CELEBRATETHEINTERNATIONALYEAROFPULSES2016|WWW.IYP2016.org|#LovePulses
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Pulse crops and sustainability:
A framework to evaluate multiple benefits
Prepared by Gabrielle Kissinger, Lexeme Consulting
7 April 2016
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Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... 3
1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 11
1.1 PURPOSE ................................................................................................................. 11
1.2 PULSE PRODUCTION AND SUSTAINABILITY .................................................................. 12
2. METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................ 22
3. CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................................ 22
3.1 SASKATCHEWAN ...................................................................................................... 22
3.1.1 Context ........................................................................................................... 23
3.1.2 Environmental ................................................................................................. 24
3.1.3 Social .............................................................................................................. 28
3.1.4 Economic ........................................................................................................ 29
3.2 SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA .............................................................................................. 33
3.2.1 Context ........................................................................................................... 33
3.2.2 Environmental ................................................................................................. 33
3.2.3 Social .............................................................................................................. 35
3.2.4 Economic ........................................................................................................ 39
4. A FRAMEWORK: EVALUATING MULTIPLE BENEFITS OF PULSE PRODUCTION ..... 45
5. APPLYING THE FRAMEWORK FOR DECISION SUPPORT ......................................... 53
6. REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 60
ListofBoxes,FiguresandTables
Box1:EconomicchallengesforpulsesinIndia
Box2:Summaryofsystem1-LifeCycleandSocio-EconomicAnalysisofPulseCropProduction
andPulseGrainUseinWesternCanada
Box3:Summaryofsystem2-LifeCycleandSocio-EconomicAnalysisofPulseCropProduction
andPulseGrainUseinWesternCanada
Figure1:Summaryofpulsecropsustainabilityframeworkandapplicationsteps
Figure2:HectaresseededwithpulsesbyvarietyinCanada(1981to2011)
Figure3:Projectedglobalfooddemand
Figure4:Attributesofpulsecropsustainabilityatvariousscales
Table1:Economicreturnsoflentilsinrotations,basedondifferentsoilsinSaskatchewan
Table2:Summaryofcriteriaandguidingquestionstoevaluatetheeconomic,socialand
environmentalbenefitsofpulseproduction
Table3:Applicationoftheframeworktofoodsectoractors
Table4:Applicationoftheframeworktoproducers
Table5:Applicationoftheframeworktogovernments
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Acknowledgements
SpecialappreciationgoestoDenisTremorinandChristineNegrafortheiroversightof
thisproject,andthesupportoftheGlobalPulseConfederation,EmergingAg,Pulse
Canada,andtheInternationalYearofPulses’ProductivityandSustainabilityThematic
Committee.Thisreportgreatlybenefittedfromtheinsightsand/orpeerreview
providedbySteveBeebe,JeffreyEhlers,NoelEllis,JillFindeis,AllisonFletcher,Reynald
Lemke,LisetteMascarenhas,MarkOlson,JohnMcDermott,RajeevVarshney,Tom
Warkentin,andIrvWidders.
Executive Summary
Thepotentialofpulses—beans,peas,chickpeas,lentils,andotherpulses—tohelp
addressfutureglobalfoodsecurity,nutritionandenvironmentalsustainabilityneeds
hasbeenacknowledgedthroughtheUNdeclarationofthe2016InternationalYearof
Pulses.However,thefullsetofbenefitsthatpulsecropscanofferhasnotbeen
systematicallycharacterized.Thispaperspecificallyseekstodevelopaframeworkto
evaluatetheeconomic,socialandenvironmentalbenefitsandpotentialtrade-offsof
pulseproductionindifferentgeographic,agro-ecologicalandeconomiccontexts.The
frameworkdefinesthesustainabilityelementstobeevaluatedinanygivencontext,
giventhediversityacrosscroppingsystemsandgeographiccontextsofsuitablepulse
growingareas.Theframeworkwillalsoprovideameanstoevaluatethepotential
sustainabilitycontributionsofpulsesshouldtheybebroughtintoacroppingsystem,or
integratedintocroprotations.Theprimaryaudienceforthiswhitepaperisthefood
industry,butgovernmentpolicymakers,researchersandotherstakeholderswillfind
utilityinitaswell.
Themethodologyfordevelopingtheframeworkwastoderiveinsightsfromageneral
globalliteraturereviewandtwogeographiccasestudies—diversecontextsof
productioninSub-SaharanAfricaandSaskatchewan,Canada.Keyinsightsandfindings
fromtheliteratureandcasestudiesacrossthethreepillarsofsustainability—
environmental,socialandeconomic—aresummarizedbelow.Pleaserefertothefull
reportforcitationsandreferences.
Environmental:
Nitrogenfixation:Pulsecropshaveauniqueroletoplayintheglobalnitrogencycle,as
legumesandpulsefixatmosphericnitrogeninsoils.Theintroductionofpulsesintocrop
rotationsactivelyhelpsfixnitrogeninthesoil,thusreducingfertilizerrequirementsof
thepulsecropitself,aswellasthefollowingcrop.Thenitrogenremaininginthesoil
alsoincreasesthegrainyieldinsubsequentcrops.Howtomaximizetheenvironmental
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benefitsofpulsesaddedintocroprotationsisanever-evolvingscience,basedonmany
factorsbestobservedatthecroppingsystemlevel.
•
InSub-SaharanAfrica,alteringthetraditionalplantingmethodsofmaizeand
beanarefoundtoinfluencethenitrogenbalanceincroppingsystems.Research
inCentralKenyaidentifiedthenitrogenbenefitsofcowpeaintercroppingwith
maizeandgroundnut.OtherresearchinthedrysavannahsofNigeriaandNiger
foundmodifiedstrip-croppingofcowpeaandsorghum,withtheadditionof
livestocktoboostmanurenutrients,preventedthenutrientlossescausedby
traditionalfarmingpractices.
•
LifecycleassessmentfindingsinSaskatchewan,Canadaindicatethatthe
environmentalbenefitsofpulsecropsisstrong,primarilyduetotheirnitrogen
fixationabilities,thereductioninnitrogenrequirementsofacerealcrop
succeedingapulsecrop,andtheincreaseinquantityandnutritivequality
(proteincontent)ofacerealcropfollowingapulsecrop.Theassessmentfound
thatevenwhenconsideringthepracticeofapplyingmoderateamountsof
pesticidestothecrops,thisdidnotgeneratesufficientdifferencesin
environmentaleffectstodiscounttheoverallpositiveenvironmentalresults.
Relatedbenefitsofthereducedsyntheticnitrogenfertilizersrequirementsin
croppingsystems,whenpulsesareaddedinrotations,includethereduced
emissionsandenergyuseassociatedwiththeproduction,useanddisposalof
fertilizers.
Conservationtillage:Changesintillagepracticeshavehadasignificanteffectonshifting
conventionalcereal-basedcroppingsystemstomorediversifiedcroprotationsthat
utilizepulsesoroilseedsandthatresultinlesssoildisturbance.Whileincreaseduseof
herbicideshasbeenutilizedtoaddressweedabundanceunderreducedorno-tillage,
thisappearstobemoderatedafteraperiodoftransitiontoconservationtillage.
•
Saskatchewan:Long-standingpatternsofmonoculturecerealcroppingresulted
inpestanddiseaseoutbreaksanderosion,andfallowingledtoincreasedsoil
salinityandlossofsoilnitrogenandwater.Theconventionaltillagepracticesin
cerealmonocultureresultedinincreasedsoilerosion,despitethebenefitof
incorporatingcropresiduesintothesoil.Thesefactorsspurredfarmerstoseek
alternativecropstoincludeinrotations,usuallyreplacingsummerfallow.The
greatestenvironmentalbenefitofaddingpulsecropsintocereal-fallowrotations
wastheirnitrogenfixationcapability,whichreducedfertilizernitrogen
requirementsinthecurrentandsucceedingcrop,andimprovedthecapacityof
thesoiltosupplynitrogen.
•
Changesintillagerequiresadjustment,andfarmersinSaskatchewanimproved
theirherbicideandmanagementpracticesovertime,leadingtoreducedratesin
use,andasignificantreductioninrepeatapplications.Erosionhasbeenfoundto
increaseduringproductionoffieldpea,lentil,andchickpeaintheseareas,as
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theyoftenproducelesscropresiduethancerealcrops,andthecropresidueis
moreeasilydisintegratedbytillagethancerealresidue.Therefore,farmersare
advisedtominimizepulsecroppingonhighlyerodiblesoilsandminimizeor
eliminatetillage,particularlyinthefall.
•
FewconservationtillageassessmentsareavailableforSub-SaharanAfrica.
Productivityimprovementsoverareaexpansion:Addingmorecrops,suchaspulses,into
rotationscanincreasetheefficiencyofaproductionsystem,reducingtheneedto
expandtheproductionareatoachieveoverallyieldincrease.
•
FindingwaystoboostproductivityinSub-SaharanAfrica,inordertomeet
expectedfoodandfeeddemandwillbecrucial.Demandforpulses(mostly
beansandcowpeas)inSub-SaharanAfricaisexpectedtoincrease155%from
2015to2050.Yet,mostSub-Saharanpulseproductionoccursinrainfedareas,
withlowuseofinputsandrelativelylowyields.Ghana’sexampleofincreasing
theproductionandyieldsofcowpeaatagreaterproportionthanhectares
planted,indicatesefficiencyinproduction.Thesetrendsareattributedtothe
improvementsinthesupply,distributionanduptakeofimprovedvarietiesand
betterqualityseed,moredemandbyurbanconsumersandbettermarkets,and
boththeprofitabilityandexistenceofincentivesforfarmerstoadopt
productivityenhancingoptions.
•
Thoughpulseproductionareahasincreased23%since2013inSaskatchewan
andWesternCanada,theoverallharvestareahasslightlydecreasedoverthe
sameperiod.
•
Integrationoflegumesintolivestockproductionsystemscanbehighlybeneficial,
withincreasednitrogensupplyandincreasedmeatproduction.
Climatechangemitigationandadaptation:PulsesincroprotationscanhelplowerGHG
emissionsduetolowerfertilizerrequirements,particularlygiventhelargeamountof
energyusedinfertilizerproduction.
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Upto70%ofthenon-renewableenergyusedinWesternCanadiancropping
systemsisduetotheuseoffertilizers,particularlynitrogen.Addingpulsesinto
rotationscommonlylowersGHGemissions.ResearchinSwiftCurrent,SK
assessingnetGHGemissionsfromfourcroppingsystems(fallow-flax-wheat,
fallow-wheat-wheat,continuouswheat,andlentil-wheat),foundthelentilwheatsystemtoclearlyoutperformtheothers.Thiswasduetothelowerrates
ofnitrogenfertilizerrequiredbythewheatcropinthislentil-wheatrotationand
theincreasednitrogenavailability,whichenhancedplantbiomassaccumulation.
Resultsindicatedthatspringwheatgrownusingimprovedpracticesof(a)
fertilizingcropsbasedonsoiltests,(b)reducingsummer-fallowfrequenciesand
(c)rotatingcerealswithlentilcanattainanetGHGbalanceregardlessofwater
availability.
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•
InSub-SaharanAfrica,climateadaptationismoreurgentthatmitigation
measures.InmostoftheSub-Saharancountriesreviewed,projecteddeclinesin
beanproductionaresignificant,duetoexpectedchangesinrainfallpatternsand
temperature.TheIPCCestimatesthatcropfailureduetodroughtandwaterrisk
willbethehighestinAfricaduetoclimatechangeimpacts.Thisindicatesthe
vulnerabilityofagricultureinthesecontexts,andneedforimproved
managementpractices,betteradaptabilityandstrengthofseedsystems,and
technicalandinformationsupporttofarmersforimprovedpractices.
Social:
Nutritionanddisease:Whilepercapitafoodconsumptionwillleveloffindeveloped
countries,significantincreasesindevelopingcountries,basedlargelyonincreasesin
proteinintake,areexpectedto2024.Fairlyrecentchangesintheglobalhumandiet
favouringmoreenergy-densefoodsrichintotalandsaturatedfatsareincreasingthe
ratesofobesity,diet-relateddiseasessuchasdiabetes,coronaryheartdiseaseand
cancer.Helpingtobalancethattrend,pulsesandlegumesareanimportantcontributor
ofmicronutrient-richintake,alongwithfruitsandvegetables,ifconsumersmake
healthychoices.Pulseshavearoletoplayincombatingcardiovasculardisease,
increasingguthealthandhealthynutrition.
•
TheCanadianDiabetesAssociationClinicalPracticeGuidelinesrecommendthat
alow-fatvegandiet(whichwouldincludepulsesandlegumes)improves
glycemiaandplasmalipidsmorethanconventionaldiets.Theroleofpulsesand
legumesindietarypatternsofpeoplewithdiabetescanbeimportanttoregulate
bloodsugarlevelsandmoderatesymptoms,andisalsoimportantinthe
preventionofcardiovasculardisease.
•
InRwanda,whichhasthehighestpercapitalconsumptionofcommonbeansin
theworld,large-scalehouseholdsurveyscarriedoutin2011indicatedthat
almost90%offarmhouseholdscultivatebeansaspartoftheircroppingsystem,
andyet77%reportednotgrowingenoughbeansfortheirneeds.Other
householdsurveyresearchindicatesthat,astheshareofimprovedbeanseeds
plantedincreased,householddietarydiversityscoresincreased,showingaclear
relationshipbetweennutritionandimprovedseedvarietyadoption.InKenya,
Ghana,EasternDRC,NigeriaandTanzania,between32–80%ofcowpeaand/or
commonbeancropsgoestowardsubsistenceproductionandconsumption,
highlightingtheirimportanceforfoodsecurityandnutrition.
Nutritionandfoodsecurity:Grainlegumesaddedintothedietarefoundtocontribute
importantenergy,proteins,minerals,andBvitamins.Whenconsumedwithcereals,
pulsescontributeproteins,mineralsandBvitamins,aswellastheessentialaminoacid
lysine,whichincreasesthequalityofprotein.Whenaddedtorootandfruitstaples,they
raisetheproteincontent.Nitrogen-richandprotein-richplantfoodsarenecessaryto
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supplydietaryprotein.Neweffortsareinvestigatingtheincreasedproductionanduse
ofpulseproteinfractionsinmanufacturedfoodproducts.
•
InRwanda,adoptionofimprovedpulsecropvarietiesappeartohaveagreater
impactonfoodsecuritythanonbeanfarmincome.Adoptionofimprovedbean
varietiesinfluencesfoodconsumptioninotherwaysthanjustthroughfarm
profitability.ToaddressnutritionaldeficienciesinRwandathathaveresultedin
oneofthehighestratesofchildstuntingintheworld,qualityseedof‘highiron’
(‘bio-fortified’)beanvarietiesisbeingdeveloped.
•
Thehealthaspectsofincludingpulsesindietsisanimportantcontributorofthe
socialbenefitsofpulses,asamicronutrient-richfoodsource,helpsreduce
inflammationinthegut,andhasbeneficialeffectonserumcholesterollevels,
thusreducingcardiovasculardiseaserisk.NorthAmericanandCanadian
consumptionofpulsesappearstobefarbelowtheoptimallevel.
Gender:Genderaspectofpulseproductionrelatesprimarilytowomen’sinvolvementin
pulseproductioncommercially,tofeedfamilies,andtobenefitfromincomederived
frompulsesales.
• AcrossAfricancountriesforwhichgenderresearchrelatedtopulseproduction
exists,pulsecultivationbywomenoccursatvariousandmultiplestagesinthe
supplychain.However,genderequityforwomenismoreapparentwhen
womencanmakedecisionsonquantitiessoldandthoseretainedforhousehold
consumption.Genderdifferencesinaccesstoland,technologiesandother
strategicresourcesplayalargerole.
Anecdotalevidencefrominterviewsconductedinthisresearchsuggeststhereare
intertwinedsocialandeconomicbenefitsofaddingpulsestocroprotations,asmany
Saskatchewanfarmersusingrotationsconsistingofcereal-falloworcereal-canolawould
havegonebankruptwithoutdiversifyingintolentilsandotherpulsecrops.Thus,the
additionofpulseshelpedkeepfarmingcommunitiesintactandproductive.
Economic:
Reducedrelianceonfossilfuelsandlowerfuelcosts:Whereconservationtillage
practiceshavebeenadopted,pulsesandoilseedshavecommonlybeenintegratedinto
croprotations.Reducedandalteredtillagepractices(commonlyincludingpulseand
oilseedcrops)reducerelianceonfossilfuelsandloweroverallfuelbills.Farmersare
likelytoseethelong-termeconomicbenefits(andavoidedcosts)oflesssoil,airand
waterdegradationbyadoptingno-tillpracticesandincludinglegumesintheir
operations.
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•
InSaskatchewan,whencomparedtoconventionaltillage,conservationtillageor
no-tillagepracticesresultinconsistentyieldadvantages,lessincomevariability
andsignificantresourcesavings.
Economicbenefitsofaddingpulsestocroprotations:Significantresearchand
developmenthasgoneintoimprovedpulseseedvarieties.Lessemphasishasbeen
placedonthetechnicalandfinancialsupporttohelpfarmersnavigatechangesin
practicesandtrade-offsassociatedwithaddingpulsecropsintorotations(ordifferent
intercroppingmethodsinSub-SaharanAfrica).Furthermore,thoughinvestmentsin
pulsecropbreedinghavebeenmadeinindifferentregions,theextentofinvestmentis
stillrelativelysmallwhencomparedtothescaleofinvestmentsincorn,soybeanand
wheat.Investmentinimprovedvarietieswillbekeytoimprovementsintheglobal
pulseindustry.
•
FindingsfromSub-SaharanAfricaindicatethateconomicimpactsofincluding
pulsesinrotationsareinfluencedbyavarietyoffactors,particularlyfarmer
perceptionandknowledge.Farmersaremorelikelytoadoptpulsesintheir
croppingsystemswhentheyfindacroprotationsequencethatproduceshigher
returnoninvestmentoverthelongterm.Lowsalespricesofbeanscontributeto
lowadoptionratesofimprovedbeanvarieties,butotherresearchindicatesa
complexsetoffactors,includinglackofsupplysystemsandlackofmarket
coordination,limitedpost-harveststoragefacilities,highopportunitycostof
land,competitionfromcropsthataremoreprofitable,andlimitedtechnicaland
financialcapacityoffarmerstoorganizecooperatives.FindingsfromTanzania
indicatethataccesstofinanceandcreditwasnotalimitingfactorinadopting
disease-resistantpigeonpeaseed.Rather,informalseednetworks,on-farm
varietyselection,farmsizeandownershipofhouseholdtransportassetsplayed
alargerroleinfarmersadoptingimprovedseed.
•
InSaskatchewan,theeconomicbenefitsofaddinglentilandpeaintocrop
rotationshasbeensignificant,whilechickpeahasbeenlesssuccessfulthusfar
duetodisease(ascochytablight),relativelylonggrowingseasonrequirement,
andfluctuatingexportprices.Findingsindicatethatincludingoilseedandpulse
cropsinrotationswithcerealgrainscontributedtohigherandmorestablenet
farmincomebetween1985-2002,inspiteofhigherinputcosts,acrossmostsoil
zones.Whilethevolumeoflentilexportshasincreased67%between2009and
2014,thevalueofthoseexportsincreased37%.Peaexportsshowadifferent
trendoverthesameperiod,withthevolumeofpeaexportsincreasing19%,
whilethevalueoverthesametimeperiodincreased56%.Cropdiversityisa
hedgeagainstficklemarketsandchangesinprice.Farmersurveydatafrom2011
indicatesthatpulseproducingfarmsgrowalargervarietyofcropsthanfarms
notgrowingpulses(uptosevenormorefieldcroptypes).Estimatesfromthe
2015SaskatchewanCropPlannerindicatethatlentilsmakeanimportantrelative
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contributiontothefinancialreturnsofrotationsindifferentsoiltypes;returns
fromlentilarebetween38%and60%dependingonsoilzone.
Investmentsinpulsecropresearch:Investmentsinpulsecropresearchhaveledto
importantenvironmental,socialandeconomicimpactsinbothcasestudies:
•
TheSaskatchewanPulseGrowersassociationinstitutesamandatory,
non‑refundable1%levytofundprogramsthatdevelopthepulseindustry,
providesresearchandcapacityforgeneticimprovement,agronomy,healthand
nutrition,andprocessingandutilization.In2014/2015,thelevycontributed97%
oftheCD$10.1milliontheorganizationinvestedinresearchanddevelopment,
andanotherCD$2.8millioninmarketpromotion,mostofwhichwasfocusedon
domesticlentilmarkets.
•
For2012,theCGIARResearchProgramonGrainLegumesestimatesthatthenet
presentvalueofgrossbenefitsofitslegumeresearchandextensionwasUS$4.5
billion,equivalenttoUS$535millionperyear,withsignificantfoodsecurity
benefitsandenvironmentalbenefitsthroughbiologicalnitrogenfixation(a
fertilizercostsavingofUS$418million).Fiftypercentoftheeconomicimpacts
accrueinSouthandSouth-EastAsiaandSub-SaharanAfrica.
Exportversusdomesticmarkets:Trade-offsbetweensupplyingdomesticdemandand
servingexportmarkets,orimportingpulses,hingeonavarietyoffactors,includingfood
security,marketprices,post-harveststorageandprocessing,tariffsandimport/export
barriers,marketefficiency,domesticfoodsecurity,andeffectivesectorpolicies.For
example,Indiaaccountsfor26%ofglobalpulseproduction,yettheaverageproductivity
ofpulsesisbelowtheglobalaverage,andIndianproductionwillnotkeeppacewith
domesticdemand.GovernmentsubsidiesandpricecontrolsinIndia’sagricultural
sectorcreateddistortionsthataffecteddomesticproduction,andminimumsupport
pricesforpulseshavenotdemonstratedthesameresultsasthoseforrice.Other
countrieshavehadsuccesspromotingexportcropsthatdonotcompetewithdomestic
foodproduction.Whitepeabeans(Navybeans)inEthiopiaandFrenchbeansinRwanda
areexamplesofexportproductsthatdonotgenerallyreducedomesticconsumption,
whichisascrucialforfoodsecurityasitisforrealizingeconomicbenefits.
Addingpulsesintolivestockdietsalsohaseconomicbenefit,butappearsdependenton
marketpricingandlabouruseefficiencies.
Pulse crop sustainability framework and application steps
Groundedintheliteraturereviewandthetwocasestudies,thisreportproposesa
frameworkforevaluatingthesustainabilityofpulsecropproductioninspecificcontexts.
Applicationofthisframeworkissupportedbycriteriaandguidingquestions.
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Figure1providesadiagrammaticoverviewoftheframeworkelements.Section4of
thisreportidentifiesthecriteriaandattributes,foreachofthethreesustainability
pillars,tobemeasuredorevaluatedinanygivenproductionsystem,recognizingthe
highlydiversegeographic,agro-ecologicalandeconomiccontextsaroundtheworldthat
aresuitableforgrowingpulses.Thecriteriaandattributesoftheframeworkcanbe
usedasacomplementtoaproductionstandardorproductcertificationschemethat
growerscouldapplyattheproductionlevel.Eachcriterionorkeyelementcontainsaset
ofquestionstoguideevaluationofthesustainabilityofinterventions,including
commonlyobservedtrade-offs.
Section5ofthereportappliestheframeworktohypotheticalactionsthatcouldbetake
bythefoodindustry,producers,andgovernmentstoincreasepulsecropproduction
andconsumption.Thecriteriachosen,andquestionstopursueshouldbeadaptedto
localcircumstancesortotheappropriatescale,andareintendedasastartingpoint,
ratherthanacompletesetoffiltersfortestingthesustainabilityofcroppingchanges.
Thesehypotheticalapplicationsprovideinitialguidanceonly,andpresentsome
overarchingdecision-supportandquestionsforfurtherinvestigation(e.g.qualitative
andquantitativewaystotestperformanceusingkeyenvironmental,socialand
economicindicators).Areal-worldapplicationoftheframeworkwouldrequire
adaptationtotheuniqueproductioncircumstancesandinterventions.
Figure 1: Summary of pulse crop sustainability framework and application steps
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1. Introduction
Manyofthebenefitsofpulsesindiversifyingdietsandreplenishingsoilnutrientsare
welldocumentedandunderstood.Whathasreceivedlessattentionistheroleofpulses
incontributingtofuturefoodsecurityanddevelopmentgoals.Ourfoodsystemsface
thechallengeofneedingtoproduceenoughfoodtofeedatleast9billionpeopleby
2050,withnearlyallthatadditionalfoodneededfordevelopingcountriesanddueto
percapitaincreasesinmeatconsumption(FAO,2009;Foresight,2011).Butthat
challengemustbemetinthecontextofincreasingclimatechangeimpactsonfood
production;competitionforenergy,land,waterandmaterialresources;population
growthandmigration;povertyandfoodinsecurity;andecosystemdegradation.
Climatechange,resourcedepletion,anddemographicshaveastrongimpactonthe
availabilityandpriceofagriculturalcommodities(MSCI,2012).Growingurban
populationsareincreasinglypurchasingtheirfoodratherthangrowingit,with
substantialproportionsofhouseholdexpendituregoingtowardsfood.InSouthAsia
andsub-SaharanAfrica,40–70%ofallhouseholdexpenditureisonfood(WorldBank
andIMF,2013).Increasedurbanizationmeans96%ofthedevelopingworld’sadditional
1.4billionpeopleby2030areexpectedtoliveinurbanareas.Further,theglobalmiddle
classispredictedtogrow172%between2010and2030,andwhileagribusinesseswill
seektoservethisnewmiddleclassmarket,itwillbeatatimewhenresourcesarelikely
tobescarcerandmoreprice-volatile(Kharas,2010).
Thepotentialofpulses—beans,peas,chickpeas,lentils,andotherpulsecrops—tohelp
addressfutureglobalfoodsecurity,nutritionandenvironmentalsustainabilityneeds
hasbeenacknowledgedthroughtheUNdeclarationofthe2016InternationalYearof
Pulses.However,thefullsetofbenefitsthatpulsecropscanofferhasnotbeen
systematicallycharacterized.Forbothlargeandsmallfarmers,pulsesrepresent
importanteconomicopportunitiestoboostincomeandreduceriskbydiversifingtheir
cropandincomestreamportfolio.Theenvironmentalbenefitsofaddingpulsestocrop
rotationsiswelldocumented,howeverthereislessdocumentationandevidenceofthe
socialandeconomicbenefitsofpulseproduction.Pulsescouldhelpaddressfuture
needsforprotein,helpminimizesoildegradation,andsupportdiversificationinfood
productionandconsumption.Thelivelihoodanddevelopmentimpactsofincreased
pulseproductionandconsumptionmustbebetterunderstoodbythefoodsector,by
pulseproducers,andbygovernments,basedonempiricalevidenceandknown
examplesinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries.
1.1Purpose
Thispaperisproducedaspartofthe2016InternationalYearofPulses(IYP2016),which
bringanincreasingawarenessoftheroleofpulsesinfoodproductiontoarangeof
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stakeholders,includinggovernments,thefoodsector,farmersandproducers,research
organizations,developmentagencies,investorsanddonors.Thisresearchispartofa
broadereffortinIYP2016todeepenanunderstandingofthepotentialofpulsesto
contributetosustainabilityandtomotivateactiontomaximizethesustainable
productionandconsumptionofpulses.
Thispaperspecificallyseekstodevelopaframeworktoevaluatetheeconomic,social
andenvironmentalbenefitsofpulseproductionindifferentgeographic,agro-ecological
andeconomiccontexts.Thus,theframeworkwilldefinetheelementsofsustainability
tobemeasuredorevaluatedinanygivencontext,recognizingthehighlydiverse
geographic,agro-ecologicalandeconomiccontextsaroundtheworldthataresuitable
forgrowingpulses.Theframeworkwillalsoprovideameanstoevaluatethepotential
sustainabilitycontributionsofpulsesshouldtheybebroughtintoacroppingsystem,or
asameanstooptimizecroprotations.Therationaleforproducingthiswhitepaperisto:
• Definetheelementsofpulsecropsustainabilitythatcanbeappliedindiverse
contextsaroundtheworld(basedontheircontributiontocroppingsystemsat
thelocalscaleaswellastheircontributiontoglobal-scalesustainabilitygoals).
• Helpbuildtheevidencebaseoftheenvironmental,socialandeconomicbenefits
ofpulseproduction.
Theintendedprimaryaudienceforthiswhitepaperisthefoodindustry,andsecondary
audienceisgovernmentpolicymakersandprivatefoundations.
1.2Pulseproductionandsustainability
1.2.1Environmentalbenefits
Nitrogenfixation
Nitrogenisthenutrientmostcommonlydeficientinsoilsaroundtheworld,andis
thereforethemostcommonlyappliedplantnutrient,oftenintheformofsynthetic
fertilizer.Legumecrops,includingpulses,haveauniqueroletoplayintheglobal
nitrogencycle,astheyfixatmosphericnitrogeninsoils.Pulsescreateasymbiotic
associationwithrhizobia,asoilbacteria,enablingpulsestofixatmosphericnitrogengas,
whichcanmakethemself-sufficientinnitrogen,andenablethemtogrowinalmostany
soilwithoutfertilizerinputs.Humanimpactsontheglobalnitrogencyclefromrapidly
increasingfertilizeruseandfossilfuelcombustionstartinginthe20thcenturyhavehad
strongnegativeeffects,suchaspollutionintowaterwaysandincreasedN2Oemissions.
From1960to2000,nitrogenfertilizeruseincreasedbyroughly800%,withhalfofthat
beingutilizedforwheat,rice,andmaizeproduction(Canfieldetal,2010).Synthetic
fertilizersprovidedclosetohalfofallthenutrientsreceivedbycropsgloballyduringthe
mid-1990s,demonstratingbothalargedependencyonsyntheticfertilizers,butalso
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inefficientmanagementofnitrogeninglobalagriculture(Smil,2002).TheIPCC
estimatesthatnitrousoxideemissionscontainroughly300timestheglobalwarming
potentialofcarbondioxide(CO2),andapplicationoffertilizerinagriculturalproduction
isasignificantsourceofN2O.1Cerealcropssuchaswheat,riceandmaizetypicallyonly
utilize40%offertilizerapplied,leadingtosignificantwasteandenvironmentalimpacts
suchaseutrophicationofcoastalwatersandcreationofhypoxiczones(Canfieldetal,
2010).Asurveyofvariousfieldstudiesofnitrogenfertilizeruptakebyrice,cornand
wheatshowstypicalnitrogenefficiencytobelessthan50%,withAsianriceaveragingas
littleas30%.Thestudyalsofoundnitrogenlossesalongthefoodchaintobesignificant,
withsyntheticfertilizerscausingsignificantlymorenitrogenlossduetovolatilization,
erosionandleachingintowater(Smil,2002).
However,introductionofpulsesintocroprotationsactivelyhelpsfixnitrogeninthe
soil,thusreducingthefertilizerrequirementsofthepulsecropitself,aswellasthe
followinggraincrop.Onelong-termstudy(2001–2013)onthenitrogenfixationofthe
pulsecropitselffoundfieldpea,lupinorfababeanderivedabout70%ofnitrogen
requirementsfromatmosphericnitrogen,whileanaverageof19kgofnitrogenwas
fixedpertonneofpulseshootdrymatter.Thestudycoveredthegeographicrangeof
southernandcentralNewSouthWales,MalleeandWimmerainVictoria,andthehighrainfallzoneofsouth-easternSouthAustralia(Peoplesetal,2015).Systematiccrop
rotationbasedonincorporatingpulses/legumesintomaize-basedsystemstoreduce
syntheticfertilizeruse,andoptimizingthetimingandamountsoffertilizerappliedto
cropsarerecognizedasthetwomostimportantinterventionstodecreasenitrogen
application(Canfieldetal,2010).Biologicalnitrogenfixationisacrucialalternative
sourceofnitrogen,andcanbeenhancedalongwithotherintegratednutrient
managementstrategiessuchasanimalmanureandotherbiosolids,andrecyclingthe
nutrientscontainedincropresidues(Lal,2004).
Thehigheravailablenitrogentosubsequentcerealcropsisgenerallyassumedtobenefit
yieldsofthosecerealcrops,howeverthisisnotaswelldocumentedasthenitrogen
fixationbenefits.Findingsinsouth-easternAustraliaindicatestrongevidencethatthe
inclusionoflegumesincroppingsequencesresultsinhigheravailablesoilnitrogenfor
subsequentcrops,withanadditional40to90kgN/hainthefirstyearand20to35kg
N/haforthesecondyear,ascomparedtocontinuouscerealsequencesthatdonot
includepulses(Peoplesetal,2015).ApartfromtheeffectsofadditionalfixedNthat
legumecropsbringintosystems,therearealmostalwaysbeneficialyieldeffectsfrom
croprotationswithlegumes.Thesepositiveeffectsonyieldareprobablyrelatedto
disruptionofthebuildupofdiseaseandpeststhatoccurswhenaparticularcropis
grownyearafteryear,althoughthisphenomenonisnotyetwellunderstood.Increases
ingrainyieldinsubsequentcerealcropshavebeendocumentedintheNorthernGreat
PlainsofNorthAmerica,andwillbefurtherexploredintheSaskatchewancasestudyin
1
Agricultureemissionsare19-29%ofallglobalGHGemissions.Nitrousoxideemissionsare39.3%oftotalagricultural
emissions(FAO,2015).
13
section3.1.EvidenceinaMediterraneanenvironmentdemonstratedthatvetch,faba
beanandchickpeaallresultedinsignificantyieldsurplusesandprovidednitrogencredit
tothesubsequentunfertilizedwheatcrop,thoughvetchoutperformedtheother
(betterresearched)pulses(Dalias,2015).ExperiencesinAustraliashowincreasedyield
andproteincontentincerealandoilseedcropsthatareplantedfollowingpulsecrops.
Thewidevariationsintheamountofnitrogenfixationthatpulsescanprovidedepends
ontheamountofbiomassproducedbythepulsecrop(oftenvaryingwithwater,soil
qualityandnon-Nnutrientavailability),whethertheharvestremovesasignificant
amountofthebiomass,andtheeffectivenessofthelegume-rhizobiumsymbiosisin
fixingnitrogen.Plantingalegumeintosoilsalreadyhavingmoderatetohighlevelsof
soilnitrogencanalsodepressbiologicalnitrogenfixation.
Nuancesanddifferencesinsuccessivecerealcropsmustbenoted.FindingsinAustralia
comparinglegumeandfertilizernitrogenindicatethatrecoveryoflegumenitrogenbya
followingcerealcroptendstobelowerthantop-dressedfertilizer(adifferenceof20%
betweenhighandlowranges),butisnottoodissimilarfromfertilizerappliedatsowing.
Thisisduetoslowerreleaseofmineralnitrogenfromlegumeandpulsecropresiduesas
theydecompose.However,lossesofnitrogenfromthesystemarefoundtobeusually
lowerfromlegumesourcesthanfromfertilizer,indicatingthecontributionoflegumes
tothemaintenanceofthelong-termorganicfertilityofsoils(Peoplesetal,2015).
Thesuccessiveplantingofdifferentcropsonthesameplotofland,throughcrop
rotations,helpssoilfertility,thetransferofnutrientsfromonecroptothenext,and
helpstocontrolweeds,pestsanddiseases.Croprotationshavebeenpracticedby
farmersforthousandsofyears,2yetmaximizingtheenvironmental,socialand
economicbenefitsofcroprotationsisanever-evolvingsciencethatmustaddress
manyfactorsatthecroppingsystemlevel.Thereplenishmentofnitrogenthroughthe
useofgreenmanure,insequencewithcereals,isacommonformofcroprotation.The
Sakatchewancasestudybelowexploresfurtherinsightsoncroprotation.Including
pulsesincroppingsystemshashighrelevanceforimprovingtheoveralluseefficiencyof
availablenitrogenatthefarmsystemlevelratherthanatjustthecroplevel.Ratherthan
emphasizingindividualelementsofacroppingsystem,afocusonoverallgrowing
conditions,thecropmix,andthesequenceofcroprotationsiscentraltoachievingboth
sustainabilityandproductivityobjectives,suchasincreasingnitrogenfixationthrough
improvedrhizobia-hostplantsymbiosis(vanKesselandHartley,2000).
Conservationtillage
Changesintillagepracticeshavebeenanimportantpartofshiftsfromconventional
croppingsystems,basedongrainproduction,tomorediversifiedcroprotationsutilizing
pulsesoroilseeds.Conventionalplow-basedfarmingdevelopedlargelyasameansfor
2ThecentresoforiginofagricultureinSouthandEastAsia,theMiddleEast,Sub-SaharanAfrica,and
MiddleandSouthAmericaallincludedthedomesticationofalegume.
14
farmerstocontrolweedsinfield-cropsystems.Conventionaltillagepracticesleavesoil
vulnerabletowaterandwinderosion,increasesagriculturalrunoff,degradessoil
productivityandreleasesGHGemissionsbothfromsoildisturbanceandfossilfueluse.
ConventionaltillageintheUS,CanadaandAustralialedto“dustbowl”stormsdueto
winderosion,andthelossofsoilandfarmlandspurredpolicymakersandfarmersto
findsolutions.No-till,ordirectseedingunderamulchlayerfromthepreviouscrop,is
themostimportanttechnologyinconservationagricultureandreversesthisprocessby
implementingapackageofpractices,includinga)minimummechanicalsoildisturbance,
b)permanentorganicsoilcover,c)diversificationofcropspeciesgrowninsequences
and/orassociations(FAO,2013).Importantly,implementingconservationtillage
practiceshasofteninvolvedintroductionofpulsesandoilseedsintograin-basedcrop
rotations3.Whileincreaseduseofherbicides,suchasglyphosate,havebeenutilizedto
addressweedabundanceunderreducedorno-tillage,thisappearstobemoderated
afteraperiodoftransitiontoconservationtillage.VanKesselandHartley(2000)
identifiedarangeofstudiesthatdemonstratethenitrogenfixationbenefitsof
conservation-orno-tillage,withpulseandoilseedbeannodulationimprovingafter
multipleyearsofno-tillandnitrogenfixationratesincreasing(moderatedbychangesin
rainfallpatterns)(VanKesselandHartley,2000).Formoreinsightonhowno-tilland
conservationagriculturehasbeenadoptedinSaskatchewan,refertoSection3.
Productivityimprovementsoverareaexpansion
Animportantgoalinthesustainableuseoflandworldwideistoincreaseproductivityon
availablecroplands,whilerestrictingagriculturalexpansion,whichoftenoccursatthe
expenseofforestsandwetlands.Ninebillionpeoplewillinhabittheplanetby2050.To
avoidcropexpansionandjustmeetprojected2050cropneedsbyincreasing
production,itispredictedthatcropyieldswouldneedtoincreasebyanestimated32%
morefrom2006to2050thantheydidfrom1962to2006duringtheheightofthe
‘greenrevolution(Searchingeretal,2013).’However,reachingsuchincreasesinyieldsis
highlyunlikely.Pulseshaveasignificantroletoplayin‘sustainableintensification,’yet,
indevelopingcountries,productionincreaseshavecomeprimarilyfromexpansionof
croppingareas.Theyieldgrowthofpulsesbetween1980and2004indeveloped
countrieswas2%perannum,whileindevelopingcountries,itlanguishedatabout0.4%
perannum(Nedumaranetal,2015).Ethiopia’sriseinchickpeaproductionoffersan
exampleofproductivityimprovementsthatdidnotresultinareaexpansion(Ethiopia,
2015b).
Thislargeyieldgapbetweendevelopingcountriesanddevelopedcountriesisof
concern,andcannotbeaddressedbyimprovedpulsecropgeneticsalone,butrather
requiresarangeofinterventions,someofwhicharefurtherexploredintheAfricacase
3TheoilseedssoybeanandgroundnutarealsoN-fixinglegumes.Notethatsomeofthebrassicaceaelack
rootsymbiosesandsowillhaveaverydifferentconsequencefromlegumesmostofwhichhaveboth
bacterialandfungalrootsymbionts.
15
studyinSection3.2.Addingmorecropsintorotationscanincreasetheefficiencyina
productionsystem,minimizingthepressureforcroplandexpansiontoachieveyield
improvements.However,inmanycontexts,regulationstorestrictexpansion,or
encourageexpansionondegradedlands,arenecessarytosendtherightsignalsto
producers.
Reducedgreenhousegasemissions
Theroleofpulsecropsinmitigatinggreenhousegasemissionsinagricultureproduction
canbesignificant,andthisisexploredfurtherintheSaskatchewancasestudybelow.
TheprimaryreasonforthebenefitsfrompulsesinloweringGHGemissionsisdueto
lowerfertilizerrequirements,particularlygiventhelargeamountofenergyusedin
fertilizerproduction.Upto70%ofthenon-renewableenergyusedinWesternCanadian
croppingsystemsisduetotheuseoffertilizers,particularlynitrogen,andtheinclusion
ofpulsesincroppingsystemsreducestheneedforfertilizerinputs.Pulsessupplytheir
ownnitrogenandcontributenitrogentosucceedingcrops(Lemkeetal,2007).Thisis
exploredingreaterdetailinSection3.1.
Pulsesandlivestockfeeddiversification
Integrationoflegumesintolivestockproductionsystemshasbeenshowntodeliver
multiplebenefits,suchasincreasednitrogensupplywhilealsoincreasingmeat
production.Globally,meatdemandisexpectedtoincreaseby200milliontonnesper
annumby2050,withcorrespondingdemandforlivestockfeed(Alexandratosand
Bruinsma,2013).InthenorthernGreatPlainsoftheUSandCanada,fieldpeahasbeen
promotedasameanstoboostproteinandenergyincattlefeed.Fieldpeagrainhas
beenfoundtobehighlydigestibletocattle,butthestarchfermentationandruminal
proteindegradationratesareslowerthanforothercommonfeeds.Fieldpeahasbeen
showntoincreasedrymatterintakebycowswhenincludedinthelivestockfeedration,
andalsoproducesbenefitswhenusedasabindingagentforpelletingformulafeeds
(Anderson,etal,2007).
1.2.2Socialbenefits
Nutrition
Withoutaconcertedefforttoboosttheproductionofpulsesindevelopingcountries,
consumptionofpulsesmaystagnateordecline,duetochangingconsumerpreferences,
failuretopromoteproductionofpulses,andagreaterfocusonincreasingproduction
andself-sufficiencyincereals(AlexandratosandBruinsma,2012).Historically,when
observeddeclinesinprotein-richpulseswerenotaccompaniedbyincreasesinthe
consumptionoflivestockproducts,theresulthasbeendeteriorationintheoverall
qualityofdiets,evenifpercapitadietaryenergyincreased(ibid).
16
Pulseshavedeclinedinconsumptionlevelsgloballyandinparticularamongdeveloping
countries,perhapsbestillustratedbyChina’ssignificantdecreaseinconsumption,from
30gpercapitaperdayin1963,toonly3gpercapitaby2003(Kearney,2010).Overthe
lastdecade,developingcountries,particularlyinlargeAsianeconomies,haveseen
steadypopulationgrowth,risingpercapitaincomesandcontinuousurbanization,which
hasbeenaccompaniedbyincreasedproteinintakerelativetothetraditionalstarches.
TheOECD/FAOAgriculturalOutlookto2024indicatesstagnantgrowthinfood
consumptionindevelopedcountries,butsignificantincreasesindevelopingcountries,
reflectingthisincreaseinproteinintakeindevelopingcountries.Atthegloballevel,
totalcaloricintakeisexpectedtorise,butwithregionaldifferences.Cerealswillremain
themostconsumedagriculturalproduct,withconsumptionexpectedtoincreaseby
almost390Mtby2024,mostofwhichiscoarsegrains.Thelargestexpectedgrowthin
coarsegainconsumptionwillcomefromdemandforfeed,accountingfor70%ofthe
growthinconsumption.Globalmeatconsumptionisexpectedtogrow1.4%peryear,
resultinginadditionalconsumptionof51Mtofmeatby2024(OECD-FAO,2015).
IndiaprovidesacounterpointtoChina,aspulsesthereprovideanincreasingsourceof
protein,nowaccountingforalmost13%ofoverallproteinintake(OECD-FAO,2014).
Pulsesareanimportantcontributiontoavegetariandiet,giventheirproteincontent.
Indiaisthelargestpulseproducerandconsumer,andthecountrygrowsthelargest
varietiesofpulsesintheworld,accountingforabout32%oftheareaand26%ofworld
production.Indianpulsecropsincludechickpea,pigeonpea,urdbean,mungbean,lentil
andfieldpea,andproductionreachedarecordlevelof18.4Mtin2012-13,upfrom15
Mtin2007-08.Pulsecropyieldshaveincreasedfrom0.63t/hain2007-08to0.79t/ha
in2012-13,andannualyieldgrowthisexpectedtooutpacegrowthinproductionarea,
indicatingbetterproductionefficiency.However,theaverageproductivityofpulsesin
Indiastillremainsbelowtheglobalaverage.ItisexpectedthatIndianproductionwill
notkeeppacewithdemandandimportsareanticipatedtogrowto5.1Mtby2023
(OECD-FAO,2014).
Fairlyrecentchangesintheglobalhumandietfavouringmoreenergy-densefoodsrich
intotalandsaturatedfatsareincreasingratesofobesity,diet-relateddiseasessuchas
diabetes,coronaryheartdiseaseandcancer.Publichealthandnutritioneffortsseeking
topromotehealthierandmoresustainablefoodproductionandconsumption,must
ensureasufficientsupplyofstaplesandofmicronutrient-richfoodswithout
encouragingexcessiveconsumptionofenergy-dense,nutrient-poorfoods.Pulsesand
legumesareanimportantcontributorofmicronutrient-richintake,alongwithfruitsand
vegetables(Kearney,2010).Eighty-fourpercentoftheproteinincommonbeanis
readilyabsorbedafterconsumption,and94%oftheproteinfromcowpeaisavailable.
Pulseshavearoletoplayincombatingcardiovasculardiseaseandincreasinghealthy
nutrition.Worldwide,cardiovasculardiseasesarenowtheleadingcauseofdeath,and
intheUnitedStates,isattributedto1/3ofalldeaths.Whilethereisincreasing
awarenessofthisrisk,andtheroleofbalanceddietstodecreasetherisk,lessthan1/3
17
ofAmericansconsumesthe3cupsoflegumesrecommendedperweekbytheDietary
GuidelinesforAmericans(Bazzanoetal,2011).Ameta-analysisoftenrandomized
controlledtrialsfrom5countriessoughttoquantifytheimpactthatconsumptionof
non-soylegumes(navy,pinto,kidney,garbanzoandlimabeansandpeassuchassplit
greenpeasorlentils)hasontotalcholesterol,high-densitylipoprotein(HDL),lowdensitylipoprotein(LDL),verylow-densitylipoprotein(VLDL),andtriglycerides.
Findingsindicatethenon-soylegumediethadasignificantbeneficialeffectonserum
cholesterollevels,thusreducingcardiovasculardiseaserisk.BothtotalandLDL
cholesteroldecreased,whileHDLcholesteroldidnotchangesignificantly,whennon-soy
legumesweresupplemented.Further,findingsindicatethatthenon-soylegumediet
allowedforhigherintakesofdietarytotalandsolublefiber(whichlowersriskof
coronaryheartdisease)andcontainedphytosterols,acomponentofplantcell
membranes,whichreducesbloodcholesterollevels(ibid).Theanti-inflammatory
effectsofbeansandtheircontributiontotheintestinalmicrobiomeinthegutis
increasinglybeingunderstood,particularlyinamongchildreninMalawiwherefindings
indicatecowpeaandcommonbeancanreduceenvironmentalentericdysfunction
(Manary,2015).
Nitrogenandproteininglobaldiets
Moredietaryproteinwillbeneededtoeliminatedisparitiesindietsbetweendeveloped
anddevelopingeconomies.However,thenitrogenbudgetinglobalfoodandfeed
demonstratestheimportanceofnitrogen-richandprotein-richplantfoods.About
70%ofnitrogeninharvestedfoodcropsbecomeavailable(afterprocessingandlosses)
forhumanconsumption,whereasmeatanddairyproductionuselargeamountsof
nitrogen.Nearly7kgoffeednitrogenisneededtoproduce1kgofediblenitrogenin
meat,eggs,anddairyproducts.Thus,findingsolutionstomoreefficientproductionof
animalfoodsanddampingtheprojectedupwardtrendlineofanimalbasedfoodsis
crucialtosupplyadequatenutritiontotheworld’sgrowingpopulationwithoutany
massiveincreasesofnitrogeninputs(Smil,2002).
InCanada,theUS,andEurope,researchers,ingredientcompaniesandfood
manufacturersareinvestigatingincreasedproductionanduseofpulseprotein
fractionsinmanufacturedfoodproducts,inordertoboostthenutritionalqualityof
foods,anddietaryfibreandstarch,whichcanbeusedforfoodfortificationandtexture
enhancement.Intheseprocesses,partsarederivedfromthewholeseed,suchasasplit
seed,hullorfibre,downtoisolatedstarchandproteinfactions.Theseproductsare
promotedasplant-based,sustainable,non-geneticallymodifiedandgluten-free.4
CompaniessuchasIngredion,AGTFoods,Burcon,Cosucra,andNutri-Peaandothersare
creatingfractionproducts,andfindingwaystoincorporatethemintomanufactured
foodproducts.Researchersnotethatwetfractionationuseslargeamountsofwater
andenergy,andthefunctionalityoftheproteiniscompromisedduringprocessing.Dry
4MarkOlsen,AlbertaDeptofAgricultureandForestry,verbalcommunication.
18
fractionationisfoundtobemorewaterandenergyefficient,andretainsfunctionalityof
thepulseprotein(SchutyserandvanderGoot,2015).
Effortstomanufacturemeat-likeproteinproductsisimproving,witharecentsoy-based
meatanalogueproductbeingproduced,withathicknessof30mm(Krintirasetal,
2016).Effortsareunderwaytofurtheridentifyhowpeaproteinandothervegetable
fiberscanbeusedforthispurpose.
Balancinglivestockproductionandfoodsecuritythroughpulses
Livestockproductionbenefitswithoutfoodsecurityconflictsaredemonstratedviathe
integrationofherbaceouslegumesintothemaizeanduplandricesystemsinWest
Timor,Indonesia.Aftersixyearsofparticipatoryresearch,findingsindicatesignificant
benefitsforlocalfarmers.Farmersusuallyrelyonlow-qualitynativeforages,sometimes
supplemented,tofeedtheirlivestock.Highrainfalllevelsinthemonsoonseasonand
climatevariabilityprovidesrisksthatoftenresultinfeeddemandsoutstrippingsupply
andlowratesofproduction,withupto60%oftheweightgainedbylivestockduringthe
wetseasonlostduringthelatedryandearlywetseasons.Herbaceouslegumeswere
addedeitherinannualrotationwithacerealorafterwet-seasoncerealproductionhas
beencompleted,whenlandistraditionallyleftfallow.Ascowpea,peanut,and
mungbeanarealreadyoccasionallyintercroppedwithmaizeinthewetseason,
researcherschosetopromoteherbaceouslegumesasagreenmanureorinrotation,so
legumeswouldnotfurthercompetewiththecerealcropsfornutrientsandthereby
producelessforage.Researchoutcomesindicatethata)itispossibletoaddan
additionalcropintoatraditionalfarmingsystemwithoutaffectingexistingfoodsecurity,
b)thatfeedingforagelegumestocattleduringthelatedryorearlywetseasonresulted
inincreasesinlivestockweight,andc)thatnitrogenprovidedbylegumesimproved
maizeproductioninsubsequentcrops.Criticaltothesuccessofintegratingherbaceous
legumesintoanannualcropcyclewastherecognitionthatwaterremaininginthesoil
asthemainwet-seasoncerealcropmaturesisaresourcethatcanbeavailableforthe
subsequentdry-seasonproductionofherbaceouslegumes,whichisaperiodinwhich
foodcropsarenottraditionallygrown(Nuliketal,2013).
Gender
Genderaspectsofpulseproductionareparticularlyimportantincontextswherewomen
canbeinvolvedinvariousstagesofproductionandthroughoutthevaluechain.Thisis
furtherexploredintheAfricacasestudy,insection3.2.Norelevantfindingsrelatedto
genderwereidentifiedintheSaskatchewancasestudy.
1.2.3Economicbenefits
Farmersingrainandoilseedproductionhavefoundeconomicbenefitsfromlowerinput
costsandincreasedprofitsbyincludingapulsecropintheirrotation.Thesebenefits
19
accruemainlythroughenhancingtheefficiencyofnitrogenfertilizeruse,reducingtillage
and,insomecasesreducingpesticideuse.Reducedandalteredtillagepractices
reducerelianceonfossilfuelsandlowersoverallfuelbills.No-tillsystemswithpulses
provideabasisforsustainableagriculturalintensification,includingintegratedcrop
approaches.Itisestimatedthatfarmerssavebetween30-40%oftime,labourandfossil
fuelsusingno-till,comparedtoconventionaltillage(FAO,2001;Lorenzatti,2006).In
Argentina,areviewoffarmerpracticesfoundthatwithoneliteroffuelitispossibleto
produce50kgofgrainunderconventionaltillage,whereasunderno-tillitispossibleto
yield123kgofgrain(Lorenzatti,2006).Betternitrogenmanagementrequiresless
fertilizerinputs.Therearevariations,ofcourse,intheeconomicreturnsexperiencedin
differentgeographiesandfarm-types,andtheseareexploredfurtherinthecase
studies.Farmerslikelyalsoseethelong-termeconomicbenefits(andavoidedcosts)of
lesssoil,airandwaterdegradationbyadoptingno-tillpracticesandincludinglegumes
intheiroperations.
InSaskatchewan,Canada,includingoilseedandpulsecropsinrotationswithcereal
grainscontributedtohigherandmorestablenetfarmincome,inspiteofhigherinput
costs,acrossmostsoiltypes.ThecasestudyinSection3.1summarizeskeyfindings
regardingthesignificantbenefitstofarmersandtheprovincialeconomy.Significant
findingsexistandhighpotentialforfurthereconomicbenefitsalsoexistsinAfrica,and
thisisfurtherexploredinSection3.2.
Beyondthecasestudygeographies,relevantinsightsshouldbenoted,particularly
relatedtoIndia,whichisthelargestconsumerofpulsesglobally.Indiasoughtto
increasepulseproductionby2milliontonnesbytheendoftheEleventhFiveYear
DevelopmentPlan(2011-12),throughimplementationoftheNationalFoodSecurity
MissionforPulseCrops(NFSM).OnestudyassessingtheimpactoftheNFSM,basedon
interviewswithfarmersovertwodistrictsinthestateofMaharashtra,identified
significanteconomicreturnsatthefarm-levelfromtheprogramme’simproved
technologies(improvedpulseseed,integratednutrientmanagementandintegrated
pestmanagementpractices,resourceconservationtechnologies,andcapacitybuilding
offarmers).Farmersinadistrictparticipatingintheprogrammesawdoublethenet
returnsfrompulsescropcultivationin2008-09overthepreviousyearascomparedto
thenon-NFSMdistrict.Further,theprofitfrompulsesexceedednetprofitmarginsof
allothercropscultivatedinthedistrict,despitethisoccurringinrainfedconditions
(Shah,2011).However,economicgainsfrompulseproductioncouldbefargreaterin
India,andimporttariffs,minimumpricesupports,andgovernmentsupporthaslargely
underservedtheneedsofIndiaproducingenoughpulsestomeetdomesticdemandand
diversifyfarmincomes(RefertoBox1).
20
Box 1: Economic challenges for pulses in India
Indiaisthelargestconsumerofpulses,butgovernmentsubsidiesandpricecontrolsinthe
agriculturalsectorcreateddistortionsthataffecteddomesticproduction.Governmentsubsidies
forfertilizerandwaterpromotedgrainsandoilseedsratherthanthemixofsupportnecessaryto
promotepulses.Protectionistpoliciesinthe1970sand1980swerereversedinthe1990s,when
governmentreformssoughttoremoveimportrestrictionsandlowertariffsonagricultural
products.However,withtheexceptionofBasmatiriceanddurumwheat,externaltradeinall
majorcropswasregulated,andimportsofmostcropsoccurredonlythroughgovernment
agencies.Pulsesweretreateddifferently,withimporttariffsonpulsesreducedgraduallyand
abolishedby1996.Thehopethatdomesticpulsemarketliberalizationwouldincreaseimports
didnotmaterialize.Rather,theshareoftotalpulseimportsintotalmerchandisetradedeclined
aftermarketliberalization(Agbola,2004).
Further,inIndia,minimumsupportpriceshavebeenestablishedasoneofthepolicyinstruments
usedtoimprovetheeconomicviabilityoffarming,stablizecommodityprices,andenhancefood
securitybydiversificationintooilseeds,pulses,livestockandfish.However,minimumsupport
pricesforpulseshavenotdemonstratedthesameresultsasthoseforrice.Pricesforpulses
wereincreasedbetween2008-09,ataratehigherthanthatforfoodgrains,butthatdidnot
translateintolargerareasplantedunderpulses,andthisisattributedtotherisksassociatedwith
pulsecultivation.Incomparison,paddycultivationdoesnotcarrysuchrisks,andfarmersare
assuredofprocurementbygovernmentagencies,whereasthisisnotthecaseforpulses(OECDFAO,2014).
AddingpulsestorotationsineconomicallydeprivedareasinIndiacouldbringmuch
needednourishmentandincometomillionsofpoorsmalllandholderssolelydependent
onagriculturefortheirlivelihoods.About12millionhectaresthatareunderrice
productionduringtherainyseasoninIndiaremainfallowinthesubsequentpost-rainy
(rabi)season.Effortstointroducepulses(primarilychickpea)intheserabiconditions
couldhavesignificanteconomicandpovertyalleviationbenefits(Joshietal,2002).
Yetchallengesremain.Therehasbeenaprogressivedeclineinpercapitaavailabilityof
pulsesinIndia,fallingfrom69gramsin1961to32gramsin2005.Therequirementwas
estimatedtobe21.3milliontonnesby2012.TheEconomicSurvey2012-2013reports
theestimatedproductionofpulsesin2011-2012as17.09milliontonnes,indicatinga
widegapindemandandsupply(Swaminathan,2013).
Investmentsinpulsecropresearchisshowntohavesignificanteconomicbenefit.The
CGIARResearchProgramonGrainLegumes,aglobalalliancecoordinatingeffortsacross
fourCGIARcenters,estimatedin2012thatthenetpresentvalueofgrossbenefitsofits
legumeresearchandextensionisestimatedatUS$4.5billion,equivalenttoUS$535
millionperyear.BasedonproposedactivitiestobeundertakenbythisCGIARprogram,
between2014─2020,legumeresearchwasalsoprojectedtocontributetofoodsecurity
throughincreasedavailabilityoffood(over8milliontons),nutritionsecurityfrommore
21
availabilityofprotein,andenvironmentalbenefitsthroughbiologicalnitrogenfixation(a
fertilizercostsavingofUS$418million).TheCGIARestimatedthatover50%ofthe
projectedeconomicbenefitsoflegumeresearchandextensionwouldaccrueinSouth
andSouth-EastAsiaandSub-SaharanAfrica,wheremostoftheworld’spoorest
communitiesarelocated(CGIAR,2012).
Addingpulsesintolivestockdietsalsohaseconomicbenefit,butappearsdependent
onmarketpricingandlabouruseefficiencies.FindingsinWesternChinaindicatethat
livestockforagesystemintensificationbyincorporatingaforagecropintograincroppingsystemsincreasedaverageprofitswithoutincreasingdownsideriskssuchas
negativeprofit,cropfailure,orlivestockmortality.Foragevetchwastheleguminous
pulsecrop,butforageoatsandgrainsoybeanwerealsoincorporated.Incontrast,
replacingagraincropwithaforagecropingrain-croppingsystemshadanegativeeffect
onprofits,downsiderisk,andlabour-useefficiency.Trade-offsbetweenlabour-use
efficiencyandprofitwereobservedasforageintensificationincreasedlabourdemands,
howevertheseeffectswerecontextspecific(Komareketal,2014).FindingsinWestern
Canada,basedonalifecycleassessmentoftwoswinediets—oneusingsoybeanmealin
awheat-basedfeed,andtheothersubstitutingthesoybeanportionwithdrypea—
indicatesthedrypeadiettobeasubstantialeconomicimprovementoverthesoybean
mealdiet.Therateofreturnonassetsforaswinefarmsubstitutingthesoybean
portionoffeedwithdrypeainswinedietswas4.4%,animprovementof3.6%overthe
0.9%estimatedwhentheswinefarmwasusingthesoybeandiet.Onlywhenhogprices
werelowerandfeedcostsincreasedwerethebenefitsofincorporatingdrypeainthe
dietnotapparent(McWilliametal,2011).
2. Methodology
Thisresearchwasguidedbyaneutralinvestigationapproachtounderstandingthekey
featuresofpulsecropproductionassociatedwiththethreepillarsofsustainability.
Attentionwasgiventosocio-economicdevelopmentandenvironmentalbenefits,across
bothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries,andrangingfromsmallholderfarmstolargescaleagricultureproductionsystems.Abroadliteraturereviewwasconducted,and
interviewsconductedwithpulseresearchersandmembersoftheIYPProductivityand
SustainabilityCommittee.Insightsfromtheliteraturereview,twoin-depthcasestudies
–Saskatchewan,CanadaandpulseproducingregionsofSub-SaharanAfrica—and
interviewsguidedtheformationofthesustainabilityframeworkbytheauthor.
3. Case studies
3.1 Saskatchewan
22
Saskatchewancovers651,900km2andcontains44%ofCanada'scultivatedfarmland.
AccordingtotheSaskatchewanPulseGrowersassociation,theprovinceproducedmore
than95%ofCanada’slentilandchickpeacrop,andnearlytwothirdsofitspeacrop,80%
ofwhichisexported.Canadaistheworld’slargestexporterofpulses,supplying33%of
theworldtradeinpulses,mostlyinsalestoIndia,China,Turkey,Bangladesh,andthe
UnitedStates.Thishasbeenafairlyrecentdevelopmentoverthelasttwentyyears,
withhectaresseededtopulsesincreasing1,000%,from193,000hain1981to2.1
millionhaby2011(refertoFigure1).
3.1.1Context
PulsecropsgrowninSaskatchewanincludechickpeas,drybeans,drypeasandlentils.
TheSaskatchewanPulseGrowers,createdaftergrowersin1983chosetoinstitutea
mandatory,non‑refundable1%levytofundprogramsthatwoulddevelopthepulse
industry,providesresearchandcapacityforgeneticimprovement,agronomy,health
andnutrition,andprocessingandutilization.Thelevyisappliedtogrosssalesatthefirst
pointofsaleordistribution.TheSaskatchewanPulseGrowersallocatesabout60%ofits
annualbudgetintoresearchanddevelopment,benefitting15,000Saskatchewanpulse
growers.In2014/2015,thelevy
contributed97%oftheCD$10.1
Figure 2: Hectares seeded with pulses by
milliontheorganizationinvested variety in Canada (1981 to 2011)
inresearchanddevelopment,
andanother$2.8millionin
marketpromotion,mostof
whichwasfocusedondomestic
lentilmarkets(Saskatchewan
PulseGrowers,2015).
Forthe2015-16cropyear,
acrossCanada,productionof
pulsesandspecialtycropsis
estimatedat6.3Mt,5%lower
Source:Bekkering,2014,basedonStatisticsCanada,Censusof
than2014,asloweraverage
Agriculture,1981to2011
yieldsmorethanoffsetthe
higherareaseeded.Drypeaproductiondecreasedinthe2015-16periodby16%,to3.2
Mtduetoloweryieldsandlowerharvestedarea,particularlyinSaskatchewan.Yellow
andgreenpeatypesareexpectedtoaccountforabout2.5Mtand0.7Mt,withthe
remainderbeingothervarieties.Supplyhasdecreasedbyonly12%,to3.7Mt,dueto
largecarry-instocks.Exportsareforecastat2.95Mt,withIndia,BangladeshandChina
remainingCanada'stopthreemarketsfordrypea.Yieldsperhectarehavedecreased
overlastthreegrowingseasons.Incontrast,lentilproductionincreasedby19%to
nearly2.4Mt,asloweryieldspartlyoffsetrecordharvestedareaandlower
abandonment;thelargestgainsweremadeinredlentilproduction.Pricesareatrecord
levels,andIndia,TurkeyandEgyptarethetopexportmarketsforlentil.Productionof
23
drybeansfellby10%acrossCanada,thoughtheUSandtheEU-27willremainthemain
exportmarkets.Thoughchickpeaproductionfellby31%to90kilotonnes,duetolower
areaandyieldestimates,carry-instockshelpoffsetthesupplydecrease,andexports
areexpectedtoincrease,withtheUSandPakistanbeingthelargestbuyers(Agriculture
andAgri-FoodCanada,2015).
3.1.2Environmental
Cereal-fallowrotationshavebeenthepredominantcroppingsysteminthesemiarid
CanadianPrairies,howeverpatternsofmonoculturecerealcroppingresultedinpest
anddiseaseoutbreaksanderosion,whichspurredfarmerstoseekalternatecropsto
includeinrotation.Fallowinghasresultedinincreasedsoilsalinityandlossofsoil
nitrogenandwater.Pulsecropswereintroducedtoreplacesummerfallowinthepast
fewdecades.Conventionaltillagehasledtoincreasedsoilerosion,despitethebenefit
ofincorporatingcropresiduesintothesoil.Theintroductionofpulsesintothe
Saskatchewangraincroprotationswasfoundtohaveanumberofenvironmental
benefitsbeyonderosioncontrol.Pulsesaremoredroughttolerantandefficientin
waterusethanmostgraincrops,andthereforecouldwithstandsummercroppinginthe
drierBrownandDarkBrownsoilzones(Cutforthetal,2009).Farmerssoughtmore
diversifiedandintensivecroppingsystems,increasinglyabandoningthepracticeof
summerfallow,andpreferringtocropthroughfourseasons.Thus,pulsecropswere
addedintopredominantlycerealandoilseedrotations,andmostoftenreplaceacereal
crop,suchaswheat,ratherthanreplaceanoilseedcrop,suchascanola.No-tillseeding
practiceseliminatestheneedtoplowbyplacingseeddirectlyintoundisturbedstubble
orsod.
Thegreatestenvironmentalbenefitofaddingpulsecropsintocereal-fallowrotations
wastheirnitrogenfixationcapability,whichreducedfertilizernitrogenrequirementsin
thecurrentandsucceedingcrop,andcapacityofthesoiltosupplynitrogen.This
overcamealimitationinconservationtillagesystemswhereminimalsoildisturbance
slowedcyclingorreleaseofnitrogenfromcropresidues(Brandt,2010).
Achallengeinshiftingfromconventionaltillagetoconservationtillagepracticesisin
managingweeds.Thepriceandabundanceofherbicidessuchasglyphosatehada
majorroletoplayinfarmeradoptionofconservationtillageinAustralian,Latin
AmericanandNorthAmericanregionsthathaveexperienceddramaticchangesin
farmeruptakeofconservationtillagepractices.FarmersinSaskatchewanfacedweed
controlchallengesfromdiversifiedrotationsastheherbicidetreatmentsforpulseand
oilseedcropsweregenerallylesseffectivethanforcereals.Overtime,farmers
improvedtheirherbicideandmanagementpractices,leadingtoreducedratesinuse,
andasignificantreductioninrepeatapplications(Brandt,2010).
24
Pulsecroppinginrotationwithcerealswithouteffectivetillageandcropresidue
managementpresentserosionproblems,particularlyontheBrownandDarkBrown
soilsofSaskatchewan,inareaswherestrongwindsarecommon.Erosionhasbeen
foundtoincreaseduringproductionoffieldpea,lentil,andchickpeaintheseareas,as
theyoftenproducelesscropresiduethancerealcrops,andthecropresidueismore
easilydisintegratedbytillagethancerealresidue.Farmersareadvisedtominimize
pulsecroppingonhighlyerodiblesoils;minimizeoreliminatetillage,particularlyinthe
fall,whilealsoapplyinglow-disturbancedirectseedingwhenpossible;maximize
carryoverofcropresiduefromoneyeartothenext;slowtractorspeeds;andavoid
harvestingpulsestrawforfeedonlandpronetoerosion(McConkeyandPanchuk,
2000).
BasedonfarmersurveysacrossCanada,theproportionoffarmswithpulsesreporting
no-tillseedingpracticesincreasedfrom6.7%usingno-tilland24.4%usingconservation
tillagein1991to56.4%usingno-tilland24.6%usingconservationtillagein2011.
Conventionaltillagehasdroppedinusefrom69%in1991to19%by2011,across
Canada(StatisticsCanada,2011).Thiscoincidedwiththeincreaseinpulseproduction
overthesametimeperiod.
Alifecycleandsocio-economicanalysisofpulsecropproductionandpulsegrainusein
WesternCanadaprovidesimportantinsights.Thegoaloftheresearchwasto
determinethedifferenceinenvironmentalandsocio-economiceffectsofincluding
pulsecropsinrotationaswellasusingpulsecropsforhumanconsumption(system#1
inBox2below),andasswinefeed(systems#2inBox3below).Environmentalbenefits
werefoundtobestrong,primarilyduetothenitrogenfixationabilitiesofpulsecrops,
thereductioninnitrogenrequirementsofacerealcropsucceedingapulsecrop,andthe
increaseinquantityandnutritivequality(proteincontent)ofacerealcropfollowinga
pulsecrop.Evenwhenconsideringthepracticeofapplyingpesticidestothecrops,this
didnotgeneratesufficientdifferencesinenvironmentaleffectstodiscounttheoverall
positiveenvironmentalresults(McWilliametal,2011).
Greenhousegasemissionreduction
Thegreenhousegasemissionreductionbenefitsofaddingpulsesintorotationswith
grainisattributedtoarangeofinterventions,notjusttheaddednitrogenfixation
capacityofpulses.Researchwasconductedonawheatrotationsystem,utilizingthe25year(1985–2009)fieldstudyconductedinSwiftCurrent,Saskatchewanbythe
AgricultureandAgri-FoodCanadaResearchCentre.Findingsindicatethatanimproved
farmingsystem,basedonfertilizingcropsbasedonsoiltests,reducingsummerfallow
frequenciesandrotatingcerealswithpulses(lentil,inthiscase)lowersthewheat
carbonfootprintconsiderably(anaverageof256kgCO2eqha-1peryear).Amongthe
fourcroppingsystemstested,whichincludedfallow-flax-wheat,fallow-wheat-wheat,
continuouswheat,andlentil-wheat,thelentil-wheatsystemclearlyoutperformedthe
others.Thiswasduetothelowerratesofnitrogenfertilizerrequiredbythewheatcrop
25
Box 2: Summary of system 1- Life Cycle and Socio-Economic
Analysis of Pulse Crop Production and Pulse Grain Use in Western
Canada
System#1.Pulseincroprotations:
Oilseed/cerealrotation:canola,wheataftercanola,wheat
Lentilrotation:canola,wheataftercanola,lentil,wheat
Drypearotation:canola,wheataftercanola,drypea,wheat
Keyfindingsinthelentilanddrypearotationsmodeled,comparedtotheoilseed-cereal
rotations:
HumanHealth:Reductionsinhumanhealthimpactsarenotedrelatedtoreduced
carcinogens,non-carcinogens,respiratoryinorganics,ionizingradiation,ozonelayer
depletionandrespiratoryorganics.Humanhealtheffectsarerelatedtotheamountsof
inputsrequiredforproduction,hencedecreasedinputsequatestolessuseoffertilizers,
fewerfieldoperationssuchasharvestingequipment,andlesstoxicemissionsreleasedto
theair.
Ecosystemquality:Reductionsineffectsonthequalityoftheecosystemsuchasaquatic
ecotoxicity,terrestrialecotoxicity,terrestrialacidification/nutrification,landoccupation,
aquaticacidificationandaquaticeutrophicationduetofertilizeruseandmechanized
harvestingwerenoted,basedonreductionsintheamountofappliedchemicalsand
fertilizers,whilewheatyieldsincreased.
GHGemissions:ReductionsofGHGemissionsby25%inthedrypearotationand22%inthe
lentilrotationarenoted,whilenon-renewableenergywasdecreased25%inthedrypea
rotationand21%inthelentilrotation.GHGemissionreductionsareattributedto
inthislentil-wheatrotation,andtheincreasednitrogenavailability,whichenhanced
plantbiomassaccumulation.Resultsindicatethatspringwheatgrownusingthissuite
ofimprovedfarmingpracticescanattainanetcarbonbalanceregardlessofwater
availability(Ganetal,2014).
Researchshowsthatcroprotationscontainingapulsecrophaveloweroverall
greenhousegasemissionsthanthosethatdonotincludeapulsecrop.Thisisbecause
upto70%ofthenon-renewableenergyusedinWesternCanadiancroppingsystemsis
duetotheuseoffertilizers,particularlynitrogen.Pulsessupplytheirownnitrogen,
reducingtheneedforaddednitrogenfertilizer.Researchonnitrousoxideemissions
specificallyislimited,butshowsthatemissionstendtobelowerforpulsecrops
comparedtofertilizedcerealcrops.Indicationsarethatthemoreoftenapulsecropis
growninrotation,themoregreenhousegasemissionsarereduced.One17-yearstudy
atSwiftCurrent,Saskatchewan,indicatesareductioninGHGemissionsof31%annually
whenlentilswereincludedinrotationwithspringwheat.AsimilarstudyatIndianHead,
Saskatchewanshowedan18%reductioninyearlyGHGemissionswhenpeaswere
includedinrotationwithspringwheat,winterwheat,andflax.Thesitewiththe
26
greatestmagnitudedifferenceincludedapulsecroponceeverytwoyears,whereasat
theotherlocationsapulsecropwasincludedonlyonceeveryfouryears(Lemkeetal,
2007).AsimilarstudyatIndianHead,Saskatchewanshowedan18%reductioninyearly
greenhousegasemissionswhenpeaswereincludedinrotationwithspringwheat,
winterwheat,andflax(Lemkeetal,2007).
Usingacarbonfootprintmethodofanalysis,areviewofavailableliteraturefoundthat
durumwheatprecededbyanitrogen-fixingpulsecropemittedtotalgreenhousegases
of673kgCO2eq,whichis24%lowerthanifthecropwasprecededbyacerealcrop.In
thissameanalysis,itwasdeterminedthatcanolaandwheathadsignificantlygreater
carbonfootprintthanpulsecrops(suchaschickpea,drypea,lentil)(Ganetal,2011).
Incontrolledcircumstances,biologicalnitrogenfixationbylentilandpeawas
determinednottobeadirectsourceofnitrogenemissions(Zhongetal,2009).
Alifecycleanalysisfoundthatbyreducingtherequirementforsyntheticnitrogen
fertilizers,pulsecropsinherentlyreducetheemissionsandenergyuseassociatedwith
theproduction,useanddisposaloffertilizers(McWilliametal,2011).
Box 3: Summary of system 2- Life Cycle and Socio-Economic Analysis
of Pulse Crop Production and Pulse Grain Use in Western Canada
System#2.PulsesforSwineFeed:Replacingtheimported(fromtheUS)soybeanmealinswine
feedwithdrypea
Starterswinedietsexaminedinthestudyhada15%rateofdrypeainclusion,whereasthemore
maturegrowerandfinisherswinedietscontained42.5%and30%inclusionratesofdrypeainthe
feedmix.Feedproductionaccountedforthemajorityoftheenvironmentaleffectsassociatedwith
swineproductioninallimpactcategories(50-100%).However,themajorityoftheGHGemissions
fromswineproductionwereassociatedwithanimalhusbandry(53-55%),notfeed.Additional
environmentalbenefitswouldoccurifwheatgrownafterapulsecropwasincludedintheswine
diets.
Humanhealth:Findingsindicatethatreplacingsoybeanmealwithdrypearesultedinamarked
decrease(-30%)inlifecyclerespiratoryorganics,althoughotherimpactcategorieswere
comparable.
Ecosystemquality:Findingsindicatecomparableeffectsonecosystemqualityinthecategoriesof
aquaticecotoxicity,terrestrialecotoxicityandlandoccupation.However,thesoybeanmealdiet
hadgreaterterrestrialacidification/nutrification(17%),aquaticacidification(13%)impacts,
whilethedrypeadiethadgreateraquaticeutrophication(63%)impacts.Decreasedfertilizer
requirementsinthedrypeadietresultedinaquaticandterrestrialacidification.
GHGemissions:ThetwoproductionsystemshadsimilarGHGemissions.Thedrypeadiet
decreasednon-renewableenergyuseby11%,basedlargelyonthereductionofwheatinthe
diet.
Source:MacWilliametal,2011.
27
3.1.3Social
ThesocialbenefitsofpulseproductioninSaskatchewanarenotwelldocumented,
howeveranecdotalevidencesuggeststheshifttono-till,reductioninsummerfallow,
andintroductionofnewcropssuchascanolainthe1970sandmorerecentlypulses,has
providedthemeanstokeepfarmersonthefarm,andkeepruralcommunities
relativelyintact.Atitspeakin1936,Saskatchewanhad142,000farms,by2011that
numberhaddroppedtojustover37,000(Bitner,2010;StatisticsCanada,2011).Farm
sizehasincreasedovertheyears,andSaskatchewanhasthelargestaveragefarmsizein
Canada,at1,668acres(675ha),andfarmsizesareincreasingatahigherratethanin
otherregionsofCanada.Theaverageageoffarmoperatorsintheprovinceis54.2,
whichisfairlyconsistentwiththenationalaverage.However,theruralpopulationis
decreasing,downto33%ofthepopulation,comparedto50%in1966and84%in1901
(StatisticsCanada,2011).Anecdotalevidencefrominterviewssuggeststhatmany
Saskatchewanfarmersgrowingcereal-fallowandcereal-canolawouldhavegone
bankruptwithoutdiversifyingintolentilsandotherpulseproducts.Chickpeawas
pursuedasapulsediversificationcrop,buttheascochytablightandlonggrowing
seasonrequirementshavediminishedplantingsofthispulse.Thenextsectionprovides
moreinsightintotheeconomicbenefits,asrecenteconomicreturnsfrompulse
productionshowsignificantbenefitstofarmersandtheprovincialeconomy,andthis
hasripplesocialeffectswithinruralcommunities.
Thehealthaspectsofincludingpulsesindietsisanimportantindicatorofthesocial
benefitsofpulses,althoughNorthAmericanandCanadianconsumptionofpulses
appearstobefarbelowtheoptimallevel.Theroleofpulsesandlegumesindietary
patternsofpeoplewithdiabetescanbeimportanttoregulatebloodsugarlevelsand
moderatesymptoms.TheCanadianDiabetesAssociationClinicalPracticeGuidelines
recommendthatalow-fatvegandiet(whichwouldincludepulseandlegumes)
improvesglycemiaandplasmalipidsmorethantheconventionaldiets.Research
testingdiabetespatientresponsetoacalorie-restrictedvegetariandietversusa
conventionaldietdemonstratedasignificantdecreaseindiabetesmedicationuseinthe
vegetariancomparedtothoseonaconventionaldiet(a38%difference).Similarly,a
“Mediterraneandiet”whichispredominantlyaplant-baseddiet(includingfruits,
vegetables,legumes,nuts,seeds,cereals,wholegrains,amoderate-to-high
consumptionofoliveoil,andlowconsumptionoffishandmeat)isconfirmedto
improveglycemiccontrolandcardiovascularriskfactors,includingsystolicblood
pressure.ThemetabolicadvantagesofaMediterraneandietimproveprimary
preventionofcardiovasculardiseaseinpeoplewithtype2diabetes(Dworatzeketal,
2013).TheSaskatchewanPulseGrowersandPulseCanadaaresupportingresearchon
theglycemicresponseofpulseflourandfractioningredients,inordertobetter
understandhealthbenefitsandinformfuturedevelopmentofpulseingredientsand
foodproductmatrices(SaskatchewanPulseGrowers,2015).
28
3.1.4Economic
GrainproducersinSaskatchewanexperiencedaconvergenceoffactorsthatcontributed
totheuptakeofpulseproduction.Theenvironmentalaspectssuchasreducederosion
andnitrogenfixationbenefitstothecurrentandsubsequentcrops,andsocialreasons
suchastheabilityoffarmerstostayintheagriculturesector,aredescribedabove.But
theeconomicreasonsfordiversifyingintopulsecropsweresignificant.Oneinfluence
wasCanada’scommitmentin1994tocutgrainexportsubsidiesby21%involumeand
by36%indollartermsoveraperiodofyearsaspartofitsagreementtotheGlobal
AgreementinTradeandTariffs,andalsothe15%cutinsubsidiestograinunderthe
WesternGrainTransportationAct(DakersandFréchette,2001).Thishadadirecteffect
ongrainpricesandexportmarketdynamics.Anotherfactorwasthattheeconomic
benefitsofaddingpulsesincroppingsystemsinSaskatchewanwererecognizedover
time,asfarmersincreasinglyeliminatedsummerfallowperiods.
Along-termcroprotationexperiment,firstestablishedin1967onBrownsoilsinSwift
Current,Saskatchewan,andrunninguptothe2002season,evaluatedtheeconomic
performanceofconventionaltillagemanagementpracticesinthissemiaridregion.
Researchinvestigatedthemostoptimalcroppingfrequency,valueofapplyingnitrogen
andphosphorousfertilizeratsoiltestrates,andtheadvantageofreplacing
monoculturewheatwithpulseoroilseedcropsgrowninmixedrotations.Findings
indicatedthatunderthemorefavorablegrowingconditionsbetween1985–2002(as
comparedtothepreviousstudycoveringthe1967–1984period),areaproducerscould
maximizeeconomicreturnsbychoosingawheat-lentil(withnitrogenandphosphorous
application)rotation,andeliminatingsummerfallowfromthecroppingsystem.Net
returnsfromthenextoptimummixesoffallow-wheatandcontinuouswheatrotations
were44%lessthanforthewheat-lentilrotation.Researchersfoundthatonlyif
producerswerehighlyriskaverse,didnotsubscribetoall-riskcropinsurance,orifthe
priceforwheatwashighorpriceforlentillow,wouldthemonocroppedwheatsystems
bepreferredtowheat-lentil(Zentneretal,2007).Similarly,evidencefromareviewof
empiricalstudiespriorto2002suggestedthatincludingoilseedandpulsecropsin
rotationswithcerealgrainscontributedtohigherandmorestablenetfarmincome,in
spiteofhigherinputcosts,acrossmostsoiltypes(Zentneretal,2002).
Recenteconomicreturnsfrompulseproductionshowsignificantbenefitstofarmers
andtheprovincialeconomy.Saskatchewan’sagri-foodexportsalesin2014were
CD$13.9billion,CD$2.7billionofwhichwerelentilsandpeas.Whilethevolumeof
lentilexportshasincreased67%between2009and2014,thevalueofthoseexports
increased37%.Peaexportsshowadifferenttrendoverthesameperiod,withthe
volumeofpeaexportsincreasing19%,whilethevalueoverthesametimeperiod
increased56%(Saskatchewan,2015).
Thecroptypesthatareputinrotationcanbeastrongdeterminantoneconomic
returns.McWilliametalreferenceonestudyintheBlacksoilzone,thenetreturnfor
29
drypeaafterbarleywas39%lowerthanthatforwheatafterdrypea.Whereasin
anotherstudy,alegume-basedrotationofwinterwheatandvetchwasfoundto
producea16%higherreturnoveracontinuouswinterbarleyrotation.However,
McWilliametalcautionagainstsuchresults,particularlyforthenetreturns,asthe
marketpricehasmoresignificanteffectthancosts,intermsofnetreturns,andmarket
pricingcanbequitevariable.McWilliametalnotethatmanystudiesonincludingdry
peaorlentilinagrainorgrain-oilseedrotationsobservethecostsofproduction
increasing,butthatincreasedcostsareoffsetbyincreasedreturns,leadingtohighernet
returnstoproducers(McWilliametal,2011).Cropdiversityisahedgeagainstfickle
marketsandchangesinprice.Farmersurveysin2011indicatethatfarmsgrowing
pulsesproducealargervarietyofcropsthanfarmsnotgrowingpulses.Twenty-six
percentofallpulse-producingfarmsreportfourfieldcroptypes,andoneintenfarms
growingpulsesgrowsevenormorefieldcroptypes,indicatingsignificanton-farm
diversity(Bekkering,2012).
Anotheraspecttodiversificationincroptypesandpricingthatislikelysignificant:
diversifyingthecroppingmixwithcropsthatdonothavecorrelatedpriceshelps
spreadmarketrisk.Lentilhasthelowestcorrelationeffectsofcropscommonlyputin
rotationinSaskatchewan.Byincludinglentilinrotationwithothercrops(refertothe
valuesinTable1below)farmlevelrisksarereduced,asthepricesofthesecommodities
arenotasstronglycorrelatedasgrainssuchaswheatandbarley.Drypeaalsohaslower
correlationeffects,butnottothesamedegreeaslentil,andthereforemaynotofferthe
sameriskreductionaslentil(McWilliametal,2011).
Lentilsinrotationaddconsiderablevaluetoeconomicreturnsincroppingsystems
overmultipleyears.TheSaskatchewanCropPlannerisavailabletofarmerstohelp
estimatethepotentialincomeandcostsofproductionfordifferentcropsinthevarious
soilzonesintheprovince.ThePlannerfactorsincropprices,yields,inputssuchas
fertilizer,othervariableandfixedcostssuchasmachineryandlabourcosts,land
investmentcosts,andcropinsurancepremiums.Estimatesfromthe2015
SaskatchewanCropPlannerindicatethatlentilsmakeanimportantrelativecontribution
tothefinancialreturnsofrotationsindifferentsoiltypesfoundintheProvince(referto
Table1).Intheblacksoilzone,returnsovervariableexpensesfromlentilare38%of
totalreturnsfrombothrotationsover4years.TheBrownsoilzoneshowshighest
returns,withreturnsovervariableexpensesfromlentilexceeding60%oftotalreturns
frombothrotationsover4years.Returnsfromlentilovertotalrotationexpensesona
peracrebasisarealmostCD$100,comparedtodeficitsformostwheat,barley,oatand
corncrops,andmarginallybetterreturnsforredlentil,edibleyellow,ediblegreenpeas,
soybeanandcanola(Saskatchewan,2015).Theserangesarelargelycorroboratedby
thefindingsofMcWilliamsetal,whichappliedapartialequilibriumsimulationmodel
basedon2006pricestoassesstheeconomicdesirabilityofpulsecropsinrotations.
Findingsindicatethatdrypeaandlentilrotationsarebettereconomicchoicesthanthe
oilseed-cerealrotation.Includingpulsesinrotationisfoundtobepositiveexceptwhen
pulsepricesarelowandgrainandoilseedpricesarehigh(McWilliamsetal,2011).
30
Averagetotalexpensesforpulsecropsareroughlythesameasotherstubblecrops,
withvariablecostsforpulsecropsbeingCD$180/acre,comparedtoCD$185/acreforall
othercropsconsidered(tencropsincluded,rangingfromwheat,barley,oats,corn,
soybean,flaxandcanola).Otherexpenses,includingmachinery,buildings,landare
similarlycomparable,withpulsecrops(includinglargegreenlentil,redlentil,edible
yellow,ediblegreenpeas)costingCD$115/acrecomparedtoCD$116/acrefortheten
othermajorcrops.Whenaddinglabourandmanagementintoproductioncosts,pulses
areslightlymoreeconomical,bringingtotalcoststoanaverageofCD$296/acrefor
pulsecrops,comparedtoanaverageof$302/acreforothercrops(Saskatchewan,
2015).
Areviewofempiricalstudiesfoundconsistentyieldadvantages,lessincomevariability
andresourcesavingsinconservationtillageorno-tillagepracticeswhenincluding
oilseedandpulsecropsintherotationwithcerealgrains,comparedtoconventional
tillage,andthereforetobehighlyprofitableintheBlackandGraysoilzonesofthe
CanadianPrairies,duetosubstitutingherbicidesformoremechanizedtillage.Inthe
BrownsoilzoneandpartsoftheDarkBrownsoilzone,theshort-termeconomic
benefitsofusingconservationtillagepracticesaremoremarginalandlessprofitable
thancomparableconventionaltillagepractices(Zentneretal,2002).
31
Table 1: Economic returns of lentils in rotations, based on different soils in
Saskatchewan
BlackSoilZone
Year
1
Year
2
Rotation 1
Crop
Oats(on
stubble)
Rotation 2
Returnover
TotalExpenses
($/ac)
Returnover
Variable
Expenses($/ac)
-27.60
87.79
3.26
118.65
SpringWheat
(onstubble)
Year
3
LargeGreen
Lentil(on
stubble)
96.35
211.74
Year
4
Canola(on
stubble)
10.15
125.54
Crop
SpringWheat
(onstubble)
Returnover
TotalExpenses
($/ac)
Returnover
Variable
Expenses($/ac)
3.26
118.65
96.35
211.74
-14.96
100.43
10.15
125.54
LargeGreen
Lentil(on
stubble)
CPSWheat
(onstubble)
Canola(on
stubble)
DarkBrownSoilZone
Year
1
Year
2
Rotation 1
Rotation 2
Returnover
Returnover
TotalExpenses
Variable
Crop
($/ac)
Expenses($/ac)
Chemfallow
SpringWheat
(onfallow)
-67.96
104.03
Year
3
LargeGreen
Lentil(on
stubble)
199.12
306.28
Year
4
Durum(on
stubble)
-6.02
101.14
Crop
SpringWheat
(onstubble)
Returnover
TotalExpenses
($/ac)
Returnover
Variable
Expenses($/ac)
0.67
107.83
199.12
306.28
-6.02
101.14
18.43
125.59
LargeGreen
Lentil(on
stubble)
Durum(on
stubble)
Canola(on
stubble)
BrownSoilZone
Year
1
Year
2
Rotation 1
Crop
Chemfallow
Rotation 2
Returnover
TotalExpenses
($/ac)
Returnover
Variable
Expenses($/ac)
-63.65
83.21
SpringWheat
(onfallow)
Year
3
LargeGreen
Lentil(on
stubble)
184.33
277.13
Year
4
Durum
(onstubble)
-19.18
73.62
Crop
SpringWheat
(onstubble)
Returnover
TotalExpenses
($/ac)
Returnover
Variable
Expenses($/ac)
-31.87
60.93
184.33
277.13
-19.18
73.62
-25.42
67.38
LargeGreen
Lentil(on
stubble)
Durum
(onstubble)
Canola
(onstubble)
32
Source:CropPlanningGuide,SaskatchewanMinistryofAgriculture,2015.
3.2 Sub-Saharan Africa
3.2.1Context
Fooddemandisexpectedto
Figure 3: Projected global food demand
increasedramaticallyinSubSaharanAfrica.Around40%ofthe
globaltotalpopulationgrowth
between2010and2050willtake
placeinsub-SaharanAfrica,withits
populationprojectedtomorethan
doublefrom814millionpeoplein
2010to1.7billionby2050
(Hilderinketal,2012).The
correspondingfooddemandsby
Source:Hilderink,etal,2012.
thisgrowingpopulationisstriking
(refertofigure2).Yetindications
arethatAfricawillnotproduce
enoughstaplefoodssuchascerealtofeeditspopulation.Thelargesttradedeficits
globallyin2023willoccurinAfricaandAsia,andindicationsarethatAfricanfood
production,particularlyofstaplessuchascereals,willnotkeeppacewithdemand
(OECD/FAO,2014).DemandforpulsesinSub-SaharanAfricaareexpectedtoincrease
from14.6millionMTin2015to22.7millionMTin2030and37.3millionMTby2050,
withthemajoritybeingbeansandcowpeas(Robinson,etal,forthcoming).Thevast
majorityofpulsesaregrowninrainfedareasinSub-SaharanAfrica,with19.5millionha
ofproductionbeinginrainfedconditionsin2015comparedtoonly339,000hairrigated,
andthatratioislargelypredictedtoendureoutto2030and2050(ibid).
3.2.2Environmental
TheenvironmentalbenefitsofpulseproductioninAfricaarenotdocumentedtothe
samedegreeasinSaskatchewan.Mostpulseproductionoccursinrainfedareas(97%of
totalcroplandisrainfed),withlowuseofinputsandrelativelylowyields.InEthiopia,
whilepulsescovered12.4%ofthegraincropareain2014-15,theirrelianceonfertilizers
isalmostnegligible.Onprivatesmallholdings,cerealcropsdemanded89%ofinorganic
fertilizersapplied,whilefarmersonlyappliedroughly4%ofinorganicfertilizerstopulse
crops(Ethiopia,2015b).InGhana,smallholderscultivatingpulsesusebasictechnologies
withoutmechanization,mostlyuserecycledseedandapplyinsufficientfertilizersand
agrochemicals.Inaddition,therearesignificantbioticyield-reducingpestsanddiseases,
especiallyinthecaseofcowpea.NotethatinGhana,allfertilizersusedinthecountry
areimported,mostlybyYaraanddistributedbyWienco.Usehasincreasedbyover
500%since2000,accordingtoGhana’sMinistryofFoodandAgriculture,CropsServices
Directorate(Rusikeetal,2013).
33
Similarly,ineasternDRC,allfertilizers,agrochemicalsandinoculantsareimported.
Seedqualityispoor,despitedecadesofhigher-qualityseedproduction,distributionand
assistancewithfarmerstoimproveuptake,withthecivilwarexertingsignificant
negativeeffect.Farmeraccesstocertifiedseedofimprovedvarietiesremainslowdue
tothelackofformalseedmultiplicationandmarketingsystems.Yieldsofcommonbean
havefluctuatedoverthepastdecadewithnoupwardtrend(Rusikeetal,2013).Inthe
future,improvedmanagementpracticessuchasoptimalcroprotationsusingpulse
crops,couldbeanimportantmeanstopromoteappropriateapplicationandjudicious
useofsyntheticfertilizers,boostsoilfertilityandyieldsofsubsequentcrops.
ThechallengeisforAfricanpulseproductiontonotonlymakehugegainsinrealized
(on-farm)yields,buttoalsoadapttoachangingclimate,withincreasedwaterand
temperaturestress.Improvedaccesstoimprovedseedandagro-chemicalsand
complementaryfarmpracticesareneededtocloseyieldgaps.Governmentpoliciesare
neededtoreduceproductioncosts(e.g.throughsupportforsmall-scalemechanization),
lowerproductionrisk(e.g.cropinsurance)andstabilizemarkets(e.g.commodity
exchanges,pricesupports).TheAfricaAdaptationGapReportfindsthatwarming
projectionsundermediumscenariosindicatethatextensiveareasofAfricawillexceed
2°Cbythelasttwodecadesofthiscenturyrelativetothelate20thcenturymeanannual
temperature.Underahighwarmingscenario(over4°C),thatthresholdwouldbe
crossedbymid-centuryacrossmuchofAfricaandreachbetween3°Cand6°Cbythe
endofthecentury.Inthe2ºCwarmingscenario,allcropyieldsacrosssub-Saharan
Africawilldecreaseby10%bythe2050s,butiftemperaturesexceed3ºC,allpresentdaycroppingareasformaize,milletandsorghumwillbeunsuitableforthosecrops
(UNEP,2015).Itisunclearhowfutureclimatestresswillimpactdiseaseoutbreaks.
Fusariumwilt,afungalsoil-bornediseasethatinfestsallpigeonpeagrowingareasin
eastandsouthernAfrica,requireseitherimprovedseedvarietiesofseedsresistantto
thisdisease,oruseofextendedrotationsorexpensivechemicals(Shiferawetal,2008).
TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChangeestimatesthatthenegativeimpactsof
climatechangeoncropyieldswillbemorecommonthanpositiveones,withchangesin
cropyieldsduetoclimatechange,withthebulkofyieldchangesexceeding5–25%
after2030(IPCC,2014).DroughtmortalityandwaterriskwillbethehighestinAfrica
duetoclimatechangeimpacts,andAfricancountriesareincreasinglyrecognizingthe
needtoaddressagriculturaladaptationpressures,andpromoteclimate-smart
agriculture.InasimulationofhowSub-SaharanAfricanagriculturewouldadjusttoa
5ºCincreaseuptheyear2090,projectionsindicate24%declinesinthemeanaverage
yieldsformaizeanda71%declineinbeanproduction,indicatinghowvulnerableAfrican
agricultureistosignificantchangesinrainfallpatternsandtemperature(Thorntonetal,
2011).Changesinmanagementpracticesandimprovingtheadaptabilityandstrength
ofseedsystemswillbecrucialtobuildresilienceandadaptationinAfricanagricultural
systems.
34
InAfrica,climateandenvironmentbenefitscanderivefrommultipleusesofpulse
crops.InTanzania,pigeonpeabiomasscanbeusedforfeedinglivestockorassourceof
firewood,therebyreducingfirewoodcollectionneedscarriedbywomenandchildren
andreducingdeforestationandlossofbiodiversity(Shiferawetal,2008).
Alteringthetraditionalplantingmethodsofmaizeandbeanscaninfluencethe
nitrogenbalanceincroppingsystems.AstudyinCentralKenyawhichassessedthe
effectofsmallholdersshiftingfromasingleone-by-onerowsystemofalternatingmaize
andlegumes,toamodifiedtwo-by-tworowstaggeredarrangementfoundnitrogen
balanceswerenegativeinthemaize/beanandgroundnutscenarios,butneutralwith
cowpeaastheintercrop,indicatingthenitrogenbenefitsofcowpeaintercropping
(Mucheru-Muna,2010).Interventionsinthedrysavannah’sofNigeriaandNigeralso
foundmodifiedstrip-croppingofcowpeaandsorghum,withtheadditionoflivestockto
boostmanurenutrients,preventedthenutrientlossescausedbytheregion’straditional
farmingsystems,andincreasedfarmerincomes(GatsbyCharitableFoundation,2014).
Asustainabilitychallengeinglobalagriculturalproductionishowtoincreaseefficiency
onexistingagriculturallands,ratherthanextensivepracticeswhichpushproduction
intoforestsandwetlands.InGhana,productionandyieldsofcowpeahaveincreased
withgreaterproportionthanhectaresplanted,indicatingincreasedefficiencyin
production.Thesetrendsarebeingdrivenbythedevelopment,release,availabilityand
adoptionofqualityseedofimprovedvarieties;availabilityofmarketsandincreasing
marketdemandbyurbanconsumers;increasedprices,profitabilityandincentivesfor
farmerstoadoptproductivityenhancingoptions,especiallytogrowandprotecttheir
cropsfrominsectpestattack.TheGhanaGrainsDevelopmentProjecthadconsiderable
impactoverthe1980sand1990s,helpingtoimproveyieldsthroughbettervarieties(19
weredeveloped),agronomic,grainstorageandseedproductiontechnologies,better
seeddistribution,andextensionservices(Rusikeetal,2013).Giventhecurrentlow
ratesoffertilizeruse,climatechangemitigationcanbemaximizedwithsustainable
intensification(e.g.,betterproductivityandreducingdeforestationpressure)and
improvedsoilcondition(e.g.,carbonsequestration).Improvementsinseedsand
agronomicmanagementarefoundationaltocapturingtheseopportunities.
3.2.3Social
ThesocialdimensionsofpulseproductioninAfricaincludesfoodsecurityand
livelihoods,householdbenefits,diversifieddietsandnutrition,andgenderaspects.
Nutritionandfoodsecurity
NutritioniscloselylinkedtoincomeinSub-SaharanAfrica,andinmanyruralareas,a
largeportionoffamilyincomecanbedirectedtowardsfood.Foodsecurity,livelihoods,
householdbenefitsandnutritionareoftenquiteinterlinked.InSub-SaharanAfricathe
35
cowpeaisthemostconsumedpulse,followedbychickpeaandpigeonpea,onaper
capitabasis,butthereareregionalvariations.
Rwandahasthehighestpercapitaconsumptionofcommonbeansintheworld,along
withBurundi,UgandaandEasternDemocraticRepublicofCongo(Rusikeetal,2013).In
Rwanda,beansprovide32%ofcaloricintakeand65%ofproteinintakeintheaverage
diet,whileproteinfromanimalsourcesonlyaccountsfor4%(Asare-Marfoetal,2011).
Rwandansconsumeroughly29kgofbeansperyear,morethandoublethatof
neighboringUganda(SPIA,2014).Otherdataindicatesthat80%ofthepopulation
consumesbeansdaily,makingRwandaoneofthehighestbeanconsumersintheworld
(Bertietal,2011).Resultsfromalarge-scalehouseholdsurvey5in2011indicatesthat
87.9%offarmhouseholdsinRwandacultivatebeansaspartoftheircroppingsystem,
andyetofthe708householdssurveyed,77%reportednotgrowingenoughbeansfor
theirneeds,andoftenranoutafewmonthsafterharvest(ibid).Otherhousehold
surveyresearchindicatesthatastheshareofimprovedbeanseedsplantedincreased,
householddietarydiversityscoresincreased,showingaclearrelationshipbetween
nutritionandimprovedseedadoption(LarochelleandAlwang,2014).
InEthiopia,pulsesareculturallyessentialtothediet,basedonreligiouspracticesof
fasting,whichdependonalternativesourcesofproteinwhenalmosthalfthepopulation
doesnotconsumemeat.Aschickpeahasanaverageof22%protein,theyareamore
sustainablealternativetomeat.Thus,USAID/FeedtheFutureandPepsiCoareworking
withtheUnitedNationsWorldFoodProgramme(WFP)onapilotprograminEthiopiato
improvetheproductionofchickpeasbybuildingthecapacityoflocalfarmers,
establishingdripirrigationsystems,andsupportinglocalmillers,processors,and
packers.CalledEnterpriseEthioPEA,thiseffortsupportstheEthiopiangovernment's
agriculturesectordevelopmentplansandaimstodramaticallyincreasechickpea
productionbyimprovingyields,productionandavailability.WhileEthiopiaisAfrica's
largestproducerofchickpeas,thereremainshighpotentialtoincreaseyieldsand
improvequality.Theprojectintendstoenablenearly10,000Ethiopianfarmerstoseea
two-foldincreaseinchickpeayieldwithimprovedpracticesandirrigation,andto
developalocallysourced,nutrient-rich,ready-to-usesupplementaryfoodtoaddress
malnutrition.TheprojectalsoseekstoscaleupandstrengthentheEthiopianchickpea
supplychain,forbothdomesticandexportmarkets.
InTanzania,nutritionalaspectsofdrylandlegumessuchaspigeonpea,chickpea,and
groundnut,arenotedfortheircontributiontohelpovercomenutritionaldeficiencies
duetodietslackingproteinsandoils,particularlyamongpoorfamiliesunabletoafford
moreexpensiveanimal-basedfoods.Pigeonpeasprovideavitalsourceofproteinfor
poorfamiliesandprovidecashformarginalfarmersinsemi-aridTanzania(Shiferawet
al,2008).
5
708householdsinRwanda’sNorthernandSouthernProvinces,and743womenand674children.
36
InKenya,theshareofsubsistenceproductionandconsumptionrangesfrom60-70%for
beansandcowpeas,ascomparedtoonly20%forcommercialgrainlegumessuchas
soybean.InKenya,cowpeaisimportantforfoodsecuritybothasamajorleafvegetable
(itcontainsmoremineralsandnutrientsthanmostothervegetables)andasagrain,and
issoldinbothformstourbanmarkets.Similarly,inGhana,cowpeaisvaluedforfood
securityandacashcrop,with32%ofcowpeaproducedforsubsistenceproductionand
consumption.Thecowpeadrygrainisadailystapleforthemajorityofthepopulation
andthegreenleavesofcowpeaareeatenasvegetables.Thedriedhaulmsareusedas
livestockfeed.InEasternDRC,commonbeanisthesecondmostimportantstaplefood
aftercassava,and50-80%ofcommonbeanproductioniscultivatedbysmallholders,
usuallyintercroppedwithcassavaandmaize.InRwanda,commonbeanisthefirst
majorcropprioritizedon35%ofplots,andisthemostimportantlegumeforhousehold
consumptionandforearningcashincome.Infact,itisoneofthemostimportantcash
cropsformanyruralhouseholds.InNigeria,56%ofcowpeaproducedissubsistence
productionandconsumption(Rusikeetal,2013).
Foodsecurityanddiversity
Grainlegumesaddedintothedietarefoundtocontributeimportantenergy,proteins,
minerals,andBvitamins.Whenconsumedwithcereals,pulsescontributeproteins,
mineralsandBvitamins,aswellastheessentialaminoacidlysine,whichincreasesthe
qualityofprotein.Whenaddedtorootandfruitstaples,theyraisetheproteincontent.
Whenenergyandproteinarebothdeficient,leguminousoilseedscanplayanimportant
roleinimprovingdiets.Legumeleavesarealsoimportant,astheyprovidesourcesofBcaroteneandvitaminC,aswellasmorefolicacid,calciumandirontoameal(deJager,
2013).
Thediversityintypesofproductionsystemswillinfluenceyieldratesorfarmeradoption
oftechnologies,suchasimprovedvarietiesorrotations.InRwanda,intercropping
reducesproductivity,whereasinUganda,nostatisticallysignificantyieldimpactisseen
withintercropping.InUganda,beansarefrequentlygrownwithbananas,whereasin
Rwanda,beansaremorelikelytobeintercroppedwithcropssuchasmaize,tomatoes,
eggplants,andpeas(Larochelleetal,2014).
Despitethevariationinwhetherfarmersfullyadoptedoronlypartiallyadopted
improvedbeanvarieties,roughly22%ofRwandanhouseholdswouldbefoodinsecure
intheabsenceofimprovedbeanscomparedtoonly13%afteradoptingimproved
varieties(LarochelleandAlwang,2014).Theresearchfindingsindicatethattheimpact
ofimprovedseedvarietiesonfoodsecurityarebelievedbemorepronouncedthan
thoseonbeanfarmincome.Thisisbecauseadoptionofimprovedvarietiesinfluences
foodconsumptioninotherwaysthanjustthroughfarmprofitability.Authorsnotethat,
frequently,improvedvarietieshaveshorterproductioncycles,whichcanfreeuplabour
andallowhouseholdmemberstobeengagedinadditionalincome-generatingactivities.
37
Further,higherproductivitycanalsoallowhouseholdstofocusonothercrops,
increasingdiversityinagriculturalproductionfoodconsumption(ibid).
Researchapplyingeconometricapproachestoestimateprofitabilityatthehousehold
levelandatthemarketlevel,accountingforthedifferencefromthecounterfactual,was
usedtoestimatetheimpactofimprovedbeanvarietiesreleasedsince1998onfood
securityinRwandaandUganda.Researchfindingsarethatfoodinsecuritywouldhave
been16%higherinRwandawithouttheintroductionofimprovedbeanvarieties.Food
insecuritywouldhavebeenanegligible2%higherinUganda(Larochelleetal,2014).
Improvementsinbeanvarietiesonbothcountrieshaveoccurredthroughgenetic
enhancementsorseedselectionprocesses.TheInternationalCenterforTropical
Agriculture(CIAT),ResearchAgricultureBureau(RAB)inRwandaandUgandaNational
AgriculturalResearchOrganization(NARO)haveworkedtocreate46improvedvarieties
inRwandaandasignificantnumberinUganda.InRwanda,CIAT-improvedvarieties
accountedfor15%oftheareaplantedtobeansby2003(LarochelleandAlwang,2014).
Povertywouldhavebeenabout0.4%and0.1%higherinRwandaandUganda
respectively,intheabsenceofvarietalimprovementstothisvitalsubsistencecrop
(SPIA,2014).InUganda,theadoptionofimprovedbeanvarietiesbytheNational
AgriculturalResearchOrganization(NARO)andpartnersovertenyearswasfoundtobe
lessthan15%ofhouseholds,primarilyduetolimitedaccesstoseedofimproved
varieties(Kalyebara,2005).Incontrast,Kenyahasseenmuchhigherratesoffarmer
adoptionofimprovedseed,with80-90%ofthefarmersgrowingcommonbeaninKenya
usingimprovedvarietiesdevelopedundertheGrainLegumeProjectimplementedinthe
1980s(Rusikeetal,2013).
Bio-fortifiedseedandfoodsecurity
Bio-fortifiedseedhasbeenlargelypromotedinRwandatoimprovenutritionandyields.
Bio-fortificationinvolveseitherbreedingcropstoincreasetheirnutritionalvalue,which
caninvolvegeneticengineering,orthroughconventionalselectivebreeding.ThebiofortifiedbeanseedsdevelopedinRwandaarenon-GMOproducts,asthevarietieswere
selectedfromnaturalvariationinthebeancollections.
Asaresultoffoodinsecurity,householdsarealsovulnerabletomalnutrition,resulting
inRwanda’sveryhighrate(43%)ofstuntingamongchildrenundertheageoffive.A
cornerstoneofRwanda’sAgricultureSectorStrategicPlan(PSTAIII)isinterventionsto
improvenutritionandhouseholdvulnerability,andoneofthesixstrategicprioritiesisa
programmetosupportbio-fortifiedfood,focusingonbeansfortifiediniron,vitaminA
richmaize,orangesweetpotato,andfortifiedcassavaandrice.Theproductionand
consumptionofbio-fortifiedseedsistobeexpanded(Rwanda,2013).ThePSTAIIIseeks
toincreaseproductionofbeansfrom452,828MTin2013to749,381MTby2017-2018.
ThePSTAIIIalsoidentifiestheneedtomaintainaNationalStrategicFoodReserve,
prioritizingmaizeandbean.
38
FivedistrictsofRwanda’sSouthernProvincethatwerestruckwithcassavabrownstreak
wereprioritizedbythegovernmentforinterventionsbyHarvestPlusandpartnersto
deliver165,000metrictonesofqualityseedof‘highiron’beanvarietiestothese
farmers.By2014,about800,000ofRwanda’stwomillionbeanfarmerswereusingiron
enrichedbiofortifiedbeanvarieties,whichalsohavehigheryieldsthanlocalvarieties
(HarvestPlus,2014).RwandanAfro-popstarsreleasedasonginlate2014,withsupport
fromHarvestPlus,toextolthevirtuesofplantingandeatingiron-fortifiedbeans,for
nutritionalhealth(See:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fo6449Rd3I0).
Gender
Genderaspectsofpulseproductionrelatesprimarilytowomen’sinvolvementinpulse
productioncommercially,tofeedfamilies,andtobenefitfromincomederivedfrom
pulsesales.InKenya,cowpeaisgrownprimarilybywomen.Whilewomendonottake
partinthevaluechainbeyondproductioninKenyaandRwanda,inGhanacowpeasare
cultivatedbybothmenandwomen,butdominatedbywomeninpost-harvest
processingandmarketing.Commonbeanisgrownbymostfarmersthroughout
Rwanda,althoughtraditionallycommonbeaniscultivatedbywomen.InNigeria,
cowpeaiscultivatedbywomenandmen,andgenderequityforwomenismore
apparentwhenwomencanmakedecisionsonquantitiessoldandthoseretainedfor
householdconsumption(Rusikeetal,2013).Agenderframeworkdevelopedforpulse
growingdistrictsofEthiopiaindicatesfivegender-relatedpillarsforimprovingpulse
productivity/managementandnutrition,includingknowledge,skillsandtraining
acquisition,participationinproductionanddecision-making,accesstoandcontrolover
resources,andpolicydevelopment.Researchersidentifiedtheimportanceof
consideringgenderdifferencesinaccesstoland,technologiesandotherstrategic
resourcesinpulsecropproductivity/managementandrelatedinterventions(Henryet
al,2016).
3.2.4Economic
AgricultureistheeconomicmainstayofSub-Saharancountries,employingabout60%of
theworkforceandprovidinganaverageof30%oftheregion’sgrossdomesticproduct.
Economicbenefitsofaddingpulsesintorotation
Theeconomicimpactsofincludingpulsesinrotationsareinfluencedbyavarietyof
factors,includingfarmerperceptionandknowledge.InUganda,theeconomicbenefits
ofproducingpulsesisfoundtobeovershadowedbyfarmerperceptionsofmarketability
ofcertainproducts,unfamiliaritywithpulses,concernoverhighlabourcoststoproduce
pulses,orotherreasons.FindingsfromEasternUgandaindicatethatdespitepigeonpea
andmucuna(VelvetBean)beingprofitablewhengrowningoodsoilsandgroundnut
havingthepooresteconomicperformanceofcropsgrowninrotationwithmillet,farmer
evaluationsindicatedastrongerpreferenceforgrowinggroundnut,whiletherewas
39
disinterestingrowingpigeonpeaandmucuna.Thisisthoughttobeduetounfamiliarity
ofpigeonpeaasafoodormarketcropandconcernsoverhigherlabourcostsingrowing
mucuna,whichisoftengrownasagreenmanure/covercrop(Ebanyatetal,2010).In
CentralKenya,theimportanceofimprovedmethodsofintercroppinghadsignificant
effectsoneconomicperformanceofbothgrainandlegumecrops.Onestudyover
sevengrowingseasonsinCentralKenyawithsmallholdersassessedtheeffectofshifting
fromasingleone-by-onerows,alternatingmaizeandlegumes,toamodifiedtwo-bytworowstaggeredarrangement.Legumeproductionwasalreadyoccurringinthis
system,sofarmerswerealreadyfamiliarwiththecrops.Thismodifiedintercropping
arrangementdidnotincreasetheamountoflegumeplanted,butdidshiftthe
intercroppingpatternswithmaize,commonbeans,cowpeaandgroundnut.Findings
werethatsmallholdersproducingmaizewereabletoincreasenetprofitabilityby40%
onfertilesoilsbyapplyingthemodifiedstaggeredarrangementwithbeans.Ontheless
fertilesoils,groundnutandcowpeawerebetteradapted,andthestaggered
arrangementsystemincreasednetbenefitby12–37%(Mucheru-Muna,2010).
FarmersurveyresultsinEthiopiaindicatethatsmallholdersgrowvariouscropsfortheir
ownconsumptionand/oreconomicbenefits,andpulsescontributesignificantlyforthe
7.9millionfarmersproducingthem,mostofwhomaresmallholders.Fababean,
chickpeas,fieldpeas,andredharicotbeanscomprisethelargestproduction,andwhite
haricotbeanandlentilisalsogrown.Fababeanaccountsforthelargestproduction,at
8.3millionquintals,whilechickpeaisthenextmostproducedpulse,at4.6million
quintals.PulsesgrowninEthiopia’s2014-15Meherseasoncovered12.41%ofthegrain
croparea(Ethiopia,2015a).
InNigeria,farmersrankcowpeaveryhighforcashfarmincomesandallocateita
significantproportionoftheircultivatedarea.Farmerssellcowpeatobuystaplecereals,
butalsoconsumecowpeathemselves.Inaddition,farmersrearinglivestockusecowpea
haulmsashaytofeedanimals.Cowpeaprocessingisalsodominatedbyhousehold
enterprisesandSMEs,contributingtohouseholdincome(Rusikeetal,2013)
Findingacroprotationsequencethatproducesthehighestreturnoninvestmentcan
beanimportantindicatorofwhetherfarmerpracticeschangetoincludepulsesover
thelongterm.InBenin,betterlaborproductivitywasmaximizedwhenlegumeswere
intercroppedwithtraditionalsmallholderyamproductionoccurringinshifting
cultivationsystems.Thus,netrevenueandreturnoninvestmentwereachievedinyambasedsystemswithlegumes,withsignificantreturnsoninvestment(Malikietal,2012).
Whilemaize/cowpea,sorghum/cowpea,andmaize/sorghum/cowpeacrop
combinationshadthehighestgrossmarginsperhectareinthefadamasofSouthern
GuineaSavanna,NigerState,Nigeria,thereturnoninvestmentwasfoundtobehighest
withspinach,okraandsorghum/cowpea(Lawaletal,2010).
40
Economicbenefitsfromimprovedseed
TheeconomicimpactsofCGIAR-supportedimprovedbeanvarietiesinRwandaand
UgandawasassessedthroughtheCGIAR-supportedproject‘DiffusionandImpactof
ImprovedCropVarietiesinSub-SaharanAfrica’(DIIVA).Economicimpactswere
estimatedbasedonthechangeinfarmprofitamongadopterscomparedtononadoptersforimprovedversustraditionalvarieties,takingintoaccountadditional
revenuesandproductioncosts,includingseedsandincreasedlaborrequirements.
FindingsestimatethatRwandanhouseholdswhichplantedimprovedvarietiesincreased
theirproductionby42kg/yr,therebyincreasinghouseholdrevenuebyUS$74.Similarly,
Ugandanhouseholdssawproductionincreasesof40kg/yrtherebyincreasinghousehold
revenuebyUS$63(SPIA,2014).Theaverageyieldgainoverlocalvarietiesfromadopting
improvedbeanvarietieswasfoundto53%inRwandaand60%inUganda(ibid).
LarochelleandAlwangreferencea2003studythatfoundtheRwandanyieldgainsover
localvarietiestobe900kg/ha,whichisalsoattributedtotheshiftfrombushtoclimbing
beansintheNorthernregionofRwanda.Estimatesidentifiedthiscontributedan
annualadditionalvalueofUS$8.7milliontotheeconomy,fromtheadditional
productionof28,888tons(LarochelleandAlwang,2014).AnotheranalysisinUganda,
completedadecadeearlier,estimatingthenetpresentvalueoftotalbenefitstoUganda
frompublicinvestmentsinbeanresearchanddevelopmentestimatedittobeUS$19
milliondollarsperyear,withaninternalrateofreturnontheinvestmentof41%
(Kalyebara,2005).Insemi-aridTanzania,averageestimatedyieldgainsfromgrowing
fusarium-resistantpigeonpeavarietieswasabout67%,withfarm-levelbenefitsresulting
in80%highernetincomeperhacomparedtousingnon-diseaseresistantseeds
(Shiferawetal,2008).Theaveragemarketedsurplusofadoptingfarmersin2003was
about716kg/yr,whilethosegrowinglocalvarietiessoldonly349kgofpigeonpeas.
Thisincreaseinyieldandreductioninvariablecostswasalsofoundtobenefitthe
governmentthroughincreasedtaxrevenuesreceivedfromproducersandconsumers,
basedonatotaleconomicsurplusofUS$6.1million,withaninternalrateofreturnof
32.2%.Pigeonpeaaccountedforabout50%ofthecashincomesofthesamplefarmers
duringtheyear,demonstratingthekeyroleofthiscropassourceofcash.Adoptionof
newvarietiesmayalsogenerateothernon-quantifiedbenefits,thoughthesewerenot
quantifiedbytheresearchers(ibid).
TheCGIARestimatedthepovertyimpactsofimprovedvarietiesinRwandaandUganda
in2011byaggregatinghouseholdleveldatatothemarketlevelandestimatingthe
differencesbetweenthecounterfactualandactualincomedistributions.Whilethe
magnitudeofpovertyimpactsfromimprovedvarietieswerefoundtoberelativelysmall
(between0.4and0.1%),thestudyfoundthatsomehouseholdsinbothcountrieswere
abletoescapepovertybyadoptingimprovedbeanvarieties(Larochelleetal,2014).Itis
notedthatthemethodsusedtoestimatepovertyimpactsarelimited,asonlythe
growingyearof2011wasconsidered,andadistinctionwasmadeinwhichreleasedates
toinclude,suchthatthemeasuredadoptionratedroppedbyhalf,thusreducing
potentialimpactsofcropvarietaltechnology(ibid).
41
TheMalawiSeedIndustryDevelopmentProject,focusedonprovidinghigh-quality
groundnut,pigeonpeaandbeanseeds,wascarriedoutwiththeInternationalCrops
ResearchInstitutefortheSemi-AridTropics(ICRISAT)andMalawigovernment,with
supportfromIrishAid,todiversifypredominantlymaizeandtobacco-basedproduction
systemsandaddressfoodinsecurityfeltbyfarmersandboostfarmincome.Since2008,
directengagementalongtheseedvaluechainhassoughttodevelopthecapacityof
localseedcompaniesandseedsavingbyfarmers,improvethepolicyenvironmentfor
theseedtradeandcommercialdistributionnetworkforimprovedseeds,andengage
withfarmerassociationsthatreachsmallholdersandcontractfarmers.Thesuccessof
theprojectinboostinglegumeproductionandtherebyimprovingfoodsecurityand
farmincomehasresultedinlegumesnowbeingakeyfeatureoftheNationalExport
StrategyandMalawi’sPresidentialInitiativeonPovertyandHungerReduction,which
hasaspecialcomponentonlegumes(Sichalatal,2013).Theresultsdirectlyreachedat
least2.2millionhouseholdsinprovidinglegumeseed.Theprojectedimpactofseed
provisionincludescoverageof128,000haofland,representingroughly33%ofcropped
areaundergroundnutandpigeonpeainMalawi.Resultsalsoincludedestimated
revenueincreasesofUS$54millionfromseedandgrainsalesintothecasheconomy,
andUS$30millionworthofgrainfromlegumesconsumedon-farm,accordingtoa
governmentspokesperson(ICRISAT,2014).
Public-privatepartnershipshavebeeninstrumentaltolinkmarketdevelopmentand
policycoherenceforimprovedseeduptake.ICRISAT’sMalawiSeedIndustry
DevelopmentProjectcreatedapartnershipwiththeMalawiGovernment’sFarmInputs
SubsidyProgramme(FISP),topromotecropdiversificationandincreaseuseofcertified
seedamongfarmers.Duringthe2010-2011farmseason,theFISPprovidedsmallholder
farmerswithvouchersfor2kgofcertifiedimprovedlegumeseedsfromparticipating
merchants,andreached395,000farmersafterfouryears(Sichaletal,2013).From
2000,Nigeriahasexperiencedincreasedplantedareaandproductivityofcowpeadueto
improvedseedvarieties,distributionofinsecticides,storagesystemsincludingthe
PurdueImprovedCowpeaStorage(PICS)bags,andstrongmarketsandprices.Effortsto
promoteimprovedandnewvarieties,andseveralrelateddevelopmentprojects
focusingonimprovedcrop-livestockintegration,includingPurdue,BMZ,AGRAand
Gatsbyprojects,hadsuccess.However,cowpeaproductionstilldoesnotmeetdemand,
andNigeriaimportscowpeaduringsignificanttimesoftheyear(Rusikeetal,2013).
TheAllianceforaGreenRevolutioninAfrica(AGRA),andtheAllianceforCommodity
TradeinEasternandSouthernAfrica(ACTESA),arefacilitatingpositivechangesinthe
regulatoryregimesofindividualcountriesandregions.Thisworkenablesglobal
initiativesseekingsustainedandinclusiveagriculturalgrowththroughbetteralignment
betweengovernmentandprivatesectorinterestsliketheNewAllianceforFood
SecurityandNutritionandGrowAfricatobesuccessful.Further,ACTESAhasbeen
workingtodevelopseedsectorpolicythatisharmonizedacrosstheregion.
42
Barrierstotechnologyandimprovedseeduptake
AnecdotalevidenceinRwandapointstothevalueofprovidingfarmersinRwandawith
lowcostmicrobialinoculantstoboostnitrogenfixation.OneAcreFund,workingwith
withN2Africa,foundthisinterventioncutfertilizerusebyfarmersinhalfwhile
maintainingyields(whichwouldcarrysignificantenvironmentalbenefitsaswell).The
inoculantsonlycostamodestUSD$1perfarmerandresultedinadoublingoffarmer
profitsandreducedrelianceonchemicalfertilizer.OneAcreFundisbuildingonthis
RwandanexampletoexpandthisprogrambothwithinRwandaandinothercountriesin
EastAfrica(Guerena,2015).ObservationsfromtheCGIARDIIVAprojectpointsto
evidencefromUgandathatshowedthatpoorerbean-producinghouseholdsareless
likelytoadoptthenewbeanvarieties,whichtheCGIARsuggestscouldbeovercome
thatifpoorerproducerscangainaccesstobetterbeantechnologies.Thisassertionmay
bebasedontheexperienceinRwandaofmoreavailableagriculturalextensionservices
inmostregionsofthecountry,whichfavorsthespreadofnewvarieties(SPIA,2014).
However,LarochelleetalalsonotethatlowsalespricesofbeansinRwandaalso
attenuatethepovertyimpactoftechnologyandimprovedbeanvarietyadoption
(Larochelleetal,2014).FurtherconstraintsonRwandanbeanproductionincludethe
lackofsupplysystemsandlackofcoordinationinthemarkets(suchasmarket
informationforfarmersandlackofstandardmeasures),limitedpost-harveststorage
facilities,thehighopportunitycostofland,competitionfromcropsthataremore
profitable,andthelimitedtechnicalandfinancialcapacityoffarmerstoorganize
cooperatives(Rusikeetal,2013).
Despitethesignificanteconomicbenefitofincreasedincomefromfusarium-resistant
pigeonpeavarietiesgrowninsemi-aridTanzania(incomeincreasesof80%),many
farmersinthegrowingareasdidnotadoptthedisease-resistantvarietiesmainlydueto
inadequatelocalsupplyofseedandaccesstoagronomicinformation.Asseed
requirementsforpigeonpeaaresmallandfarmersreportedbeingabletobuythe
requiredseed,accesstofinanceandcreditwasnotalimitingfactorinpursuing
disease-resistantpigeonpeaseed.Findingsindicatedthatparticipationininformal
seednetworks,on-farmvarietyselection,farmsizeandownershipofhousehold
transportassetsincreasedthelikelihoodoffarmerstopursueimprovedseed
(Shiferawetal,2008).
Exportdimensions
InMalawi,MozambiqueandZimbabwe,cowpeavaluechainsaredominatedbya
subsistenceproductionandconsumptionpathway.InGhana,excessdemandfor
cowpea,groundnutandsoybeaninGhanadrivescrossbordertradeflowsalongexport
corridorsfromfoodshedsinTogo(Northernpart),BurkinaFaso(PouytengaandBobo-
Dioulasso),Benin,NigerandCoteD’Ivoire(Korhogo).Becausemostofthecowpeas
enteringcommercialtradearedirectlyconsumedbyhouseholdsasafoodstaple,the
bulkofcowpeasaremovedfromthesurplusproducingareastoconsumptioncentersby
43
tradersviatruck.Thereisnoformalindustrialprocessingofcowpeaandlargetradersdo
notbuycowpeaunlesstheyareprocuringforlargescaleprocessorswhentheyget
contractstosupplycowpea-maizeblendedflourtotheWorldFoodProgram‘Purchase
forProgress’whichdistributesitthroughschoolandrefugeefeedingprograms(Rusike
etal,2013).
UgandahasbeenaconsistentnetexporterofdrybeanstoeasternandsouthernAfrica,
andyetadoptedratesofimprovedseedislowerthaninRwanda.Incontrast,Rwanda
hasonlyrecentlyenteredthebeanexportmarketin2005,andcontinuestoimportdry
beansasneededtomeetdomesticdemand,fluctuatingbetweenbeinganetimporter
andanetexporterofbeans(Larochelleetal,2014).Tanzaniaisoneofthemajor
growersandexportersofpigeonpeaineasternAfrica,exporting30,000–40,000
tons/yeartoIndia(Shiferawetal,2008).
Promotingexportcropsthatdonotcompetewithdomesticfoodproductionisas
crucialforfoodsecurityasitisforrealizingeconomicbenefits.Rwanda’sPSTAIII
prioritizesFrenchbeanforimprovedproductionforexportmarkets(Rwanda,2013),
whichmaybestrategicallybeneficial,asproductionofFrenchbeanislesslikelyto
competewithfoodcropsfordomesticuse,andalsomaycommandhigherprices.
HoweverRwandamayneedtoimportmorepreferredpulsecropstomeetdomestic
demand.FarmersinRwandaarenotedforhavinghigherunitproductioncosts
comparedtogrowersinDRCandUganda,makingRwandancowpeauncompetitive
pricewisewithgrowersinneighboringcountries(Rusikeetal,2013).Rwandamayneed
tokeepdomesticcowpeaproductionservingdomesticdemand,orenticefarmersto
moveintoexportcropsthatcanbesoldatmarginswellaboveRwanda’simportneeds.
Therisk,however,isdecreasedfoodsecurityifmarketdynamicsorpriceschange.
Afour-yearprojectseekingtocreatenewbusinessmodelsforsustainabletrade
relationshipsinwhitepeabeanproductioninEthiopiademonstratedthefeasibilityof
buildingproductionandeconomicreturnsforanexportcrop,withoutimpactinglocal
foodproduction.WhitepeabeansarenotwidelyconsumedlocallyinEthiopia,asthey
arenotpartofthetraditionaldiet.Beanproductionisashort-durationcrop,well-suited
tothelowrainfallconditionsintheregions,andprovidesmuch-neededcashduringthe
leanertimeoftheyear,betweenSeptemberandMarch.Farmersreceivedtrainingon
improvedpractices,includinguseofimprovedseed,plantingrowsatspecificdensities,
timelyweeding,harvestingandin-fielddrying,threshingoncanvasandnotonthe
ground,andcleaningseed.Farmerswerealsoabletoaccessmicro-financeforbuying
improvedseed,withpaybackprovisionsattheendofthegrowingseason.Resultswere
strong:farmingfamiliesearnedabouttwiceasmuchsellingwhitepeabeansforexport
thantheywouldhaveobtainedfromsorghum,thesecondmostcommonlygrowncrop
intheregion.Atotalof4,746familyfarms(and24,000familymembers)increasedtheir
profitbyUS$164-$227perhousehold,andmorethandoubledyields.Theincomefrom
beansrepresentedasignificantportionofhouseholdincome(15–20%)andprovided
familieswithameansofbuyingcheaperfoodinthelocalmarket.Theirincomefrom
44
beansincreasedfromUS$160to$230onanaveragehalf-hectareplot.Bytheendof
thefouryears,theprojectsupplied15,000farmerswithimprovedseed,productivity
increasedfrom0.7MT/hato1.4MT/ha,diseasepressureswerereduced,andefforts
withUKretailersforsupplychaindevelopmentandexportmarketaccesswerematured.
However,theimpactandoutcomesofthesupplychainandmarketaccessinterventions
oftheprojectwereweakenedbydrought,personnelchangeswithintheUKpurchasing
company,economicrecession,andchangestotheEthiopianbeansupplychainwiththe
creationofanewcommodityexchange,whichblockeddirecttradingrelationships
(Ferrisetal,2012).
4. A framework: evaluating multiple benefits of pulse
production
Theframeworkbelowisintendedtodefinetheelementsofsustainabilitytobe
measuredorevaluatedinanygivencontext,giventhediversitybetweencroppingareas
andgeographiccontextsofsuitablepulsegrowingareas.Itisalsointendedtoprovidea
meanstoevaluatethepotentialsustainabilitycontributionsofpulsesshouldtheybe
broughtintoacroppingsystem,orasameanstoincreasecroprotations.The
developmentoftheframeworkisbasedontheliteraturereviewandtwocasestudiesin
thisreport.Itisnotintendedtoreplaceaproductionstandardorproductcertification
scheme6thatproducerscouldapplyattheproductionlevel,butwouldcertainly
complementandaddtosuchperformancemeasures.Eachcriterionorkeyelement
containsasetofquestionstoguideevaluationofthesustainabilityofinterventions,
includingcommontrade-offsthathavebeenobserved.Thequestionsshouldbe
adaptedtolocalcircumstancesortotheappropriatescale,andareintendedasa
startingpoint,ratherthanacompletesetoffilterstotestinterventionsagainst.
Thisframeworkseekstoidentifythescalesatwhichsustainabilityattributesofapulse
crop,oraddingpulsesintorotations,canbeunderstoodandevaluated.The
environmental,socialandeconomicbenefits(andrisksortrade-offs)ofpulse
productionoccuratvariousscales(refertoFigure3).Ofcourse,sustainabilityattributes
canoccuratmultiplescales,suchasincreasedincomebenefittingfarmersand
regional/nationaleconomies,ornitrogenfixationincreasingcerealcropyieldsand
reducingafarmer’srelianceonfertilizerwhichalsocarriesglobalbenefitsthrough
reducedN2Oemissions.Effortstoincreasepulseproductionwillbewellservedif
accompaniedbymeasurestoevaluateenvironmental,socialandeconomicbenefitsat
allrelevantscales.
6ExamplesincludetheSAN’sSustainableAgricultureStandard,GLOBALG.A.P.andothers.
45
Figure 4: Attributes of pulse crop sustainability at various scales
Source: Author generated
46
Table 2: Summary of criteria and guiding questions to evaluate the economic, social and environmental benefits of pulse
production
Environment
Criterion or key
attribute
Question to guide evaluation of impact/benefit
Sources/case study elements + Trade-offs
Ability of pulse crop
to offset fertilizer
needs within
cropping system
• Choiceofthepulsecrop–basedonnitrogenfixation
rates,marketdemand,farmerfamiliarity,etc.
• Doesthecropsequenceintherotationensure
maximumtransferofnitrogentosubsequentcrop?
• Afterpulsesareaddedtotherotation,cantimingand
amountsoffertilizerbefurtheroptimized?
• Othernutrientmanagementstrategiesinplace?
• Arerhizobiuminnoculantssufficienttoensure
maximumnodulation?
• Canthetreatmentofcropresiduesbeoptimizedfor
nitrogenbenefits?
• Choiceofpulsecrophaseconomicandsocial
dimensions
• Theglobaleffectsofoveruseofsynthetic
fertilizersisofhighconcern(Canfieldetal,2010)
• Nitrogenforsubsequentfieldcropwell
documentedinSaskatchewanandsouth-eastern
Australia
Ability of pulse crop
to offset or reduce
herbicide and
pesticide use
• Canmanagementpracticesbemoderatedtooptimize
useofherbicides(notingthatatransitionperiodmay
benecessary)?
• Shiftsintillagerequirestransitiontime,herbicide
usemayincreasebeforethendecreasingover
time(hasbeenobservedinSaskatchewan(Brandt,
2010))
• Willtheadditionofapulsecropminimize
competitionwithothercropsformoistureand
nutrients?
• Diversifyingcroppingsequencescanbemaximized
todeliversocialandeconomicoutcomes,beyond
environmentalones.
Diversify the
cropping sequence
47
• Doestheadditionofthepulsecropresultina
reductionoftillageandsoildisturbance?
• Canyieldincreasesberealizedwithoutspatial
expansion,intheshort-andlong-term?
• Ethiopia’sriseinchickpeaproduction(Ethiopia,
2015b)
• Ghanacowpeaproduction(Rusikeetal,2013).
• Aretherelivestockfeedapplicationstoimprove
pasture?
• Howtomaximizenitrogenbenefitstosoil?
• Willitimprovenutritionalvalueforlivestock?
• Balancinglivestockproductionandfoodsecurity
throughpulses:Nuliketal(2013);Anderson,etal
(2007)
• Reducedtillage(soilcarbonemissions)
• Reducedfertilizeruse(reducedenergyinputand
reducedN2Oemissions)andincreasedyields
• Canalteredrotationsorintercroppingsequencesand
timingmaximizenitrogenbenefits?
• Ifpulsefractionsarebeingconsideredin
manufacturedfoods,doesthepulsefractionensure
lowerGHGemissions?
• Indicationsarethatthemoreoftenapulsecropis
growninrotation,themoreGHGemissionsare
reduced(Lemkeetal,2007).
• Notethatpeaproteinfractionproductionwas
modeledtohavea60%decreaseinGHG
emissionsanda52%decreaseinnon-renewable
energywhencomparedtosoyproteinisolate
production.However,peastarchdoesnotcarry
suchbenefits;ratherGHGemissionsincrease.
Reduced nonrenewable energy
use
• Reducedtillagerequireslessmechanizedequipment
useandfuel
• LCAanalysis:McWilliametal(2011)
• NotethattheLCAanalysisidentifiesdrypea
ethanoltonotbecomparabletowheatethanol,
souseinbiofuelsislimited
Water use efficiency
and management
• Canthepulsecroptakeadvantageofresidual
moistureandnotcompetewithfoodcropsforwater
andnutrients?
• Nuliketal(2013):growingpulsesforforageinthe
shoulderseason,whenlandisfallowed
• Minimizedpulsecroppingonhighlyerodiblesoils;
minimizeoreliminatetillage
• Isdependentonascertaininglocalconditions;
pulseshavebeenshowntoperformwellinpoor
soils,andcanimprovesoilsifmanagedwell
Productivity
improvements rather
than area expansion
Applications to
improve livestock
pasture
Ability of pulse crop
to reduce GHG
emissions
Improved soil
management
48
Social
Criterion or key
attribute
Food security
Sources/case study elements + Trade-off’s
• Whatfurtherpracticeandyieldsimprovementsbe
• InRwanda,householddietarydiversityscores
increasedasimprovedseedratesincreased
madewithexistingpulsevarieties?
(LarochelleandAlwang,2014).
• Cantheintroductionofpulsesintocroppingsystems
• Malawi(ICRISAT,2014)
benefitexistingfoodcrops?
• Ifintroducingapulsecropforexport,howtoensureit
doesnotnegativelyimpactlocalfoodsecurity?
• Howcanvaluechainsbesupportedanddeveloped
forasolidbalancebetweenimprovedmarketaccess
andincreasedon-farmpulseconsumption?
• Pulsesprovidegreatestbenefittodietswhen
combinedwithotherfoods.Howtoeducate
consumersonthebestcombinations?
• Howtopromotepulsesasatastyandsustainable
alternativetomeat?
• deJager,(2013);Rusikeetal(2013)
• Pulsesregulatesbloodsugarlevels,improves
glycemiaandplasmalipids.Wheneatenwith
cereals,addsproteins,mineralsandBvitamins,
andessentialaminoacidlysine.Legumeleaves
canalsobeeaten.
The addition of
pulses in the diet
reduces likelihood of
disease
• Whatarethebestways(media,targets,message)to
promoteawarenessofthehealthbenefitsofpulses?
• Dworatzeketal(2013)andCanadianDiabetes
Association
• Reducesbloodcholesterollevelsand
cardiovasculardiseaserisk,lowersbloodpressure
Protein content of a
cereal crop increases
• Whatarethespecificconditionsthatcanmaximize
theboostingofproteincontentofthesubsequent
(likelycereal)crop?
• Saskatchewanlife-cycleanalysis(McWilliametal,
2011)
The addition of
pulses in the diet
boosts nutrition
Question to guide evaluation of impact/benefit
49
following a pulse
crop
• Cancropresiduesbeusedforalternativeuses,
withoutdecreasingnecessarybiomasstorestoresoils
andmaintainnitrogenbalance?
• Shiferawetal(2008)
Reducing pressures
of increased meat
production
• Howtopromoteconsumerawarenessofhealthy
alternativestomeat,andincreaseuseoffractions?
• Addingpulsestolivestockdietsimprovespastures
andqualityoflivestock
• ImprovedforageandpastureintheUSGreat
Plains(Anderson,etal,2007)andIndonesia(Nulik
etal,2013)
Boosting nutritional
content of
manufactured foods
• Canpulsefactionsbeeffectivelyincorporatedinto
processedfoods?
• Howcanthefoodindustrydevelopmarketlegume
productsgiventhehigherrawinputpricesoflegumes
vscereals?
• Importanttoensurepulseproductionforfractions
andexportmarketsdoesnotrisklocalfood
security
Increase global and
regional production
of crops with climate
adaptation capability
• Howcanaddingpulsesintorotationsnotcompete
withothercropsforwaterandnutrients,while
maximizingclimateadaptability?
• Canlocally-adaptedpulsevarietiesandvarietiesbred
foradaptabilitybepromoted?
Women’s role in
production,
processing and sales
• Womenhaveameaningfulroleinthevaluechain,as
wellasmanagingprofitstofeedfamiliesand/or
supportincome-generatingactivities.Howcantheir
engagementbesupportedandpromoted?
Multiple uses of crop
residues
• Thisfactorisnotindependentfromwatersupply
inthecaseofSaskatchewanlentiladdedto
rotations(Ganetal,2014)
50
• Insomecountries,women’sroleinpulsevalue
chainsdirectlyimpactsfoodsecurity,household
incomeandlivelihooddimensions
Getting the enabling
environment right for
pulses
• Howtocreatetheresearch,technicalandextension
supporttoimproveproductionpractices?
• Howtopromotepartnershipstolinkfarmerstoviable
marketsandpromotetrade,withoutriskingfood
securityorincreasingdependencyonimports?
• Public-Private-Partnershipstomakethepolicyand
privatesectorconnection
• Arepulsesprioritizedinagriculturesectorplans?How
canbenefitsfrompulsesbeunderstoodbypolicy
makers?
• RwandaprioritizespulsesinAgsectorplan
• DespiteitssignificancetotheIndiandiet,
productionsupport,marketpricecontrolsand
importtariffshavenotbeenmaximizedfor
environmentalandsocietalbenefits
• Harmonizedseedsectorpolicy:Alliancefora
GreenRevolutioninAfrica(AGRA)+Alliancefor
CommodityTradeinEasternandSouthernAfrica
(ACTESA)
Question to guide evaluation of impact/benefit
Sources/case study elements + Trade-off’s
Economic
Criterion or key
attribute
Lower fuel costs
• Howcanuseofmechanizedequipmentbedecreased
orminimized?
• Argentinano-till(Lorenzatti,2006)
• Saskatchewan(McWilliametal,2011)
Labour productivity
• Whatisthemostefficientwaytointroducepulses
intotheexistingrotationcycle,tomaximizelabour
use?
• Howcanchangesinlabourrequirementsmaximize
benefitstofarmers(e.g.timetocultivateothercrops,
providingreliablesourcesofincome)
• Argentina(Lorenzatti,2006)
• Rwanda(LarochelleandAlwang,2014).
• Benin(Malikietal,2012).
Increased income
from added rotation
+ financial
• Howtoacropmixandrotationsequencewiththe
highestreturnoninvestment?
• Inregionswherepulsesareunfamiliarorknownrisks
arehigh,howcanfarmersreceiveassistance
(improvedpractices,improvedseed,low-interest
• Increasedinputcostsoffsetbyincreasedprofits
(Zenteretal,2002;McWilliametal,2011)
• FarmersdoubledincomeinIndiafromimproved
managementpractices(Shah,2011)
51
contribution of pulse
crop
Increased income
from higher yield on
subsequent crop
Lower costs due to
conservation tillage
or no-tillage
practices
Avoided costs of less
soil, air and water
degradation
loanstooffsetrisk)toincreaselikelihoodof
incorporatingpulsesintotheirrotations?
• Variabilityinmarketpricingandpulsecroptype
canstronglyinfluenceprofitability(McWilliamet
al,2011)
• Pulsesincreaseincomeexceptwhenpulseprices
arelowandgrainandoilseedpricesarehigh(ibid)
• Howtodecreaseriskofnutrientcompetitionor
suppression,andmaximizethenitrogenbenefitsfrom
thepulsecroptothesubsequentcrop?
• GrainsinAustralia,USandCanada;yamsinGhana
• Therearedifferencesinyieldpossibilities
dependingonwhetherpulsesareintercroppedor
addedtorotations
• Ifchangesintillagefrequency,lowerfueland/or
labourcostsarepresent.
• Herbicidesusemayincreaseasmechanizedtillage
isreduced.
• Maydependonsoiltypesandlocalizedconditions
• Howcanlong-termbenefitsofpulseproductionbe
• Hardtoestimatethese.
bestunderstoodineconomicterms?Avoidedcostsof • Life-cycleanalyseshelpframescopeandscale
soilandecosystemdegradationcanbesignificant.
(McWilliametal,2011)
Investments in crop
research have high
rates of return
• Howcanresearchofimprovedpracticesandseed
bestbedisseminatedformaximumpublicandprivate
benefit?
• 1%levyonSaskatchewanpulsesalesand
investmentsmadebySaskatchewanPulse
Growers
• CGIAR(SPIA,2014)
Livestock forage
system
intensification
• Howcanlivestockforagesystemintensificationoccur
withleastdownsiderisk?
• Dependentonmarketpricingandlabouruse
efficiencies
52
5. Applying the framework for decision support
Theframeworkdefineselementsofsustainabilitythatcanguideevaluationofthe
economic,socialandenvironmentalbenefitsand/ortrade-offsofpulseproduction,or
addingpulsesintocroprotations.Inordertobetterunderstandhowtheframework
canbeapplied,thissectiondefinesitsapplicationwithinthecontextofhypothetical
decisioncases.Thesearereal-worlddecisionpointsthatthefoodsector,pulse
producers,orgovernments,arelikelytoengageinthepulseproductioncontext.These
hypotheticalactionsteps(columns1and2inTable3)areadaptedfromNegra’s(2015)
distillationofkeymessagesfromthescientificliteratureofrelevancetokeyaudience
groups,whichisacomplementaryknowledgeproducttothisone,alsocommissioned
undertheauspicesoftheInternationalYearofPulses.
Thisapplicationoftheframeworktothehypotheticalactionstepsbelowisintendedas
initialguidanceonly,andpresentssomeoverarchingdecision-supportandquestionsfor
furtherinvestigationrelatedtoqualitativeandquantitativeanswerstotestperformance
alongkeyenvironmental,socialandeconomicindicators.Thesemustbedesignedto
suittheuniquecircumstancesinwhateverproductionregionisbeingevaluated,and
suitedtowhatevermanagementobjectivesmightalreadybeinplace(e.g.adherenceto
aproductionstandard,adherencetonationallaws,etc.).Again,theframeworkisnot
intendedtoreplaceaproductionstandardorproductcertificationscheme,butwilladd
dimensionsthatareuniquetothepulseproductioncontext.Theoverviewof
frameworkelementsthatapplytoeachactionareainthetablesbelowarenota
comprehensivelistingofallthatwouldapply,butratherindicativeofthegeneralareas
tocover.Thisapplicationhelpsdefinehowsustainabilityattributesmustbetestedat
thethreescales—productionlevel,regionallevelandgloballevel.Thisisintendedasa
rudimentarystartingpoint,andapplyingthisinrealcontextswouldrequireamuchfiner
anddetailedassessment,withdecision-supportguidanceforallcriteria/attributes
necessaryformeasuringperformanceagainst,andhowthosecriteria/attributesshould
applyineachofthethreescales.Effectiveevaluationofperformanceandhowto
balancetrade-offscanonlybemadethroughmoredetailedassessment.
53
Table3:Applicationoftheframeworktofoodsectoractors(pulsemanufacturers,suppliersandtraders)
Increaseuseofpulsesinproductlines
Potential
action
Examplesofsubactivities
§ Boostcustomer
demandthrough
awarenessraisingand
diversificationin
productlines
§ Increasetheuseof
pulseflourblendedinto
manufacturedfoods
(fractions)
§ Increasemanufacturers’
understandingofhow
tousepulses.
Frameworkelementsthatapply
Ø Environmental:Allenvironmental
criteriaandattributesinthe
frameworkshouldbeevaluatedto
identifywhichonesarerelevant,and
atwhatlevelsinthesupplychain
theycanbetrackedorinfluenced
(sourcingdirectlyfromaregionwill
increaselikelihoodofinfluencing
producersdirectly)
Ø Social:Same–almostallframework
criteriaandattributesshouldapply.
Workwithsuppliersandproducersto
obtainperformancemeasures.
Ø Economic:Same–almostall
frameworkcriteriaandattributes
shouldapply.Workwithsuppliersand
producerstoobtainperformance
measures.
54
Scalestomeasureperformanceorimpact
Ø Production:Dopracticesintheproducingregion
minimizeenvironmentalandsocialcosts,while
promotingenvironmental(e.g.goodnutrient
managementstrategies)andsocialbenefits(e.g.food
security)?Isaproductionstandardinplaceorbest
practicesbeingapplied?
Ø Regional:Whatelementsofregionalvalueneedcan
beaccountedfor,suchaswateruseefficiencyand
management?Arefoodsecuritybenefitsand
economictrade-offsminimizedattheregionalscale?
Ø Global:Doestheactionpromoteuseofnitrogen-rich
andprotein-richplantfoods,whiledisplacingor
diversifyingfromnitrogen-depletingandprotein-rich
animalfoods?Netreductioninnon-renewableenergy
useandGHGemissionsattheproductionlevel,and
emissionsminimizedthroughoutthesupplychain?
Sourcesustainablyproduced,highquality,traceablepulses
Potential
action
Examplesofsubactivities
§ (company-level)
Developsustainable
sourcingcriteria.
§ Buildmonitoringinto
businessoperations
(e.g.,HACCP)
§ (sector-level)Agreeon
crediblesustainability
indicators/standards
andverification
mechanismsthrough
platformsfor
cooperativemarket
action.
Frameworkelementsthatapply
Ø Environmental:Docroprotations
maximizenitrogenandnutrient
managementoptionsformaximum
yieldandmaximumlong-termsoil
health?Areproductionstandardsor
bestmanagementpracticesinplace?
Whatcriteriainadditiontothe
standardshouldbemeasured(e.g.fuel
use,diversificationofthecropping
sequence,integrationoflivestock,
etc.)?
Ø Production:Istheprovenanceknownand
traceabilityclear?Canenvironmental,socialand
economicbenefitsbemeasuredattheproduction
scale?Areeconomicbenefitsmaximizedatthe
producerlevelfrombestmanagementpractices
(technicalassistanceprovidedandpremiumspaidto
farmers)
Ø Regional:Canenvironmental,socialandeconomic
benefitsandtrade-offsbemeasuredinthesupply
chain?Arewateruseefficiencyandmanagement,and
nutrientmanagementoptimized?Adequate
investmentsmadeinpost-harveststorageandmarket
efficiency?
Ø Social:Ifaproductionstandardisin
place,whatsocialcriteriaapply?What
additionalsocialcriteriacanbeattained
Ø Global:Increasedconsumerawarenessofthe
(e.g.measuresfornutritionandfood
environmentalandsocialbenefitsofpulse
security,genderequityinthesupply
consumption,includingcertifiedproducts?Net
chain,consumerawarenessofthe
reductioninnon-renewableenergyuseandGHG
rangeofsustainabilitybenefits,etc.)
emissions?Increasedplant-basedproteinavailability?
Ø Economic:Islabourproductivity
maximized,farmerincomeincreased,
fuelandassociatedcostsdecreased?
Scalestomeasureperformanceorimpact
55
Table4:Applicationoftheframeworktopulseproducers(bothsmallandlarge-scale)
Integratepulsesintofarmingsystems
Potential
action
Examplesofsubactivities
Frameworkelementsthatapply
§ Identify,acquire,
Ø Environmental:Canthecropsequenceintherotation
anduse
ensuremaximumtransferofnitrogentosubsequent
appropriatepulse
crops?Howcanthetreatmentofcropresiduesbe
varieties,
optimizedfornitrogenbenefits?Canyieldincreasesbe
production
realizedwithoutspatialexpansion?Canthepulsecrop
practices,and
takeadvantageofresidualmoistureandnotcompete
mechanicaloptions
withfoodcropsforwaterandnutrients?
tooptimizesystem
Ø Social:Wouldpulsescontributetoincreasedfood
productivity.
security?Howtobestpromotetheprotein
contributionsofthepulsecroptothesubsequentcereal
crop?Howtooptimizecropresidueuse(trade-off:use
forlivestockmaymeanlessreturntosoils)?Howcan
genderbenefitsbemaximized(womenhavemeaningful
roleinsupplychainandmanagementofprofits)?
Ø Economic:Howcanchangesinproductioncostsbe
understood(pulseproductionmaycarryhighercosts,
butthenetreturnoninvestmentaftertheharvestis
soldmaybehigherthanforcerealcrops)?Isthere
increasedincomefromintroductionofthepulsecropin
rotation?Howcanlabourproductivitybemaximized?
Cantheriskofnutrientcompetitionorsuppression
betweencropsbeminimized,inordertomaximizethe
nitrogenbenefitsfromthepulsecroptothesubsequent
crop?
56
Scalestomeasureperformanceorimpact
Ø Production:Canherbicideandfertilizer
usebeoptimizedandoveralluse
decreased?
Ø Regional:Arethesocialandeconomic
impactsofaddingpulseswell
understood,andpositivebenefits
maximized?Efficientwateruseand
management?Canlocally-adaptedpulse
varietiesandvarietiesbredfor
adaptabilitybepromoted?
Ø Global:Doestheincreaseinpulse
productionprovidemoreplant-based
proteinandimprovednetnitrogen
management?NetreductioninnonrenewableenergyuseandGHG
emissions?
Adoptandreportonsustainableproductionpractices/certification
Potential
action
Examplesofsubactivities
Frameworkelementsthatapply
Scalestomeasureperformanceorimpact
•Learnandapply
recommended
practicestooptimize
farmsystemand
landscape
sustainability.
Ø Environmental:Areproductionstandardsand
certificationinplace?Somecertificationsystems
promotetheincreaseduseoffallowareas,whereas
increasingpulsecropsinrotationsusuallymeansless
fallow;arethesetrade-offsqualitativelyunderstood,
andwilltherebenetbenefitstosoilhealthby
introducingpulses?Whatothernuancesofpulse
productionmaynotbebestevaluatedbythestandard
(e.g.GHGemissions,tillageandcropsequencing)?What
aspectsofsustainabilitybeyondtheproductionunit
shouldbebroughtintokeyperformanceindicators
(KPIs)?
Ø Production:Methodstooptimize
fertilizerandnutrientmanagement,
minimizationofherbicideuseand
phasedapproachespeciallyiftillage
practicesarealtered.Socialaspects
addressedincludingfairdistributionof
profits(insupplychain),gender,labour
useefficiency,decreaseddependence
onnon-renewablefuels(relatesto
tillage),optionsforlivestockintegration
andforestintensification.Canavoided
costsduetolesssoil,airandwater
degradationbequantified?
•Understandbuyers’
reporting
expectations;build
monitoringintofarm
operations.
•Helptodevelop
Ø Social:Doesthestandardincludeasocialcomponent?
sustainability
Basedontheframework,adoptthosethatfitthe
standardsand
context.
feasiblereporting
processes;advocate
Ø Economic:Somestandardsconsidereconomictradeforpricepremiumsor
offs(suchaspesticideuseversuscroplossesorcostof
preferredmarket
mitigation).Whataretheeconomicattributesinthe
accessforverified
pulseframeworkthatthestandardomits?
sustainableproducts.
57
Ø Regional:Avoidedcostsduetoless
soil,airandwaterdegradationhave
regionalimplications.Isregionalfood
securityimproved?Wateruseefficiency
andnutrientmanagementwillhave
regionalimplications.
Ø Global:Improvedpracticesresultsin
longer-termsoilintegrity(aglobal
resource)andimprovednitrogen
balance.
Table5:Applicationoftheframeworktogovernments(policymakersinpulseproducing(orsuitable)jurisdictions)
InvestinR&Dandextensionservices
Potential
action
Examplesofsubactivities
Frameworkelementsthatapply
§ Fundresearchon
Ø Environmental:Canmulti-yearresearchonsoils
productivity,
(nutrientsandmanagement),nitrogen,crop
sustainability,andrisk
sequencing,tillagepractices,crop-livestock
reduction.
integration,andyieldimprovementwithoutcrop
expansionbesupported?Giventhefocuson
§ Providetrainingand
investmentalreadyinplantgeneticsandyield
resourcestopromote
improvement,howcanunderfundedareassuch
sustainablepulse
asextensionservices,andnewinnovationsin
productionacross
public-privatepartnershipsbepromoted?
diversefarming
systems.
Ø Social:HowcaninvestmentsinR&Dhelp
developindicatorsandmeasuresofthesocial
benefitsofpulses?Howcanextensionservices
helpruralproducersevaluatebenefitsandtradeoffsofcropresidueuse(affectssoils,livestock,
etc.)promotegenderequity(orbetter
understandgenderinequity)?
Ø Economic:Howcanproducermarketprice
support,importorexporttariffs,andother
measuresmaximizedomesticandinternational
foodsecurityandeconomicreturns
simultaneously,withoutundueriskifvolatilityin
marketpricesoccurs?
58
Scalestomeasureperformanceorimpact
Ø Production:Practicesatproductionlevels
improveifalreadyproducingpulsesandif
integratingpulsesintorotations,have
researchandsupporttooptimizepulse
cropandvarietieswithoutimpactingother
keycropyields;farmersaresupportedin
transitionsincropresiduemanagement
andtillagepractices;moreisdocumented
andanalyticsaresuppliedtofarmersto
helptroubleshoottrade-offsandrecognize
howtomaximizelabouruseefficiency,
lowerfuelandinputcosts,andmaximize
sustainableyields.
Ø Regional:Livelihood,community,
nutrition,foodsecuritybenefitsmaybe
hardtoquantify,yetsignificant.
Ø Global:Avoidedcostsoflesssoil,airand
waterdegradationmaybehardto
estimate,butshouldbepartofmeasuring
R&Dimpacts.
Investinplanningandinfrastructureanddevelopsupportivepolicies
Potential
action
Examplesofsubactivities
Frameworkelementsthatapply
§ Establish/modernize
transport,storage,
andprocessing
facilities.
Ø Environmental:Multipleenvironmentalbenefits
realized,suchasdecreasednon-renewablefuel
useandGHGemissionminimization.Production
increasesarethroughyieldimprovementsand
increasedcroprotationsonasustainablebasis,
notareaexpansion,andaccesstomarketsand
informationisfacilitated.
§ Buildlanduse
monitoringsystems
andlocalandregional
capacityforspatial
Ø Social:Qualityoffoodisenhancedthrough
planningand
betterpost-harveststorage,improvedaccessto
contributedatato
markets.Howtosupportdomesticfoodsecurity,
globalstatistics.
whilepromotingexportmarketaccess?Publicprivatepartnershipstomaximizepublicvalueand
§ Reviseagriculture,
privatesectorinvestment?
food,andclimate
changepolicies(e.g., Ø Economic:Productionincreasesdueto
MRLs,landtenure,
investments,soincreasedprofitsatallscalesof
cerealsubsidies,
supplychain?Post-harvestlossisminimizedand
purchasingprograms)
qualityofproductbroughttomarketisimproved,
andfacilitate
exportsareincreasedwithoutriskingdomestic
financingtopromote
foodsecurity.
sustainablepulse
production.
59
Scalestomeasureperformanceorimpact
Ø Production:Farmershavebettertoolsto
adapttoclimate/market/economic
circumstancesthroughimproved
informationandcanmoreeasilyaccess
markets.Accesstofiscalincentivesbased
onsustainablepractices.
Ø Regional:Improvedefficiencyinmarkets,
enabledbysupportivepolicies,positively
affectsincomelevels.Foodsecurityand
nutritionimprovementsatfarmand
regional/nationalscalesshouldbeenabled.
Checkforappropriatelyspreadingvalue
capturethroughsupplychain,policies
supportgenderequity.Appropriatewater
andsoilmanagementtosupport
productionincreases.
Ø Global:NetGHGemissionreduction,
macro-scalediversificationinplant-based
proteins.
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