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DFID CNTR: 00 0512A
SLGP Consultants’ Report Number 601
(Original Number 14)
Desk Study and Scoping Mission on Poverty and Well-Being
in Benue State
by
Paul Francis, Noble Nweze and Ode Ojowu
February 2002
Table of Contents
1.0
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................3
1.1
Purpose of this Report ...................................................................................3
1.2
Background....................................................................................................3
1.3
Process Followed by the Consultants............................................................3
2.0
FINDINGS ON POVERTY.................................................................................4
3.0
OPTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK AND NEXT STEPS .....................................5
3.1
Options for Poverty Reduction and Governance Reform ..............................5
3.2
Next Steps .....................................................................................................5
3.2.1
Objective 1: Poverty Knowledge.............................................................6
3.2.2
Objective 2: Policy Analysis....................................................................6
3.2.3
Objective 3: Policy Development............................................................6
3.2.4
Objective 4: User Consultation ...............................................................6
3.3
Risks and Assumptions .................................................................................6
3.4
Building Support and Credibility.....................................................................7
3.5
Public Awareness of Governance and Poverty Links ....................................7
4.0
SUMMARY OF MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................7
5.0
IMMEDIATE FOLLOW-UP ...............................................................................9
List of Tables
Table 1:
Table 2:
Suggested Framework for PRSP Process in Benue State .................8
Immediate Follow-up Actions..............................................................9
Annexes
Annex 1:
Annex 2:
Annex 3:
Terms of Reference
Persons Met and Institutions Contacted
Poverty in Benue State - A Preliminary Assessment based on
Secondary Sources
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Acknowledgement
The consultants are grateful for the support given to them by the State and Local
Government Project and the Benue State Reform Team, as well as to all of those
institutions and persons who shared their time and experience in making the exercise
possible.
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1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Purpose of this Report
This report responds to ToR, reproduced in full in Annex 1, for a ‘scoping study on
conducting assessments in the areas of poverty, well-being and wealth generation’ in
Benue State. The assignment consisted of two parts: a desk study to collate existing
material on poverty and a scoping exercise for a poverty assessment and strategy.
Our inputs were as follows: Francis from 27th January to 2nd February 2002; Nweze,
14th to 26th January 2002; Ojowu, 21st January to 2nd February 2002.
1.2
Background
The goal of the State and Local Government Programme (SLGP) is to support the
development of effective pro-poor state and local government in Nigeria, which
enables people to realise their rights. This is to be achieved through enhancing the
capacity and effectiveness of state and local government to formulate policy, manage
resources and support service delivery in the interests of poor people.
In Benue, the state Government has established a State Reform Team (SRT)
charged with responsibility for leading governance reform with a view to achieving
enhanced capacity and effectiveness of state and local governments to formulate
policy, manage resources and provide improved service delivery. Its objectives
include enhancing efficient service delivery, and promoting accountability and
participation. As part of the process of planning and implementing strategies to
achieve these objectives, SRT decided to undertake a situational assessment on
poverty, assessing present levels of economic freedom and wealth creation and
considering the extent to which government addresses issues of social disadvantage.
A sub-committee of the SRT has been established on ‘Economic Freedom, Wealth
Creation, Social Inclusion and the Dimensions of Poverty’, and that sub-committee
has taken a lead role in initiating and guiding this study.
1.3
Process Followed by the Consultants
In the desk study phase, information on poverty and well-being, as well as on
poverty-related programmes was collected from secondary sources and through
visits to a range of agencies in the state (Annex 2). This information was synthesised
into a report, the essentials of which have been summarised in Annex 3.
During the scoping phase, meetings were held with members of the Benue State
Reform Team and others involved in poverty alleviation programmes in both
government and non-government sectors (see Annex 2). Based on these discussions
and the findings of the desk review, an overview with options for action was prepared
and presented to a meeting of the State Reform Team on 31st January. This meeting
confirmed that poverty reduction was one of the SRTs key objectives, and endorsed
the idea of taking it forward with a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan for the state. On
the basis of the direction of that meeting, the proposals outlined in this report (see
Section 3) were developed in consultation with SRT members and the SLGP State
Programme Manager.
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2.0
FINDINGS ON POVERTY
The main findings of the review of secondary material on poverty in Benue State are
reproduced in Annex 3. This preliminary review identified both quantitative and
qualitative information on poverty and social indicators in the state, as well as
information about poverty programmes and other sectoral policies and projects
affecting the poor. These sources demonstrate that poverty in the state is severe,
widespread and multi-dimensional, and that it has increased considerably in the last
two decades. Poverty is a predominantly rural phenomenon, and affects women even
more seriously than men. Particularly vulnerable groups include children, the aged,
victims of HIV/AIDS, and persons displaced by communal and military violence.
Nevertheless, there remain substantial gaps in the information available on poverty.
Some of the main ones are:
• social and cultural dimensions of poverty, including gender/household issues;
• local perceptions of poverty;
• the distribution of various aspects poverty through the state, and the needs
and problems of specific LGAs;
• the relationship between poverty and the environment1;
• the special needs of vulnerable groups; and
• the poverty alleviation activities of Civil Society Organisations.
With the exception of the National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), there
are few programmes specifically and explicitly focused on poverty in the state.
However, our assessment identified a substantial number of institutions, policies and
programmes with a bearing on the lives of the poor. These include federal, state,
local government level institutions providing health, education, water and agricultural
services, as well as institutions in the civil society sphere.
Considerable overlap in mandates and responsibilities was found between these
institutions, both within and between levels of government. Two further problems
identified were a lack of continuity in programmes, and serious gaps between
planned outputs and those actually achieved.
Many of the reasons for this poor performance may be traced to problems of
management and governance. In particular, there is a lack of transparency in
planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and little or no involvement of
public. The overall result of these seemingly chronic problems is a lack of ownership
by the public and a deep scepticism on their part about government at all levels.
1
A preliminary environmental assessment, also supported by the SRT and SGLP was underway in
Benue State at the time of our consultancy. See Annex 3.
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3.0
OPTIONS FOR FUTURE WORK AND NEXT STEPS
3.1
Options for Poverty Reduction and Governance Reform
These findings strongly suggest that reducing poverty, improving governance and
building public confidence will advance together or not at all.
Addressing poverty will require both improving the quality of the public services which
the poor, with others, use, and focusing on support for specific vulnerable groups
with their special needs. Given the multi-sectoral nature of poverty, developing and
implementing pro-poor policies in Benue State will require far-reaching changes in
the planning and management of public expenditure. These include the realignment
of institutional roles so as to reduce overlap and duplication, the allocation of
resources to pro-poor programmes and actions, adherence of actual expenditure to
budgets, and the involvement of users and beneficiaries in the planning and
monitoring of programmes.
The central role of improved governance to poverty reduction means that the State
Reform Team is well placed to lead such a process. However, it will be essential for
the Team also to involve fully those key Ministries that will figure centrally in PRSP
development and implementation, so that they too may understand, own and support
the process. At the same time, given that the field of activities with a potential impact
on poverty is very broad, it will be essential for the next set of actions to be selective,
focused, coordinated and appropriately phased.
Finally, the involvement of civil society in the process of reform will be critical to its
success. Four key ways of involving the public are identified here and reflected in the
proposals below (although no doubt others will become apparent as the process
proceeds):
• consulting the public during the development of pro-poor policies
• assigning broad responsibility for the management of the reform process
• introducing user surveys to obtain feedback on service quality
• building public awareness of the relationship between governance and
poverty.
3.2
Next Steps
A framework for developing appropriate pro-poor policies for the state could be
provided through the formulation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan (PRSP). A
PRSP is already underway at the national level, although the process through which
it is to be developed may not be clear for some time. A state-level PRSP could be
tailored to Benue State’s own priorities and vision of the reform process.
It would be aimed, not at the production of a definitive document, but the promotion
and documentation of an ongoing process through which consensus could be built
and progress monitored towards a more pro-poor policy environment in the state.
Table 1 outlines a framework for a consultative process to develop a PRSP for
Benue State, defining objectives, activities, outputs and inputs and processes to be
followed. Four key objectives are proposed:
• Objective 1: to fill gaps in knowledge about poverty in Benue State;
• Objective 2: to analyse the impact on the poor of existing policies, patterns of
public expenditure, and programme management;
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•
•
Objective 3: to increase the poverty orientation and impact of public
expenditure and programmes; and
Objective 4: to involve the poor in assessing and monitoring the quality of
public programmes.
Brief notes on each of these follow.
3.2.1
Objective 1: Poverty Knowledge
Focused research would address the gaps in knowledge about poverty which have
been identified in this report. A combination of formal/quantitative and
participatory/qualitative methods would be used, depending on the subject matter
being researched. It is recommended that this research be managed and undertaken
through the collaboration of academic, government and civil society institutions.
3.2.2
Objective 2: Policy Analysis
The proposed review of public expenditure management to be undertaken for
SRT/SLGP from March 2002 would form the foundation for this objective. This review
could be broadened so as to take into account the fiscal incidence of public
expenditure and its impact on the poverty.
3.2.3
Objective 3: Policy Development
Given the large number of government agencies impacting poverty2, there will be a
need to focus at the outset on a selected group of agencies working in a few key
sectors. It is suggested that both production and social sectors be represented.
Careful attention will need to be given to this phasing. Another possibility would be a
geographical phasing by beginning with selected Local Government Areas.
3.2.4
Objective 4: User Consultation
This objective could be linked with the service delivery assessment already planned
by SRT/SLGP from March 2002, through the development of a survey method to
obtain feedback on the use, and perceived quality, of key public and private services.
It is recommended that this user survey be focused on a relatively small number of
key indicators and that it be repeated regularly to assess trends in service delivery.
3.3
Risks and Assumptions
The most critical assumption for the success of the PRSP process is the existence of
the political will to integrate poverty concerns into state policies across sectors as a
matter of priority. The high priority given by the SRT and the state administration to
poverty reduction is a positive indication of commitment. The regular radio phone-in
programmes being broadcast on the reform process are reinforcing the public nature
of this stand.
2
According to the Ahmed Joda panel report (1999) and the Professor Ango Abdullahi Committee report
(2000), the core poverty alleviation ministries are: Agriculture and Rural Development, Education, Water
Resources, Industry, Power and Steel, Employment, Labour and Productivity, Women’s Affairs and
Youth Development, Health, Works and Housing, Environment, Solid Minerals Development, Science
and Technology, Finance, and the National Planning Commission.
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3.4
Building Support and Credibility
In order to generate support and credibility both from within government and the
wider public to pursue this programme, the consultants believe that it will be essential
in the next step of the reform process to ensure the broad and demonstrable
representativeness of the process. One way of achieving this would be through the
establishment of a steering committee for the PRSP that includes state, local
government and civil society representation. This body could report to the SRT.
3.5
Public Awareness of Governance and Poverty Links
Given the centrality of governance issues to poverty alleviation, there is a clear need
to build local understanding of the relationship between governance, democracy and
poverty. The SRT has already taken steps in this direction through publicity about the
reform programme, a public summit conference and radio broadcasts. SRT/SLGP
should therefore consider deepening the process of public education about the
relationship between the exercise of democratic rights and public sector reform.
4.0
•
•
•
SUMMARY OF MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS
The State Reform Team should consider initiating a process that would lead
to a Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan (PRSP), with four aims:
o to fill gaps in knowledge about poverty in the state
o to analyse the impact on the poor of existing policies, patterns of
public expenditure, and programme management
o to increase the poverty orientation and impact of public expenditure
and programmes
o to involve the poor in assessing and monitoring the quality of public
programmes.
Measures towards these ends are outlined in Table 1.
A multi-sector/stakeholder steering committee, including member of civil
society organisations, be established to coordinate this process under the
leadership of the SRT.
A process of public education about the relationship between the exercise of
democratic rights and public sector reform be initiated.
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Table 1:
Suggested Framework for PRSP Process in Benue State
a) To fill gaps in knowledge about poverty in Benue State
b) To analyse the impact on the poor of existing policies, patterns of public expenditure,
and programme management
c) To increase the poverty orientation and impact of public expenditure and programmes
d) To involve the poor in assessing and monitoring the quality of public programmes
a) Poverty research and survey
Activities
b) Analysis of the impacts of policies, expenditure, and programmes on the poor
c) Development of pro-poor policies and programmes which address the key constraints
identified in (b). These are likely to include:
• Appropriate allocation and timely release of funds
• Appropriate and transparent management and monitoring of funds
• Coordination within and between levels of government and sectors
• Special programmes for vulnerable groups
• Improved management and governance of programmes
d) Establishment of mechanisms to obtain feedback from users on the appropriateness and
effectiveness of public and private services
Process to be Consultations within various sectors and levels of government
Consultations with civil society groups
followed
Technical consultancies
PRSP defining and justifying pro-poor policies and documenting reform process
Outputs
expected
Expertise on: poverty/social analysis, consultation/facilitation, public expenditure analysis,
Technical
inputs required key sectoral issues.
PRSP to be completed by end 2002; draft to be complete in time for 2003 budget process
Time frame
(i.e. 3rd quarter 2002).
Personnel, consultations, facilities, transport, equipment, consumables
Costs
Objectives
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Key
risks
and
assumptions
Political interest and will
Public credibility
Technical capacity
Bureaucratic
will
restructure policies
budgets
to
and
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5.0
IMMEDIATE FOLLOW-UP
Acceptance of the above framework and recommendations would imply the following
follow-up actions in the short term (by objective).
Table 2:
Immediate Follow-up Actions
Objective
Action
Responsibility
General
Begin to build consensus and
ownership for pro-poor policy process
within government and civil society
SRT/SLGP
Review experience of PRSPs in other
countries so as to benefit from
experience
SLGP/SRT
Establish a timetable for proposed
PRSP activities and processes
SRT/SLGP
a) Poverty research
Identify research team
Draft ToR for poverty research
SLGP /ODG (during April
visit)
b) Policy analysis
Supplement ToR for PEM consultancy
SLGP
c) Policy
development
Develop plan for consultative
processes within government and with
civil society
SRT/SLGP
d) User
consultation
Develop proposals for periodic client
feedback system
SRT/planned service
delivery assessment
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Annex 1
Terms of Reference
Scoping Study on Conducting Assessments in the area of:
Poverty, Well-Being and Wealth Generation
Introduction
In Benue the state Government has established a State Reform Team (SRT). This is
charged with responsibility for leading governance reform with a view to achieving
enhanced capacity and effectiveness of state and local governments to formulate
policy, manage resources and provide improved service delivery.
The long term objectives of the SRT are to:
• Enhance efficient service delivery in both the social and economic sectors of
society at the public and private levels;
• Promote accountability and responsiveness of government to the interests of
the governed;
• Guarantee economic freedom of the citizens and encourage indigenous
entrepreneurship and wealth creation;
• Guarantee protection of the citizens by providing a framework for security and
order; and
• Promoting the participation of the citizens in the process of government in
order to entrench sustainable democracy.
As part of the process of planning for and implementing strategies to achieve these
objectives, the SRT has decided to undertake a number of situational assessments.
One such assessment area was originally (in June 2001) encapsulated in the
following statements:
•
•
What is the present level of economic freedom and wealth creation; and
To what extent does government address the issues of social disadvantaged
(children, women, handicapped)?
Subsequently a sub-committee of the SRT was established (there are others also) on
‘Economic Freedom, Wealth Creation: Social Inclusion and Dimensions of Poverty’.
This committee then agreed (in September) that the SRT should commission a study
that would focus on poverty, and on developing a strategy for poverty reduction and
mainstreaming of socially disadvantaged groups.
In October, at the block 2 learning session, Jock Cameron conducted a general
session on approaches to assessing well-being. The session included consideration
by reform teams from different states, including Benue, of:
•
•
•
elements of well-being (elements identified by groups could be said to have
included a range of different forms of capital similar to those listed in
livelihoods models);
different types of groups that may be disadvantaged; and
general elements of a livelihoods analysis.
Therefore members of the reform team at least are familiar with these concepts.
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In addition it should be noted that some work related to poverty assessment has
already been undertaken in Benue. For example the Federal Office of Statistics,
based in Makurdi, has recently undertaken a Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire
study in the state. It is believed that there are other relevant and recent pieces of
information available.
Objectives
The proposed study will comprise two parts:
• A desk study to include collection and assimilation of existing poverty
assessment material in Benue state; and
• A scoping study to establish the need, and outline plans, for a participatory
assessment.
The Desk Study
The desk study will be undertaken mainly in Makurdi, but could also involve
consultation of other centrally located sources. It should be undertaken in January by
two Nigerian consultants, probably one from NISER, and the other from Makurdi
(probably from the Benue State University).
The consultants will:
• Talk to relevant stakeholders in Benue to establish the existence of current
and relevant materials and information on Poverty in Benue;
• Assimilate and collate this information; and
• Produce a written review and evaluation of it.
• The work may be expected to identify, amongst other things:
• Types of indices or measures of poverty (or well-being or other related terms)
currently being used;
• Any current strategies or programmes for reducing poverty (increasing wellbeing) now in place;
• The role being played by current institutions (federal, state, LGA, others) and
their responsibilities in these areas;
• The current occurrence of poverty (well-being) according to the measures
currently available; and
• The different socially disadvantaged groups that are most affected or at risk.
The outputs of the study will be a collection in hard and/or electronic copy of the
materials identified, plus a report that summarises and evaluates the information
according to the bullet points above. This report will be an important input to the
second part of the study.
The Scoping Mission
The overall aim of the scoping mission will be to produce outline plans for a
participatory assessment of poverty (or well-being) in Benue State.
The development of this plan must take head of the following conditions:
What needs to be assessed?
There remains some question as to the precise issue that requires assessment. A
number of terms have been used (poverty, well being, wealth generation, needs of
socially disadvantaged groups, and so on).
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The results of the desk study may be expected also to provide some indications as to
what has, and therefore what needs to be, assessed in Benue. Indeed it is
conceivable that the desk study will indicate that there is no current need for further
work.
At the outset therefore it is necessary to agree with the SRT exactly what it is that
requires assessment.
What is the purpose of assessing it?
The purpose of the assessment also needs to be fully understood. Is it in order to:
• simply collect information about poverty;
• involve the citizens in providing information so as to raise their awareness of
poverty issues and what they, the government and others might be expected
to do about it;
• provide information, based on citizens views, that can be fed into the
development and implementation of better service delivery, and into other
policy and strategy developments?
Results of this questioning should influence decisions about the type of survey to be
done, and may raise the SRT’s ownership of the work;
How should we assess it?
Finally the various techniques available for assessing it (whatever it is) need to be
understood, and evaluated, given local conditions and the answers to the above
questions.
Outline of Planned Assessment
Following these decisions, it should then be possible to develop an outline plan for
the assessment work to be done. This should include reference to:
• Objectives
• Techniques to be used
• Sampling required
• Resources necessary
• Potential local sources
• Time frame
• Costs
• Expected outputs
Participation in the Work
As far as possible the members of the SRT should be involved in the scoping work. It
is essential that their understanding should drive development of the assessment
plans. This involvement may be through individual meetings, but should include a full
SRT team session at the beginning of the week in order to consider the questions
and a team session at the end of the week to report back on outline proposals for
assessment work.
Output
The main output of the scoping mission will be:
• An outline plan for the assessment to be undertaken; and
• A consultants report (including the above plan) that describes the
participatory work done in order to achieve the plan.
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Consultants and Timing
The scoping mission will be undertaken by an International Consultant (probably Paul
Francis) together with the local Nigerian consultants who will have undertaken the
original desk study.
The work will be undertaken during the week beginning 28th January.
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Annex 2
Persons met and institutions contacted in Benue State
Name
Position
Organisation
Mr. Bill Bloxom
Programme Manager,
Benue State
State and Local
Government Programme
Mr. Atoato David Igirgi
Benue State Programme
Monitoring Adviser (SRT
chair)
UNDP / Benue State
Secretariat
Mr. Terna Ahua
Permanent Secretary
(SLGP Liaison Officer and
SRT member)
Ministry of Water
Resources and
Environment
Mr. J.S. Mayange
Director of Planning and
Statistics (SRT member)
Ministry of Finance and
Economic Planning
Dr. Yakubu Ochefu
Deputy Vice Chancellor
Benue State University,
Makurdi
Dr. Nancy Agbe
Dean, Faculty of Education
(SRT and poverty subcommittee member)
Benue State University,
Makurdi
Mrs. Lucie K. Ato
Director (SRT member)
Staff Development Centre,
Makurdi
Mr. Adikpo Agbatse
CRT Member
Private Sector
Mr. Jerry Agada
Permanent Secretary (SRT
member)
Ministry of Local
Government and
Chieftaincy Affairs
Mr. S.T. Kurga
Deputy Director, Monitoring
and Inspections
Ministry of Local
Government and
Chieftaincy Affairs
Mr. T.S. Adzaagee
Head of Civil Service
Benue State Administration
Mr. Simon Shango
State Coordinator, and
Chairman, State
Coordinating Committee
National Poverty
Eradication Project
(NAPEP)
Mr. James Zasha
Benue State Coordinator
DFID
Dr. Hassan Haruna
Bdliya
Environmental Assessment
Department
Federal Ministry of
Environment, Abuja
Mr. Anongo Lyam
Department of Geography
Benue State University
Mrs. Lonela J Bloxom
Country Program Director
Partners for Development
Frank Krause
Programme Manager,
Enugu
SLGP
Mr. Yusufu, Mr.
Ugama
Lower Benue River Basin Development Authority
(LBRBDA)
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Name
Position
Mrs. L. Hawken
Benue Health Fund
Dr. J Umeh
Department of Agricultural
Economics
Dr.G Ayoola
Mr. Daniel Iorshagher
Organisation
University of Agriculture,
Makurdi
Ministry of Water
Resources and
Environment
Benue Rural Water Supply
and Sanitation Agency
(BERWASSA)
Improved Farmers
Participation in Research
and Extension (IFREB)
University of Agriculture,
Makurdi
Water Aid, Makurdi
Mr. Moses Ugye
President
Association of Benue CBOs
and NGOs
Mr. Tile T.V. Dyo
General Secretary
Association of Benue CBOs
and NGOs
Representatives of NGO/CBO members of the Association of Benue CBOs and
NGOs:
Anglican Diocesan Development Services (ADDS)
Ecumenical Commission for Justice and Peace (ECJP)
Health and Development Organisation (HADO)
HADO Development Services (HADSERVE)
Methodist Church Ankpa Ward circuit Women and widows foundation Association
(ASWWWFA)
Ohonyeta Care Group (OCAG)
OSA Foundation
Otia Development foundation (ODF)
Women in Nigeria (WIN) Benue Chapter
Rice Mill Owners Association
Industrial Cooperative Society of Honey Producers
Ajika Multipurpose Women’s Cooperative, Oju
Tree Crop Farmers Association, Alede
Poverty Alleviation and Community Development
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Annex 3
Poverty in Benue State
A preliminary assessment based on secondary sources
By
Noble Nweze, Ode Ojowu, Paul Francis
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Purpose of this Study
This report reviews and synthesises available information on poverty in Benue State,
and presents a brief assessment of the institutions, policies and programmes that
affect the poor. As such, it is based entirely on secondary material, including the
published and unpublished sources listed in the references section3. The limitations
of these sources and the time available make the review inevitably selective.
1.2
Benue State
Benue State lies in the North Central Zone of Nigeria and has a land area of 300,955
square kilometres. Most of the state is in the southern guinea savannah. The state
has a projected population of about 3.2 million, some 70 to 80 percent of whom live
in rural areas. Agriculture accounts for over 75 percent of economic activities.
1.3
Concepts of Poverty and Well-being
Well-being and poverty (its lack) are broad concepts: they encompass not only an
income, but the whole range of factors which influence human capabilities – our
capacity to do and to be. Health and education (‘human capital’ in economic terms)
are clearly critical to well-being. So also are the social and institutional environment
within which we live: the degree of social autonomy and empowerment, political
representation, access to justice and physical security. Poverty, then, comprises
physical isolation, vulnerability, isolation and powerlessness as well as lack of
income and assets (Chambers 1983). Some of these may be measured and counted,
and are thus amenable to quantitative analysis, either in absolute or in relative terms.
Other aspects of poverty, such as its institutional or cultural dimensions, or its lived
experience, are more complex or subjective, and are thus best captured by
qualitative research.
3
The present report is draws on: ‘Poverty, Well-Being and Wealth Generation in Benue State’
Consultancy Report prepared for the Benue State Reform Team by Noble J. Nweze and Ode Ojowu,
Draft. January 2002.
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2.0
POVERTY INCIDENCE IN BENUE STATE
2.1
Income Poverty
Table 1 indicates dramatically the substantial growth in the proportion of households
in Benue suffering income poverty over the last two decades.
Table 1:
1980
1985
1992
1996
Percentage Poverty Head Count in Benue State
Extremely poor
Moderately Poor
1
21
14
29
15
26
25
39
Non-poor
77
57
59
36
Source: FOS 1999
The changes in Benue State correspond to a national picture of increasing poverty
over these years, as Table 2 demonstrates. However, Benue is the eighth poorest of
the thirty-six states of the Federation. The reasons for this are complex, but may in
part be sought in the dependence of the state on agriculture, and government’s
neglect of the sector. This cause is compounded by the extreme lack of infrastructure
in the state (which, for example, was only connected to the national electricity grid in
2001), and also by its historical political marginality (though in recent years it has
become more central to national political life). The state’s underdevelopment has
promoted, and in turn been exacerbated by, out-migration of both skilled and
unskilled labour. Benue has been a major source of labour to the cocoa growing
areas of south-western Nigeria, and people of Benue origin are also highly
represented in teaching and other professions throughout Nigeria.
Table 2:
1980
1985
1992
1996
Percentage Poverty Head Count in Nigeria
Extremely poor
Moderately Poor
6
21
12
34
14
29
29
30
Non-poor
73
54
57
34
Source: FOS 1999
2.1.1
Local Conceptions of Poverty and its Causes
Participants in the Voices of the Poor study in Benue distinguished three groups: the
rich, the average, and the poor (Zasha 1999). Men estimated 80 percent of
households to be ‘poor’, women 60 percent. Participants in Benue considered local
poverty as well as that across the country has increased over the years.
People identified the main causes of poverty as: unemployment, poor environment,
lack of capital, lack of farm inputs, bad roads and inefficient transportation system,
poor crop yields, lack of food, overpopulation, ill-health, conflicts, and corruption. Men
ranked produce prices and poor harvests followed by poor roads and a lack of inputs
as the main causes of poverty. Women rated lack of inputs and unstable prices,
followed by lack of health care and persistent ill-health highest.
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2.1.2
Other Indicators of Poverty
Table 3 gives some key social indicators for Benue State. In spite of the enormous
increase in poverty since 1980, more households considered that there had been an
improvement in their situation over the previous year (that is, between March 2000 to
March 2001) than felt themselves to have become poorer. This result is perhaps due
to the temporary increase in public expenditure which followed democratisation (but
which has since been negated by price inflation). However, over a half of households
still reported having had difficulty satisfying their food needs at lease once during the
previous year (FOS 2001).
2.1.3
Access to Education
Almost two-fifths of household heads had no education, a further 6 percent had some
primary education, and just over a quarter had completed primary school. 16 percent
had completed secondary school, while 11 percent had some post-secondary
education. The adult literacy rate was 58 percent (55 percent in rural areas). The gap
between male and female literacy is 33 percent (FOS 2001).
Sixty percent of children were within 30 minutes of a primary school (55 percent in
rural areas). Primary school enrolment, at 73 percent, is somewhat higher for boys
than for girls (77 percent compared to 69 percent). Only 26 percent of children had
access to secondary schools (14 percent in rural areas compared to 74 percent in
urban). Secondary enrolment was 36 percent overall, but the gender gap was wider
than for primary education: less than a third of secondary school age girls being
enrolled (29 percent, compared to 41 percent of boys) (FOS 2001).
Enrolment statistics aside, the quality of formal education has deteriorated seriously.
Those who can afford to have abandoned public schools in favour of private ones,
especially in urban areas. Public schools, which are chronically under-funded and
mismanaged, are now nearly exclusively for the children of the poor, a situation that
has the long-term effect of perpetuating poverty and social exclusion. This situation is
reflected in rates of satisfaction with education. Only 36 percent of enrolled primary
students (32 percent in rural areas) were satisfied with schools. Satisfaction with
secondary schools was even lower, at 20 percent. The main reasons for
dissatisfaction were the poor facilities (53 percent), the lack of books and materials
(49 percent), and the lack of teachers and frequent strikes (30 percent), high fees (22
percent) and the quality of teaching (15 percent).4 Children in government schools
were most dissatisfied with the poor facilities (around 60 percent), while those in
private schools were more upset by the high fees (59 percent for primary, 70 percent
for secondary). Those who had dropped out of school overwhelmingly gave the high
cost of education as their main reason (52 percent) (FOS 2001).
4
Respondents could name more than one problem, so that the total exceeds 100 percent.
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2.1.4
Employment
According to the CWIQ survey, three quarters of the adult population of the state was
economically active. The inactive portion included 1.7 percent who reported being
unemployed. One in six workers (almost all currently self-employed or unpaid family
labour) reported themselves as being underemployed. 59 percent of the working
population was self-employed, 32 percent unpaid family workers, 8 percent regular
workers, and 1 percent casual workers. Seventy nine percent of the working
population were engaged in agriculture (89 percent of rural dwellers). Women were
more likely to be engaged in agriculture than men (83 compared to 75 percent) (FOS
2001).
Table 3:
Some Key Social Indicators
Benue total %
Household economic situation compared to one year ago
Worse now
27.6
Better now
49.5
Access to water supply
51.5
Access to safe water supply
25.6
Adult Literacy Rate
58.0
Employment
1.7
Unemployed5
1.9
Male
1.5
Female
16.2
Underemployed6
17.2
Male
15.2
Female
Primary School
59.9
Access to Primary School
73.2
Primary enrolment
76.7
Male
68.9
Female
36.2
Satisfaction
Secondary School
25.9
Access to Secondary School
35.7
Secondary enrolment
40.7
Male
29.2
Female
20.3
Satisfaction
Medical Services
Health Access
Need
Use
Satisfaction
Child Nutrition
Stunting
Wasting
Underweight
Source: Adapted from FOS 2001.
Rural %
Urban %
31
47
42
16
55
15
62
93
69
72
1.3
1.2
1.3
16
17
16
3.8
5.2
2.4
15
17
13
55
73
73
69
32
85
74
74
69
57
14
33
39
26
17
74
46
48
43
33
32.0
10.8
10.2
52.9
25
12
11
49
67
7
7
74
31
11
17
33
12
16
18
10
22
5
Unemployed defined as ‘persons who did not work in the four week period preceding the survey and
who looked for work in the same period. The inactive population, primarily students and retired persons,
is not included’. This figure seems very low.
6
Underemployed defined as ‘persons who sought to increase earnings in the seven days preceding the
survey’.
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2.2
Health and Poverty
Access to and use of medical services
About one third of the population had access to a health facility (defined as being
less than 30 minutes away by transportation commonly used by the household), but
only a quarter in rural areas. Eleven percent of households in the CWIQ survey
reported the need for medical services in the four weeks preceding the survey.
Fever/malaria (especially for young children), diarrhoea/abdominal pains and pains in
back, limbs or joints were the most common ailments. Ten percent had consulted a
health practitioner in the four weeks preceding the survey (FOS 2001).
The principal providers of health services were private hospitals (32 percent), public
hospitals (23 percent), and traditional healers (20 percent). Significantly, community
health centres were used by only 5 percent of patients, all from rural areas. Almost a
half (47 percent) of users were dissatisfied with the treatment which they received.
The main reasons given were high costs (50 percent) followed by unsuccessful
treatment (31 percent) and long waiting times (29 percent). Other reasons adduced
were that the facilities were not clean (13 percent, but 43 percent of health centre
users), or the absence of professional staff (11 percent). Patients treated by a
traditional healer were the least likely to express dissatisfaction (FOS 2001).
Child nutrition
The CWIQ survey showed a high proportion of children in Benue state to be stunted,
wasted and underweight.7 Stunting and wasting were higher in rural areas;
underweight in urban (see table 3). Males under five tended to have poorer nutritional
status than females (33 to 28 percent stunted; 13 against 10 percent wasted; 17
against 16 percent underweight). Figures for Central Nigeria (of which Benue is a
part) from the National Demographic and Health Survey of 1999 show higher rates of
malnutrition, with, over a half of children (53 percent) stunted and a quarter (24
percent) as underweight (NPCN 2000). These figures were higher among the
children of women with no education (56 percent stunting).
Child mortality
Poor access to services and malnutrition are associated with very unfavourable
health outcomes. The WHO ranks the performance of the Nigerian Health System as
187th of 191 members, with only Sierra Leone, Myanmar and the Democratic
Republic of Congo, performing worse (Adetokumbo 2000). Table 4 shows the
extremely high levels of childhood mortality in Central Nigeria (including Benue
State). Under 5 mortality is extremely high 84.4 per thousand. In other words, more
than one child in twelve does not see his or her fifth birthday.
7
Stunted children are short for their age. Their height is more than two standard deviations below the
standard (NCHS) height for age.
Wasted children are underweight for their height. Their weight is more than two standard deviations
below the standard (NCHS) weight for height.
Underweight children are short for their age. Their weight is more than two standard deviations below
the standard (NCHS) weight for age.
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Table 4:
Childhood Mortality in Central Nigeria
Neonatal mortality8
Post-neonatal mortality
Infant mortality (0-1 yr)
Child mortality
Under 5 mortality
23.8
26.9
50.7
35.5
84.4
Source: NPCN 2000
2.2.1
Water Supply and Sanitation
While a half of households had access to water supply (defined as a water source
less than 30 minutes away), only a quarter of all households, but only 16 percent of
rural households, had access to safe water (i.e. pipe-borne, borehole/handpump or
protected well). Fifty-seven percent of households had some means of sanitation, but
only 35 percent a good means of sanitary disposal (i.e. flush-to-sewage system or
septic tank, covered pit latrine and ventilated pit latrine) (FOS 2001).
2.2.2
Physical Infrastructure
Economic and social development in Benue state are constrained by poor roads. The
lack of market and transport infrastructure results in serious post harvest losses.
These infrastructural constraints are associated with oligopsonistic marketing
practices: closed trade associations and entry requirements tend to restrict entry into
produce purchasing and thus inhibit competition.
2.2.3
Gender Dimensions of Poverty
Poverty has a marked gender dimension. The gender division of labour, responsibility
and power reflects interdependence and cooperation on one hand, and inequalities
and conflict on the other. We have already noted differences in nutrition, and school
enrolment between girls and boys, as well as the gap in adult literacy. Table 5 shows
some of the other ways in which women are socially and economically
disadvantaged. While more likely to be engaged in crop production than men, women
rarely own or control farmland. Women are also largely responsible for fetching water
and firewood, cooking, and other household work, as demonstrated in Table 5 (the
figures for male involvement in water and firewood collection largely reflect the
contribution of children). Women’s role in decision making is inferior to men’s in all
aspects of household decision making covered in the CWIQ survey. For example, on
health, 51 percent of women participated in decision-making compared to 65 percent
of men; for decisions about education, the equivalent figures were 37 percent to 51
percent. Men also more often controlled the proceeds of farm sales (53 to 32
percent) (FOS 2001).
Men dominate access to other resources like credit and agricultural inputs. About 26
percent of women, compared to 33 percent of men have access to agricultural inputs,
and 7 percent of women compared to 10 percent of men access to credit facilities.
Ten percent of households were female-headed. These were more likely to report
having difficulties in meeting food needs (20 percent) than male-headed households
(6 percent).
8
Neonatal mortality is the probability of dying within the first month of life.
Post-neonatal mortality is the probability of dying within the first year of life.
Neonatal mortality is the difference between infant mortality and neo-natal mortality.
Infant mortality is the probability of dying between the first and fifth birthday.
Under-five mortality is the probability of dying within the first five years of life.
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Table 5: Gender Dimensions of some Social Indicators
Engaged in crop farming
Ownership of land
Access to farmland
Control over proceeds of farm sales
Access to credit
Use of agricultural inputs
Female (%)
61
14
31
32
7
26
Male (%)
58
51
58
53
10
33
Responsibility for fetching water
Responsibility for fetching firewood
88
78
54
41
74
41
Adult literacy
Source: Adapted from FOS 2001
2.2.4
Poverty and the Environment
There are important links between poverty and environmental issues. A recent report
prepared for the SRT notes the major environmental problems in the state as:
declining soil fertility, soil erosion, bush burning, flooding, deforestation, pollution and
waste management (Bdliya and Lyam 2002). These costs fall predominantly upon
the poor, especially farmers and rural dwellers. Declining soil fertility has resulted in a
shift from higher value – but also higher labour – crops such as yams, beniseed and
soyabean, in favour of lower value crops such as cassava. Finally, the geology and
low water table in many parts of the state makes the sinking of wells problematic.
2.2.5
Spatial Dimensions of Poverty
Few available sources of social and economic data on the state give information
about local variation in the incidence of poverty. However, the CWIQ survey presents
findings disaggregated by the three zones (see Table 6). There are major differences
in access to safe water. Only 33 percent of households in zone C have water within
thirty minutes’, and only 8 percent to safe sources: in zone B, the equivalent figures
are 71 and 50 percent. Access to and enrolment in both primary and secondary
schools are lower in zone A. These figures reflect complex social and political
processes, and the inclusion of the different levels of urbanisation in the three zones,
rural settlement patterns, and the distribution of the population of minorities.
2.2.6
Vulnerable Groups
Social and economic indicators are universally worse in rural than in urban areas.
The gender and spatial dimensions of poverty have also already been described.
There are other particularly vulnerable groups. These include widows, orphans, and
the aged. The HIV/AIDS prevalence rate for Benue, at 21 percent, is the highest in
the country (the national average is 5.4 percent). Those directly and indirectly
affected by the epidemic is a growing group. Finally, the bloody communal clashes
which took place in neighbouring Nasarawa State resulted in the displacement of
thousands of people into various communities in Benue state. Many are temporarily
housed in the Daudu and Uikpiam relief camps in Guma LGA. Subsequent
communal clashes in other parts of the country, in particular in Taraba and Benue
itself, have created more internally displaced persons and led to the establishment of
additional relief camps in other LGAs (Partners for Development 2001).
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2.2.7
Institutions, Policies and Programmes Addressing Poverty
A wide range of institutions have bearing upon the lives of the poor, although only a
small number of these have mandates specifically and explicitly phrased in terms of
poverty alleviation9. The next section briefly sketches federal and state programs with
a potential impact on poverty. Many sectors are in fact served by a combination of
federal, state and local government institutions as well as private and NGO provision.
Here, we take the health sector as an example, exploring institutional responsibilities,
staffing and expenditures. Subsequently we give brief attention to the water supply
and agriculture sectors. Civil society institutions are then considered before drawing
some provisional conclusions10.
9
According to the Ahmed Joda panel report (1999) and the Professor Ango Abdullahi Committee report
(2000), the core poverty alleviation ministries are: Agriculture and Rural Development, Education, Water
Resources, Industry, Power and Steel, Employment, Labour and Productivity, Women’s Affairs and
Youth Development, Health, Works and Housing, Environment, Solid Minerals Development, Science
and Technology, Finance, and the National Planning Commission.
10
Reviews of these sectors are quite provisional, and other important sectors, notably the institutional
and policy context of education, are not treated at all.
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Table 6:
Key Social Indicators by Zone
Zone A (%)
Zone B (%)
Zone C (%)
Household economic situation compared to one year ago
Worse now
31
25
27
Better now
44
54
52
Difficulty in satisfying food needs
64
52
47
over previous year
Access to water supply
46
71
33
Access to safe water supply
16
50
8
Adult Literacy Rate
58
59
57
Employment
0.8
1.8
2.5
Unemployed
1.0
2.6
2.3
Male
0.6
1.1
2.8
Female
22
15
12
Underemployed
23
16
12
Male
20
14
12
Female
Primary School
36
66
77
Access to Primary School
69
75
75
Primary enrolment
71
79
81
Male
67
70
70
Female
23
44
42
Satisfaction
Secondary School
8
46
23
Access to Secondary School
32
34
40
Secondary enrolment
36
38
48
Male
26
29
32
Female
16
25
20
Satisfaction
Medical Services
10
47
39
Health Access
11
9
13
Need
10
8
13
Use
47
54
56
Satisfaction
Child Nutrition
31
35
26
Stunting
24
3
6
Wasting
14
15
21
Underweight
Source: Adapted from CWIQ 2001
Zone A: Katsina-Ala, Konshisha, Kwande, Logo, Ukum, Ushongo and Vandeikya LGAs
Zone B: Buruku, Gboko, Guma, Gwer, Gwer West, Makurdi, Tarka
Zone C: Ado, Agatu, Apa, Obi, Ogbadibo, Oju, Okpokwu, Otukpo
2.2.8 Federal Initiatives
The National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP) is responsible for a number
of schemes, including a Youth Empowerment Scheme, which aims to give university
and school leavers job training opportunities. Other NAPEP programmes include: the
Rural Infrastructures Development Scheme, the Social Welfare Services Scheme
and the Natural Resource Development and Conservation Scheme (NAPEP 2001).
Federal poverty initiatives have not in the past been free of politicisation and have
sometimes been looked on with suspicion by state actors as vehicles for party
patronage. Other Federal initiatives include the Lower Benue River Basin
Development Authority (LBRBDA), whose main roles are the provision of water for
irrigation and domestic use.
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2.2.9
State-level Initiatives
A State Poverty Eradication Council, chaired by the Governor, exists formally, but
would appear not yet to have initiated activities11. State level institutions with bearing
on poverty alleviation include, among others, the line agencies responsible for water
supply, health, education and agriculture. Some of these sectors include specialised
agencies or projects, such as the Benue Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency
(BERWASSA), or the Benue Health Fund (BHF). In the agriculture sector, in addition
to the Ministry of Agriculture at Federal, State and Local Government areas, there
exist the Benue State Agricultural and Rural Development Authority (BNRADA), as
well as (until its recent closure) the University of Agriculture, Makurdi Cooperative
Extension Centre’s initiative, Improved Farmer Participation in Research and
Extension in Benue State (IFPREB).
2.2.10 Educational Institutions
There are about five main line agencies responsible for educational policy and
development in Benue State. These are the Ministry of Education itself, The
Teaching Service Board (TSB), the Educational Resource Centre (ERC), The
National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) and the State Primary Education
Board (SPEB). The Ministry of Education is largely responsible for policy direction
under the overall authority of the Federal Ministry of Education. The National Council
on Education (NCE) is the umbrella organisation that brings together all the Ministries
of Education in the Federation to harmonise educational policies and to share
experiences across the Federation. The NCE holds its meetings once a year. The
last meeting of the NCE was held in Enugu in August 2001.
The Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the annual conduct of the school
census nation-wide; the last school census was, however, conducted in 1998. There
have been no officially published Educational Statistics in Benue State since 1996.
The data and information used below for the for the assessment of education and its
relationship to poverty, derive from primary data still being compiled by the Ministries
of Finance and Education of the State, from the CWIQ report and discussion held
with some officials of the line Ministries. The analysis is therefore provisional.
There are two parallel institutional arrangements for the administration of primary and
secondary education in the state. The National Primary Education Commission,
which operational arm in the state is the SPEB, is controlled by the Federal
Government for the management of primary schools throughout the Federation. The
operational expenses of the primary schools are however met by direct deductions
from the Federation account shares of the Local Government Councils. Under the
policy of the Universal Basic Education policy declared by the Federal Government,
the formula for sharing responsibilities between the three tiers of Government is yet
to be decided. The Federal Government took over the management of primary
schools due to their poor management by the Councils and the subsequent crisis,
especially with respect to the payment of teachers’ salaries. There are currently
(1999) about 2,362 primary schools in the state with an estimated enrolment of
900,202 The State’s Ministry of Education is responsible for secondary and tertiary
education. The TSB is the operational arm of the Ministry responsible for the
supervision and overall management of secondary schools. By 1998, the total
number of secondary schools in the state was put at 348 out of which about 285
prepare students for the senior secondary examination.
11
The Retreat for the Executive Governors and State Coordinators of NAPEP in June 2001 resolved
that such a council should be established in each state.
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Each of the secondary schools is said to self-accounting. In other words, the revenue
generated from the fees is used directly by the principal of each school for the
feeding of boarding students, the maintenance of school buildings, purchase of
stationery, library development and sports/games equipment, etc. The Day Students
are charged N200 per term or N600/year, while the Boarding students are charged
N2990 per term or approximately N9000/year. The Ministry of Education, through the
TSB, is responsible for capital development. Available data indicate that the student
population in post primary schools in the state in 1998 was 206,271. The estimated
capital expenditure in that year was N37.960m; this meant a capital expenditure of
N184.03 per child. There are no data on private schools and so comparisons cannot
be made directly. What is true generally is that the private schools charge higher fees
and are better funded than the public schools. The private primary and secondary
schools are patronised by senior civil servants and businesspersons in the state.
The fifth of the agencies responsible for the development of education in the state is
the ERC. Its specific duty is the development of the educational curricular for the
state. The ERC is to review adapt and evaluate the educational curricular from time
to time and develop course materials in indigenous languages. It is also expected to
adapt the UNESCO programmes to support the link between formal and informal
education to the benefit of Benue State. At the time of the visit, the ERC was largely
dormant and had not undertaken any review of the curriculum. The ERC can be
assisted to develop the capacity for curriculum review and help make education more
skills oriented towards the solution of poverty crisis in the state. The proposed
Poverty Reduction Strategy Plan (PRSP) should include capacity building for the
Educational Resource Centre in the state.
The early introduction of skills in primary education is critical in tackling the problem
of poverty because on the average, the state turns out between 117,000 to 118,000
primary school graduates yearly; about 60 per cent of these proceed to post primary
schools. Between 46,800 and 47,200 primary school graduates enter the labour
market every year. They enter the low paying jobs of wheelbarrow pushing,
newspaper vending and other risky street running businesses like bread hawking.
They also operate as cobblers or “on-the-shoulder patch-patch” tailors. The
percentage of the transition from secondary to tertiary institutions is not readily
available, but educated guesses are that less than half of the secondary school
graduates gain entrance to tertiary institution for reason of poor performance and
inadequate opportunity in tertiary institutions. By 1998 figures of graduating students,
this implies that about 10,000 secondary school graduates enter the labour market a
year. Though these figures may not be very accurate, they paint a grim picture of the
potential for accelerating poverty in the state given the limited opportunity for
employment. A pointer to the enormity of this problem in the state was provided by
NAPEP where in 2001, of the approximately 210,000 applicants for the Youth
Empowerment Scheme, less than 10 percent was recruited.
In addition to the problems posed by primary and secondary school graduates the
CWIQ report showed with respect to the base population that almost two-fifths of
household heads had no education, a further 6 percent had some primary education,
just over a quarter had completed primary school, 16 percent had completed
secondary school, 11 percent had post-secondary school education. The adult
literacy rate was 58 percent. The gap between male and female literacy is 33
percent (FOS 2001).
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While primary school enrolment, at 73%, is encouraging overall, it is higher for boys
than for girls (77 percent compared to 69 percent). Only 26 percent of the children
had access to secondary schools (14 percent in rural areas compared tom 74
percent in urban). Secondary enrolment was 36 percent overall, but the gender gap
was wide than for primary education; less than a third of the secondary school age
girls were enrolled (29 percent compared to 41 percent of boys) (FOS 2001).
However, the quality of formal education is in doubt. Those who can afford to have
abandoned public schools in favour of private ones, especially in urban areas. Public
schools, which are chronically under-funded and mismanaged, are now nearly
exclusively for the children of the poor. Many of the children engaged in street trading
or serving as apprentices in potentially low income earning jobs such as bicycle
repairs and motor mechanics are from poor families and must have graduated from
public schools. This situation has the long-term effect of perpetuating poverty and
social exclusion. The rate of dissatisfaction with education is evident. Only 36
percent of enrolled primary students (32 percent in rural areas) were satisfied with
schools. Satisfaction with secondary schools was even lower, at 20 percent. The
main reasons for the dissatisfaction were the poor facilities (53 percent), the lack of
books and materials (49 percent), the lack of teachers and frequent strikes (30
percent), high fees (22 percent) and the quality of teaching (15 percent) Note that
respondents could name more than one problem. Children in government schools
were most dissatisfied with the poor facilities (about 60 percent) while those in private
schools were most upset by the high fees (59 percent for primary, 70 percent for
secondary). Those who had dropped out of school overwhelmingly gave the cost of
education as the main reason (52 percent) (FOS 2001).
It is very important to mention at this point the difficulties encountered in obtaining
secondary data in respect of the educational sector. Other than the FOS CWIQ
survey of 2001, there have not been any published educational statistics in the state
since 1997. In the course of this assignment all data obtained were scavenged from
files in the Ministry of Education and in the Ministry of Finance and Economic
Planning. Some data were also extracted from files in the State’s Teaching Service
Board. The exercise of generating the data was therefore very time consuming and
physical. The data are for this reason not verified data and their accuracy and
reliability cannot be counted upon. Even the method of estimating the student
population in the absence of a school census, using either the ‘sport development
levy’ rate or the ‘quality control’ rate is suspect as it assumes all pupils pay the levies.
Alarmed by the poor state of educational statistics, the Ministry of Finance and
Economic is calling for a meeting of line agencies and other stakeholders to discuss
the modalities for generating educational statistics for policy formulation and
programme planning. This initiative is yet to take off the ground. The Benue State
Government will need assistance in developing educational statistics, albeit in a
larger framework of a state’s statistical directorate. It should be noted in this regard
that Benue State is about the only state in the Federation without a Directorate of
Statistics.
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2.2.11 Institutions, Policies and Programs in the Health Sector
The objective of the national health policy is to ‘achieve health for all Nigerians based
on the national philosophy of social justice and equity’. The emphasis of national
policy is on the provision and expansion of primary health care. While policies and
guidelines are set at the federal level, implementation strategies for health and family
planning services are determined at the state level, and the actual provision of
primary care is the responsibility of the LGA (NPCN 2000). Health facilities are
organised in a three-tier system. The primary level consists of Health Centres/Clinics
which are managed by LGAs and provide maternal and child health care, preventive
care and the basic curative care. The secondary or state level comprises the district
hospitals that provide curative and some preventive services. The tertiary level
includes teaching hospitals, controlled by the Federal Government.
Benue’s health facilities have suffered from neglect and mismanagement, and we
have seen how this is reflected both in low levels of user satisfaction and very poor
indicators of health outcomes (pages 5-6). There are some 2,440 health facilities in
the state, comprising hospitals, comprehensive health centres, primary health
centres, primary health posts and dispensaries. Almost two thirds of these (63
percent) are privately owned, 31 percent are government facilities, and the balance
of 6 percent run by missions (Agbidye 2001). However, these facilities are very
unevenly distributed: five LGAs have no public hospital. Medical personnel and
health facilities are concentrated in the three urban areas of the state, Makurdi,
Otukpo and Gboko, which together account for 72 percent of doctors, 69 percent of
nurses and midwives and 83 of the states hospitals. There are 5 doctors and dentists
per 100,000 population (the Nigerian average in 1993 was 21/100,000).
Public expenditure on health in the state is extremely low. Capital and recurrent
expenditure by State and Local Government levels combined amounted to a mere N
=
155 (little more than a US dollar) per capita in the year 2000 (Ajande 2001). The
proportion of the state budget allocated to health is not only low, but declining: from
10 percent in 1996 to less than 4 percent in 2000. In spite of the almost five-fold
increase in the Federation Account allocation to local governments between 1995
and 2000, LGA health budgets declined from 31 percent in 1996 to only 8.5 percent
in 1999. Most (75 to 90 percent) of this was recurrent expenditure for staff
emoluments. These figures are budget estimates: actual expenditures were even
lower: in the years 1996 and 1999 only between 15 and 30 percent of the state
health budget was actually spent. While this improved to 63 percent in 2000, it still
amounted to little over two percent of state expenditure.
Health services in Benue State have been supported by the Benue Health Fund,
initiated in 1997 and due to close in March 2002, which aims at improving coverage,
utilisation and quality of basic services. Initiatives supported by the Fund have
included the establishment of drug revolving funds, training for staff and village
development committees, the provision of basic clinical equipment, the establishment
of hospital management committees and trial of deferral and exemption schemes.
DFID is currently preparing an HIV/AIDS programme for the state.
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2.2.12 Water and Sanitation
The Benue Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Agency (BERWASSA) was
established in 1995 to support LGA Water and Environmental Sanitation Units and
rural communities in the implementation of water supply, sanitation and waste
management in the rural areas of the state. They provide the central capacity for
drilling work throughout the state, and in 1998, for example, drilled 156 boreholes.
The Oju and Obi Water and Sanitation Project, initiated in 1996, is financed by UK
DFID and managed by Water Aid in partnership with the Oju and Obi LGAs, who
implement project activities through their Water and Sanitation Units (WASU). The
project is poverty focused: these two LGAs are among the poorest in the State, and
within them, poor communities and households are targeted. Water and Sanitation
Committees are established in each community and help to ensure local ownership
and the sustainability of water and sanitation facilities.
2.2.13 UNDP
UNDP programmes state-wide and in eight communities, focused on national
management of socio-economic development, and social development (including
mass literacy, gender, HIV/AIDS, agriculture, rural roads, and environmental
management.
2.2.14 Civil Society Organisations
Many Civil Society Organisations (CSOs), including Non-Government Organisations
(NGOs) and Community-based Organisations (CBOs) are active in poverty
alleviation in the state. An umbrella organisation, the NGO Forum, exists for the
exchange of ideas among members. Community-based organisations also contribute
substantially to local anti-poverty initiatives, for example in relief work with internally
displaced persons, and in the provision of social and productive services. A few
examples of notable NGOs working in the state are the Otia Development
foundation, which provides farmers and traders with micro-credit services; Anglican
Diocesan Development Services, involved in microcredit and water supply; and the
Farm and Infrastructure foundation, which attempts to bring new technology to farm
level and promote farm enterprise. A wide range of community associations work for
the benefit of their members.
3.0
CONCLUSIONS
Poverty in Benue state is severe, widespread and multi-dimensional. It has increased
dramatically over the last two decades. Poverty is a predominantly rural
phenomenon, and affects women even more seriously than men. Particularly
vulnerable groups include children, the aged, victims of HIV/AIDS, and persons
displaced by communal and military violence.
There remain substantial gaps in the information available on poverty. Some of the
main ones are:
• social and cultural dimensions of poverty, including gender/household issues
• local perceptions of poverty
• the distribution of various aspects poverty through the state, and the needs
and problems of specific LGAs
• the relationship between poverty and the environment
• the special needs of vulnerable groups
• the poverty alleviation activities of Civil Society Organisations.
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With the exception of the National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), there
are few programmes specifically or explicitly focused on poverty in the state.
However, our assessment identified a substantial number of institutions, policies and
programmes with a bearing on the lives of the poor. These include federal, state,
local government level institutions providing health, education, water and agricultural
services, as well as institutions in the civil society sphere.
Considerable overlap in mandates and responsibilities was found between these
institutions, both within and between levels of government. Two further problems
identified were a lack of continuity in programmes, and serious gaps between
planned outputs and those actually achieved.
Many of the reasons for the poor performance identified may be traced to problems
of management and governance. In particular, there is a lack of transparency in
planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, and little or no involvement of
public. The overall result of these seemingly chronic problems is a lack of ownership
by the public and a deep scepticism on their part about government at all levels. Our
findings therefore suggest that poverty alleviation efforts are only likely to be
successful if it they are accompanied by measures to improve governance, and build
public confidence.
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