What Exemplary Technology-Using Teachers Know and Use: Empirical Evidence*
(Running Head: Teachers’ knowledge of technology)
Yong Zhao
College of Education
Michigan State University
Contact Information:
Dr. Yong Zhao
346 Erickson Hall
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48824
Phone: 517-353-4325
Fax: 517-353-6393
Email: zhaoyo@msu.edu
*This paper is based on the results of a group project. Many people contributed to the data
collection. I’d like to thank Joe Byers, Andrew Topper, Ken Frank, Mark Enfield , Kevin Pugh,
Haojing Chen, and Hueyshan Sophia Tan for their effort in the data collection and/or analysis. Part
of the data are reported in an article published in the Journal of Computers and Teacher Education,
Vol. 17, No. 2. (Zhao, Byers, Mishra, Topper, Frank, Enfield, Pugh, Chen, and Tan, 2001).
WHAT DO THEY KNOW? A COMPREHENSIVE PORTRAIT OF RECIPIENTS OF A STATE
TECHNOLOGY GRANT FOR TEACHERS
ABSTRACT
This paper reports a survey of an exemplary group of teachers who use (or plan to use) technology in their
classrooms. The 93 teachers included in this study were selected to receive a state technology grant through a
competition that asked them to offer project ideas for technology integration. Each of these teachers has, at the
very least, proposed an innovative project that exemplifies effective and appropriate uses of technology in
education. This paper is the first of a series of reports about these teachers and their projects. In this paper, we
attempt to paint a comprehensive portrait of this group in terms of knowledge, skills, attitude, behavior, and
beliefs. We hope this paper will serve two purposes. The first is to provide some beginning baseline information
to help conceptualize what teachers should know to take advantage of modern technologies. The second is to help
develop professional development programs in technology that are more connected to practice and reality.
Technology Using Teachers
WHAT DO THEY KNOW? A COMPREHENSIVE PORTRAIT OF RECIPIENTS
OF A STATE TECHNOLOGY GRANT FOR TEACHERS
There is growing interest in defining what teachers should know about technology in order
for them to reap its educational benefits (Handler & Strudler, 1997; National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1997; US Congress Office of Technology Assessment, 1995).
Such definitions are essential for developing both sensible standards for teacher certification as
well as effective programs to help teachers learn technology. The current approach to defining
teachers' technology knowledge is mostly a priori, based on defining what a teacher should know
by analyzing and projecting from what there is to know. This approach can be both powerful and
necessary, but it can also be problematic. This is because technological knowledge is often
interpreted as residing merely in technical skills, i.e. in the ability to use the hardware and
software—usually the most current varieties or versions. As a result, most technology
requirements issued by state licensing agencies or professional organizations (e.g, International
Society for Technology in Education, 1991) are techno-centric, focusing on the ability to know and
use "machines" while ignoring other important capacities such as pedagogy, motivation, and
attitude. Another approach is to define what teachers should know based on what knowledge has
been found useful in real classrooms. One way to find out what knowledge is useful is to study
teachers who have effectively used technology in their classrooms.
This paper reports a survey of a group of teachers selected as recipients of a state
technology grant through a competitive process. The 93 teachers surveyed (from a larger sample of
118) are seen as leaders of technology integration in their respective schools and have at least
proposed very innovative projects that exemplify effective and appropriate use of technology in
education. This paper is the first of a series of reports about these teachers. In this paper, we
attempt to paint a comprehensive portrait of their knowledge, skills, attitude, behavior, and beliefs.
This paper will serve two purposes. The first is to provide a baseline conceptualizing what
teachers should know to properly use modern technologies. Secondly, it will help develop
professional programs in technology that are more connected to practice and reality.
1
Technology Using Teachers
Exemplary Computer-Using Teachers
Studying and Defining "Exemplary" Computer Using Teachers
Researchers have attempted to understand how exemplary computer using teachers differ
from other teachers (Becker, 1994; Hadley & Sheingold, 1993). According to a study (Hadley &
Sheingold, 1993) of teachers who had the reputation of being expert users, the exemplary
computer using teachers used a wide variety of computer software, including simulations,
computer languages, spreadsheet and database programs, electronic bulletin-board systems, and
word processors to directly address curricular goals. These teachers are enthusiastic and confident
about using computers themselves as well as seeing their students using computers for learning.
Pointing out that while it "enables us to learn in detail about exemplary teachers," the Hadley and
Sheingold study "makes it difficult to assess how exemplary teachers came to use computers
differently from other teachers" (Becker, 1994, p. 291). Becker (1994) conducted a study to find
out whether exemplary teachers differ from other teachers in terms of school and classroom
environment, teachers' own backgrounds and experiences, and the ways they carried out their
teaching practices and their perceptions of teaching and computer use. He found both similarities
and differences in all three areas.
The present study took a slightly different approach. It did not try to compare exemplary
teachers with other teachers. Instead, it was intended to find out what exemplary teachers do,
know, and believe about using technology for teaching and learning. However, this study should
provide updated information about computer-using teachers since both previous studies were
conducted in the late 80's and early 90's, before the explosion of the Internet and the recent wave
of introducing technologies into schools.
The Hadley and Sheingold (1993) study and the Becker study used slightly different
approaches to identify "exemplary computer-using teachers." Hadley and Sheingold identified the
teachers by reputation--the teachers were nominated by school administrators and technology
coordinators. Becker identified exemplary teachers by applying a set of criteria similar to those
used in the Hadley and Sheingold study. The Becker sample was drawn from a national study
2
Technology Using Teachers
already selected out as part of an international survey in 1989 (Becker, 1994). The current study
identified exemplary computer using teachers through a competitive grant program that aims at
supporting technology use in classrooms. In other words, while the earlier studies focused the
definition of exemplary on past performances, the current study focused both on past performance
as well as the potential of future performance. The previous studies based their selections on
surveys, the current study relied on narratives—grant proposals that include information about the
teachers' previous teaching experience, experience using technology, and plans to use technology.
The Michigan NextDay Grant Program
In 1998, the Michigan Jobs Commission and Michigan Virtual University sponsored a
grant program to support teachers integrating technology in their classrooms. According to the
program description (Trico Associates, 1998):
Michigan schools have dramatically increased the availability of information and
communications technologies, but are still struggling to integrate these technologies
into the curriculum. This grant program seeks good examples of innovative uses of
existing technology to improve and enhance student learning. The NextDay
Teacher Innovation Grant program seeks:
To provide resources directly to the classroom the ‘NextDay’ so that
information technology can impact student success
To support innovative educators who have successfully integrated
technology into the learning environment to increase student achievement
To encourage innovative educators who have not used technology tools, to
expand their successful learning experiences by applying technology
To build a knowledge base of innovative ways to use technology for
teaching and learning
To share the ideas, knowledge, activities, and wisdom of innovative
educators
3
Technology Using Teachers
To minimize program overhead costs and activities so that we can maximize
the resources going directly to the classroom
Unlike most federal or state grants, individual teachers, rather than school districts, were
the intended recipients of the grants. Teachers could apply for a grant in one of three categories:
Integration grants ($1, 000 to $2, 500 each grant), Expanding Success Grants ($1, 000 to $5, 000
each grant), and Replicating Success Grants ($5, 000 to $10, 000 grant). Integration grants were
intended to encourage educators to explore ways to integrate technology into their work with
students. Expanding Success grants were for educators to share their success with others and
Replicating Success grants were aimed at encouraging educators to work with other educators to
increase the capability of teaching and learning with technology (Trico Associates, 1998).
Over 370 applications were received—approximately 90% of which were submitted online. The applications went through a two level review process. Reviewers were technology using
teachers, school technology coordinators, policy makers, and other experts in educational
technology. The applications were evaluated based on the following criteria (Trico Associates,
1998):
Innovative use of available technology
Collaboration across school, district, and organizational boundaries
Potential to have major impact on curriculum and instruction to improve student
learning
How closely linked to Michigan content standards and benchmarks for student
learning
Potential to replicate in other learning environments
Team capability to disseminate good technology integration practice
Number of students impacted
One hundred and eighteen teachers or teacher teams were selected to receive a total of 601,
588 dollars. The average amount per grant is $5, 098. The largest grant was for $1, 000 while the
smallest grant was $10, 000.
4
Technology Using Teachers
Method
All 118 teachers were asked to complete a survey either via the Web or on paper. Ninety
three returned the survey, which is 79% return rate. The survey consists of items intended to
measure six dimensions of the capability of these computer using teachers. In the following
paragraphs, we describe the dimensions and instruments.
Dimensions and Instruments
What have they done? (Past & Current Behavior)
The first dimension is teachers' current behavior in using common computer-related
technologies in three different contexts: supporting student learning, supporting classroom
management, and supporting professional development. Forty three items (18 for supporting
student learning, 18 for professional development, and 7 for management) were used to measure
this dimension.
What do they want to do? (Future Behavior)
The second dimension is teachers' future behavior in using common computer-related
technologies in three different contexts: supporting student learning, supporting classroom
management, and supporting professional development. Forty three items (18 for supporting
student learning, 18 for professional development, and 7 for management) were used to measure
this dimension.
What do they know? (Proficiency)
The third dimension we are interested is the teacher's technology proficiency with common
technologies. A 20 item Likert scale survey was used to collect information about what teachers
know about and can do with newly developed technologies such as word processing, database and
spreadsheet programs, electronic mail, the World Wide Web, and graphing programs. This
instrument was adopted from Ropp (1998).
How do they like technology? (Attitude)
The fourth dimension concerns teachers' attitude toward and perception of using computers
and related technologies in education. There is a long tradition of studying teachers' attitudes
5
Technology Using Teachers
toward using computers in education (Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993; Ropp, 1998; Woodrow, 1991).
For this reason, many scales to measure attitudes have been developed. We used a revised version
of Francis-Pelton & Pelton's (1996) scale because it contains items that concerns more recently
developed technologies. We also added 5 items that specifically deal with the Internet and World
Wide Web. This instrument has 50 Likert scale items.
Are they afraid of computers? (Computer anxiety)
Computer anxiety has been an important aspect of teachers' capacity for using technology
(Zhao, Worthington, & Ropp, 1998). It is often described as negative emotions or fear of
computers and the possible consequences of using computers (Gordon, 1993; Marcoulides, 1989).
This negative feeling toward computers hinders teachers from reaping the educational benefits of
computers. Thus understanding teachers' computer anxiety would be help us develop ways to
reduce it. There are many computer anxiety measures (Zhao et al., 1998). In this study we revised
the scale developed by Marcoulides (1989) and added new items concerning new technologies and
teaching with technology. There are 27 Likert scale items in this subscale.
Results
What Technologies Teachers Have Used and What They Plan to Use?
The teachers were asked to report what technology related strategies they had used to
support student learning, their own professional development, and classroom management. The
technologies in question are common but diverse, ranging from word processing to on-line chat.
The teachers were asked to indicate the degree to which they agree to disagree with the statement
such as “I have used the following strategies in my classroom to support student learning.” Their
responses could range from “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree,” with “Strongly Agree”
coded as “6” while “Strongly Disagree” coded as “1.”
Using Technology to Support Student Learning
Table 1 summarizes teachers' responses to questions about their current use and planned
use of technologies for supporting student learning. Column one lists the technologies or
6
Technology Using Teachers
technology supported strategies. The rest of the table are divided into two parts, each presenting
the percentage of teachers who selected "Strongly Agree" and "Agree" to each item, the means, and
standard deviations for each item. We treated "Strongly Agree" and "Agree" as positive answers,
suggesting that the respondent used the technology or plan to use it, while considering "Mildly
Agree" and "Mildly Disagree" as uncertain and "Disagree" and "Strongly Disagree" as negative
responses.
-------------------------------Insert Table 1 about here
--------------------------------As Table 1 shows, most teachers have used word processing software, presentation
software, drawing and painting programs, multimedia software and subject-specific multimedia
software to support student learning in classrooms. Most teachers have also spent time trouble
shooting technical problems in classrooms. On the other hand, very few teachers have engaged
students in listserv or discussion groups. Similarly few teachers engaged students in chat room
activities.
There is a considerable increase in planned uses in all categories. It seems that all grant
recipients plan to expand their uses of technology in classrooms to support student learning. The
largest area of increase is in the use of "live" telecommunication technologies, such as email and
chat.
Using Technology to Support Management
Table 2 summarizes teachers' responses to questions about their current use and planned
use of technologies for supporting management. The table takes the same format as that of Table
1.
-------------------------------Insert Table 2 about here
---------------------------------
7
Technology Using Teachers
As shown in Table 2, the most often used technology in management is word processors.
Over 90 percent of teachers reported that they had used it to communicate with parents. The second
most often used technology is the Internet, as a resource for lesson plans. Relatively few teachers
have used painting or drawing programs to aid classroom management, which is not surprising
because most teachers may not be familiar with painting or drawing programs or don't see any
explicit use of them in classroom management. However it is surprising to notice that only one
third of these exemplary technology using teachers use database or spreadsheet programs to
manage attendance, given that managing attendance is a task that naturally lends itself to the
application of database or spreadsheet programs.
Unlike responses to questions regarding technology uses to support student learning,
where we saw significant difference between current use and planned use across all areas,
responses to questions regarding current uses and planned uses for support management with
technology remained very much the same. The only two areas where there is some increase in
planned uses are using database and spreadsheet and painting and drawing programs. One
interpretation of this difference is that the nextDay teachers are more interested in changing their
technology using behaviors to support student learning than management.
Using Technology to Support Professional Development
Table 3 summarizes teachers' responses to questions about their current use and planned
use of technologies for supporting professional development. The table takes the same format as
that of Table 1.
-------------------------------Insert Table 3 about here
--------------------------------As indicated in Table 3, most teachers have used and are planning to use a number of
different technologies to support their professional development. Not surprisingly, word
processing software is by far the most used technology. Over 95 percent of teachers reported that
they have used it for professional development purposes. Email and download files from the
8
Technology Using Teachers
Internet, and multimedia reference materials are also commonly used by teachers to support their
professional development. What is not consistent with common beliefs and past research is the use
of listservs and discussion groups. Less than half of these exemplary teachers reported to have
used them for professional development.
It is encouraging to see that there is a considerable jump in the percentage and means
between current use and planned use in virtually all areas. The one exception is word processing,
which may be the result of ceiling effect. The largest increase is in the use of chatrooms, listservs
and discussion groups, as well as outlining software.
What do They Know? Computer Proficiency
Teachers were asked to respond to questions about their ability to use computers and
computer related technologies based on their own perceptions. They respond by selecting one of
six choices to the statement "I feel confident that I could . . .(technology related activities)." The
choices are "Strongly Agree," "Agree", "Mildly Agree", "Mildly Disagree", "Disagree," and
"Strongly Disagree." Table 4 summarizes teachers 'responses.
---------------------------Insert Table 4 about here
---------------------------Table 4 suggests that the teachers are all quite confident about their ability to use computers
and computer related technologies, although not everyone is proficient in every technology. The
majority of the teachers (over 80%) are proficient in the basic functions of common technologies
such as word processing, email, the World Wide Web, database and spreadsheet, and educational
software. The areas where not every teacher is perceives themselves as competent are advanced
functions of these technologies. For example, while nearly everyone (94%) reported that they
could send email to a friend, more than one third of them did not feel confident that they could
perform higher functions of email, such as subscribing to a discussion list, attaching document,
and using group nicknames. Similarly, over 90 percent of these exemplary technology users
9
Technology Using Teachers
reported that they could use the Web to find and access information, only a little over half could
create their own Web pages.
How do they Like Technology? Computer Attitude
Teachers' attitudes reflects their perceptions and beliefs of the role of computers in
education as well as their own ability to work with computers. The questions in this survey
concern five areas of computers: consequences of using computers, importance of computers,
ability to use or learn computers, perceived support for using computers, and good uses of
computers. Table 5 summarizes the responses to the attitude scale.
-------------------------Insert Table 5 about here
----------------------------The Consequences of Using Computers Are Positive.
As shown in Table 5, the majority of the teachers believe that the consequences of using
computers in education are positive. They tend to believe that computers will allow students to
become active learners, improve students' attitudes toward learning, and make better thinkers out
of students. They also believe that using computers can help their work as teachers. Over 80
percent of teachers reported that computers help them become more productive teachers. Not
surprisingly, most of the teachers did not think computers will bring about many negative
consequences. Fewer than 5 percent of the teachers believed that integrating computers would add
more work for themselves and isolate students from them.
Computers Are Important
These teachers think computers are very important. They overwhelmingly believe (over
90%) that every teacher should know how to use computers and be familiar with important
technology resources such as the Internet and email. Most of them believe making computers
accessible to students is a "worthwhile educational objective" because "computer and related
technologies are as important to students as textbooks in the classroom." The responses to the
10
Technology Using Teachers
negatively stated questions further confirm that the NextDay teachers firmly believe that integrating
computers is important.
Teacher are Confident about their Ability to Use Computers.
The results suggest that these teachers hold quite positive images about their ability to use
and learn technologies. Around 80 percent of all respondents suggested that they are comfortable
with computers, feel at ease learning computers, and do not feel threatened by computers. On the
flip side, a similar percentage of teachers disagreed that computers are confusing, or frightening, or
challenging. In other words, these teachers are quite confident about their ability to use and learn
about technology.
Perceived Support from School District and Building is Moderate.
The teachers were asked about their perceptions of support they might receive in their
school districts and building. Unfortunately, around 40% of the teachers do not think that they
have adequate support from the district or the building.
Perceived Uses Vary.
When it comes to how computers should be used, the responses are not as unanimous as to
other questions. These teachers seem to agree on two uses of computers: about 90 percent of the
teachers think that "the computer should be used to teach activities that involve the student in
problem-solving." About 81 percent believe that "the real educational value of computers is the
vast amount of information it makes available." What is controversial is the World Wide Web. Not
everyone agrees with that "The Web is a much better source of information for students than
textbooks." Likewise, only one third respondents agree with that "Computers are great for helping
students to practice basic skills and memorize facts.
Are They Afraid of Computers? Computer Anxiety
Are these teachers anxious about using computers? Of course not. As Table 6 suggests,
these teachers have very low computer anxiety. The means for most items dealing with actual
interactions with computers are very low—around 1.5 on a 6 point scale. In fact, teachers feel
more anxious about using a type writer than a computer, although the level of anxiety of using a
11
Technology Using Teachers
type writer is fairly low: 2.6 out of 6. Some computer related activities may induce slight anxiety.
Such activities are more related to control of information and computers than using it. For example,
the item that received that highest anxiety score (3.25) is "not being able to control where my
students go on the Internet."
------------------------------Insert Table 6 about here
-------------------------------Summary and Discussion
Thus far, we have presented the results of a survey that is intended to capture multiple
dimensions of exemplary technology using teachers, in this case the Michigan NextDay teachers.
To summarize, the results seem to suggest:
1. The teachers are frequent technology users and are planning to expand their uses of
technology. The teachers have used and planned to use a variety of technologies.
Predictably, the technology that is most commonly used is word processing software.
This finding is quite consistent with previous studies (Hadley & Sheingold, 1993). The
least commonly used technologies are love chat rooms and discussion groups. The lack
of use of these "live" telecommunication technologies may be explained by the concern
of losing control of their students or lack of access.
2. The teachers are fairly proficient in computer technologies. Most of these teachers are
familiar with common educational technologies although their level of mastery differs.
3. The teachers hold remarkably positive attitudes toward using computers and related
technology in education. They believe computers are important teaching and learning
tools. They also believe that all teachers should know how to use technology. But the
teachers differ considerably in terms of their perceptions of the best use of computers.
4. The teachers are not anxious about using computers. The only thing that may seem to
cause anxiety is the fear of losing control of where students might go on the Internet.
12
Technology Using Teachers
These findings are not necessarily surprising. In fact, they confirm many common
beliefs—that technology using teachers are good at technology, are competent, are optimistic, and
are risk takers. But this confirmation is important and necessary for defining what teachers should
know about technology. In the following section we briefly discuss the implications of these
findings for developing technology standards for teachers.
Implications for Defining Technology Standards for Teachers
Technology is more than the machine. The ability to use technology is more than the skills
to control the machine. Thus when we define what a person should know about technology, we
should not only consider the machine itself. A driver's license means much more than proof of its
bearer's ability to control and manipulate a car. It also means that the person knows road rules,
understands road signs, and is aware of other factors associated with driving (e.g., weather, road
conditions, other vehicles, etc.). Likewise, when we say someone is a technologically competent
teacher, our standards should not only be technical—whether he can turn on the computer, send an
email, or print a document. The standards should encompass other domains. As the study
suggests, exemplary teachers not only know how to use computers and related technology, they
also hold positive attitude toward integration of computers in education, are confident about their
technology skills, are healthily suspicious (or nervous) about certain applications of technology
(e.g., the Internet, chat rooms), and take a progressivist pedagogical approach. It seems that this
approach towards defining technology standards for teachers is more appropriate than the mere
listing of skills that need to be acquired. This overview of a group of exemplary technology using
teachers helps us better understand the goal of professional development and teacher education
programs. Moreover the fast pace of technological change underscores the value of surveys such
as this one. This paper is the first of a series of papers on the NextDay grant winners. Now that we
have a better understanding of what they know, it will be interesting to see what they do with what
they know. But that is another story.
13
Technology Using Teachers
References
Becker, H. J. (1994). How exemplary computer-using teachers differ from other
teachers: Implications for realizing the potential of computers in schools. Journal of Research on
Computing in Education, 26(3), 291-321.
Bidwell, C. E., Frank, K. A., & Quiroz, P., A. (1997). Teacher type, workplace
controls, and the organization of schools. Sociology of Education, 70(October), 285-307.
Delcourt, M. A. B., & Kinzie, M. B. (1993). Computer technologies in teacher
education: The measurement of attitudes and self-efficacy. Journal of Research and Development in
Education, 27(1), 35-41.
Francis-Pelton, L., & Pelton, T. W. (1996). Building attitudes: How a technology
course affects preservice teachers' attitudes about technology. .
Gordon, H. R. D. (1993). Analysis of the computer anxiety levels of secondary
technical education teachers in West Virginia : Marshall University.
Hadley, M., & Sheingold, K. (1993). Commonalities and distinctive patterns in
teachers' integration of computers. American Journal of Education, 101(May 1993), 261-315.
Handler, M. G., & Strudler, N. (1997). The ISTE foundation standards: Issues of
Implementation. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 13(2), 16-23.
International Society for Technology in Education. (1991). ISTE Recommended
Foundations in Technology for All Teachers . Eugene, OR: International Society for Technology in
Education.
Marcoulides, G. A. (1989). Measuring computer anxiety: The computer anxiety
scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement(49), 723-739.
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education. (1997). Technology and
the New Professional Teacher:
Preparing for the 21st Century Classroom . Washington D.C.: National Council for
Accreditation of Teacher Education.
14
Technology Using Teachers
Ropp, M. M. (1998). Exploring Individual Chracteristics Associated with Learning
to Use Computers and Their Use as Pedagogical Tools in Preservice Teacher Preparation.
Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI.
Trico Associates. (1998). The Governor's NextDay Michigan Teacher Innovation
Grants: A Michigan Grant Program for Educators Using Technology to Enhance Teaching and
Learning . Plymouth, MI: Trico Associates.
US Congress Office of Technology Assessment. (1995). Teachers and
Technology: Making the Connection (OTA-EHR-616). Washington DC: Office of Technology
Assessemnt.
Woodrow, J. (1991). A comparison of four computer attitude scales. Journal of
Educational Computing Research, 7(2), 165-187.
Zhao, Y., Worthington, V. L., & Ropp, M. M. (1998, April, 1998). Chasing the
rabbit: 20 years of research on computer anxiety. Paper presented at the American Educational
Research Association Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA.
15
Technology Using Teachers
Table 1
Teachers' Use of Technologies for Support Student Leaning
Item
Have Used
%
a
Plan To Use
M
SD
%
M
SD
Word processing software
89.1
5.62
0.80
93.6
5.73
0.76
Database software
40.9
3.84
1.76
68.8
4.62
1.62
Spreadsheet software
46.7
3.82
1.84
57.6
4.33
1.77
Outlining software
17.8
2.54
1.75
39.6
3.66
1.86
Presentation software
56.0
4.25
1.86
77.5
5.05
1.54
Drawing or paint software
63.4
4.68
1.50
72.1
5.08
1.32
Assist students download Internet files
46.2
3.75
2.05
69.9
4.82
1.68
Download Internet files myself for teaching
purposes
77.4
5.08
1.49
84.9
5.38
1.27
Spend time in class trouble shooting technical
problems
74.2
4.92
1.52
72.1
4.93
1.45
Engage students in live WWW use
40.8
3.66
2.01
72.0
4.89
1.58
Download Web sites for off-line use
33.7
3.19
1.89
61.3
4.53
1.73
Engage students in email use
31.9
3.20
2.02
65.6
4.83
1.50
Engage students in listserv or discussion groups 4.4
1.65
1.16
31.2
3.47
1.78
Engage students in chat rooms
7.5
1.51
1.03
26.9
2.99
1.82
Use multimedia as a reference resource in
classroom
64.1
4.59
1.61
83.7
5.23
1.34
Use subject-specific multimedia software
63.5
4.53
1.67
81.7
5.24
1.25
Use multimedia authoring software in classroom 42.3
3.55
2.07
71.0
4.80
1.57
Note. N=93
a
Percentage of respondents who selected “Strongly Agree” or “Agree.”
16
Technology Using Teachers
Table 2
Teachers' Use of Technologies for Support Management
Item
Have Used
%
Use spreadsheet or database software manage
my grading tasks
Use spreadsheet or database software manage
attendance tasks
Use paint or draw software to support
classroom management activities
Use word processing software to communicate
with parents
Search the Internet to aid my unit lessonplanning
Use email to support classroom management
activities
a
Plan To Use
M
SD.
%*
M
SD
59.2
4.33
1.98
70.3
4.84
1.65
38.5
3.33
2.14
56.5
4.16
2.07
34.4
3.45
1.98
53.2
4.18
1.78
90.3
5.61
1.05
95.7
5.73
0.78
81.5
5.26
1.30
93.6
5.68
0.91
53.8
4.17
1.99
77.7
5.17
1.37
Note. N=93
a
Percentage of respondents who selected “Strongly Agree” or “Agree.”
17
Technology Using Teachers
Table 3
Teachers' Use of Technologies for Professional Development
Item
Have Used
%
Word processing software
Database software
Spreadsheet software
Outlining software
Presentation software
Drawing or paint software
Download Internet files for professional
purposes
Engage live WWW use
Engage in email use
Participate in listservs or discussion groups
Participate in a chat room
Use multimedia as a reference resource
Use subject-specific multimedia software
Use multimedia authoring software
a
Plan To Use
M
SD.
%
M
St
95.7
63.4
63.8
30.5
70.2
59.2
79.8
5.78
4.72
4.67
3.34
4.69
4.45
5.14
0.70
1.67
1.70
2.01
1.88
1.78
1.54
94.6
77.2
78.5
51.2
85.8
69.6
90.4
5.74
5.03
5.06
4.19
5.48
4.89
5.59
0.79
1.58
1.42
1.90
1.08
1.50
1.00
65.9
85.1
45.2
23.4
74.2
73.4
58.3
4.53
5.40
3.66
2.66
5.12
5.01
4.27
1.95
1.25
2.08
1.86
1.47
1.52
1.96
78.5
91.4
75.0
46.8
82.8
81.6
76.9
5.13
5.66
5.12
4.11
5.34
5.41
5.14
1.48
0.85
1.39
1.90
1.27
1.11
1.44
Note. N=93
a
Percentage of respondents who selected “Strongly Agree” or “Agree.”
18
Technology Using Teachers
Table 4
Teachers' Self-Reported Technology Proficiency
Item
M
I feel confident that I could…
SD Disagreea
(%)
Agreeb
(%)
Send e-mail to a friend.
5.73
0.90
3.2
94.6
Write an essay describing how I would use
technology in my classroom.
5.68
0.69
3.2
93.6
Use an Internet search engine to find Web pages
related to my subject matter interests.
5.66
0.97
3.2
93.6
Write a plan with a budget to buy technology for my
classroom.
5.64
0.85
2.2
93.7
Search for and find the Smithsonian Institution Web
site.
5.61
1.01
4.2
91.5
Create a lesson or unit that incorporates subjectmatter software as an integral part.
5.46
0.97
3.2
89.4
Use technology to collaborate with other interns,
teachers, or students who are distant from my
classroom.
5.42
1.13
5.3
88.3
Find primary sources of information on the Internet
that I can use in my teaching.
5.40
1.22
4.2
85.1
Keep track of Web sites I have visited so that I can
return to them later.
5.33
1.40
6.4
80.9
Create a newsletter with graphics and text in 3
columns.
5.26
1.33
7.5
80.8
Describe 5 software programs that I would use in
my teaching.
5.24
1.31
5.3
82.9
Keep copies of outgoing messages that I send to
others.
5.13
1.57
10.8
78.5
Use the computer to create a slide show
presentation.
5.01
1.58
11.7
74.4
Subscribe to a discussion list.
4.83
1.65
13.8
68.0
Send a document as an attachment to an e-mail
message.
4.77
1.75
15.9
68.1
19
Technology Using Teachers
Create a database of information about important
authors in a subject matter field.
4.72
1.70
16.2
68.8
Use a spreadsheet to create a pie chart of the
proportions of the different colors of M&M's in a
bag.
4.70
1.72
16
67.0
Save documents in formats so that others can read
them if they have different word processing
programs.
4.70
1.75
16.1
66.7
Create a nickname or an alias to send e-mail to
several people at once.
Create my own World Wide Web home page.
4.48
1.86
20.2
61.7
4.28
1.77
19.1
54.3
Note. N=93
a
Percentage of respondents who selected "Strongly Disagree" and "Disagree."
b
Percentage of respondents who selected "Strongly Agree" and "Agree."
20
Technology Using Teachers
Table 5
Teachers' Attitudes /Beliefs about Technology
Item
M
SD
Disagree
Agree
5.73
0.65
1.1
94.6
5.53
0.80
1.1
86.2
5.52
0.75
5.43
0.96
5.42
0.75
5.30
1.12
4.4
82.8
5.16
1.16
4.4
80.5
5.12
0.82
4.90
1.04
2.2
65.6
2.25
1.40
71.3
10.6
2.02
1.22
73.4
4.3
1.99
1.27
77.6
7.5
The Consequence of Computer Use
With the use of computer technologies, I can
create instructional materials to enhance my
teaching.
If I can use word processing software, I will be a
more productive teacher.
Computers and related technologies will allow
students to become active learners.
The computer can effectively take over tedious
and time-consuming tasks.
If we use computers and related technologies in
classroom instruction students will have a better
understanding of how technology influences
their lives.
Communicating with others over a computer
network can help me to be a more effective
teacher.
We should rethink how our educational curricula
are organized so they make maximum use of
microcomputer technologies.
Computer based instruction will improve
students' attitudes toward learning.
Computers will make better thinkers out of our
students.
Computers and related technologies will increase
the amount of stress and anxiety students
experience in schools.
Using computer technologies in my job will only
mean more work for me
Computer and related technologies in classrooms
will not improve students' attitudes toward
regular school subjects.
21
91.5
1.1
85.9
57
78.1
Technology Using Teachers
Computers and related technologies will decrease
the amount of teacher pupil interaction in
schools.
Using new educational technologies as teaching
tools requires more time and effort than justified
by the effort on students.
Computers and related technologies will isolate
students from one another.
Students who use computers will have difficulty
learning basic skills.
I fear that the computers and related technologies
will isolate me from the students.
Computers in the public school classroom will
lower student achievement.
1.83
1.25
81.9
6.4
1.80
0.92
83.9
2.2
1.70
1.17
86.1
4.3
1.52
1.15
89.4
5.3
1.44
0.91
91.4
2.2
1.43
1.07
92.6
4.3
5.71
0.58
95.7
5.67
0.60
95.7
5.66
0.67
93.5
5.65
0.91
2.1
92.6
5.30
0.99
2.2
81.9
5.30
1.13
4.2
85.1
5.13
1.34
7.5
79.5
1.66
0.90
86.1
1.1
The Importance of Computers
I would be interested in using computers and
related technologies for instruction in the
classroom.
All teachers should be familiar with Internet
resources such as e-mail.
I look forward to using the microcomputer to
teach processes related to my subject.
All prospective teachers should be required to
take a course on the application of computer
technologies.
Computer and related technologies are as
important to students as textbooks in the
classroom.
Supplying every student with easy access to
microcomputer is a worthy educational objective.
If we don't use computer and related
technologies in school instruction, our students
will be deprived of a basic skill.
Anything that computer technologies can be used
for, I can do just as well some other way.
22
Technology Using Teachers
I object to all the attention being given to
computer technology because it detracts from the
real problems in the schools.
Knowing how to use computer technologies will
not be helpful in my future reaching.
I am personally not in favor of using computers
and related technologies to teach my subject.
I don't see how computer technologies can help
me learn new skills.
I don't think that computer technologies will be
useful to me as a teacher.
I don't have any use for computer technologies
on a day-to-day basis.
1.63
0.79
89.3
1.1
1.41
0.95
92.6
5.3
1.40
1.09
93.4
4.3
1.38
0.77
94.7
1.1
1.34
0.92
94.7
3.2
1.28
0.72
92.5
1.1
5.40
1.03
2.1
86.1
5.29
1.02
3.2
81.9
5.26
1.11
2.2
79.8
5.25
1.04
1.1
81.7
2.13
1.63
1.38
1.03
69.1
83
6.4
2.1
1.50
0.94
87.3
1.1
4.76
1.42
8.6
65.6
4.65
1.29
7.5
61.3
Ability to Use or Learn Computers
I do not feel threatened by the impact of
computer technologies.
I am confident about my ability to do well in
courses that require me to use computer
technologies.
I feel at ease learning about computer
technologies.
I feel comfortable about my ability to work with
computer technologies.
Computer technologies are confusing to me.
The thought of using computer technologies
frightens me.
I am not the type to do well with computer
technologies.
Perceived Support for Using Computers
I have lots of support from my district/school
administration for my project.
I have lots of support from my colleagues in my
building for my project.
Good Uses of Computers
23
Technology Using Teachers
I could use computer technologies to access
many types of information sources for my work.
I feel that the computer should be used to teach
activities that involve the student in problemsolving.
Computer technologies can be used to assist me
with classroom management techniques.
The real educational value of computers is the
vast amount of information it makes available.
What makes the Web valuable for education is
that students can publish their work to an
authentic audience.
I think the best use of computers is to link
students with people beyond the classroom
walls.
I think the real power of computers lies in its
capacity for individualized learning.
The Web is a much better source of information
for students than textbooks.
Computers are great for helping students to
practice basic skills and memorize facts.
24
5.62
0.77
3.2
92.6
5.44
0.85
1.1
89.3
5.37
1.02
2.2
80.8
5.20
0.83
1.1
81.7
4.97
0.94
4.95
1.05
1.1
68.8
4.79
1.01
2.2
63.4
3.98
1.25
13.1
34.8
3.91
1.41
19.6
34.8
68.8
Technology Using Teachers
Table 6
Teachers Computer Anxiety
Item”Iwould feel anxious…”
M
SD Disagree
Agree
…not being able to control where my students go
on the internet.
3.25
1.66
39.8
29.1
…thinking about taking a class in computer
language (e.g. BASIC, Pascal, COBOL, etc.).
2.98
1.72
50.6
22.6
…being refused information because a terminals is
"down."
2.98
1.58
44.1
20.4
…the verifiability of some information my students
can find on the Internet.
2.79
1.44
28.3
15.2
…learning to write computer programs.
2.73
1.69
55.9
18.3
…the potential for devoting too much time to
computer use, and not enough time in other
curricular activities.
2.49
1.28
56.5
5.4
…getting "error" messages from the computer.
2.34
1.48
66.7
10.7
…using a typewriter.
2.16
1.75
74.2
17.2
…taking to a computer programmer.
2.00
1.33
74.2
8.6
…applying for a job that required some training in
computers.
1.89
1.19
77.5
3.2
…asking a student for help with a computer
problem; the verifiability of some information
my students can find on the Internet.
…being around people who are "into" computers.
1.86
1.20
77.5
6.5
1.69
1.06
81.7
2.2
…erasing or deleting material from a computer.
1.65
1.16
81.7
3.3
…the potential for the computer to reduce the
amount of time my students are able to interact
with me and other students.
1.64
1.04
86
2.2
…thinking about prepackaged (software packages)
programs for a computer.
1.59
1.12
69.9
3.3
…asking a fellow teacher for help with a computer
problem.
1.57
1.17
89.3
4.3
…leaning computer terminology.
1.52
0.99
87.1
1.1
…watching a movie about an intelligent computer.
1.49
0.98
87.1
2.2
25
Technology Using Teachers
…visiting a computer store.
1.43
0.94
90.3
2.2
…looking at a high speed computer printer.
1.41
0.82
91.4
1.1
…watching or listening to news programs about
the increasing role of computers in society.
1.40
0.77
92.4
1.1
…attending a workshop on the uses of computers.
1.37
0.83
92.4
1.1
…taking a class about the uses of computers.
1.36
0.84
91.4
1.1
…looking at a computer print-out.
1.35
0.74
91.4
3.2
…watching someone working at a computer
terminal.
1.35
0.79
92.5
1.1
…sitting in front of a home computer.
1.26
0.73
95.7
1.1
Figure 1. Distribution of Teacher Types
Next Day Project Grantees Types
6
Scale Values
5
4
3
2
1
Moral Agent
Pal
Progressivist
Rigorist
Teacher Type(after Bidwell, et al.1997)
Scale Value Equivalents: 1=Strongly Disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Mildly Disagree, 4=Mildly
Agree, 5=Agree, and 6=Strongly Agree.
26