythe impact of the policy or project; (b) introductionof
specifictechnologiesmay affect land tenure pattems;(c) failure to understandexistingtenure systemsmay
leadplannersto overlookpromisingopportunitiesto developlands underparticulartenure arrangements.
21.
Comprehensiveevaluation of the soil and water conservationmeasures for the Da watershed
shouldnot proceed withoutidentificationof the full range of tenure types and the characteristicsof tenure
that affect the adoption of the proposedtechnologies.Of particular interest is the possibilitythat there
might be common property management schemes already in place for the barren lands. Since this
informationis not readily available,two assumptionneedto be made: (a) cultivatorswill be less likelyto
adopt technologiesthat have a long time-lagbeforethey beginto generatebenefits;and (b) where tenure
status is weak the most appropriate technologiesto promote should be those with quick returns and
minimumlevelsof investment.
22.
In the Da, wherelarge tracts designatedas state forest land have beenconvertedto barren land for
extended periods, there is a need to increase tenure security.This could be through formal land titling,
granting of limited use certificatesin state forest lands, and formalizationof customary land rights. The
only in-depthstudy of the impact of land titlingon soil and water conservationin Asia was undertakenin
NortheasternThailand (Feder, 1988).The study comparedthe productivityof farmers with land titles and
those with certificates of occupancy, and concludedthat titles had a significant impact on technology
adoption becauseof their value as collateralfor loans. This study suggeststhat soil and water conservation
projects in areas without clearlydefinedpropertyrights should includetitlingcomponents.Titles will give
cultivatorsaccessto capital and enablethemto transferimprovementsto their heirs.
23.
The issue of population growth and the availabilityof barren land deserves further attention.
Althoughthere is a plentifulsupply of barren land onto whichthe rapidly growingpopulationcan expand,
cventually it will becomescarce. Fertilityand crop yieldswill declineas rotation get shorter. Low yields
mcan low productivity.Low productivityland requiresa largc labor forcc which indircctlyencouragesa
largc family sizc. The shortageof land and low productivitywill lead to an impoverishedpopulationand a
weak labor force. The labor force will suffer from bad health and low skills and be unablc to accumulate
any savings due to their marginalexistence.Thus a viciouscycle of povertywill be perpetuated.Therefore
any strategy to promote conscrvationin the barren lands should include componentsthat focus on: (a)
increasingproductivity,and (b) promotingfamilyplanning.
24.
Ten to 20% of total sediment depositionin the reservoir comes from Vietnamesebarren lands.
Investing in soil conservationstrictly for the purpose of limitingsedimentationis not worthwhileunless
sediment entering the reservoir from other sources is controlled.This requires evaluation of sediment
enteringthe rcservoirfrom non-barrenland and close cooperationwith the Chinesegovernment,which will
be extremely difficult to achieve. An alternativeapproach to maintainingreservoir capacity would be to
dredgcthe sediment.The viability of this propositionis unclear because of the large volumesof sediment
involved,and the cost of sedimentremovalis little known.
-
97
Annex 7
-
Page 6 of 11
Table 1: Crop Budgets on a Per Hectacre Basis
Qty.
Units
UplandRice
Unit
Total
Cost
Cost
Uss
Crop Expenses
Seeds
Fertilizer
Pesticides
kg
kg
kg
100
0
0
0.11
Subtotal inputs
LAbor
Landpreparation
Fertilizing
Cultivation
Harvsting
Transplantation
Qty.
Uss
Maize
Unit Toual
Cost
Cost
USS
II
t
0
100
0
0
0.11
I
Md
Md
Md
Md
Md
15
0
9
10
5
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
4
0
2.5
2.5
2.5
Qty.
Uss
11
a|
0
Ca va
Unit Total
Cost Cost
USS
150
0
0
0.03
11
15
0
8
10
5
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
4
0
2
2.5
1.5
15
0
3
15
10
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
USS
USS
USS
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
4
0
1
4
2.5
0
0
0
25
0
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0
0
25
1
1.00
2.50
25
3
Subtotal labor
10
9.5
11
Total Crop Exnensc
21
20.5
16
Revenues
Crop harvest
Animal husbandry
Fallow
Unit Total
Cost
Cost
Qty.
0
0
I
Kg
lia
Total Revenue
Retums
Net return to land and mnaagement
1000
0.11
I11
11
90
S50
0.11
94
1,200
0.03
41
9
41
28
73.5
25
21
98
-
Annex 7
-
Page7 of 11
Table 2: Per Ha Cost of Soil ConservationTechnologies
Grass Stripsand
Mulch
Units Qty. Unit Total
Cost Cost
Construction
Costs
Seed material kg
Fertilizer
kg
Pesticides
kg
Earth moving hrs
Subtotal Inputs
Labor
Land
Md
Preparation
Fertilizing
Md
Planting
Md
Mulching
Md
Qty.
Terracing
Unit
Cost
Total
Cost
Us$
US$
n/a
n/a
n/a
20
n/a
n/a
rna
25.00
n/a
n/a
n/a
500
500
25
200
0.25
50
0
n/a
n/a
0
n/a
n/a
0.25
n/a
n/a
0
n/a
n/a
25
15
15
0
0.50
2.00
2.00
25.00
13
30
30
0
73
n/a
n/a
n/a
15
n/a
n/a
n/a
25.00
n/a
n/a
n/a
275
275
20
0.25
5
100
0.25
10
10
20
0.25
0.25
0.25
2.5
2.5
5
0
n/a
n/a
0.25
n/a
n/a
otal Conservation
25
88
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Unit Total
Cost Cost
Uss
US$
15
Qty.
UsS
US$
Subtotal Labor
Expenscs
Earth Bunds
50
300
_
_
_
_
__
_
_
_
_
550
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.__
-
99
-
Annex 7
Page 8 of 11
Table 3: Net Benefits from Soil Conservation Technologies for the Da Watershed (US$Million)
Net Benefitsof
Affected Party
Crop
Status
Quo
Upland Farmers
Fallow
Rice
Maize
Cassava
411
172
89
23
695
Labor
CropDamage
-8
-56
-64
1
7
8
1
ll
12
2
14
16
Hydopower
Irrigation
Crop Flooding
0
-1.3
-0.6
-1.9
0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0
0.2
0.1
0.3
0
0.2
0.1
0.3
629.1
139.2
105.3
72.3
Sub-Total
Lowland Farmers
Sub-Total
ResevoirUsers
Sub-Total
Totals
a/ Measured as incremcntalnet valucsto thc status quo.
IncremcnlalOutcomeof Manam
Grass Strips
EarthBunds
and Mulching
0
0
77
55
40
28
14
10
131
93
Alternatives
al
Terraces
0
33
17
6
56
100-
Annex 7
Page9 of 11
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Sembiring,H. and A.M. Fagi. 1989.PaketUsahatanidalarnMengatasiErosi di Das Brantas,
Jawa Timur. P3HTA Malang.
Sheng,T.C., Jackson,J.K., Kraayenhagen,J., Nakasthin,N. and P. Watnaprateep.1981.Thc
effectsof differentstructureson erosionand runoff.In: South East Asian Regional
Symposiumin Problemsof Soil Erosionand Sedimentation.pp. 301-310.
Sheng,T.C., Jackson,J.K., Kraayenhagen,J., Nakasthin,N. and P. Watnapratccp.1981.Thc
effectsof differentstructureson erosionand runoff.In: South East Asian Regional
Symposiumin Problemsof Soil Erosionand Sedimentation.pp. 301-310.
Stevens,Jonathanand PeterCook. 1993.The ServiceLevelApproachto MeasuringAssct
Pcrformance.In: Toward ImprovedAccountingfor the Environment.Eds. Ernst Lutz.
UNSTAT-WorldBank. Washington,D.C.pp 246-266
Sub Proyek BantuanTeknikUNDPSolo. 1979.EvaluasiPenelitianErosi Pada Plot Pcrcibaan
ProyekTA IN5/72/006.Kerjasamaantara Sub ProyekBantuanTeknikUNDPSolo/TA
IN5/72/006. SurakartadenganFakultasKehutananUGMYogyakarta.Surakarta.
Subagyono,K. 1988.PengaruhPenanamanBerbagaitannamanPenututpTanah Secara Strip
Terhadap Erosi dan LimpasanPernukaan pada MediteranDesa JatikertaSumberpucung
Maland.Thesis FakultasPertanianUniversitasBrawijaya. Malang.
Sunardi, M. 1989.PenggunaantanamanStrip untuk PengendalianErosi dan LimpasnPermukaan
pada TanamanTumpangsariJagungsan Ubikayutanpa teras. Thesis. FakultasPertanian
UniversitasBrawijaya.Malang.
-
102
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Annex 7
Page 11of 11
Sutrisno. 1987.Pengaruh PemberianJeramidan Sifat-sifatTerhadapErosi dan Aliran
Permukaan.Thesis Jerusan Tana FkultasPertanian. InstitutPertanianBogor.Bogor.
Suwardjoand SofijahAbujamin.1983.Crop residuemulch for conservingsoil in uplands of
Indonesia.Soil and Conservation.Eds. S.A. El-Swaify,W.C. Moldenhauerand A. Lo.
Soil ConservationSocietyof America.Ankeny,Iowa. pp.607-614.
Suwito,H. 1984.PengaruhPengelolaanTanah dan TanamanTerhadap Erosi dan Limpasan
Permukaandi DaerahAliranWadukKarangkates.Thesis. FakultasPertanianUniversitas
Brawijaya.Maland.Table 4 page 14 of 16.
Team KonservasiTanah dan Air. 1980d. PengaruhMulsaSisa Tanamansan PengelolaanTanan
Terhadap Erosi. Sifat-sifatTanahdan PetembuhanTanamanpada Tanah Latosoldi
Citayamdan pada Tanah Podsolik.Di Pekalongandan laporan Progres.Penelititan
KonservasiTanah dan air 1979/1980ProyekPenelitanTanah. Lembagatanah. Bogor.
Hal. IX.I -IX.13.v
The World Bank. 1992.Viet Nam: Population,Healthand NutritionSector Review.Report No.
10289-VN.
The World Bank. 1993.VietNarn: EnergySectorInvestmentand PolicyReview.ReportNo.
19842-VN
Utumo,T.W. 1986.PengaruhPenutupanMulsa JcramiPadi Terhadap Sifat FisikTanah dan
Pada LatosolDarmagayang DitanamiPadi GogoSelamaSatu MusimTanam. Tcsis
Jurusan Tanah FakultasPertanian.Institut PertanianBogor.Bogor.
Widajati. 1989.Kajian PengaruhSistemPcnanamandan PemberianMulsa Terhadap Aliran
Pcrmukaandan Erosi Pada LahanTegalnanDacrahHulu. Thesis FakulatasKehutanan.
UnivcrsitasGaja Mada. Yogyakarta.
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Annex8
Page 1 of 31
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
A SOCIALIST ECONOMY
IN TRANSITION
The Cost of MangroveDestructionin Viet Nam
A. Introduction
Coastal mangroveforestshave increasinglydisappearedduring the past few decadesin Viet
1.
Nam. During the last years, this historical trend has been acceleratedby direct human pressure on the
mangrove ecosystemsand the impact of other developmentactivitieslocated in the coastal zone and its
catchmentarea. Mangrovetrees are cut by local people collectingfirewood and poles for both domestic
and commercial use. Shrimp farm developmenthas led to the conversion of thousands of hectares of
mangrove forests and some rice paddies to extensive shrimp culture. Agricultural activities affect
mangrove ecosystems through their reclamation for agricultural production and other more indirect
effects, such as changesin the hydrologicalregime, pollutionwith agrochemicalsand nutrientsand water
acidification. Water resources developmentand other up-streamactivities, includingurban and industrial
pollution, can also change crucialparameters in the growth of mangrove forests.
2.
This analysis focuses on two activities which rank among the main causes of the rapid
destruction and degradationof mangroveecosystemsin Viet Nam. It illustratesin the forn of two case
studies the impactof (a) the conversionof vast mangroveareas to shrimp ponds in Minh Hai province;
and (b) the clearing of mangrove belts along sea dikes in central Viet Nam. After estimatingthe costs
of mangrove destruction in each case, the results of the two case studies are extrapolated to the whole
coastal zone of Viet Nam in order to understand the orders of magnitudeof the costs connected to
mangrove destruction. The goal of this analysis is, however, not only to estimate the costs of the uneconomical management of mangrove ecosystems, but to provide a broad framework for the role of
mangroves in coastal zone managemehtand indicatethe value of mangrove forests of the very diverse
products and services provided by mangroveforests.
3.
Mangrove ecosystems have been destroyed and transformedin a rapid pace all over the
world. This process is drivenby the belief that mangroveforests are foul, ill smelling, insect-riddenand
difficult zones and produce little economic value. However, the literature on mangrove management
supports the hypothesis that mangrove ecosystemsprovide a variety of importantproducts and services
to humans. For instance, nutrient supply to coastal fisheries and the provision of spawning and feeding
grounds for immaturefish and shrimp are attributed to mangroves. Shore protection, the prevention of
coastal abrasion and the support of accretion are some other important functions that affect human
settlementsand agriculture.
4.
As figure 1 illustrates,most of the servicesand productsconnectedto mangroveecosystems
are off-siteand/or non-marketed. The off-sitecharacterof very importantmangroveservices impliesthat
very valuable benefitsbrought by investmentsinto mangrovescannot be capturedby the investorand are
provided for "free" to others. The absence of market prices makes the quantificationand economic
valuationof the ummarketedproducts and services very difficult.
5.
Althoughthis analysisattemptsto quantifyand value some of the off-site and non-marketed
goods and services providedby mangrove forests, it is not possibleto capture all the benefits brought by
mangrovepreservation. For this reason, the numbers given for the value of mangrove ecosystemshave
to be consideredas conservativeestimates. The economicanalysisis based on actual market prices and
-
104-
Annex 8
Page 2 of 31
wages in Viet Nam. For the calculationof the Internal Rates of Return (IRR) and Net Present Values
(NPV) a discount rate of 10% was used. Since family labor was not included in the analysis (i.e.,
implicitly costed at zero) the valuation (NPV) should be interpreted only as net returns to the farm
enterprise family.
Figure 1: RelationBetweenLocationand Type of MangroveGoodsand Servicesand EconomicAnalysis.
Type
Marketed
Non-marketed
Locationof Goodsand Services
On-site
Off-site
Usuallyincludedin aneconomicanalysis(e.g.,
poles, charcoal,woodchips,mangrovecrabs)
Maybe included(e.g., fish or shellfishcaught
in adjacentwaters)
Seldomincluded(e.g., medicinalusesof
mangroves,domesticfuelwood,food in times
of famine, nurseryarea for juvenile fish,
feedingground for estuarinefish and shrimp,
Usuallyignored(e.g.,nutrientflowsto
estuaries,buffer to stormdamage)
viewing and studying wildlife)
Source: LawrenceS. Hamiltonand SamuelC. Snedaker,eds., Handbookfor MangroveArea Management(Honolulu:East-West
Center, 1984), fig. 42, p. 110.
B.Case Study I: The Impact of UncontrolledShrimp Farm
Developmentin Minh Hai Province
6.
Mangrove areas are being transformed to shrimp pond culture all over Viet Nam. The
situation in Minh Hai province, which accounts for some 50% of all mangrovesin Viet Nam and is the
area most beset by acid sulphatesoil problems, illustratesthe destructivehuman pressure on mangroves
in Viet Nam. To determine the economic impact of this large-scale transformation of mangrove
ecosystems, this analysis (a) presents shrimp farming models based upon different management options
(both existing and proposed); (b) describesa model for mangrove forestry management;(c) estimatesthe
contributionof mangrovesto coastal shore protection and fisheries; and (d) determinescurrent land use
patterns and alternativescenario implicationsfor Minh Hai province. It concludes that the uncontrolled
development of extensive shrimp farming has not been beneficial to Minh Hai province resulting in
foregone benefits of US$ 140 million (NPV 1984) over the last ten years, compared with an improved
extensive shrimp-mnangrove
managementmodel which would not only be more economic in the longer
term but would be environmentallysustainable. Intensive shrimp farming has played a minor role.
Analysisalso shows that the scope for implementingthe proposedcombinedshrimp mangrove modelhas
been drastically reducedwith only 45,000 ha of mangroveforest left in 1993. ShouldMinh Hai continue
along current trends, the province will incur further foregone benefits of US$ 249 million over the next
ten years.
ShrimDFarming and Forestry Models
7.
ShrimD Farming Models (models A-E). Three different types of shrimp farming
technologies are identified. While traditional extensive and semi-intensivemanagementpractices have
long been practiced in Viet Nam, extensiveshrimp farmers have only recently started to intensify their
management regimes to the improved extensive model which is the model advocated for future
developmentas it is both economicallyviable and preserves the mangrove ecosystem. Based upon field
observationsin Minh Hai, the different technologiesare briefly described as follows:
-
105 -
Annex 8
Page 3 of 31
Extensive Models (ModelsA and B, see tables I and 2): Ponds, which wouldusuallybe
either 2-3 ha, or 10-20 ha are generallysited in coastal low-lyingbarren land close to
mangroveswith earthendikes excavatedfrom the swamp(no heavyearthworks)and some
fellingof mangrovetreesto improvewatercirculation. Thesepondsare filled withbrackish
water at high tide, usuallyat the beginningof the dry season. Canal shrimps(and other
forms of fishery) enter the ponds with the water and are permittedto grow. No feed is
applied and harvest takesplace aboutevery two months. Averageproductionis 150-200
kg/ha/yror about30-60kg/ha/crop. Yieldsdeterioratesharplywithinfour years depending
on the build up of soil acidity. Acidificationtakesplace when the pyrites in acid sulphate.
soils that were dug up from the swamps (to build the dikes) become oxidized and are
washed by rain into the ponds as sulfuric acid. Furthermore,as mangroveforests in
surroundingareas are cleared,the extensivesystem, in any case, becomesunsustainableas
the nursinggroundsfor shrimp progressivelydecline." Underpressureto be more "semiintensive,"shrimpfarmerswhocan affordit (veryfew)beganto buy culturedshrimp larvae
(producedin NhaTrang, CentralRegion)and a numberbegansupplementaryfeeding. The
situation did not improvebecauseof the poor viabilityof the purchasedlarvae compared
to collectedwildstockand the increasingeffectsof pollutionon the system These factors
cannot be easily mitigatedwithoutfurther investment(improvedpumpingand drainage).
Finally as greater acidificationsets in, the system collapsedand farmnershad to abandon
their ponds pursuingless remunerativeactivities. From the above, two extensivemodels
are presented. The first, correspondingto low-inputmanagement,yieldsare low with 150
kg of shrimp and 200 kg of fish per year in 4-7 crops , but pondconstructionand resource
conditionsare favorable(modelA). The second, approximately30% of extensiveshrimp
farming is not sustainable and abandoned after 4 years due to inappropriate pond
construction (problems with water exchange) and water acidificationcaused by the
excavationof acid sulphatesoils for dikes (modelB). The shrimp culturedin the extensive
model (P. merguensis)receives a low price on the market (US$ 1.50/kg). Farmers
complementtheir on-farmincomewith fish and shellfish(200 kg equivalentper hectare)
caught in adjacentwaters which is sold for an average price of US$ 1.00/kg.
-
- Semi-intensive Models (ModelsC and D, see tables 3 and 4): In this type of farm,
investment into shrimp pond construction is much higher reaching US$ 2,500. For
operation, stocking is done with purchased fries (P. monodon), feed is added, water
exchangeis regulatedby permanentpumpingand waterhas to be treated. Moreand better
qualifiedpersonnelis.neededfor pumping,quality control, feeding, predatorcontrol and
management. Due to its higher quality (larger size), shrimp is sold for a higher per kg
price in the market (US$ 3.00/kg) than in the extensivemodel. However, experiencein
Viet Nam has shownthat half of semi-intensiveshrimpfarmingis abandonedafter 4 years
(model D) and the other half after 8 years (model C) due to managementproblems, the
occurrenceof acid sulphatesoils and pollutionproblems.
- Improved Extensive Model (Model E, see table 5): This model is hardly practiced but
representsa viable alternativeto the present traditionalextensive("shifting aquaculture")
model. It would focus on improvingthe present extensivesystem. The typical farmers
would havea 10-20ha plot in barrenlandsor mangroveareas. Dikesmaybe relocatedand
built in well-selectedzones that take advantageof the natural topography. The farmer
would build a woodengate and clear limitedareas of mangrovefor a channelto improve
water exchange;but would also replant mangrovesto protect the dike against erosion.
Wateringwouldbe done after preparingthe soil and destroyingthe existingpredators(sun
1/
Overall for the MekongDeltaaverageyield of shrimpcultureddeclinedfrom 297 kg/hain 1986to 153kg/ha in
1988.
-
106
Annex 8
Page 4 of 31
drying and use of Rotenone,Saponine,Tea Seed Cakeof Derisroot extract, includingfine
mesh to be placed in the gate grid for preventingpredators entrance). Fry of highly
commercialspeciessuch as P. monodonwould be introducedat a rate of 5,000 to 8,000
larvae/ha complimentarywith the natural seedlingsfrom the local estuaries during the
wateringoperation. Fertilizationwithanimalmanureand or chemicalfertilizerswouldalso
be required. Water quality (planktondensity) is controlledregularly(with a secchi disc)
and some fertilizersmay be addedwhen necessary. From the 90th day to the 120thday,
some feedingis done to complementany deficiencyin the naturalproductionof plankton.
Feed could consist of a mixture of trash fish and rice bran and some concentrate(fresh
protein plus vitaminsand minerals). Harvestingat the 110thto 130thday could give 250
to 300 kg per crop of highly commercialshrimps of medium to large sizes. (With the
possibilityof 2 crops/year, annualyieldsof 500-600kg is feasible.) Althoughhigher cost
than the extensivemodel, this technologywould have the advantageof a low investment
ranging from US$ 500-600/ha(substantiallylower than the semi-intensivemodels), low
input, limitedeutrophication,good returns, and it utilizesan approachwhich is recognized
and replicableto traditionalfarmers. The shrimp output(P. monodonand P. merguensis)
receives a good price in the market(USS 3.00/kg).
Intermediateto improved-extensiveand the semi-intensivemodelsis the IntearatedShrimp-MangroveManagementModel, as exemplifiedby the systempracticedby theTam GiangForestEnterprise,but with
improvementsin the shrimp pond:forest(or reforested)area ratio. Presentlymangrove forests are
retainedor replantedon 50 percent of the land with the remainderto be devotedto shrimpfeeding. The
areas retainedas mangroveforestsneed to be expandedthroughreforestationand shouldbe exploitedin
a long term sustainablesystem in the 50-100 ha blocks that have already been allocated. The Stateenterprise developsthe channelson about 10-15 percent of the area and provides for reforestation(if
necessary)of the remainingparts of the block. Familiesare then allowedto make gates at canal heads
(a dual gates system of intake and drainage is used) and to use the canals for shrimp breeding(natural
shrimp seed and some food supply) for a period of 5 years, when the closed canopystage is reached.
Thereafter,the familieswillbe responsiblefor the managementand protectionof the forest. Some2,000
ha are presentlybeing workedunder this systemin the Tam GiangForest Enterprise. Total investments
for shrimp breeding amount to US$410-450/ha,average yields are 150-200kg/ha/yr. This is not
modelledhere as a proper evaluationof cost and returns has yet to be undertaken.
8.
Mangrove Forestry Model (Model F. see table 6). This model is based on field data for
mangroveforestry on a mean annualincrementbasis. The existingstandsare cut every eightyears with
an average outputof 10 steres3 ' of poles, which sell for US$ 10, and of 5 steres of firewood(US$ 5).
Cutting fees amountto US$ 30/ha.
9.
The Costs of IncreasedShore Erosion. During the period 1984-1993,coastal mangrove
deforestationis estimatedto contribute15 meters/yearto coastalabrasionalongthe easterncoastof Minh
Hai province'. With a shore lengthof approximately200 km, coastalerosion results in an annual loss
of 300 ha of productiveland. Sinceno landprices exist in Viet Nam, the value of lost land is estimated
at US$ 2,000 per hectare which correspondsclosely to the Net Present Value of one hectare in the
sustainable extensive shrimp farming model (model A). This results in a potentialannual benefit of
2V
See MekongDeltaMasterPlan, nnematic
Studyon Environmental
Impacts,Volume1, November1992.
3/
1 stere = 0.65 m'
41
Thisobservation
is reported
in theMekongDeltaMasterPlan,Thematic
Studyon Environmental
Impacts,Vol.
I: p.
19
.
-107-
Annex8
Page 5 of 31
mangroveconservationof US$600,000duringthe period1984-1993.Thereafter,preservingmangroves
is assumed to result in an annual benefit of US$ 150,000due to the small size of the remaining
mangroves.
10.
Contributionto Local Fisheries. MinhHai coastalfisheriesare assumedto catch 60% of
the natural aquaticbiomassfound in coastalwaters around mangroveforests (300 kg fish and shellfish
per hectareof mangroveforest). Aftermangrovedestruction,naturalproductivityis assumedto decline
by 60% leading to a loss in annualcatchesof 180 kg fish per hectareof clearedmangrove. With an
average market price of US$ 1/kg for fish and shellfish,this results in an annualloss of US$ 180 per
hectare mangrovedestroyed. This estimate is in line with figures obtained for the value lost from
defoliationof the Cau Mau Peninsula(derivedfrom Hong)duringthe SecondIndochinaWar (see Annex
4 para. 22).
CurrentLand Use and AlternativeDevelopmentScenarios
11.
Current LandUse (see table 7.1). Basedon Maraund(1943),the originalarea coveredby
mangrovewetlandsin Minh Hai provinceis estimatedto have been 218,500 ha (equivalentto 50% of
total forest area). Sincemost reclamationoperationsof wetlandsfor agriculturalproductionprimarily
has convertedinlandmarshes(melaleucaforests)but not mangrovewetlands,the total mangrovewetland
area can be assumed to have been 200,000 ha in 1985. For 1985, the year when shrimp farm
developmentbecamesignificantfor Minh Hai's development(i.e., it exceeded20,000 ha), a baseline
scenariofor the situationof mangroveforestscan be constructed,based on data publishedby FIPI and
GDLM (1985). Assuminga ratio of mangroveto back mangroveforests(melaleuca)of 5:3, Minh Hai
had 110,000ha of mangroveforests, 10,000ha of shrimp farmingarea and 80,000 ha of barren lands
in 1985. The baseline scenariofor changesin land use for the period 1985-1993is developedusing
numbersprovidedby SouthernFIPI and the ProvincialForestryand Fishery Servicesof Minh Hai for
1988, 1992 and 1993.
12.
For the years 1994-2003, current trends are assumed to continue until major abandonment
of extensiveshrimp farmingsets in due to pollutionand managementproblemscausedby the destruction
of the supportingmangroveforests, acidificationof pondsand over-crowding. Duringthis period, an
increasingnumberof farmersexperiencedecliningyieldsresultingin low incomesand evenlossesbefore
they drop out of business. Abandonmentalready sets in 1991, three years after the overall shrimp
5
farmingarea equalledthe area coveredby mangroveforests
e.
Our extrapolationthrough 1999indicates
that abandonmentwill continuouslyincreaseleavingonly 23,300 ha of shrimp farms whichbe matched
by an approximatelyequal amountof remainingmangroveforests(22,000 ha).
13.
AlternativeDevelopmentScenarios(see tables 8 and 9). In order to assess the economic
impactof mangroveconversiontwo alternativescenariosfor coastalzone managementin Minh Hai are
developed in tables 8 and 9. Both developmentscenariosare based on integratedmangrove-shrimp
culture (see model E) which requires a ratio of 80% mangrovearea to 20% shrimp pond area to be
environmentallysustainable. The first scenario(table 8) is based on the assumptionthat model E had
been practiced from 1984. It assesses the costs incurred under current trends by not adopting the
appropriatemodel. The secondscenario(table9) assumesa drasticchangein currenttrendsby switching
to the appropriateintegratedmodel in 1994. In this scenario,the area on which shrimp culturecan be
practicedis limitedby the smallsize of remainingmangroveforests(45,000ha).
5/
In the context of this analysis,abandonmentfor the smallfarmersituationdoes not meanmoving out of the farm:
it means that the original productive activity (shrimp culture)has effectively ceased. For example, the fanner
might continue to keepducks in ponds.
-
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Annex 8
Page 6 of 31
The OverallCost of UncontrolledMangroveConversionin Minh Hai Province
14.
To estimatethe value of protectingmangrovesin Minh Hai province, the net benefitsof
both the scenario based on the actual developmentas well as the scenarioassumingrationalmangrove
utilization(i.e. adoptionof the environmentallysustainablemodelE) are calculated(see tables 7.3, 8.2
and 9.2). In addition to overall net benefitsof each developmentmodel, net benefits attributableto
differentmangroveservicesand products(shoreprotection,supportof local fisheries,woodand shrimp
production)are given. Fish caught by shrimpfarmnersaround their pondswhich were includedin the
extensive shrimp farming models as other outputs (see para. 7 - extensive model) are considered
separately(see columnson fisheriesvaluesin tables7-9) to make this importantmangroveservicemore
explicit.
15.
For the period 1984-1993(see table7.3), actualdevelopmentresultedin netbenefitsof US$
116million(NPV in 1994dollars). However,if MinhHai had followedthe alternative,moreappropriate
developmentpath (see table 8.2) it couldhavegeneratednet benefitsof US$ 256 million(NPV in 1994
dollars). The opportunitycost foregone would , therefore, have been US$ 140 million. For the
followingperiod 1994-2003,continuingcurrent trends (see table 7.3) are estimatedto result in net
benefitsof US$ 39 million(NPVin 1994dollars)whichare far outweighedby the US$288 million(NPV
in 1994dollars)obtainedfrom switchingto the alternativesustainabledevelopmentmodel(see table 8.2).
16.
In summary,the costs incurredby the un-economicaluse of mangroveecosystemsin Minh
Hai provinceresultfrom the differencein netbenefitsbetweenthe modelbasedon currenttrendsand the
alternativescenario. For the period 1984-1993,uncontrolledshrimpfarminghas already resultedin the
"loss" (or foregonebenefits)of US$ 140million(NPV in 1994dollars). This trend willcontinueuntil
2003 if the Minh Hai aquaculturesectordoes not take any drasticmeasuresto switchto moresustainable
managementfor the coastalzone. The costs(or foregonebenefits)of continuingalongcurrenttrendsare
estimatedto sum up to another US$ 288 minus US$ 39 or US$ 249 million(NPV in 1994dollars)
through the year 2003.
C. Case StudyII: Mangrovesfor Sea Dike ProtectionIn Central Vietnam
17.
Although mangrove forests are not abundant in central Viet Nam they fulfill a very
importantrole in the protectionof sea dikes, preventionof coastalabrasion,as buffersagainsttyphoons,
as wood reservesand as fishery habitats. This sectionattemptsto illustratethe valueof mangrovebelts
along sea dikes by providingrough estimatesfor some of the benefits of preservingmangroves:the
supplyof poles and fire wood, the supportof local fisheriesand reducedmaintenancecosts of sea dikes
(see table 10). The calculationsare done for the case of new mangroveplantings.
The Model
18.
MangroveForestry. Due to their protectivefunction,mangroveforestsare managedin a
more conservativeway thanproductionplantations. For the purposeof this analysis,it is assumedthat
mangrovesare managedon a 30 year rotation cycle with initial high planting density and selective
thinningoperationsafter 9 and 22 years. Outputlevelsreach20 steres of fire woodat the first thinning,
20 steres of poles and 50 steres of firewoodat the secondthinningand 40 steres of poles and 100 steres
at the final cut. Poles are sold for US$ 10/stere,fire woodhas a value of US$ 5/stere.
19.
Contributionto Local Fisheries. Fouryearsafter establishment,mangrovesalreadyprovide
a habitatfor surroundingfisheries,includingspecieswith a high economicvalue such as the mangrove
crab (Scylla). With increasingmangrovedensity,fish and shellfishoutputreaches50kga year from year
10 onwardand is sold for an average price of US$ 1.00/kg.
Annex 8
109
Page 7 of 31
20.
SavedCosts of Dike Maintenance. Averageannualdike repaircosts are 314,350 persondays in Viet Name'for 100 km of sea dikes. Assumingthat protectivemangrovebelts allowsavings
of 20% of annual repair costs, annual savingsfrom preserving/plantingmangrovesalong sea dikes
amountto US$ 62,870 at an averagewage of US$ 1 per person-day.
The Cost of ClearingProtectiveMangroveBeltsalon,eSea Dikes:
21.
The value of preservingmangrovesalongsea dikes in central Viet Nam is calculatedin
Table 10 Analysisrevealstheimportantrole of mangrovefor sea dikeprotectionwhich is complemented
by the supportof local fisheriesand the productionof wood. For 100kmnof sea dikescorrespondingto
500 ha of mangroves, protective mangrovebelts generate economicvalue of US$ 533,000 (NPV)
calculatedover a thirty year period.
D. An Extrapolation:The EstimatedCost of MangroveDestructionin Viet Nam
22.
This sectionprovidesan estimateof the costs incurredin Viet Nam by the un-economical
use of mangroveecosystems. It extrapolatesthe costsof mangrovedestructionfound in aboveanalysis
for uncontrolledshrimp farm developmentin Minh Hai province and for the absence of protective
mangrovebelts along sea dikes in centralViet Nam. However,it is importantto emphasizethat the
results of this sectionshould be interpretedon a roughorder of magnitudebasis, as this analysisonly
captures a few causes (and consequences)of mangrove destructionand has had to rely on field
extrapolationsand thejudgementof localexpertsin theabsenceof comprehensivereliableempiricaldata.
23.
ShrimpFarm DeveloDment.By 1993,only 38% of the mangroveforestswhichhad existed
in Minh Hai province10 years ago had remainedintactfrom the onslaughtof shrimpponddevelopment.
Assumingthat this ratio appliesto mangrovewetlandsin thewholeMekorngDelta, in the Red RiverDelta
and the North-East,shrimpfarmdevelopmenthas led to thedestructionof some 148,000ha of mangrove
forests in Viet Nam during the last decade. This impliesa economicloss of US$ 277 million(NPV in
1984dollars) over the last ten years with Minhhai accountingfor about US$ 140million. Even if the
loss is attributedto only half of the non-MekongDeltamangroveareas becausetheir problemsoils are
muchless, the total economicloss of US$ 209 millionis still considerable.
24.
ManRroveBeltsAlongSea Dikes:It is assumedthat 860 km out of an estimated2,000 km
of sea dikes in central Viet Nam either possessprotectivemangrovebelts or are suitablelocationsfor
mangroveplantations'. If humanpressure has removedor preventedmangrovesat half of these sea
dikes, the costsincurreddue to increasedsea dike maintenancecostsand theabsenceof woodsupplyand
fish wouldamountto USS 1.7 million(NPV in 1984dollars)for centralViet Nam.
25.
Adding the costs of mangrovedestructionas found in the previous sections, the uneconomicaluse of mangrove ecosystemsin Viet Nam can be estimatedto have accumulatedcosts
amountingto US$ 279 millionover the last 10 years. -
6/
World Food Programme, Appraisalof ProjectViet Nam 4617 'Rehabilitationand Upgradingof Sea Dikes."
7/
This assumptionis basedon the WFP 4617 report whichstates that in the NorthernCentralprovinces l,l OOkm
of sea dikes exist and out of 454 km which need to be rehabilitatedonly 195 km are suitable for prolective
mangrove
planuations.
Model A: Extensive Shrimp Farming (Sustainable) - Basic Data
Source: Serene, basic model 11
Basic data:
Land allocation for ponds (hectares):
Investment Costs (per hectare):
Total:
soil preparation:
canal construction:
gate:
equipment:
Operating Costs (per hectare):
Total:
labor:
.
Remarks:
4
$370
$70 low, small dikes (1.5 m3/ m length); low pond water level
$250
$20 wooden sluice gate
$30 includes small boat and casting net
$169
$139
250 persondays @ $1.00/day (4 ha)
guard:
feeding:
harvesting:
maintenance:
purchase charges:
fries:
feed:
machine hire, fuel:
other inputs (pestic.,etc.):
$63
$0
$16
$60
$30
$0
$0
$25
$5
shrimp:
fish:
150 average yield in Minh Hai (Fishery Dept)
200 (7 crops)
7 harvests of 6 persondays @$1.50/day (4 ha)
1 0% of investment
natural stocking
water exchange at 50% every 15 days
Output (kg per hectare):
200 fisheries harvest outside holding; no over-exploitation assumed
Other output (kg per hectare equivalent):
Output prices (per kg):
___________________________________
Discount Rate:
Investment Life:
shrimp
fish:
(P.merguensis):
other:
_
soil and canal works:
Igates and equipment:
$1.50 prices (in USS)are assumed to be constant
$0.20
$1.00
10%
11 years
5/6 years
_
____
Ow.
ID W
ooD
Model A: Extensive Shrimp Farming (Sustainable)- NPV and IRR Analyses
1
________-_______
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
8
12
11
10
Investment Costs:
Canal construction:
Labor:
556
Purchase charges:
120
Subtotel:
676
Shrimp:
556
120
556
120
556
120
556
120
556
120
556
120
556
120
556
120
556
556
556
556
556
556
556
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
120
676
676
676
676
676
676
676
900
900
9900 900
900
900
900
900
160
160
160
160
800
800
1184 1184
1184
384
384
676
676
676
676
876
676
676
676
676
o900 900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
160
160
160
160
Other:
800
800
800
800
-1480
556
556
676 2156
Fishes:
Balance 11lother
output excluded):
22
556
Output:
-1480
21
I
I
I
l:
Balance
20
120
120
120
Subtotal:
16
80_
8
_
_
80
80_
Instruments:
Operating Costs:
15
1000
1000
Gate:
14
280
280
Soil preparation:
13
1860 1860
1860 1860
1184 1184
1184
384
384
384
160
800
160
B00
1860 1860
160
160
160
160
B00 800 800 800 800
1860 1860 1860 1860 1860
1184 1184
984
1184
384
184
384
384
160
1184 1184
384
384
1184 1184
384
160
160
160
160
800 800 800
800
1860 1860 1860 1860
-296 1184
384 -1096
384
800
800
1860 1860 1860 1860
1184 1184
1184
384
384
384
384
_
BalanceI (NPV:,
S8.28 1
BalanceII (NPVB:
$1,264.23
__
__
IRR1(22 years):
80%
IRR 11122yrs.l:
23%
=
=
===_
aq
Wn
0
I-'
_
9
co
- BasicData
ModelB: ExtensiveShrimpFraming(Unsustainable)
_
Source: Serene, basic model 11
Investment costs
Remarks:
_
Basic data:
Land allocation for ponds (hectares):
4_
(perhectare):
$370
Total:
(perhectare):
$169
Total:
labor:
250 persondays
_
maintenance:
purchasecharges: _S30X
$16
7 harv. of 6 persondays
$60
10% of investment
$0
year 1:
Output (kg per hectare):
80
shrimp:
fish:
Other output (kg per hectare equivalent):
_______
_____exploitation
,____________
shrimp
fish:
other:
(P.merguensisl:
_
'
_
water exchange at 50% every 15 days
$25
$5
machine hire, fuel:
other inputs (pestic., etc.):
_
_
year 4:
year 2: year 3:
50 decline due to acidification of site
80
150
200
150
200
200
______ ______
100
100 and inappropriate pond construction
200
200 fisheries harvest outside holding; no overassumed
________________
prices (in US$) are assumed
to be constant
$1.50
$0.20
$1.00
10%
4 years
@ $1.50/day(4 hal
natural stocking
SO
fries:
feed:
Output prices (per kg):
@$1.00/day(4 hal
_ S
~~~~~feeding:
:harvesting:
_________________________________
_
_
S139_
'
S63
a____________________guard:
.
Discount Rate:
Life Cycle:
low, small dikes (1.5 m3/m length); low pond
water, level
wooden sluice gate
includes small boat and casting net
$70
$250
$20
$30
soil preparation:
canal construction:
gate:
equipment:
Operating costs
_-
_
a)
XQ
_
_
_
_____
o
X0x
t4.C
Slrimp Famiing(Unsuslaintible)- NPV and IRR Analysis
ModelB: Extensive
1
2
3
4
Labor:
556
556
556
556
Purchasecharges:
120
120
120
120
676
676
676
676
900
120
Boo
480
300
Investment Costs:
Soil preparation:
Canal construction:
_ Gate:
___ _____
280
1000
80
120
Instruments:
OperatinG Costs:
Subtotal:
Output:
-_
=_=
480
160
_
Shrimp:
Fishes:
Other:
800
80
80
Boo800
I
1440 1820 1360 1180
Subtotal:
Balance1:
Balance11(otheroutputexcluded):
_
-1480
-1480
764 1144 684
-36
504w
-296
-116
344
*1018
($1.518)
41%
BalanceI (NPV):
Balanca11INPV1:
IRR114yrs\:
________
_
.
h<>
_____________
_i
_
0 ErIX
Model C: Semi-Intensive Shrimp Farming (Abandonedafter 8 yrs.J - Basic Data
_
Basic data:
_
Land allocation Iliectares):
$2,500
Investment Costs (perhectare): Total:
_____________________________
Operating Costs (perlhectare):
sluice gales from brick or concrete
boats
includes pump, housing,
$24
$125
pump repair, fuel,etc.:
other inputs /pestic., etc.):
administration/ management:
$50
shrimp (P.monodon):
fish:
guard is included into labor chargesfor feeding
500 persondays@ $1.00/day(2 ha)
2 harv.of 16 persondays@$1.50/day (2 hal
5% of investment
$250
maintenance:
purchase clharges:
fries:
feed:
shrimp:
fish:
-
Life cycle:
pond water level 11-1.2 ml
hiigh
$399
Output (kg per hectare):
Rate:
Discount
high dikes for
$1,249
Total:
labor:
harvesting:
_
________
$560
soil preparation:
$1,100
construction:
dike and canal
$200
gate:
equipment: $640
guard:
feeding:
kg):Output prices (per
Remarks:
4 ponds with 2 lia water surface
2
_
$750
_
$400
$250
$50
I_
@
@
000 fries
per harvest $S10/1
20,000 fries/ha
5 kg trash fish/kg shrimp $50/ton11ton of shrimp)
water exchangeat 5-10% per day
lime, fertilizer
_
$100
year 1-2: year 3-4: year 5-6: year 7: year 8:
500
1000 800
1200
600
O_O
O
_O
O
crops)
l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
$3.00
prices (in US$) are assumedto be constant
$0.30
10%
8 years
OQ
0
(s3
o:
Semi-IntensiveSlhrimpFarming (Abandoned after 8 yrs.) - NPV and IRR Analysis
I
I
2
3
4
5
7
6
8
Investment Costs:
Soil preparation:
1120
Canal construction:
2200
400
400
1280_
1280
Gate:
Instiuments:
_.
Operating Costs:
Labor:
Purchase charges:
798
798
798
798
798
798
798
798
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
2498
4178
2498
2498
Adrrinisiration:
2498
2498
2498
2498
Shrimpr
3600
3600
7200
7200
6000
6000
4800
3000
Fishes:
Subtotal:
0
0
0
0
3600
3600
7200
7200
0
6000
0
6000
0
4800
0
3000
1102
1102
4702
4702
3502
1822
2302
502
Subtotal:
Output:
-5000
Balance:
1n
Balance(NPVI:
18.275
IRR l6 yars):
-
-
43%
ID
m>
W
X
D.t
ModelD: Semi-IntensiveShrimpFarming(Abandonedafter 4 yrs.) - BasicData
_
Basic data:
Remarks:
Investment Costs
4 pondswith 2 ha water surface
2
Land allocation(hectares):
$2,500
(perhectare):Total:
high dikes for higihpond water level (1-1.2 m)
_ soil preparation: $560
_ canal construction: $1,100
gate: $200
equipment: $640
___________
Operating Costs
(perbectare):
sluice gates from brick or concrete
includes pump, housing,boats
$1,249
Total:
labor:
$399
guard is included into labor charges for feeding
500 persondays @ $1.00/day (2 ha)
2 harv. of 16 persondays @$1.50/day (2 hal
5% of investment
guard:
feeding: $250
$24
_harvesting:
$125
maintenance:
charges:
purchase
fries:
feed:
pump repair, fuel, etc.:
etc.):
other inputs (pestic.,
administration/ management:
Output (kg per hectare):
shrimp:
fish:
Output
(perkgi):
prices
Discount Rate:
Life Cycle:
shrimp (P. monodonls
fish:
.
$750
$400
.
20,000 fries/ha per liarvest
@$10/1,000fries
5 kg trash fish/kgshrimp@ $50/ton 11ton of shrimp)
$250
$50
water exchange at 5-10% per day
lime, fertilizer
$50
$100 _
_
ear 1: year 2: year 3: year 4:
500 decline in output due to management problems, poor
800
500 1,000
0 acid sulphate soils and pollution problems
0
0
0
crops)
(2
prices (in US$) are assumed to be constant
$3.00
$0.30
10%
4 years
_
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'
*
I-
Ir
0 4
'.9 (
Model D: Semi-intensiveShrimpFarming|Abandonedafter 4 years)- NPV and IRRAnalysis
1
4
3
2
Investnient Costa:
Soil preparftion:
1120
Canal construction:
2200
400
Gate:
_
_
1280
Instruments:
=
Operating Costs:
Labor:
Purchasecharges:
Adrnristration:
Subtotal:
798
798
798
798
1500
1500
1500
1500
200
200
200
200
2498
2;498
2498
2498
3000
6000
4800
3000
0
0
0
0
3000
6000
4800
3000
502
3502
2302
502
Output:
Shrimp:
Fishes:
Subtotal:
.5000
Balance:
_
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
Balance(NPVI
$423__
IRR (4 yrsl:
14%
,
_
p1
tD
C
X
Ft'.0
w
00
Model E: Improved Extensive Shrimp Farming - Basic Data
and Ngoc Hieniand Tarn Giaig in Minhi iai province
Source: Being implemented in Duyen I lai (H-ICMC)
Remarks:
10 2 ponds with 10 ha water surfacc
Basic data:
Land allocation (hectares1:
Investment Costs (per hectare):
$800
Total:
soil preparation:
canal construction:
gate:
equipment:
Operating Costs (per
hectarel:
$150
$450
..
$100 2 wooden sluice gates
$100
-$412
Total:
$137
labor:
2 guards
____________________________guard:
feeding:
harvesting:
maintenance:
areincluded into labor charges for feeding
$50 500 persondays@ $1.00/day
S7 2 harv. of 24 persondays @ $1.50/day (10ha)
$80 10% of investnment
$275
purchase clharges:
fries:
feed:
pump hire,fuel, etc.:
otller inputs Ipestic., etc.)
$50 5.000 friesAia@$10/1,000fries
$50ltoii (2.5tonsperlhectarel
$125 5 kg/kgshrimp
$
$50
oo
$50
4
administration/ management;
$0
shrimp:
550
Output (kg per hectarel:
0
fish:
Outptit prices (per kg):
sshrimp:
fish:
10%
Discount Rate:
investment
Cycle:
$3.00 prices (in US$) are assumedto be constant
$0.30
_____________
soil and canal works:
gateand equipment:
11 years
5/6 years
___
oa,__
o
x
tm oo
Model E: ImprovedExtensiveShrimp Farmind - NPV and IRR Analysis
I
1
_____________
2
4
3
7
0
5
0
9
10
11
12
13
15
14
10
17
20
19
_a
21
Investmelnt Costs:
Soil preparation:
1500
1500
Canialconstruction:
4500
4500
Gate:
1000
1000
1000
1000
_
1370
1370
Instruments:
1000
1000
1000
1000
Operating Costs:
1370
tabor:
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
13/0
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
1370
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2 750
2750
2750
4120
4120
12120
4120
4120
4120
4120
6120
4120
4120
4120
4120
10500
10500
0500
I
10500
t1500 16500
10500
0
0
0
0
0
r'urchase cliaiges:
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
2750
Subtotal:
4120
4120
4120
4120
4120
0120
4120
4120
4 120
1G500
10500
16500
10500
105001
Shrinmp:
0
0
10500
10500
I ishies:
Subtotal:
*n000 12300
nalarnce:
INP'V):
Ilalance
600.510
_
I __.__
Outptut:
0
1ns1O
12300 12300
o
10500
1G500 10G500 10500
0
0
0
0
0
1G500 10500
0
0
0
0
10500
10500
10500
10500
10500 16500
10500
10500
10500
10500
10500 10500 10500
10500
1500
10500
10500
10500
12380
12300
10300
12300
12300
12380
12300
12300
4380
12300
12380
12380
10380
123uo
12380
12380
12380
12380
I______
__
__
_ __ ___
10500
0
0
0
0
1000
XX
inn:
08
l_b
o to1
-
I
Model F: MangroveForestry on Mean Annual Increment Basis
Province)
Source: Serene(fasedon DuyenHai, l-ICMC
13asicdata:
Land allocation(hectares):
OperatingCosts Iper hectarei:
_
cutting fees:
Output Istere per hectare):
poles:
fire wood:
sterel:
prices (per
Output
Rate:
Oiscotint
._
.
.
_._._
.
rcmarks:
120 harvestingfollows a 8 year cycle 114 la cut per year)
S30
10 yield estimatesare very conservative
5
_
poles:
fire wood:
$10 prices(in US$)are assumedto beconstant
$5
10%
l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
CD
OQ
ovo
O
(D
:j
Cax
0wX
Model F: Mangrove Forestry on MoanAnnual Increment13asis
area: 120hactar.s
2
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
l0
I11
12
_3
i
tOpueating Costs:
ctiting
fuas:
Sub-toinl:
Wood atUS$ 10/sI.
Wood ar US5 5/sie
16
17
8
19
20
21
22
I
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
450
1500- 1500
1500
1500
I1500
1500
1500
I S00
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
375
1500
1500
375
1500
375
375
1500
375
1500
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
1875
375
375
1875
1875
375
1875
375
375
1875
1875
1075
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1875
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
1425
Sililgotal:
1875
Balance:
15
1425
1875
1425
1875
1426
1425
1425
Balance INPVI$ 12.499
Balance (NPVI the:
$104…=
82
t
o
n2
Fh
.-
co
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Area Performance and Continuing Trends for 1984 - 2003 (Scenario l)
angrove MArea
Wetlands Mangrove Forest (1,000
a
(1.000 ha)
Total
year
1984
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
200/a
200/a
200/a
200/a
110.0
100.0/a
90.0
75.0
Replanting Total
annual
0.8/a
1.3/a
1.1 /a
1.1/a
of Barren
Lands
(1,000 ha)
Area of Shrimp Farming (1.000 ha)
10.8
20.0/a
33.2
49.3
Extens.
Semi-int.
10.8
22.1
33.2
49.3
62.0
0.9/a 61.6/a
60.0/a
200/a
74.1
74.1
0.5/a
60.0
200/a
88.5
88.6
2.9/a
55.0
200/a
96.4
96.6
0.0/a
55.0
200/a
2.9/a 106.5/a 106.0
1/ 200/a 2/ 50.0/a
1.5 119.0/a 118.0
45.0
200/a
1.5 125.5 124.0
30.0
200/a
1.5 122.0 120.0
20.0
200/a
1.0 103.3 100.3
20.0
200/a
81.3
83.3
1.0
21.0
200/a
52.3
53.3
0.5
21.5
200/a
22.3
23.3
0.5
22.0
200/a
22.3
23.3
0.0
22.0
200/a
22.3
23.3
0.0
22.0
200/a
22.3
23.3
0.0
22.0
200/a
22.3
23.3
0.0
22.0
200/a
1/ Back Mangrove Wetlands is probably another 100,000
2/ Back Mangroves is an addition 25,000 ha
0.0/a
0.0/a
0.0/a
0.0/a
0.0/a
0.0/a
0.1/a
0.2/a
0.5/a
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
Abandonment
Development
original
total extens. Semi-in annual cumul. total
total
annual cumul. annual annual
79.2
79.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
10.8
10.8 10.8
77.9
0.0 77.9/a
0.0
0.0
11.3
11.3 22.1
76.8
76.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.1
11.1 33.2
75.7
75.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
16.1
16.1 49.3
15.9
15.5
17.9
15.0
17.9
21.5
16.5
11.5
1.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
65.2
80.7
98.6
113.6
131.5
153.0
169.5
181.0
182.3
182.3
182.3
182.3
182.3
182.3
182.3
182.3
15.9
15.5
17.8
14.9
17.6
21.0
16.0
10.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
o.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
1.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.2
3.4
3.3
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
20.0
30.0
30.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
3.2
6.6
10.0
17.0
25.0
34.0
44.0
59.0
79.0
99.0
129.0
159.0
159.0
159.0
159.0
159.0
78.0/a
65.9
56.4
48.4
43.5
36.0
44.5
58.0
75.7
95.7
125.2
154.7
154.7
154.7
154.7
154.7
74.8
59.3
46.4
31.4
18.5
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
Remark: All numbersare given in 1,000 ha. Numbersmarked with "/a" are basedon existing official data, others are imputed or projected.
0 m0
H
O (D a
.~
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Current Trends: Background Data and Basic Assumptions
Basic Data and Assumptions:
Total Wetlands (originalIlV:
Mangrove:
Back Mangrove:
Baseline (1985):
Mangrove wetlands:
Source:
437 Maurand 1943
Assumptions:
1
1) ratio of mangrove to back mangrove land is I1/
__218.5
218.5
total:
200
forested:
100 FIPI
2) most land reclamation on original back manigrove lands
( estimate from WPNoS
._________
barren:
shrimp farming:
Reclaimed land:
Mangrove wetlands 1988:
total:
forested:
shrimp farming:
barren:
200
60 Southern FIPI
60 Prv. Fish. Serv.
80
Mangrove wetlands 1992:
total:
forested:
200
50 Prv. For. Serv.
shrimp
100 Prv. For. Serv.
farming:
barren:
Shrimp
farming
Replanting
area
activities:
50
119
1993:
isee table)
I
I
__
4) all aquaculture is shrimp farning
110
60 FIPI
50 GDLM 1985
127
forested:
barren:
|__
jratio taken from FIPtI quoted by Prov. Forest Serv.;
_(
80 GDLM 1985
20 GDLM 1985
Back mangrove wetlands:
(pp. 23-24))
3) ratio of mangrove to back mangrove forests is equal to 5/3
l
l
see 3)
see 2)
_
s0
=
=-
from Prov. Fish. Serv.. 20 from forest enterprise
l
Prv.
For.
Serv.
Prv. For. Serv.
l
Further assumptions:
1) 30% of extensive shrimp farms are abandoned after four years due to improper site selection and pond layout; 70% are sustainable
2) 50% of intensive shrimp farms are abandonedafter 3 years due to management problems. 50% after 6 years
e
31Beginning 1991. 3 years alter the year in which shrimp form area equalled the remaining mangrove forest area, crowding effects load to n slight increase
in abandonment. Abandonnmentrates increase gradually until 1999. when most of the shrimp farms have given up shrimp production.
rs c
41 The only significant cause of mangrove deforestation is shrimp farm development.
-t
0
oo
t- J 00
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Imputed Value Performanceand Continuing Trends (1984-2003)
Forestry
(US|
Foetr)
Fisheries
(USS 1,000)
Shrimp Farming (USS 1,000)
Intensive
Extensive
Total
Total
(USS 1,000)
year
1984
1985
1986
1987
_1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
1,320
1,200
1,080
900
720
720
660
660
600
540
360
240
240
252
258
264
264
264
264
264
3,521
4,688
5,301
7,428
8,564
-220
3,464
2,085
3,051
2,522
2,644
2,833
2,008
2,650
601
17
2,007
2,007
2,007
2,007
3,521
4,688
5,301
7,428
8,564
-220
3,614
2,120
3,210
2,621
2,150
1,700
1,250
800
350
17
2,007
2,007
2,007
2,007
0
0
0
0
0
0
-150
-35
-160
-99
494
1,133
758
1,850
251
0
0
0
0
0
19,800
18,000
16,200
13,500
10,800
10,800
9,900
9,900
9,000
8,100
5,400
3,600
3,600
3,780
3,870
3,960
3,960
3,960
3,960
3,960
24,641
23,888
22,581
21,828
20,084
11,300
14,024
12,645
12,651
11,162
8,404
6,673
5,848
6,682
4,729
4,241
6,231
6,231
6,231
6,231
NPV (1984-2003):
6,220
30,983
29,881
1,102
93,307
130,510
NPV (1984-1993):
NPV (1994-2003):
5,581
1,660
26,342
12,037
26,541
8,663
-199
3,374
83,709
24,895
115,631
38,592
Remark: The extensive shrimp farming column does not include other outputs which are included in the
extensive shrimp farming models A and B. Instead, the impact of mangrove deforestation on surrounding
fisheries is captured by the column on fisheries to make this impact more explicit.
X
,
0
4
,-
rD
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Contintiition of Table 7.3
Explanations:
I
Forestry Model (Mean Annual Increment Basis, profits per hecta e)
$12
Eannual rev.:
Extensive Shrimp Farming (profitsper hectare)
-unsustainable:
sustainable:
$326 year 1:
I st year:
year 2-5:
year 6, 1 7:
year 7-1 1, 13year 12:
Intensive Shrimp
remarks:
$96
$0-600
($9) from shrimp farming
$0-600from wood cutting
1$370)
$96 year 2:
$46 year 3:
$96 year 4:
($274)
($370) investment cost
$86
($291
($74)
_
Farming(profitsper h ctare):
._
remarks:
total
$251 from shrimp farming
$600 from wood cutting
($2,500) investment cost
3 yrs. cycle:
6 yrs. c cle::
1$1,3491 1styear:
l st year:
($1,649)
$551
$600
I($2,500)
year
year
year
year
year
year
2:
3-4:
5:
6:
7:
8:
$551 year 2:
$1,751
$2,351 year 3:
$1,151
$1,751 year 4:
$251
$911
$1,151_
$251
Crowding effect (forextensive):
yield reduction
50% revenue:
25%
From wood
cutting
g
year 1:
$600
$326
1984-7, 95-9
$400
$126
1988, 94:
$200
($74)
1990, 92-93:
$0
($274)
1989, 91:
lexpl.: In the first year, profits froin shrimp farming
depends on the amount of wood cut and sold
during constru tion
_
_
;
($9) 3-2 yrs. before aband.
1 yr. before aband.
($74)
__
_
_
_
____
Contribution to Fisheries (annual,per ha):
Discount Rate:
$180
10%
.
____
_
_
w_
10m
Annex 8
-126- 126
Table
-
8.1
Page 24 of 31
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Area Performance assuming Best Practice (Scenario 2)
Mangrove
Area of Shrimp Farming
Mangrove
Wetlands
Forest
(1,000 ha)
(1,00h)(000
ha)
(100h)(1,000 ha)
Total
year
I'1]
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
110.0
100.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
95.0
[2]
lAnnualDev.
1
10.01
20.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.0
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
25.01
10.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
TtlAe
Area of
Barren Lands 1Total Area
(1,000 ha)
_
[3]
[1 + 2 + 3]
80.0
200.0
200.0
80.0_
80.01
200.0
200.0
80.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
200.0
80.0
80.0
200.0
80.0 200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
80.0
200.0
Explanation: Shrimp farming development occurs at the same rate as in the baseline
model, but it is stopped in 1986 at the sustainability limit (80% mangrove forest area to
20% shrimp farming area). Thereafter mangrove forests are effectively protected
land shrimp farms are managed according to the improved extensive model.
Annex 8
Table 8.2
-127Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Area Performanceassuming Best Practice (Scenario2)
Forestry
(US$1,000)
year
Shrimp Farming
(US$ 1,000)
_
(USS1,000)
1,320
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
Fisheries
(US$1,000)
(US100
l
_ _ __
1984
Shore
Protection
Page 25 of.31
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
_
_
_
_
jiTotal:
2,8801
600
19,8001
24,600
1,200
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,1401
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
1,140
10,7601
21,700
28,700
30,950
28,950
28,950
29,950
30,950
30,950
30,950
22,950
22,950
26,950
30,950
30,9501
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
600
18,000j
17,1001
17,1001
17,100
17,100
17,100
17,100
17,100
17,100
17; 100
17,100
17,100
17,100
17,100
17,100
30,560
40,540
47,540
49,790
47,790
47,790
48,790
49,790
49,790
49,790
41,790
41,790
45,790
49,790
49,790
2000
2001
1,140
1,140
28,9501
28,950
600
600
17,100
17,100
47,790
47,790
2002
1,140
29,950
600
17,100
48,790
2003
1,140
30,950
600
17,100
49,790
NPV (84-03):
9,919_
203,344
5,108
148,780
367,151
NPV (84-93):
NPV (94-03):
7,218
7,005
136,862
172,437
3,687
3,687
108,270
105,072
256,037
288,200
-128,
Annex 8
Table 9.3
Page 29 of 31
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Alternative Scenario 94
Explanations:
I______
Forestry Model (MeanAnnual Increment Basis, profits per hectare):
$12
_annual:
Improved Extensive Shrimp Farming (profits per hectare):
year:
|____________
($312)
_1st
|
total
$488 from shrimp farming
$0
income
from wood cutting
costs
($800) investment
__________
7year
2:
_
$788
year 3-5, 7-11, 13vear 6, 17:
year 12:
Shore Erosion (value of lost land):
lannual
average:
______
_____
Contribution
.Discount
to Fisheries
annual:
Rate:
__
.
_
$1,238
$1,038
$438____
$150,000
(per hectare):
$180
10%
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
-129-
Annex
Page
8
Table 9.2
28 of 31
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Alternative Scenario 94
Forestry
(US$1,000)
Shrimp Farming
(USS 1,000)
year
Shore .
CUSS1,000)
Fisheries
(USS 1.000)
l
7
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
NPV (1994-2003)
7
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Tot
|
540
-3,432
150
8,100
5,358
540
8,668
150
8,100
17,458
540
540
540
540
540
540
540
540
13,618
13,618
13,618
11,418
13,618
13,618
13,618
13,618
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
150
8,100
8,100
8,100
8,100
8,100
8,100
8,100
8,100
22,408
22,408
22,408
20,208
22,408
22,408
22,408
22,408
3,3181
62,844
922
49,771
116,855
-130-
Annex 8
Table 9.1
Page 27 of 31
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Alternative Scenario 94
Mangrove
Wetlands
(1,000 ha)
Year
Mangrove
Forest
(1,000 ha)
Annual Dev.
Total
Total
Total Area
Area of
Barren Lands
(1,000 ha) (1,000 ha)
Area of Shrimp Farming
hrm
Areaof
(
ha)
1994
200
45
11
11
1995
200
45
11
0
1996
200
45
11
200
200
200
200
200
200
200
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
1997
1998
1999
2000,
2001
2002
2003
144
[1 + 2 + 31
200.0
144
200.0
144
200,0
144
144
144
144
144
144
144
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
t3]
(2]
[1]
_
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-
131
Annex 8
-
Table 8.3
Page 26 of 31
,
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Area Performance assuming Best Practice (Scenario2)
Exolanations:
Forestry Model (Mean Annual Increment Basis, profits per hectare):
lannual:
T12
=
Improved Extensive Shrimo Farming (profits per hectare):
$288 total
1st year:
$488 from shrimp farming
$600 from wood cutting
($800) investment costs
.__________
Shore Erosion
vear
year
year
year
2:
3-5, 7-11, 136, 1 7:
12:
$788 _
$1,238
$1,038
$438
(valueof lost land):
lannual average:
$600,000_
Contribution to Fisheries (per hectare)l
annual:
Discount Rate:
$180
10 %
-132-
Annex 8
TableT9. 3
Page 29 of 31
Mangrove Wetlands in Minh Hai - Alternative Scenario 94
Explanations:
Forestry Model (MeanAnnual Increment Basis, profits per hectare):
J12 2
1 annual:
Improved Extensive Shrimp Farming (profits per hectare):
1st year:
($312) total
$488
from shrimp farming
$0 income from wood cutti n
________
Shore Erosion
year
year
year
year
2:
3-5, 7-11, 136, 17:
12:
(valueof
($800)
$788
$1,238
$1,038
$438
lost land):
lannualaverage:
$150,000
Contribution to Fisheries (per hectare) .
Discount
Rate:_~annual:
Discs
Rte
c
$180
10 °6
investment
costs
_
.
-
MangrovePlantationfor Sea Dike Protection
Savethe Child en/UK; WFP4617
Source:Serene,basic model 11with adjustments;
Basic data:
Landallocation Ihectares):
remarks:
100kmlengtli, 50m averagevwth
500
InvestmentCost (perhectare) Total:
seed:
planting:
administration:
$55
OperatingCosts (perhectarel: maintenance/guard:
1st cutting:
2nd cutting:
final cutting:
$20
$31
$60
Output (stere per hectare):
poles:
fire wood:
$15
.
$20
$20
first three years
9
Year
y
year 22
year 30
$135
1st cutting: 2nd cutting: final cutting:
40 output levels are conservativeestimates
20
0
100
50
20
I
w
store):
Output prices (per
poles:
fire wood:
Saved Costs of Dike Maintenance:
$10
$5
prices (in US$)are assumedto be constant
annual savingsfor 100km seadikes, averageannualdike repair
4617: pp. 31, 871;assume
costs: 314,350 persondays (WFP
1 pers. day - US$ 1 and 20% of repair costs due to absence
$62,870 starting year 10
________l_ wm
of mangovecover; full protectionfunction achievedin year G
wh~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~vlen
mangrovemoredeveloped
_
$0 year 1-4
$31,435year 5-9
2
Contributionto FisheriesIS per hectarel:
$0
year 10-30:
year 5-9:
$50 averageprice of fishl/shellfisihoutput is assumedto be US$ 1
$25
10%
DiscountRate:
RotationCycle:
year 1-4:
_30
years I.
w
°3
H
o
I-.
0-
MangrovePlantationfor SeaDike Protection
(US 1,000i
o
Investment Cost,
seed:
planinng:
2
1
7.5
10
10
edmnistfetlion:
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
28
27
28
29
30
o
o
0
68
0
0
68
___
=
_
=
=
-
-
_
_
-
-
Operating Costs:
maintenance/
guard:
10 10 10
_
0
0
0
0
cutting:
0
0
Sub-total: 28
10 10 10
0
0
0
0
………
Wood at USS 10/ste
Wood at USS 5/ste
Fish
Subtotal:
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
13
13
13
13
13
Dike Maintenance:
0
0
0
31
31
63
-10 -10 -10
31
44
75
Output:
Bnlance:
-28
Balance
INPV):
0
-
-
0
0
0
ol
0 o
0
16
-
1
-
0
0
_
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
_
0
0
0 o
0
01 30
o0 o
0
30
=_… …
…
…
0
0
…
0
o
…
0
-
0
0
25
25
_
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
200
250
25 25
25 475
63
63
63
631 63
63
63
63
63
0
-………
13
13
0
s50
o_
13 25
63 25
251 25
251 25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
25
100
125
25 25
25 250
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
63
75
75 110
88
88
88
88
88
88
88
88
88
88 283
63
888 88
88 BB 8888
88 88
63
88 470
____
S532,563
Balance NPVIIhNPV
_
__h;
#1.065
IRR:45%
|Balance
1984-1993
(NPVI:
_
………_
09
013
I-i
D
0
t-h
-l
tox
- 135 -
ANNEX
Page
1 of
9
18
VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROGRAM AND PROLICY PRIORITIES
FOR A SOCIALIST ECONOMY IN TRANSITION
SOCIALIST
RSPUBLIC
Independence
- Freedom
NATIONAL
THM SOCIALIST
OF VIETNAM
- Happiness
ASSEMBLY
OF
REPUBLIC
0P VIlTNAM
IX Legislature, 4th Session
(from 06 to 30 December 1993)
LAW
ON ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION
The environmentis of special importanceto the life of humans and other living creatures
as well as to the economic, cultural and social development of the country, the nation and
mankind as a whole.
In order to raise the effectiveness of state management and the responsibiities of the
administration at all levels, of state agencies, economic and social organizations, units of the
People's Armed Forces and all individualswith respect to environmentalprotection with a view
to protecting the health of the people, ensuring the right of everyone to live in a healthy
environmentand serving the cause of sustainabledevelopmentof the country, thus contributing
to the protection of regional and global enviromnent;
Pursuant to Article 29 and Article 84 of the 1992 Constitutionof the SocialistRepublic of
Vietnam;
This law provides for the protection of the envirorunent.
-
136
-
Page
ANNEX 9
2 of 18
Chapter I
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Article 1
The enviromnent comprises closely inter-related natural factors and man-made material
factors that surround human beings and affect life, production, the existence and development
of man and nature.
Environmental protection as stipulated in this law includes activities aimed at preserving a
healthy, clean and beautiful environment, improving the environment, ensuring ecological
balance, preventing and overcoming adverse impacts of man and nature on the environment,
making a rational and economicalexploitation and utilizationof natural resources.
Article 2
In this law the below-citedterms shall have the following meanings:
1- Componentsof the environmentmean factors that constitutethe environment:air, water,
soil, sound, light, the earth's interior, mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, sea, living organisms,
ecosystems, population areas, production centers, nature reserves, natural landscapes, famed
beauty spots, historical vestiges and other physical forms.
2- Wastes mean substances discharged from daily life, production processes or other
activities. Wastes may take a solid, gaseous, liquid or other forms.
3- Pollutants mean factors that render the environmentnoxious.
4- Environmentalpollutionmeans alternationin the propertiesof the environment,violating
environmental standards.
5- Environmentaldegradationmeans qualitativeand qualitativealteration in the components
of the environment, adversely affecting man's life and nature.
6- Environmental incidents mean events or mishaps occurring in the process of human
activities, or abnormal changes of nature causing serious environmental degradation.
EnvironmnentalIncidentsmay be caused by:
- 137 -
Page
ANNEX 9
3 of 18
a) Storms, floods, droughts, earth cracks, earthquakes, landslides, ground subsidence,
volcanic eruptions, acid rain, hails, climaticchanges and other natural calamities;
b) Fires, forest fires, technical failures at production or business establishments or in
economic, scientific, technical, cultural, social, security or defence facilities, causing damage
to the enviromnent;
c) Accidents in the prospection, exploration, exploitationor transportation of minerals or
oil and gas, pit collapse, oil spouts and spills, pipeline breaks, shipwrecks, accidents at oil
refineries and other industrialestablishments;
d) Accidents in nuclear reactors, atomic power plants, nuclear fuel producing or reprocessing plants or radioactive material storages.
7- Environmentalstandardsmean norms and permissiblelimits set forth to serve as a basis
for the management of the environment.
8- Clean technologymeans a technologicalprocess or technical solution either causing no
environmentalpollution or generatingpollutants at the lowest level.
9- Ecosystemmeans a systemof groups of living organismsexistingand developingtogether
in a given environment, interacting with one another and with that environment.
10- Biodiversity means the abundance in gene pools, species and varieties of living
organisms and ecosystemsin nature.
11- Environmentalimpactassessment(E.I.A) means the process of analyzing,evaluatingand
forecasting the effects on the environmentby socioeconomicdevelopmentprojects and plans,
by production and businessestablishments,and economic,scientific,technical,medical, cultural,
social, security, defence or other facilities, and proposing appropriate solutions to protect the
environment.
Article 3
The State shall exercise unified management of environmentalprotection throughout the
country, draw up plans for environmentalprotection, build up capabilities for environmental
protection activities at the central and local levels.
The State shall adopt investmentpoliciesto encourageorganizationsand individualsat home
and abroad to invest under different forms in, and apply scientificand technologicaladvances
to, environmental protection, and protect their lawful interests therein.
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Article 4
The State shall be responsible for organizing the implementationof education, training,
scientific and technological research activities and the dissemination of scientific and legal
knowledge on environmentalprotection.
Organizationsand individualsshall be liable for participatingin the activities mentioned in
this Article.
Article 5
The State shall protect national interests with regard natural resources and the environment.
The State of Vietnam shall broaden cooperativerelationswith other countries in the world,
with foreign organizationsan individualsin the field of environmentalprotection.
Article 6
Environmentalprotection is the common cause of the entire population.
All organizations and individualsshall have the responsibilityto protect the environment,
observe the environmental protection legislation, have the right and obligation to detect and
denounce any act in breach of the environmentalprotection legislation.
All foreign organizations and individualsoperating on Vietnamese territory shall abide by
Vietnam's environmentalprotection legislation.
Article 7
Organizationsand individualsmaking use of componentsof the environmentfor production
or business purposes shall, if necessary, contribute financially to environmentalprotection.
The Government shall regulate the circumstances, levels and modalities for the financial
contribution mentioned in this Article.
Any Organizationor individualwhose activitiescause damage to the environmentshall make
compensation therefor according to regulationsby the law.
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Article 8
The National Assembly, the People's Councils, the Vietnam Fatherland Front and its
member organizations, within the scope of their tasks and powers, shall be responsible for the
control and supervision of the implementationof the environmentalprotection legislation.
The Govermnent and the People's Committees at all levels shall be responsible for
organizing the implementationof the environmentalprotection legislation.
Article 9
All acts causing environmentaldegradation, environmentalpollution or environmental
incidents, are strictly prohibited.
Chapter n
PREVENTIONAND COMBATAGAINST
ENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATION
ENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTIONAND
ENVIRONMENTALINCIDENTS
Article 10
The State offices, within the scope of their functionsand tasks, shall be responsible for
organizing the investigation,study and evaluationof the existingconditionsof the environment,
periodically reporting to the National Assembly on the current status of the environment; for
identifyingareas of environmentalpollutionand notifyingthe public thereof and for drawing up
plans for the prevention and combat againstenvironmentaldegradation,environmentalpollution
and environmental incidents. Organizationsand individuals shall have the responsibility to
engage in the prevention and combat againstenvironmentaldegradation,environmentalpollution
and environmental incidents.
Article 11
The State encourages, and shall create favorable conditions for all organizations and
individualsin the rationaluse and exploitationof componentsof the environment,the application
of advanced technologyand clean technology,the exhaustive use of wastes, the economicaluse
of raw materials and the utilization of renewable energy and biological products in scientific
research, production and consumption.
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Article 12
Organizations and individuals shall have the responsibility to protect all varieties and
species of wild plants and animals, maintain biodiversity and protect forests, seas and all
ecosystems.
The exploitation of biological resources must observe their prescribed seasonal
characteristics and areas, using proper methodsand permittedtools and means in order to ensure
their restoration in terms of density, varietiesand species, thus preventingecological imbalance.
The exploitationof forests must complystrictly with plans and specific stipulationsof the
Law on Forest Protection and Development. The State shall adopt plans to involve organizations
and individualsin afforestationand greening of waste lands and denuded hills and mountainsto
quickly expand the forest cover and protect catchment regions of watercourses.
Article 13
The use and exploitation of nature reserves and natural landscapes must be subject to
permission by the sectoral management authority concerned and the State management agency
for environmentalprotectionand must be registered with the local People's Committeesentrusted
with the administrative management of these conservation sites.
Article 14
The exploitationof agricultural land, forest land, and land for aquaculturemust comply
with land use plans, land improvement plans and ensure ecological balance. The use of
chemicals, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and other biological products must comply with
stipulations by law.
In carrying out production and business activities or constructionworks, measures must
be taken to restrict, prevent and combat soil erosion, land subsidence, landslide, soil salination
or sulphatation, uncontrolled desalination, laterisation and desertification of land, or its
transformation into swamps.
Article 15
Organizations and individuals must protect water sources, water supply and drainage
systems, vegetation, sanitation facilities, and observe the regulationson public hygiene in cities,
urban areas, countryside, populationcenters, tourism centers and production areas.
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Article 16
In carrying out production, businessand other activities,all organizationsand individuals
must implement measures for environmentalsanitation and have appropriate waste treatment
equipment to ensure compliance with environmental standards and to prevent and combat
environmentaldegradation, environmentalpollution and environmentalincidents.
The 'Govermment shall stipulate the nomenclature of environmental standards and
delegate the authority at different levels for promulgatingand supervising the implementation
of such standards.
Article 17
Organizations and individuals in charge of the management of economic, scientific,
technical, health, cultural, social, securityand defence establishmentsthat have begun operation
prior to the promulgation of this law must submit an E.I.A. report on their respective
establishmentsfor appraisal by the State managementagency for environmentalprotection.
In case of failure to meet environmental standards, the organizations or individuals
concerned must take remedial measures within a given period of time as stipulatedby the State
managementagency for environmentalprotection. Upon expiry of the stipulated time limit, if
they still fail to meet the requirements of the State management agency for environmental
protection, the latter shall report to the higher State authority at the next level to consider and
decide on the suspension of operation or other penalizingmeasures.
Article 18
Organizations, individualswhen constructing, renovating production areas, population
centers or economic, scientific,technical, health, cultural, social, security and defence facilities;
owners of foreign investment or joint venture projects, and owners of other socio-economic
development projects, must submit E.I.A reports, to the State management agency for
environmentalprotection for appraisal.
The result of the appraisalof E.I.A reports shall constituteone of the bases for competent
authorities to approve the projects or authorize their implementation. The Government shall
stipulate in detail the formats for the preparation and appraisal of E.I.A reports and shall issue
specific regulations with regard to special security and defence establishments mentioned in
Article 17 and in this article.
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The National Assembly shall consider and make decision on projects with major
environmentalimpacts. A scheduleof suchtypes of projects shall be determinedby the Standing
Committeeof the National Assembly.
Article 19
The importation and exportation of technologies, machinery, equipment, biological or
chemical products, toxic substances, radioactivematerials, various species of animals, plants,
gene sources and microorganismsrelating to the protectionof the environmentmust be subject
to approval by the sectoral managementagencyconcerned and the State managementagency for
environmental protection.
The Governmentshall stipulate a schedule for each domain and each category referred
to in this Article.
Article 20
While searching, exploring, exploiting, transporting, processing, storing minerals and
mineral products, including underground water, organizations and individuals must apply
appropriate technology and implement environmental protection measures to ensure that
environmental standards are met.
Article 21
While searching, exploring, exploiting, transporting, processing, storing oil and gas,
organizations and individuals must apply appropriate technology, implement environmental
protection measures, develop preventive plans against oil leakage, oil spills, oil fires and
explosions and dispose necessary facilities to response timely to those incidents.
The use of toxic chemicals in the process of searching, exploration, exploitation, and
processing of oil and gas must be guaranteed by technical certificates and be subject to the
control and supervisionby the State management agency for environmentalprotection.
Article 22
Organizations, individualsoperating means of water, air, road and rail transports must
observe environmental standards and be subject to the supervision and periodic inspection for
compliance with environmental standards by the relevant sectoral management agency and the
State managementagencyfor environmentalprotection. The operationof transport means failing
to meet stipulated environmental standards shall not be permitted.
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Article 23
Organizations, individualsproducing, transporting, trading using, storing or disposing
of toxic substances, inflammableor explosivesubstances,must complywith regulationson safety
for human and other living beings and must avoid causingenvironmentaldegradation,pollution
or incidents.
The Government shall stipulate a list of toxic, inflammable or explosive substances
mentioned in this Article.
Article 24
The siting, design, constructionand operationof plants in the nuclear industry, of nuclear
reactors, facilities for nuclear research, for the production,transportation,utilizationand storage
of radioactivematerials, for the disposalof radioactivewastesmust comply with legal provisions
on nuclear safety and radiation safety and with regulationsby the State managementagency for
environmental protection.
Article 25
Organizations, individualsmaking use of machinery,equipment, materials with harmful
electro-magnetic radiation or ionizingradiation must comply with legal provisions on radiation
safety and must carry out regular check and environmentalimpact assessmentof their facilities
and report periodically to the State managementagency for environmentalprotection.
Article 26
The choice of sites for collecting, dumping and treating refuse or pollutants and their
transportation must comply with regulationsby the State managementagency for environmental
protection and by the local authorities concerned.
Waste water, refuse containing toxic substances, pathogenetic agents, inflammableor
explosive substances, non-degradablewastes, must be properly treated before discharge. The
State management agency for environmentalprotectionshall stipulate a schedule of waste water
and refuse mentioned in this Article and supervise their treatmentprocess before discharge.
Article 27
The burial, lying in state, embalment, interring, cremation and transport of corpses or
remains of the dead must utilize progressivemethods and means and comply with provisions of
the Law on Protection of Public Health to ensure environmentalhygiene.
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The Administrationat all levels must plan for burial, cremation sites and guide people
to gradually abandon backward practices.
Cemeteries, crematoria must be located far away from population areas and sources of
water.
Article 28
Organizations, individuals in the course of their activities must not cause noises or
vibrationsthat exceedpermissiblelimits, harming the healthof surroundingpeople and adversely
affecting their life.
The People's Committeesat all levels shall be responsiblefor the implementationof noise
control measures in areas of hospitals, schools, public offices, and residential quarters.
The Governmentshall promulgateregulationsto restrict, and to proceed towards the strict
prohibition of the production and firing of firecrackers.
Article 29
The following activities are strictly prohibited:
1- Burning and destruction of forests, uncontrolled exploitationof minerals leading to
environmental damage, destroying ecological balance;
2- Discharge of smoke, dust, noxious gas, bad odors causing harm to the atmosphere;
emission of radiation, radioactivity exceeding permissible limits into the surrounding
environment;
3- Discharge of grease or oil, toxic chemicals, radioactive substances exceeding
permissible limits, wastes, dead animalsor plants, harmful and infectivebacteria and viruses into
water sources.
4- Burial, discharge of toxic substancesexceedingpermissible limits into the soil;
5- Exploitation, trading in precious or rare species of plants and animals identified in the
schedule stipulated by the Government;
6- Importation of technology and equipment not meeting environmental standards;
importation, exportation of wastes;
7- Use of methods, means, instruments causing massive destruction in exploiting or
harvesting animal and plant resources.
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Chapter III
REMEDY OF ENVIRONMENTALDEGRADATION,
ENVIRONMENTALPOLLUTION,
ENVIRONMENTALINCIDENTS
Article 30
Organizations, individualsengaged in production, business and other activities that cause
environmental degradation, environmentalpollution, environmentalincidents must implement
remedial measures as specifiedby the local People's Committeesand by the State management
agency for environmentalprotection, and shall be liable for damages according to regulations
by the law.
Article 31
Organizations, individuals allowing radioactivity, electro-magnetic radiation, ionizing
radiation to exceed permissible limits must take immediatemeasures to control and remedy the
consequences, timely report to the relevant sectoral management agency and to the State
management agency for environmentalprotection, as well as to the local People's Committee
to resolve the problem.
Article 32
The remedy of an environmentalincidentincludes: eliminatingthe cause of the incident;
rescuing people and property; assisting, stabilizingthe life of the people; repairing damaged facilities; restoring production;sanitizingthe environment,preventingand combattingepidemics;
investigating, collecting statistics on damages, monitoring changes to the environment;
rehabilitating the environmentof the affected area.
Article 33
Persons who detect signs of an environmentalincident must immediatelynotify the local
People's Committee, the nearest agency or Organizationfor timely action:
Organizations,individualsat the site of the environmentalincidentmust take appropriate
measures to timely remedy it and immediatelyreport to the superior administrative authority,
the nearest People's Committeeand the State managementagencyfor environmentalprotection.
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Article 34
The chairman of the People's Committeeof the localitywhere the environmentalincident
occurs is empowered to order an emergency mobilizationof man power, materials and other
means for remedial actions.
If the environmental incidentoccurs.in an area covering several localities, the Chairmen
of the respective local People's Committeesshall cooperate to take remedial actions.
In case the incident is beyond local remedy capability, the Minister of Science,
Technology and Environment in conjunction with the heads of the agencies concerned shall
determine the applicationof remedial measures and report to the Prime Minister.
Article 35
In case the environmental incident is of special severity, the Prime Minister shall
determine the application of urgent remedial measures.
When such incident has been brought under control the Prime Minister shall determine
the revocation of the application of the urgent remedial measures.
Article 36
The agencies which are empoweredto mobilize manpower, materials, and other means
to remedy environmentalincidents must reimburse the mobilized organizations, individualsfor
their expenses according to regulationsby the law.
Chapter IV
STATE MANAGEMENTOF ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
Article 37
The scope of State management of environmentalprotection includes:
1- Promulgating, and organizing the implementation of, statutory instruments on
environmental protection; promulgating systems of environmentalstandards;
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2- Developing, and guiding the implementation of, strategies and policies of
environmental protection, plans to prevent, control and remedy environmental degradation,
environmental pollution, environmentalincidents;
3- Establishing and managing environmentalprotection facilities, and facilities relating
to environmentalprotection;
4- Organizing, establishingand managingmonitoringsystems, periodicallyassessing the
current state of the environment, forecastingenvironmentalchanges;
5- AppraisingE.I.A. reports on projects and on production or business establishments;
6- Issuing, revoking certificatesof compliancewith environmentalstandards;
7- Supervising, inspecting, checking the observance of environmental protection
legislation;settling disputes, appealsor complaintsconcerningenvironmentalprotection; dealing
with breaches of environmentalprotectionlegislation;
8- Training personnel in environmental science and management; educating,
propagandizing, disseminating knowledgeand legislationin environmentalprotection;
9- Organizing research and development activities and application of scientific and
technological advances in the field of environmentalprotection.
10- Developing internationalrelations in the field of environmentalprotection.
Article 38
The Government shall, pursuant to its power and responsibility,exercise unified State
management of environmentalprotection throughout the country.
The Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment shall be responsible to the
Government for exercising the function of State management of environmentalprotection.
All ministries, ministry-level agencies and other Government bodies shall, within the
scope of their respective functions, powers and responsibilities,cooperate with the Ministry of
Science, Technology and Environment in carrying out environmental protection within their
sectors and in establishmentsunder their direct supervision.
The People's Committeesof provinces and cities directly under the Central Govermnent
shall exercise their State managementfunction for environmentalprotection at the local level.
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The Services of Science, Technology and Environment shall be responsible to the
People's Committees of provinces and cities directly under the Central Government, for
environmentalprotection in their localities.
Artide 39
The system of organization, functions, responsibilities and powers of the State
management agency for environmentalprotection shall be determined by the Government.
Artide 40
The State managementagency for environmentalprotection shall carry out its function
of specialized inspection on environmental protection and be responsible to coordinate with
specialized inspectors of the ministries and sectors concerned in the protection of the
environment.
The Organization, obligations, powers, activities and coordination of specialized
inspectors in the protection of the environmentshall be determined by the Government.
Article 41
During the inspection process, the Inspection Team or Inspector is empowered to:
1- Require the organizations, individualsconcerned to provide documents and reply to
questions on matters necessary for inspection;
2- Conduct technical control measures on site;
3- Decide to temporarily suspend, in case of emergency, activities which threaten to
cause serious environmental incidentsand be responsible for such decision before the law, and
at the same time, immediately report the case to the competent State agency for decision or
recommend the latter to suspend activities likely to cause environmentalincidents.
4- Deal within their competenceor recommendthe competent State agency to deal with
breaches of the law.
Article 42
Organizations, individualsmust create favorable conditions for the Inspection Team or
the Inspector to carry out their functions and must observe the decisions of the InspectionTeam
or the Inspector.
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Artide 43
Organizations,individualsare entitledto appeal to the Head of the agency which decides
the inspections against the conclusions and decisions adopted by the Inspection Team or the
Inspector with regard to their establishments.
Organizations, individualshave the right to complain,denounceto the State management
agency for environmentalprotectionor other competentState agenciesabout activitiesin breach
of environmentalprotection legislation.
Agencies receiving complaints, denunciationsshall be responsible for their examination
and resolution in accordance with regulationsby the law.
Article 44
In case there are several organizations, individuals operating within an area where
environmentalincidents,environmentalpollutionor environmentaldegradationoccur, the power
to determinethe responsibilityassignedto those organizations,individualsfor remedial measures
is defined as follows.
1- For environmental incidents, environmentalpollution or environmental degradation
occurring within a province or a city directly under the Central Government, the responsible
parties shall be determined by the specialized environmental protection inspector of that
province, city, or proposedand reported by the latter to the Chairmanof the People's Committee
of that province or city for considerationand decision. If one or more parties disagree with that
decision, they shall be entitled to appeal to the Minister of Science, Technology and
Environment. The decision of the Minister of Science, Technology and Environment shall
prevail.
2- For environmental incidents, environmentalpollution or environmental degradation
occurring in two or more provinces, or cities directly under the Central Government, the
responsible parties shall be determined by the specializedenvironmentalprotection inspectorof
the Ministry of Science, Technologyand Environmentor proposed and reported by the latter to
t Minister of Science, Technology and Environmentfor considerationand decision. If one or
more parties disagree with the decisionof the Ministerof Science, Technologyand Environment,
they shall be entitled to appeal to the Prime Minister for decision.
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Chapter V
INTERNATIONALRELATIONSWITH RESPECT TO
ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION
Article 45
The Government of Vietnam shall implementall internationaltreaties and conventions
relating to the environment which it has signed or participated in, honor all international
treaties and conventionson environmentalprotection on the basis of mutual respect for each
other's independence,sovereignty, territorial integrity and interests.
Article 46
The Government of Vietnam adopts priority policies toward countries, international
organizations, foreign organizationsan individualswith respect to environmentalmanpower
training, environmentalscientific research, clean technology application, developmentand
implementationof projects for environmentalimprovement, control of environmental
incidents, environmental pollution, environmentaldegradation, and projects for wastes
treatment, in Vietnam.
Article 47
Organizations, individualsand owners of transportationmeans which, in transit
through the Vietnameseterritory, carry potential sources of environmental incidents or
environmental pollution must apply for permission, declare and submit to the control and
supervision by the State managementagency for environmentalprotection of Vietnam. Any
breach of Vietnamese environmentalprotection legislation shall, depending on the extent of
the infringement, be dealt with according to Vietnamese law.
Article 48
Any dispute concerning environmentalprotection on the Vietnamese territory in which
one or all parties are foreigners shall be settled according to Vietnameselaw, taking into
account internationallaws and practices.
Any dispute between Vietnam and other countries in the field of environmental
protection shall be settled on the basis of negotiation, taking into account internationallaws
and practices.
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Chapter VI
REWARDS AND DEALINGWITH BREACHES
Article 49
Organizations, individualshaving good records in environmentalprotection activities,
in the early detection and timely report of signs of enviromnentalincidents, in the remedy of
environmental incidents, environmentalpollution, environmentaldegradation, in the
prevention of acts, which damage the environment, shall be rewarded. Those who suffer
damage to their property, health or life, while participatingin the protectionof the
environment, in the remedy of environmentalincidents, environmentalpollution,
environmental degradation and in the combat against activitiesviolating environmental
protection legislation, shall be compensatedaccording to regulationsby the law.
Artide 50
Those who commit acts of destruction or cause damage to the environment, who
disregard the order of mobilizationby the competent State agency upon the occurrence of
environmental incidents, who fail to implementregulationson environmentalimpact
assessment, or infringe other legal provisions for environmentalprotection shall be dealt with
administrativelyor be criminally prosecuted, depending on the nature and extent of the
infringement and the consequences.
Article 51
Those who take advantageof their positionsand powers to infringe environmental
protection legislation, to protect persons infringingthe environmentalprotection legislation,
whose lack of responsibilityallows environmentalincidentsor environmentalpollution to
occur, shall be disciplinedor be criminally prosecuted, depending on the nature and extent of
the infringementand the consequences.
Article 52
Organizations, individualsthat commit acts of violationagainst the environmental
protection legislation, causing damage to the State, to other organizationsor individuals,
shall, in addition to the penalties specified in Article 50 and 51, of this Law, compensate for
the damages and costs of remedying the consequences,according to regulations by the law.
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Chapter VII
IMPLEMENTATION PROVISIONS
Article 53
Domestic or foreign organizations, individuals that have caused serious damage to the
enviromnent prior to the promulgation of this Law, with long-term adverse impacts on the
environment and the health of the people shall, depending on the extent of the consequences, be
liable for the damages and the rehabilitation of the enviromnent, according to regulations by the
Government.
Article 54
This Law shall take effect from the date of its promulgation.
All previous stipulations which contradict this Law are revoked.
Article 55
The Government shall regulate in detail the implementation of this Law.
This Law was passed on 27 December 1993 by the National Assembly of the SocialistRepublic of
Vietnam, 9th Legislature, at its 4th Session.
CHAIRMAN OF THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY
Signed: Nong Duc Manh
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VIET NAM
ENVIRONMENTALPROGRAMAND POLICY PRIORITIES
FOR AN ECONOMYIN TRANSITION
Environment-RelatedInstitutionaland RegulatorySystem
Institutional Framework
1.
The inter-relationshipbetweenmanagementof environmentalconcernsand developmentof
a sound institutionalframeworkis centralto addressingthe environmentalissue. Developmentof a sound
institutional framework is essential to effective environmental management. Environmental and
development objectives have to be pursued within a strong institutional context, reflecting wellorchestrated policies, priorities and investment decisions, at a pace accommodativeof growth. In
Vietnam, the impacts of economic and social policy have not always been conducive to sound
environmentalmanagement. While there is generalawarenessof the need to adoptenvironmentallysound
strategies among policy makers and planners, such awareness is not adequatelybacked by supportive
institutionsor enabling legislationfor conductingreviews, impactassessments,interagencycoordination
or monitoring. Environmentallysustainableprinciples have not been adequatelyincorporatedinto the
overall developmentprocess, and institutions have not been appropriately restructured to meet new
challenges.
2.
Institutionalframeworkat the National(Center),Provincial, Districtand local level reflects
the predominance of the Communist Party within the legislative, the executive and the technical
Ministries/Departmentsof Government.
3.
The constitutionof Viet Nam states that the National Assemblyis the highest legislative
body and the council of ministers is the highest executive body of the state. The constitutionalso
recognizes the leading role played by the party in the developmentof the state and Vietnamesesociety.
The National Assemblymeets twice a year for about one week and when it is not in session the Council
of Ministers assumes it's responsibilities. The fifteen membersof the Councilof Ministers includingthe
Chairman are elected by the National Assemblyfrom among the AssemblyMembers. The Chairmanof
the Council acts as the President of the country. The Council of Ministers supervisesthe activities of
the provincialPeople's committeesrescindingor amendingthe decisionsof the Committeesif the decision
is deemed to be detrimentalto the interest of the people.
4.
Below the Central governmentapparatusthere are three levels of administration. The first
level is that of the provinces includingthe three cities of Hanoi, Haiphong and HCMC, and the special
zone of Vung Tau-Con Dao. The second level is that of the urban quartersand rural districts. The last
administrativelevel is the urban blocks and rural communes.
5.
At each level of the administrationthere are directlyelected People's Councilswhich in turn
appoint the People's Commnittees.The People's Commnitteeis responsibleto the electors and.to higher
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administrativeauthoritieswho have the mandateto rescind their decisions. The provincialgovernnents
represent an importantpower block withinViet Nam and they play a major role in formulatingregional
developmentstrategies.
6.
The technicalor line Ministriesof Governmentare generallyheadedby a Minister and two
Vice Ministers who direct the work of the Ministriesand their departments. The Ministriesare assigned
functions by the Council of Ministers, which in turn is responsible to it, through the Minister. All
Ministries have staff at the provincialand district levels, being located in sub departments. These staff
have dual responsibility,and are accountableto their departmentalsuperiors for technical work, and to
the People's Committeefor administrativematters and implementationof the developmentplans. In most
cases, the Ministriesalso overseethe functioningof several institutesand researchunits, and are assigned
functionsthrough sectoral laws or Governmentdecrees. At the provincial level, operating departments
assist the Peoples Commnittee
in carrying out administrativeand operationalfunctions. Enterprises and
factories under provincial authoritiesare managed through these authorities, through groupings called
Unions.
7.
The State Committee for Sciences (SCS) was restructured in October 1992 to form the
Ministry of Science, Technologyand Enviromnent(MOSTE). The national EnvironmentalProtection
Law (NLEP), approvedby the NationalAssemblyin December 1993, and the implementingregulations
to it (Decree 175/CP), promulgated in October 1994, sets out the functions of MOSTE as follows:
management of research issues relating to science, technology and environment; preparation of
environment assessment of the economy and of environmental action plans; implementing the
environmentalprotection law and its implementingdecree; codification of regulation and standards;
evaluatingenvironmentimpactassessmentsand coordinationwith the StatePlanningCommitteeand other
sectoral Ministries. MOSTE's Departmentof Environmentand Natural Resources, which became the
National Environment Agency (NEA) in 1994, has the responsibility of undertaking the public
administrationof environmentalprotection on behalf of the Minister of MOSTE.
Sectoral Organizationswith EnvironmentalPlannine and AssessmentFunctions
8.
The Governmenthas enjoinedthe sectoral ministries to includeenvironmentalprotectionin
the mandates of their Science and TechnologyDepartments. Exceptfor MOSTE, sectoral ministrieshave
direct technical links with the Provincial services for their respective sectors. Although the sectoral
ministries play an important role in establishingpolicies, programs guidelines for investment, they are
not directly in control of implementationat the field level, except for enterprises run by the Central
Government. Much of the implementation responsibility rests with the provinces, and district
governments.
9.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Food Industries (MAFI) has yet to establish an exclusive
unit focusing on environmentalissues. Instead, subject matter specialistsorganize special programs on
livestock management, tree cropping, pesticide usage, sericulture and reclamationof bare land, as an
effort not only for increasing income and productivity, but also conserving and protecting the
environment. One of the most importantprograms undertaken by Government is under Decree 327,
which covers land management issues, especiallyof bare hills and coastal areas. Schemesunder this
program aim at stabilizingand restoringthe ecologicalbalanceof fragile zones and "sedentarizing"ethnic
minorities. MAFI shares responsibilityfor implementationwith the Ministry of Forestry and the Ministry
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
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10.
Besides implementationof these special programs, the Ministry carries responsibilityfor
policy matters, preparation of annual and 5 year plans, scientific research, transfer of technology and
marketingof products, through state run enterprises. Increasingly,state run enterprisesare being handed
over for private managementin sectors of food processing, plant protection, fertilizer production and
animal feed. At the provincial and district level there has been a merger of the Department of
Agricultureand Forestry in many provinceswith two-waycontrolof its performanceand activities. One
channel of control is through the People's Committee(for day to day operations),and the other through
the MAFI for technical monitoringand nationalproject support.
11.
The Ministryof Water Resources(MWR)has nationwideresponsibilityfor managementand
developmentof Water Resources. At the nationallevel the Ministry is structured into the Division of
Management,Research and Trainingand Engineering. The Divisionof Managementhas ten Departments
looking after planning, finance, construction, irrigation/drainage,flood control and dike management.
The Division relating to research, training and engineeringhas several institutionalenterprisesunder its
supervision. MWR deals mainly with the design and construction of irrigation projects, and is only
marginally involved in the water supply sector. MWR has an advisory role assisting the Council of
Ministers in matters concerningconflicts of interestsin the use of surface water resources, and it has to
be consulted in all matters related to the two main delta rivers, the Mekong and the Song Hong (Red
River). A number of factors which affect the quantity and quality of water are outsideMWR's control.
These include, among others, the deforestationand subsequent flooding, water quality deterioration,
sedimentationand siltation. Effectivewater quality managementprograms will depend on an overall
environmentalpolicy in other relevantsectors (agriculture, forestry, industry, etc.).
12.
The Institute of Water Resource Planning and Management bears responsibility for
conductingenvironmentalimpactassessmentstudies, includingissues of erosion, siltationsalinity, water
quality and pollution standards. The existing institutionalstructure for handling environmentalrelated
issues is weak, and the process of Environmentalimpactassessmenthas just been introduced. The Water
Law, for regulatingwater use has been drafted and is expectedto be submittedto the NationalAssembly
this year.
13.
The Ministry of Fisheries and AquaticProducts (MFAP) is separate from agriculture. Its
main responsibilitiesinclude fish processing, import and export of fishes and overall control of fishing
resources. The Ministryof Fisheries overseesa numberof research institutes(primarybeing the research
institutes of Aquaculture, the hatcheriestraining centers), and state enterprises(aquaculturefarms, feed
processing mills and fish meal plants). An importantaspect of fisheries developmentin Vietnam is its
intricate link with mangrove areas and wetlands, which are ideal for shrimp breeding. As clearing of
mangroves and wetlands are found lucrative for shrimp cultivation, large-scale encroachments are
occurring on thesesensitiveeco-zones. Thus, programsfor forestryprotectionand fisheriesdevelopment,
within these areas may have competingobjectives. It is only recentlythat a carcians effort is being made
to combinemangroveprotectionwith shrimp productionand maintaina balancebetweenforest and water
cores.
14.
Prior permissionof the Ministry of Science Technologyand Environmentis not taken for
degradativeaquacultureand forest exploitation.Neitherare impactassessmentstudies conducted. There
are no environmentalunits to assess impacts or take mitigatorymeasures. Pollution control at the ports
and fishing centers is the responsibilityof the inspection teams of the Fisheries Ministry itself. The
Banking network is well integrated into the activities of the Ministry of Fisheries at the national,
provincial, district and communelevel for credit disbursementand loan payback. The National Fishery
Companyunder the Ministry of Fisheries caters to the needs of the domesticmarket. Seaprodex(a state
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enterprise) processes and exports fish and fish products from 3 regional offices and 18 factories within
9 provinces. It has joint venture trading companies with district governments, and shrimp agriculture
joint ventures with local cooperatives,provincialgovernmentsand foreign firms.
15.
At the provincial level, the Fisheries Departmentoperates enterprises in 27 provinces, to
sell goods and servicesto fishermen. These firms can exportand import independentlyand manypossess
large brackishwater aquacultureponds. Though subjectto the managementof the Ministry of Fisheries,
for purposes of strategy directionthese units are under the control of the ProvincialPeoples Committee,
which has its own fisheries technical service. Hence provincial policies, programs and strategies may
sometimesdiverge from those of the central ministry.
16.
At the district level, almost every district in Vietnam operates a fresh water fish hatchery,
not all through the Fisheries Department. Joint venturesare being encouragedby the Ministry between
provincial and district enterprises. In such cases the local governmentprovides the land for the project,
as well as the capital investmentand infrastructure.
17.
The Ministry of Forestrv (MOF) is responsiblefor protectionof forest resources and forest
ecosystems, including wildlife and endangered plant species. It comprises of 10 Departments and 100
staff officers with functions of Planning, Finance, Research, Forest Management and Protection,
Sericulture, Silviculture, Forestry Industry, Resettlementand inspection. The Department of Forest
Managementand Protection and the Departmentof Human SettlementFixed cultivation have staff at the
provincial, district level located in sub-departments. These staff are accountable to their department
superiors for their technical work and from them they receive technical guidance, information and
support. Their answerability to the People's Committee on administrativeand general issues is also
integral to decision making and implementation. The Ministry also oversees the functioning of nine
research and scientific institutes, the major ones being the Forest Inventoryand Planning Institute, the
Forest Science Institute and the Forestry Colleges.
18.
The managementof 75 centralstate enterprisesalso rests directlywith the ministrycovering
1 million hectares of forest land. These enterprises are engaged in commercialproduction of wood,
export and import of wood products and other forest produce. The Enterprises are engaged in noncommercialactivities like establishmentof schools, health care centers for the populationof the forested
area within their jurisdiction. There is a strong move to divest the enterprisesof their non-commercial
responsibilities, by entrusting the schools, and health clinics to the concerned line Ministries, and to
ensure that the enterprises functionon conmnercialprinciples of non subsidizationand profitability.
19.
At the provinciallevel, the Departmentof Forestry assiststhe Peoplescommitteein carrying
out state administrativedutiesand conductingproductionoperations. There are about 300 enterprisesand
factories under provincial authorities, which are grouped into union, with 30 enterprises to a union. In
the mountainous and heavily forested provinces, districts have forest offices of 10 to 15 staff assisting
the District Peoples Committee in forestry matters. In districts with limited forest cover, forestry staff
are fewer in number and attachedto the Economicbranch of the Peoples District Committee. The forest
cadres extend up to the village and commune levels for organizingactivities of forest protection, wood
production and reforestation, through brigades.
20.
The sedentarizationprograms for the minority population in the mountainousregions are
conducted by the Department of Resettlement,under the direction of a Board of Management. The
Departmenthas sub-departmentsin 26 provinces.
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21.
The Ministry of Labor. Invalidsand Social Affairs (MLISA) is entrusted with the task of
reallocation and resettlement of manpower. The Ministry has until now resettled/rehabilitated4.95
millionpeople. Around6-7% of the populationare reportedlyunemployed. Consequently,Government
of Vietnam promulgatedDecree 116, under which surplus labor force will be deployed on unutilized
land. A number of institutesalong with the Ministryare engaged in a planning exercise, for delineating
land use patterns for unutilized land againstunemployedhuman resource. To date, 130 projects have
been identifiedunder this program.
22.
The Ministry of Construction(MOC) plays a leading role and is often the implementing
agencyfor planning, design and constructionof utilities such as water supplyand waste disposalsystems.
It has provincial units which take primary responsibilityfor their local tasks. MOC is in the process of
revising their norms of construction, to which environmentalnorms must be associated. Its National
Institute for Urban and Industrial Projects (NIUIP) is in the process of being restructured and
strengthened so as to play a major role in the implementationof the NPESD in the areas of pollution
prevention. MOC expects NIUIP to become the enforcementauthority to stop operationswhere strong
controls are needed to deal with pollutionproblems.
23.
The health sector is organizedas a pyramidof preventativeand curativenetworksunder the
Ministry of Health (MOH). Prevention is mainly the responsibilityof the hygiene and epidemiological
systems, while treatment and some aspects of preventionand promotion are the responsibilitiesof the
medico-healthsystem. The tasks of the Ministry related to water supply and sanitation are health
education,promotion of appropriatewater supply and sanitationpractices, implementationof sanitation
programs in rural areas and water qualitymonitoring. MOH currently has about 300 staff. The Ministry
is also in charge of four research institutes:the Institutesof Hygieneand Epidemiologyin Hanoi, Nha
Trang, and Trai Nguyen, and the Institute of Hygieneand PublicHealth in HCMC. MOH has provincial
units which take primary responsibilityfor their local tasks.
24.
MOH considers itself responsiblefor several priority programs:
(a)
Environmentalhealth, including (i) environmentalprotection (especiallythe development
of strategy and programs to cope with the ever growing pollution problems in the air,
water, and land); and (ii) water supply and sanitation(especiallythe improvementof the
water supplyand basic facilitiesthroughapplicationof improvedtechnologiesand provision
of essential constructionmaterial).
(b)
Family planning, where MOH has a key role in that it managesall of the funds intended
for birth control activities in the provinces.
25.
The main functionsof the GeneralDepartmentof Mines and Geologv(GDMG)are: (a) the
collection and compilation of data and the executionof general and applied hydrogeologicalresearch,
including field surveys and exploratory drilling; (b) the approval and issuance of permits for the use
groundwaterby major projects. GDMG has provincialunits which take primary responsibilityfor local
tasks.
26.
The focal point for studies and researchon environmentfor the Ministry of Energy (MOE)
is the Institute of Energy. The Institute has 180 people, out of which 149 are engineers. Seventy
percent are graduates from abroad. In 1992one-thirdof the resources of the Institutewere provided for
by the Ministry of Energy and two-thirds by consultancywork for the Government, districts,
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communities,and other enterprises. Within the Institute, four servicesare concernedwith environmental
issues:
(a)
Department 12, which is concerned with thermal power stations (emissionsmeasurement
and standards, improved technology and efficiency) with Power DevelopmentCompany
(PDC1) and the Mining Institute.
(b)
Department 13, which is concerned with hydroelectric stations(hydropower siting, water
quality, soil and erosion effects. in relation with PDC1 and PDC2.
(c)
DepartmentT16, which is concernedwith new energy sources (research on clean energies
like solar energy, wind, biomass, to improve efficiency of households and supervise
introduction of improved cooking stoves), undertakes propaganda campaigns against
deforestation.
(d)
DepartmentP6, which is concernedwith environmentalpolicies. They collect information
on standards and want to expandtheir capacity in environmentalcollection and monitoring
and in training.
The Ministry of Heavy Industry (MOHI) is vested with the function of state management
27.
of the branches of mechanical engineering, metallurgy, electronics, mining, geology and chemical
industry. There are nine corporations and one general department under direct managementof MHI.
Each corporation covers a specific branch of the nationaleconomy. These corporations are financially
autonomous. The Ministry of Light Industry (MOLI) has state management for the remaining
manufacturingsectors which are generallyless polluting.
EnvironmentLegislationand Standards
Decree 175/CPhas the status of a governmentregulatory order under the legal framework
28.
of the NLEP. It regularizesthe structure of administrativeresponsibilityfor environmentalmanagement
at the Stateand local governmentlevels, consistentwith administrativemechanismsin other line agencies.
This means that local environmentalmanagementauthority is delegatedto the provincialDepartmentsof
Science, Technologyand Environment(DOSTEs)in parallelwith that of MOSTEat the State level. They
are entitled to governmentbudgetary funds for the staffing of these agencies.
This is a generally positive step, formalizinga new administrativeresponsibilityin a field
29.
importantto local developmentefforts. However, there are some implementationconcernsin those large
cities which had already organized their own EnvironmentCommittees(ECs). The ECs had no legal
powers, but they were typically chaired by the Vice-Chairmanof the People's Committeeand reported
directly to the PPC. This structure gave them a high political profile and direct access to decisionmakers, while enabling flexiblestaffingfrom other relevantprovincialbureaus. Under the new DOSTE,
the EnvironmentServicemay be somewhatisolated from decision-makingin a relativelyminor provincial
department, facing new bureaucraticapproval proceduresto its decision-makingproposals. Of the four
cities which previouslyhad ECs, only Ho Chi Minh City preserves the structure, which is now chaired
formally by the Director of DOSTE. It remains to be seen whether new informal structures for
coordinationand managementwill arise at the local level to replacethe ECs.
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30.
The recent approval of Decree 175/CPhad therefore reduced some concerns but increased
others. The decree represents a clear expressionof governmentpolicy and introduces some significant
changesin administrativerequirement. While there may be a need to gain some experiencewith the new
system before changingit again, there shouldbe an opportunityfor various affectedparties, stakeholders
and regulators to provide a feedback on the gaps and the clarification needs for future refinement,
particularly with respect to pollution control and standard (para 31 below); and environment impact
assessment (para. 44 below).
31.
At the national level, the NLEP and its implementingdecree (175/CP) also provide for:
(a) prohibitions against dischargesinto the atmosphereand waterwaysbeyond unspecified "permissible
limits" which has yet to be elaboratedas it is not clear to what extent the environmentalstandards cited
(Article 22 of Decree 175/CP) have been prepared; (b) waste managementand treatment of hazardous
wastes under implementingregulationsfor which further clarificationwill be needed; and (c) allocation
of pollution control responsibilitiesbetween the central state environmentagency (the NEA) and the
provincialDOSTEsor ECs, but are unclear with regard to allocationsbetweenNEA and the other central
Agencies/Ministries.
32.
The absence of adequatenational standardslimiting industrialemissions is currently being
addressed by the exhaustive review of many internationalpollution standards for both ambient air and
water quality as well as emissions of selectedpollutants. Standards will include technicalguidelinesfor
sampling, measurementand analysis of air and water quality. Existing standards will be updated and
ISO/WHO standards adapted for Viet Nam. The first set of new standards were expected to be ready
by January 1993, and others by June 1995. Also important is the question of the allocation of
responsibilitiesfor which agency to monitor and enforce the implementationof these standards. This is
still unclear. Furthermore, unless it is easy to show that standardsare not beingmet, and there are strong
penalties for not meeting them, they are unlikely to have any effect.
33.
At the provincial level, Hanoi has had environmentalregulations since 1991; HCMC's
Environmental Committee has drafted environmentalregulations and the Ministry of Environmentof
Singaporeto assist in developingmoie effectivelocal environmentalstandards and a local environmental
review process. At least three other local DOSTEs (Dong Nai, Tay Ninh and Vung Tau) have
promulgatedlocal environmentalregulationsand standards. Hanoi's regulations, which were issued in
1991: (a) set ambientstandards for 95 air pollutants, 177 liquid pollutantsand work place standards for
140 air pollutants, 15 particulates,and noise; (b) require approvalof investmentapplicationsthrough the
local DOSTE or Environment Committee; and (c) establish detailed environmental inspection
requirements. Under the regulation,a Board of Inspectorsunder the DOSTEmust carry out semi-annual
air quality inspectionsof plantsproducingfertilizers,toxins, batteriesand other electricalproducts, active
chemicalsand pesticides;annual inspectionsof all other enterprises;and spot checksof previous violators
of air and water quality standards. Positiveaspects of HCMC's standards include: (a) the manageably
small number of parameterscovered; (b) their distinctionbetween new and existingfacilities, with more
stringent limits for new facilities;and (c) their classificationsof water bodies by use, with more stringent
limits for waters used for drinking and domestic purposes, than for other surface waters. Local
regulations and standards are presently being reviewed for consistencywith the NLEP and 175/CP.
InstitutionalCapacitv for EnvironmentalPlanningand Review
34.
The State Planning Committee is the focal point for appraising investmentprojects and
setting the guidelines for social development. As a member of the State Committeeon Cooperation and
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Investment(SCCI), a body used for approvingnon-governmental,foreign-assistedprojects, MOSTEhas
formal authority to commenton enviromnentalaspectsof investmentapplications. In practice, NEA (on
behalf of MOSTE) currently provides comments on environmental aspects of some of the larger
investmentproposals in the industrialand energy sectors, but lacks capacity to carry out systematicand
in-depth environmentalreview of these investmentapplications.
35.
During the preparationof the National Plan for Environmentand SustainableDevelopment
which predated the establishmentof MOSTEn October 1992, the Ministry of Construction(MOC) took
the lead on urban and industrial pollution issues. MOC offered broad proposals for the developmentof
urban and industrial pollution control activities and regulatory capacity but these proposals emphasized
urban planning and waste managementinfrastructureover industrialpollution control. MOSTE (through
the NEA), under NLEP, now officially takes over the responsibilitiesfor the planning and review of
urban and industrial pollution issues and is thus in a positionto provide a balancein emphasis.
36.
At the provinciallevel, the DOSTEs or EnvironmentCommitteeshave formal authority to
review and commenton environmentalaspectsof investmentapplicationsand to resolvepollution related
disputes on behalf of the Peoples Committees. However, they generally lack trained staff, knowledge
of clean technologyand financial resources.
37.
Fledgling environmentalagencies in developing countries are typically small in size and
underfunded, and may become repositories for personnel with unfavorable career prospects in other
departments. Yet environmentalagencies are ordinarily expected to provide a broad monitoring and
enforcement responsibilitiesat the local level. MOSTEs and DOSTEs are expanding their staff (the
NEA, for example, has three times the staff it had two years ago as the Departmentof Natural Resources
and Environment). But without careful planningand training, MOSTEand the DOSTEs will experience
a growing gap between limited existing institutionalcapacity and expectationsof immediateand visible
improvementsin environmentalquality. The result could well be that their credibility and effectiveness
will be impaired. The Japaneseexperienceis instructivehere. The Japan environmentAgency was able
to avoid the gap between capacity and expectations,because technical expertise in environmentrelated
disciplineswas readily availableat the time the EnvironmentAgencywas established,and highly qualified
technical personnel were seconded from line and local agencies to the local Environment Protection
Bureaus and the national environmentagency.
38.
Any discussion of the issues of central versus local powers on environmentalmanagement
has to recognizethat some issues are really of local concern and are within local competenceto resolve.
Other matters, even though they occur within a province, are of national importance and require State
intervention (e.g. large-scale development programs such as the Mekong River system). Without
adequate local staff able to respond to environmentalmanagementproblems, complaintsare now going
directly to members of the National Assemblyand on to the Officeof Governmentand to MOSTE. But
MOSTE itself does not have the time or staff to respond to all local issues. Therefore the most useful
principle seemed to be to enhance the capacity of local governmentsso they could handle as many of
these issues as their capacity to respond to them grows. Local agencies have requested technical
guidelines and clearer implementationprocedures from MOSTE for such matters as EA, industrial
pollution audits, monitoring procedures, etc. The process of gradual developmentof local authority
would be enhanced by continuing consultationand coordinationbetween MOSTE and the provinces.
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39.
The lack of informationabout new environmentalsector guidelinesand responsibilitieswas
perceived to be a problem constrainingeffective responsesto issues in this sector. There appear to be
few mechanisms for sharing informationbetweenagencies active in this sector.
SequencingCoverage of the Regulatory System
40.
Given (i) the financialdifficultiesof many polluting firms (which have obsolete equipment
and an uncertain future in light of recent trends in the industrial sector), (ii) the employmentconcerns
of the municipalgovernment,and (iii) the lack of incrementalresourcesfor pollutioncontrol, manyplants
that are in violation of environmentalstandards can do little more than make small improvementsin
housekeeping;and the DOSTEs or EnvironmentCommitteesgenerallydo not press them.
41.
Under these circumstances,it is essentialthat the DOSTEs/ECstarget a limited number of
pollutants and industriesthat are within its monitoringand enforcementcapacity. One way to do this is
to focus initially on the regulationof a limited number of parameters related to human health impacts,
(e.g. sulphur dioxide, particulates, carbon monoxidefor air; and heavy metals like lead, mercury, and
chromiumfor water), leaving regulationof environmentalquality parametersthat are less closely linked
to human health for a later stage in the developmentof the regulatory system.
42.
The advantageof initially targetinga few parametersand structuringthe entire regulatory
strategy (includingrealistic standards,regulations, incentives,researchand development,monitoringand
enforcement)around those parameters, is that the environmentalagencyhas a better chance of achieving
early successes, and thereby strengtheningits credibility. Then, it will be better prepared to address
future issues, than if it had allowed its limited resources to be spread too thinly in the initial stages.
Japan's priority focus during the 1970's was reductionof SO2 and toxic emissions,and its successin this
campaign contributedsignificantlyto the technical credibilityof its pollution control effort.
EnvironmentalImpact Assessment
43.
In terms of environmental (impact) assessments (EA), the NLEP and Decree 175/CP
includes definitionof broad provisional guidelines and allocation of responsibilitiesbetween local and
State (central) authorities,and betweenMOSTEand the centralline agencies. The guidelinesensure that
the agencies cannot review their own EAs, and formalizethe EA review committeeprocedure (through
EvaluationCouncils)which includesexpertsfrom State agencies,provincialgovernmentand local public
organizationsas appropriate. The broad representationof membershipon EA reviewcommittees(which
are required under the new regulationsto includenational,provincial,and sectoralexpert representatives)
should improvefamiliaritywith the process in manygovernmentagenciesand help link it with established
planning procedures. Also there are specific time requirementsfor the review of the environmentimpact
assessment reports, including the review of challenges to the EA decision. Overall, proposals for
environmentimpact assessmentsare sound; and SPC and SCCI have indicatedtheir endorsementof the
formal EA review procedures for all investmentprojects. Now it remains to be seen whether project
review procedures can capture an assessmentof potential environmentalconcerns at an early stage to
enable effective response.
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44.
Early feedback indicatesthe need for improvements/clarificationsin the areas given below:
First, the central law/regulationsdo not contain any reference to public participation'. Although
an Evaluation Council may be established to evaluate project environmental impact, public
participationin this Council is optional. Today, most countries' EA statutes expressly provide a
right of public participationeither in the EA law or through associatedlegislation. (For exarnple,
in Germany and the United States,public participationis providedfor in administrativeprocedure
law). In addition, internationallending agencies like the World Bank will not finance projects
which require an environmentalassessmentunless there has been adequatepublic participation.
Thus, the regulation should be supplementedby MOSTE instructions which establishesa clear
right for the public and other interestedand involved entities(physicaland legal) to issue written
comments on projects. There should also be a right to a public hearing to discuss the project
before the EA is prepared, and then to commenton a draft before the EA is final, includingthe
right to question the experts who prepared the EA.
Second, no mention is made concerning the funding of EAs, especiallyfor government owned
projects. Similarly, it is not clear how governmentalreviewcosts (e.g., evaluationcouncil) would
be covered.
Third, the jurisdiction of evaluation responsibilitiesis unclear (particularly MOSTE vis-a-vis
central implementingMinistries)as are the conditionswhich require an EvaluationCouncil to be
created (Article 14) and the meaning of "accountabilityof DOSTEs" (Article 6).
Fourth, jurisdictional responsibilities among the "state agencies in charge of environmental
protection" (Article 15, 1) are still unclear. In particular, who would be in charge of enforcing
the EA evaluationdecisions(Article 20)?
The above gaps may well need to be remedied by SPC MOSTE perhaps in the form of Ministerial
Instructions for EnvironmentalImpact Assessment.
45.
Furthermore, the Ministrieswithinthe Natural ResourcesSector have no separate units for
conducting environmental impact assessments. While granting that much of this work could be
subcontractedto various professionalinstitutesor private consultants, a nucleuswould still be necessary
within the sectoral Ministries, to prepare the TORs, provide relevant information for facilitating
assessments and oversee the preparation of assessments.
46.
To date the EA process has been used mainly to assess pollution impactsof some industrial
projects, and projects pertaining to offshore oil drilling and hydro power. EA's have not usually been
used to assess conversion of land to agricultural use, soil erosion, catchment area treatment, or the
impacts of deforestationand sedentarization. A numberof priority projects are in the immediateagenda
of the Government such as under Decree 327, Decree 72, sedentarizationof minority groups, etc, which
may cumulatively have significant impacts on the environment. It will be necessary to carry out
assessmentsof cumulative impacts of such programs.
I At the local level, Hanoi, and Ho Chi Minh City's regulations require local DOSTEs or
Environment Committees to investigate pollution complaintsbrought by affected people. There is no
provision, however, for ex-ante consultationduring project preparation.
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47.
EAs have considerable potential for improving design of projects within the natural
resources sector, if done at an early stage. Initial action is to deternine the degree of environmental
impactand levels of compliancewith environmentallaws and regulations. Basedon this early evaluation
of environmentaleffects, subsequentaction couldbe categorized. A program, project or an action which
does not individuallyor cumulativelyhave a significanteffect on the environmentcould be placed in an
"exclusion" category, waving, thereby, the requirement of a detailed environment assessment or an
environmentimpact statement2 . Sinceprovincialand district governmentsare primarily responsiblefor
agriculture, forestry, and other natural resource projects, attention shouldbe paid to strengtheningtheir
capacities to do EAs. Some arrangementsused in other East Asian countries might be useful for
considerationin Viet Nam.
48.
In China, environmental considerations are integrated into projects and development
planning through the process known as "three simultaneoussteps." This involves incorporation of
environmentalsafeguardsintodesign, constructionand operationof facilitiesand through the requirement
of environmental impact assessments(EA's) on new renovationand expansionprojects. As noticeably
EA's were often performed too late in the project cycle to influenceapproval of locations, designs, or
other alternates, regulationswere recentlymodifiedto requiretheir preparationeasily in the project cycle.
The EnvironmentalProtectionLaw promulgatedin 1979but fully effectivesince 1989spells out the need
for environmentalimpactassessmentsto be done for most developmentprojects, and all projectsreceiving
external financing. The enterprise or agency responsiblefor the project, commissionsthe EA and the
National EnvironmentalProtection Agency(NEPA). NEPA or its provincialarm must approve for the
project to proceed. Most assessmentsare carried out by research institutes,universitiesor other technical
agencies. The EA process has been used so far to assess the pollutionimpacts of industrial projects and
it is only in the past two years that it has been used for agriculturalprojects. The EA's completedso far
typically cover pollution from agro-processingplants and agricultural chemicals, implications of large
scale water transfers, protectionof historic sites and similar issues.
49.
Procedural guidance on EA is provided through two supportingadministrativedocuments,
the first is the ManagementGuideline on EnvironmentalProtection of ConstructionProjects issued in
March 1986, and the second is the Managementprocedure for environmentalprotectionof construction
projects issued in June 1990. NEPA has overall legal responsibility for implementation of EA
requirementsat the nationallevel in China. However, as most developmentactivityoccurs at the regional
level, NEPA has assigned responsibilityto its provincialoffices, or EnvironmentalProtection Bureaus
(EPB's). The 1986 guidelinesprovides the basis for sharing of responsibilitybetween NEPA and EPB's.
It requires NEPA to approve EA's for projects which (a) cross provincial borders; (b) are special in
nature; (c) are large in size ; and(d) are controversialin its content. Though the provincial and sub2 The only exclusion category is given in a 1994 list of "projects that are not required to submit
environmental impact assessment report when applying for investment license". This list includes:
consultant offices; offices; banks; financialoffices; communicationsand related services; educationand
training; publicationdistribution agencies;schools; hotels of less than 50 rooms; trade centers an super
markets; projects for installation/assemblyof electronic and mechanic equipment; business services;
garment sewing; food processing with productivity of under 100,000 tons per year production of
constructionmaterials with small capacity (bricks: less than 2 million per year quarried stones: less than
100,000tons per year); spinning/weaving(excludingdyeing, bleachingor design printing); commodity
making (makingshoes, office tools);woodenproduction(excludingwoodprocessing);eating and drinking
services; temporary living area of less than 500 families; and water supply in district towns. The
implicationis that all other projects (irrespectiveof their size) would need to submitenvironmentimpact
assessment reports. It may be preferable to have a "positive" list of projects which require EAs.
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provincial EPB's are organizationallyattached to NEPA, they receive their budget from the municipal
governmentsand in practice operate relatively independentlyof NEPA.
50.
In Korea, environmental impact assessment is utilized as an important mechanism for
preventing possible environmentaldisruption, as caused by developmentprojects. Environmentimpact
assessment was first introduced to Korea in 1981, but its effectiveness was limited as govermment
ministries and large agencies undertaking major projects, such as multi-purposedams, large housing
projects, highways, industrial complexes were able to influencegovernmentdecision makingprocesses
and dilute the magnum of the environmentalimpact. In 1986, the EnvironmentalPreservationAct was
amended to expand the application of the EA process to non-governmentalprojects. A further
improvement has been introduced through the Basic Environmental Policy Act which brought
Environmental Impact Statements(EISs) to public notice and even public hearings in some cases. The
EnvironmentalAdministrationwhich was elevatedto the status of a full ministry with necessarypowers
is now in a position to request other agencies to take remedial measures, or even stop construction of
projects violatingthe EIS.
51.
In Thailand, the National EnvironmentalQuality Act, as amended in 1978, requires state
enterprises or private organizationsto submit a report on the measures for prevention and remedy of
adverse environmentaleffects to the office of the National EnvironmentalBoard for considerationand
approval of the project. The ONEB has authority and responsibilityto review environmental impact
assessment reports, for approval, before development projects can be implemented. The initial
notification enlisting categories or projects, both public and private requiring EA was issued in 1981,
which includedprojects with dams, irrigationschemes,airports, hotel and resort facilities, thermalpower
plants, industrial estates, ports and harbors, etc. Registrationof EA experts and consultantshave been
made obligatory through a ministerial decree in 1984and EA's submittedto ONEBhave to be prepared
by registered parties. The functionalorganizationsinvolved in the EA process in Thailand are (a) the
project proponent which will be implementing the project is responsible for preparing the EA
report;(b) the registered consultantrequiredby law, to perform the EA;(c) the project approvingagency;
and(d) the reviewing agency, which is the Environmental Impact Evaluation division of ONEB,
responsiblefor the review process. Tight time scheduleshavebeen prescribed for grantingapprovalsby
ONEB, but which is extendable in case further information/datais required for consideration of the
environmental impacts of the project.
Non-GovernmentalOrganizations
52.
A diligent effort needs to be made to involve the public and the NGO's in preparation and
review of EA's. The participationof the public has to be encouraged, and they should be present at
important scoping meetings, public hearings etc., to provide informationconcerning project objectives
associated with proposed development. In Vietnam the presence of strong quasi-politicalbodies (such
as the peoplescommittee,which also functionsas the local governmentbureaucracy)inhibits spontaneous
participationof non-governmentalgroups, or even by the general public. There are no "true" NGOs in
Viet Nam - defined as those organizationswhich do not receivegrant funding from GOV. Typicallythe
likes of NGO's are youth associationsand Professionalgroups sponsoredeither by the political party or
by Government. Recently there is a trend for formation of group organizations,many of them handling
social and environmental themes with nominal Government funds but are beginning to provide
independentviews on key issues. A premier non governmentorganizationis the Vietnam Resourcesand
EnvironmentAssociation, which concerns itself with ecologicalproblems within fragile ecozones of the
uplands and coastal areas. Its secretariat is the Institute of EcologicalEconomy, which manned by six
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full time professionals. Specialists are enlisted when necessary. At present, it still functions as an
environmentallyaware consultingagency.
53.
Another organizationwhich has a countrywide network is the YouthOrganizationhaving
a membership of 21 million youth: A very large cadre among these membersparticipate in social and
environmentalprograms on a voluntarybasis, spreadingfrom the provincialto the local level, and within
27 Departmentsof the Central Government. The associationis involvedin multifariousprograms within
the areas of health, education, population, employment, welfare, forestry, minority group support,
tourism, and mass media programs.
54.
Sectors like agricultureespeciallyencouragethe formationof women groupsfor furtherance
of their activities in special programs like the greening of the bare hills (under Decree 327), rice
production,processing of agriculturalproducts, fisheriesdevelopment,and fruit cropping. Thesegroups
are spread across central to sub-provincial levels and are engaged in training programs, transfer of
technology and disbursementof credit.
55.
A strong public education,mass media programhas been launchedby several organizations
to encourage environmentallyconscious and law abiding behaviors among adults and children. This
effort could be further strengthenedthrough additionalfundingand scientificresearch. While a number
of Universities and Institutes of higher learning in Vietnam are actively pursuing scientific research in
environmentalrelated disciplines,more cohesionand directionis necessaryto lend contentto their efforts.
Several environmentrelated newspapersand journals, with substantialannual circulationare published
in Vietnam.
56.
Government policy on resettlementof populationsdisplaced by developmentprojects are
implementedby sectoral Ministries responsiblefor the implementationof the project. Resettlementis
done on the basis of resettlementprograms prepared after obtainingthe options of the local people. It
is not clear whether Vietnam has specific ResettlementActs guaranteeingentitlementto the displaced
persons, but resettlementprograms are being implementedon the basis of executiveinstruction.
3
Conclusionand Recommendations
57.
Much has been accomplishedby the Governmentof Viet Nam in the past year: enabling
legislation has been passed; MOSTE has introducedprovisional EA guidelines and is close to a set of
pollution standards for a large number of environmentalpollutants. Staff size of NEA has doubled.
Every province and municipality now has a functioning Department of Science, Technology, and
Environment. More than 800 EAs have been completed, and a functioning EA review process is in
place. There is good reason to be proud of these accomplishmentsand optimisticabout the future, with
donor support for capacity-buildiiug
for MOSTEand provincialagenciesnow firmingup. Nevertheless,
Viet Nam faces a number of interestingchallengesand needs with respect to institutionaldevelopment
for environmentalaction.
58.
The Direction of Institutional Change. Investment in and technical assistance to the
environmentsector in Viet Nam is increasingvery quickly. Various issues,such as institutionalcapacity,
coordination, and integration, become increasinglyimportantwith this rapidly growing activity in the
I The discussion given below is largely taken from the IDRC/MOSTE, "Report of a National
Workshop on EnvironmentPolicy and Program Priorities for Viet Nam, Hanoi, November 3-4, 1994".
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environmentsector. Many of the institutionalstructures being developed in Viet Nam to respond to
environmentalmanagementare new. There is limitedexperiencewith these issuesand, besides, different
government units sometimes have different views on how they ought to operate. Such differences of
opinion should be expected in a time of rapid transition. But in order to avoid conflicts which reduce
effectivenessand coordination,institutionalchangesshouldbe introducedin consultationbetweenthe key
technical and implementingagencies, in a processwhich is transparent(participantscan understandwhat
is happening), accountable (participants know who is responsible) and responsive (problems are
understood and responded to). This procedure will help to rapidly build the confidenceof participants
as their technical knowledgeand capacity to act also increase.
59.
Appropriate institutional capacity is one of the factors most important to the success of
environmentalmanagementand protection. Clearly defined tasks, suitable authority levels, and flexible
coordinationof different agenciesare all importantaspectsof developingnew environmentalmanagement
institutions. To this end, MOSTEshould play a crucial role in environmentalmanagementat the State
level, but this requires recognitionthat most implementationof environmentalregulations and planning
will be done through other agencies. This will require consensusbetweenagencieson goals, procedures
and structures for action.
60.
In the introductionof new methodsand techniques,new terminologywill be required. Use
of standard international definitions for terms would reduce confusion to Vietnamese agencies just
learning these terms and to foreign investorstrying to understandVietnameserequirements. An example
is the frequent use of the term "EIA" to refer to industrial pollutionaudits (which are not intended to be
environmental assessments, but only audits of emissions and technologies used). When adopting
procedures which are derived from internationalpractice, it is advisable to preserve international
terminology and meaning closely to avoid confusion and to more rapidly train Vietnamese technical
specialists (who then do not have to un-learn mistakes).
61.
The Need for Monitorina and AdaptiveResponsesfor EnvironmentalInvestments. There
is urgency with respect to a number of the environmentalissues facing Viet Nam, such as mangrove
degradation, barren lands, and increasingurban pollution. This meansthat investmentprojects for these
issuescould proceed relatively rapidly. This is good, but it also means that these environmentalprojects
will be implementedwith incompleteknowledge. We believethat environmental,social, and institutional
uncertainties in these investment projects should generally not be a problem, if and only if the
Government of Viet Nam and its partners recognizethese uncertaintiesand incompleteknowledgeand
form appropriateresponses. These responseshould consistof two elements. First, environmental,social,
financial, and institutionaleffects of the investmentprojects should be closelymonitored as a part of the
project itself to detect unexpected project results, both positive and negative. Second, projects should
be designed to adapt to the results of this monitoring, as well as to changing social and economic
conditions. This will demand flexible project delivery mechanisms which can make use of new
knowledge and information gained from monitoring project results. This feedback from project
implementationto monitoringto project re-designwill be particularly critical to the long term success of
environmentalinvestmentprojects in Viet Nam.
62.
EnvironmentalProgram Deliverv: The Need for Integrationand Coordination. The delivery
mechanismwill almost certainly vary with the environmentalproject being contemplated. For example,
in the natural resources sector, it may be best for line agencies to implementprojects through selected
provincial departments and services at priority sites. For urban and industrial problems, which are still
concentrated in a relatively small number of locations, implementingaction will be the responsibilityof
local governments. Viet Nam has relatively little experience in implementinglarge, multidisciplinary
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projects and the best program delivery mechanismswill likely evolve through experimentation. Again,
monitoring of projects will be crucial to understandingwhat delivery mechanisms are most suitable.
Becauseof the direct involvementof line agencies and local governments,strengtheningthe capacity of
these agencies to manage environmentalissues will be importantto success of such projects.
63.
An environmentalproject is not an infrastructureproject such as a road, where relatively
few institutionsneed to be involved. Environmentalmanagementand protectionrequiresthe involvement
of a great many disciplines and therefore, the involvementof many institutions.Therefore, the need for
integrationand coordinationof efforts can not be overemphasized. The fact that line agency institutions
are generally not suited at the present time for this integrationand coordinationfunctionmeans that the
responsibilityfor integrationand coordinationwill likely fall to managementand planning institutions,
such as SPC, provincial/municipalPlanningDepartments,MOSTE,and DOSTE. Appropriatetechnical
assistance in project integraiionand coordinationwill likely be required.
64.
Environmental Training of National Management Institutions. The role of national
management institutions is vital to the successful implementationof any formal action plan. These
institutions, such as the SPC, are currently best positioned institutionallyto provide integration and
coordination, and are the institutionswith which the intemationalaid agencies will be working for the
foreseeable future. All parties would therefore benefit from technical assistance to these national
management institutions in basic project planning and internationalproject approachesand procedures.
This shouldbe accompaniedby assistanceto these institutionsin implementationof any formal action plan
that is produced, so that Viet Nam can become more proactive in ongoing development,management,
and review of its environmentalproject portfolio.