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INTRODUCTION
Virtual reality (VR) is a term used to describe a computer application that uses
computer graphics images, often with accompanying sound, to animate a simulation of some phenomenon or setting with which the user can interact. VR
programs can be run on standard computer configuration, with the user on a
mouse or joystick, watching the animation on a monitor. More-sophisticated
systems attempt to “immerse” the user in the experience by employing goggles, gloves, and even bodysuits as input devices. VR, as it name implies, is a
way of providing experiences that feel realistic.
In interacting with the computer graphics, the user can experience and
experiment with the programmer’s model of “reality.” Such models have been
developed for many different fields: for example, the human body for medicine, car engines for engineering, and buildings for architecture. Instructional
applications of VR are mostly for training in specific skills: realistic flight simulators for pilots, simulated medical procedures for interns, specialized tests for
nuclear engineers, and so on. In many cases, practicing on real people or with
real equipment might be dangerous, impractical, or expensive, so using a simulated computerized version makes a great deal of sense.
How VR Became a Reality
How was such an amazing technology developed? As with other complex technical achievements, VR evolved as a result of several different developments in
the computer industry that ultimately provided this sophisticated capability.
First, advances in the computer graphics field led to the development of very
realistic animation. Another development was the improvement in the userfriendliness of computer input systems, allowing for more natural ways of interacting with programs than keyboarding. Also, as computer systems became
more powerful, with greater storage capacity, it became possible to run very
large programs efficiently. Meanwhile software developers were able to produce
increasingly realistic simulations of a variety of different phenomena. All these
developments in the computer industry contributed to the birth of VR.
The field of computer graphics began decades ago with modest lowresolution screens composed of rectangular picture elements, or pixels for
short. Early graphics were boxy, with unnatural-looking spikes on curved
edges and “staircase” effects on diagonal lines. Monochrome images evolved
into colored pictures, but the number of colors was limited at first, because
graphics required more processing power and memory space than text. But as
computer capabilities improved, the number of pixels available per screen
increased and higher-resolution graphics with greater numbers of colors
became possible. With faster processing capability and larger memory storage,
the movement in computer animations became much faster and more lifelike.
By the 1990s, computer animation was capable of presenting realistic-looking
dinosaurs in the blockbuster movie Jurassic Park. Toy Story, the first film created
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entirely on a computer, was also a hit with the public. The graphics for creating
realistic simulations in a VR environment had been developed. By the end of
the millennium, many personal computers had sufficient processing power to
run the animation in simple VR programs.
A critical element of any VR system is its interactive capability. Realistic VR
requires a computerized input interface that is as naturalistic as possible. The earliest computer input systems relied on the preparation of punched cards. Keyboarding had become a standard interface by the time the microcomputer was
developed. The arrival of the Macintosh in 1984, with its object-oriented operating system and its mouse-based input, allowed users to work more easily and
efficiently with applications. Joysticks, stylus pads, and touchscreens were other
user-friendly input devices. In the early 1990s, some video games worked with
gloves that allowed the user to activate a specific screen icon by simply pointing.
Such gloves were eventually used with VR programs to allow the user to actually manipulate virtual items onscreen, like they would move real objects. Headmounted displays, such as helmets or goggles with implanted monitors in the
eye sockets, were developed to immerse the user in the VR program. Swivel
chairs have been used to allow users to look or move in any direction. Bodysuits
with sensors have even been developed to simulate touch. Some of the kinesthetic applications of VR get pretty wild.
A simulation is an effort to replicate a real-world experience. The programming of simulations dates back to the days when all computers were giant
mainframes. Programs that modeled complex processes were developed to be
used on computers at many “think tanks,” whose responsibilities included trying to understand phenomena like the global economy, international politics,
ecological trends, and weather. Users could input data from the real world and
the programs were designed to predict how the system itself might react, providing output data about how the phenomenon might be affected. Formulas
were developed that reflected the relationships between factors in the real
world. Random events might even be included, with varying levels of probability. All these calculations could be modified as the simulation was tested and
used. In fact, the computer simulation became a way of developing models for
complex phenomena and testing their accuracy.
At first, simulations were entirely text-based. But as the graphics and audio
capabilities of computers became increasingly sophisticated, simulations that
provided fairly realistic animation and sounds became possible. For example,
computerized flight simulators could show all the instruments on the front
panel, as well as the changing landscape below as viewed through the windshield of the cockpit. The simulation was designed to present a realistic flying
experience for pilot trainees, wherein their manipulation of graphic representations of the standard flight controls would affect the plane’s performance, as
demonstrated on the animated instruments (and scenery viewed “outside”).
The combination of these somewhat realistic computer-animated simulations
and increasingly naturalistic input capability led to the applications we now
call VR.
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Real World Applications of VR
The term “virtual” came to be used in the mid-1980s to refer to any computer
representation of a real phenomenon. However, many of the early VR programs were not so realistic looking. The graphics were fairly crude and the
sounds limited. But it was the degree of interactivity that excited everyone,
more than the look or sound of the simulation. The goggle-and-glove systems
made users feel so involved in the virtual experience that they might actually
get dizzy if the program had them flying or falling. The ability to manipulate
virtual objects in such realistic ways also seemed to have a great deal of potential. Like every other computerized application, the potential of VR grew rapidly in the nineties. With the quantum leaps in computer processing power and
memory storage capacity, VR programs became increasingly complex, sophisticated, and realistic. The potential of applications grew along with the improvements in VR, so that now it is used in many different fields for a number of different purposes.
What has VR been principally used for? One very important application
has been in the design of commercial products. VR representations of items can
be accurately rendered in considerable detail. Computer renderings may be
less difficult and costly to develop than actual models or prototypes. VR
combines the sophisticated graphics and multiple perspectives provided by
computer-aided design (CAD) programming with its interactive capability.
This interactivity allows designers to test their products with potential customers, who can use the virtual product and react to the way it has been
designed. In fact, VR is most appropriately used in cases where the actual userfriendliness or ergonomic viability of the item needs to be tested. Finally, it is
much easier to modify the design of a virtual product in the computer than it
would be to rework or rebuild an actual model. With this flexibility, a greater
variety of possible designs can be experimented with in a shorter period of time
than was the case before VR was available.
Another important application of VR is in modeling systems, which the
user can then actively experiment with. Virtual anatomical models allow medical students to practice procedures before performing them on real patients.
Detailed virtual models of complex electrical or hydraulic systems can be
developed as training aids or to help engineers practice troubleshooting a malfunction. Again, an advantage of a virtual model is that it can be modified to
reflect recent changes in the system’s design or to depict new features. Some VR
models try to portray what has never really been seen or experienced. For
example, physicists and chemists can manipulate virtual molecular models to
better display how atoms bond, electrons leave their orbits, radioactive decay
progresses, and so on.
One of the most ambitious applications of VR is in the depiction of entire
environments. For these programs, the use of an immersive interface is more
important than in some of the previous types of VR use, because these virtual
worlds have often been developed to test their practicality, their aesthetic
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appeal, and so on. Users can navigate around the virtual space and manipulate
virtual items within this environment. Architects often use VR for this purpose.
The interior design of a new building can be explored and tested in a virtual
model. The clients would be able to examine and experience their new space
before it was actually constructed. They might have worthwhile suggestions as
to how to modify the design so that it fits their needs or appeals more suitably
to their sensibilities. Large-scale virtual environments also have been developed to test the design of public spaces. For example, a proposed renovation of
the Seattle waterfront was programmed as a virtual environment and tested by
the primary parties involved before any actual construction began.
Finally, VR is used for training purposes in many different fields. Nuclear
power plants must train their workers to certain standards established by law.
On-site VR programming helps train staff, so that they know how to most effectively and safely run the plant. The U.S. military uses VR to train those who will
be operating sophisticated equipment. For example, VR programs were developed to help train the NASA space shuttle crew to repair the Hubbell space telescope. Medical interns do “mock” operations on virtual patients. A significant
advantage of VR for training is that it can provide an experience very similar to
the real task. It can also present trainees with a variety of possible problematic
scenarios, thereby preparing them for the most likely challenges they will face.
VR systems also allow users to practice their skills repeatedly, in fact as long as
it is deemed necessary, before they try the real thing. Realistic feedback about
trainees’ performances is provided. If mistakes are made, trainees can experience the disastrous consequences in a firsthand way, but in a way that does not
actually harm anyone or destroy anything.
Multiuser VR on the Web
Virtual reality has made its way onto the World Wide Web. Virtual reality modeling language (VRML) allows for placement of VR applications on the Web.
There are applications that provide user-friendly ways of authoring with
VRML, like Virtual Home Builder, Fountain, and EZ3D. Placing VR programs
on the Web has several advantages. One is, of course, global accessibility to
them. A second advantage is to allow multiple users to explore and interact
with one another within the environment at the same time. With some VR
applications, this is highly appropriate, since they are attempting to simulate
environments in which many people will circulate, investigate, share, come
into conflict, and so on. Examples might include VR designs for public squares,
parks, or workspaces. The best way to test these programs may be to have
many people enter them, as they would in real life.
The primary disadvantage to placing VR on the Web is naturally the
amount of bandwidth required for it to operate efficiently. Sophisticated VR
programs can be huge, and when multiple users are attempting to work with
them the system can become overtaxed very quickly. Not only is a powerful
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server required to run the program, but the individual users who log on must
have sufficient bandwidth in their connections and sufficient processing power
in their microcomputers. Only individuals with relatively new computers and
robust Web connections, through cable services, for example, should probably
attempt to use certain VR programs online.
While VR can be a tremendously dynamic approach, there are some potential drawbacks to using it. It can be very expensive. The equipment involved
can be costly, especially since state-of-the-art computing power is often necessary to run the programs and special peripheral devices may be used to provide a sense of immersion. The software development also can be very costly, in
that its design may be complex, the size of the programs can be huge, and the
programming required can be nontrivial.
Another potential problem with VR is that it may not provide as accurate a
virtual experience as was hoped (or promised!). The more complex the situation to be simulated, the more challenging it can be to fully replicate it. Because
of complexity or cost, compromises may need to be made in its design. Many
VR programs use graphics that are not photographically realistic. Even if the
appearance of program elements is adequately rendered, realistic interactions
with its features may be difficult to develop. In some cases, the approximations
for what things look like or act like can be good enough. But this depends on
the level of accuracy or precision required. Unfortunately, in other cases, differences between VR representations or reactions and the real experience can ultimately lead to mistakes by designers, trainees, and theoreticians.
Experience Is the best Teacher: VR in the Schools
Today there is very little of what most people would consider VR in our
nation’s schools. The most obvious reason for this is VR’s considerable cost.
Another reason is that few classroom tasks require the level of training generally associated with the use of VR; for example space shuttle assignments,
nuclear power plant maintenance, and so on. Also, VR may be an inappropriate
approach for many school activities. For example, purely conceptual work does
not require the use of graphics or physical manipulation. The VR that one
might find in a school would probably be a low-level version, using standard
input devices, displaying simple animation, and with limited amounts of interactivity.
Nevertheless, each of the previously mentioned applications of VR has its
educational aspects and might find its way into the school curriculum. Product
design is practiced in art and technology classes, where computer graphics and
CAD applications are learned. VR software can help students both develop and
test their concepts. VR modeling might be used in a science class to demonstrate how a system functioned. Such a VR program might allow pupils to
experiment with aspects of this system, to see how its overall performance was
affected by changes in one of its subsystems, for example. Virtual environments
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might be used in a social studies class to depict scenes in other countries or
from other historical periods. In literature classes, VR programs could simulate
characters and settings in famous works of fiction. In a science unit on astronomy, VR programming could place pupils on the landscapes of other planets or
their moons, as has already been done with a Martian surface simulation. Or in
biology, pupils might dissect a virtual frog.
One problem with schooling is that students are often given material to
study that they have difficulty visualizing and appreciating. It may be dry and
abstract. It may not be anything to which they can relate. VR has the capability
of immersing pupils in a certain type of environment and allowing them to get
an immediate sense of this world, one that would be impossible to attain by just
reading or talking about it. Experiencing something can be much more exciting
and instructive than simply discussing what it might be like. VR could help
motivate students and engage them more meaningfully in a variety of different
types of study.
The famous educator John Dewey once described experience as the best
teacher. Many others in the field of education over the years have agreed with
him. The most effective way of learning is through active involvement. VR
applications can involve students in a variety of different types of experiences.
They allow for active interaction and experimentation with objects and exploration of environments. VR can potentially deliver some very dynamic educational experiences, which may result in meaningful instructional outcomes.
Imagine a VR program that can place students in Napoleon’s tent at the
Battle of Waterloo. Other parts of the VR environment could include the campground of the French troops, the field where the actual battle was fought, the
campground of the allied troops fighting the French, some of the generals
opposing Napoleon, like the Duke of Wellington, and so on. How might students explore different aspects of this important historical event? The pupils
might interact with Napoleon in some way. His character might be programmed to answer some typical questions. The pupils could examine the uniforms, the weapons, artillery, the terrain, maps of the area, battle plans, and
other elements of the impending battle. VR programming would also be capable of placing users in the battle itself, allowing them to move around and fire
their muskets. Pupils could experience the Battle of Waterloo (although they
might not survive it!). They might also be able to pretend they were commanders and experiment with different battle plans. A sophisticated VR program
might show different outcomes of the battle that might result from different
military strategies. These simulated experiences could teach students a great
deal about the battle and its importance in world history.
Constructivist educators should appreciate the potential of this type of
“virtual” experience. It allows students to actively guide their own learning
and to discover what this historical event was like. It also might allow them to
draw some of their own conclusions about the state of warfare or Napoleon’s
historical role. Rather than just being told about this famous man and his final
battle, students would be able to appreciate the event in a more interesting,
meaningful way.
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From Pacman to Holodeck
Unfortunately, the Waterloo program just described is unlikely to be available
for schools for a very long time, if ever. The long-term future may witness the
development of sophisticated historical reenactments using VR, but today’s
schools will have to settle for scaled-down versions of VR, such as educational
simulations and video-game-style software.
An educational simulation like “The Oregon Trail” is about as close to an
interactive historical reenactment as a teacher will find these days. It places
pupils in the mid-1800s in Independence, Missouri, and asks them to plan an
expedition along the Oregon Trail up to the northwest region of the United
States. They have a certain amount of money to begin with and need to buy a
wagon, animals to pull it, their food, and whatever other supplies may be necessary for the journey. Along the way they must ford rivers, cross mountains,
and perhaps deal with Indians or wild animals. A map shows their progress
along the route. They meet other pioneers along the way, too, who speak with
them in video clips. They can get advice, purchase items, or just converse with
these characters. The object of this simulation game is to make it all the way,
without perishing in the face of the many dangers involved. The simulation
gives students a sense of what this country’s pioneers might have encountered
on their way west and how difficult the journey must have been. It is not as
exciting as a VR immersion experience, but it includes many of the basic features of VR: user-initiated activities, encounters with realistic characters, and
appropriate consequences for actions taken.
Video games can be about as mindless an activity as one can find. Many
teachers feel these games detract from their students’ educational experiences
by distracting them from completing their homework. But the latest video
games are very slick, in terms of both their animation and their interactivity.
The most recent generation of games display a realistic-looking environment
from the player’s point of view, rather than from the objective, omniscient perspective we used to get of SuperMario’s adventures. This approach mimics VR,
as does the immediacy with which player input can affect the elements of the
game. If educational simulations use some of the same techniques as VR, video
games provide some of the same technical capabilities as VR. Unfortunately, at
this point, few games have any meaningful instructional value (apart from
encouraging users to be perceptive and develop winning strategies). But they
could be developed, if there were a market for them. At least the equipment
platforms for presenting a low-quality form of VR are widely available and reasonably priced, courtesy of Nintendo, Sega, and Sony.
Another way to introduce VR in schools is to have students create their
own simple programs. Software, like Virtus VR, is available for this purpose,
and high school students with some computer background can work with it.
Such experiences could develop a variety of skills. They would involve computer authoring skills, of course, and pupils might also learn how to more effectively work with computer graphics. In developing the content for such a program, they would need to use their research skills. They would need to exercise
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certain design skills in the program’s implementation. Developing a VR program could be a very challenging experience in a variety of ways.
Who knows how significant a technology VR will some day become in our
society? It is a potentially compelling medium and would be even more so with
the introduction of holographic images (like Star Trek’s famous Holodeck).
Many individuals in the future may spend hours in VR environments in the
same way that they currently spend their leisure time watching television,
playing video games, browsing the Internet, or participating in electronic chats.
To what degree such a dynamic medium will ultimately be used for educational purposes in both schools and homes is anyone’s guess. But we have the technical capability to provide many interesting and educationally worthwhile
experiences, through this digital format known as VR.
RECOMMENDED READING
Andolsek, D. 1995. Virtual reality in education and training. International Journal of
Instructional Media 22 (2): 145–155.
Milheim, W. 1995. Virtual reality and its potential application in education and training. Machine-Mediated Learning 5 (1): 43–55.
Moore, P. 1995. Learning and teaching in virtual worlds: Implications of virtual reality
for education. Australian Journal of Educational Technology 11 (2): 91–102.
OTHER REFERENCES
Bellan, J., and G. Scheurman. 1998. Actual and virtual reality: Making the most of field
trips. Social Education 62 (1): 35–40.
Brown, E. 1998. VRML industry: Microcosms in the making. NewMedia 8 (3): 21–22.
Chiou, G. 1995. Learning rationales and virtual reality technology in education. Journal
of Educational Technology Systems 23 (4): 327–336.
Cornell, R., and D. Bailey. 1996, February. Virtual reality: A dream come true or a nightmare. Proceedings of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology.
Indianapolis, IN, ERIC, ED 397786.
Dede, C. 1995. The evolution of constructivist learning environments: Immersion in
distributed, virtual worlds. Educational Technology 35 (5): 46–52.
Dennen, V., and R. Branch. 1995. Considerations for designing instructional virtual
environments. Presentation at the International Visual Literacy Association, Chicago, IL, ERIC, ED 391489.
Dowling, C. 1997. Simulations: New “worlds” for learning? Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia 6 (3-4): 321–337.
Dunning, J. 1998. Virtual reality—Learning by immersion. Technos 7 (2): 11–13.
Durlach, N., and A. Mavor, ed. 1995. Virtual reality: Scientific and technological challenges.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Freeman, O. 1997. Virtual reality in education: The emerging innovative technology for
delivery of public and home based instructional materials. Journal of Instruction
Delivery Systems 11 (4): 19–26.
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Hoffman, H., and D. Vu. 1997. Virtual reality: Teaching tool of the twenty-first century?
Academic Medicine 72 (12): 1076–1081.
Johns, J. 1998. Improving perceptual skills with interactive 3-D VRML scenes. Journal of
Interactive Instruction Development 10 (4): 3–11.
Lewis, S. 1995. Student-created virtual tours. Learning and Leading with Technology 23 (2):
35–39.
Psotka, J. 1995. Immersive training systems: Virtual reality and education and training.
Instructional Science 23 (5-6): 405–431.
Rheingold, H. 1991. Virtual reality. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Schank, R. 1997. Virtual learning: A revolutionary approach to building a highly skilled workforce. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Winn, W. 1995. Semiotics and the design of objects, actions and interactions in virtual
environments. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, San Francisco, CA, ERIC, ED 385236.
SCENARIO
You are attempting to teach a seventh-grade history class about the Middle
Ages. “Attempting” just about describes it perfectly, since there is more commotion than you would like, especially in the back of the room. You finally
wander toward the back to see what is going on. As your sentence about “the
medieval concept of unrequited love . . .” trails off, you notice, to your considerable annoyance, that Luke is playing with the latest portable Nintendo unit.
He is attempting to conceal it within his desk, but you have already spotted it.
As you confiscate this unit, you notice that he was in the middle of playing a
fantasy game. There on the little screen is a knight, fully clad in armor, attempting to kill a dragonlike creature with his lance.
After class, you speak with Luke about his inappropriate behavior. He apologizes but also begins telling you how excited he is about this game entitled
“Medieval Mission.” You try to convince him that he might learn more about the
Middle Ages by listening in class, and then he could more fully appreciate the
world of “Medieval Mission.” But he hardly seems convinced, and you realize,
as the next class files in, that perhaps you could learn a lesson from him.
Might you not somehow integrate “Medieval Mission” into the unit on the
Middle Ages? The kind of interactive experience that a video game provides
can really involve a teenager. In fact, many of these games allow users to
immerse themselves in an artificial environment. Now that you think about it,
the last time you went to a large downtown mall, you saw a sign in a video
arcade about virtual reality games, which involved wearing goggles and using
a wired glove. Your nephew was with you, and he said that he had tried one
once and it was “way cool.”
Maybe this technology has some potential for instruction. Couldn’t VR be
used to provide experiences in other historical eras that might be more educational than a duel to the death with a giant dragon? Couldn’t there be quests
that forced students to explore the medieval castle, wander through peasant
fields, and perhaps be part of a real joust? These experiences might be assigned
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as homework, since many students had game units and, in the future, might
have VR-like equipment upon which this software might be run.
The agenda for the weekly teachers’ meeting has been for members of the
staff to discuss “an idea for the classroom.” Your turn is coming up in two
weeks, and you were starting to get nervous about what idea you would present. This VR idea seems like it has possibilities. Develop a presentation about
VR for the upcoming teachers’ meeting. Discuss not only the present-day
potential of using interactive computer simulations in the classroom, but the
long-range potential of sophisticated VR software for the field of education. Or
at least attempt to do so!
ISSUES INQUIRY
1. Have you ever tried out a VR program? Simulation? Video game, at least? Describe
your experiences. How sophisticated a program was it and was any special equipment involved? How engaging was the experience? How realistic do you think it
was? How might it be improved?
2. Imagine a simulation that you would like to have for one of your classes. Describe
how it would work. How feasible do you think it would be to develop such a simulation with today’s technology?
3. How do you feel about the potential of simulation as an instructional approach? Is
experience the best teacher? Do you think that computer simulations and VR will
soon play a more important role in schools, as the technology develops? Why or why
not?
4. Project far into the future. Will Star Trek’s Holodeck become a reality? Will schools of
the year 2525 provide a great deal of VR for teaching purposes? Will VR become so
engaging that a significant percentage of the population will ultimately become preoccupied with escapist behavior? If so, will the boundaries between VR and reality
eventually begin to blur for these people?